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* An era is fast approaching when no writers will be read by the majority, save and except those who can effect /or bales of manuscript
what the hydrostatic screw performs /or hales 0/ cotton — condense into a period what be/ore occupied a Page. — CoTTER.

Ho?

THE

OME-blBRARY

XHeeful Iftnowlefcge

A COMPLETE CYCLOPEDIA
OF REFERENCE

HISTORICAL, BIOGRAPHICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND STATISTICAU-f^X-

or THF '

UNIVERSITY i

EMBRACING

THE MOST IMPROVED AND SIMPLE METHODS OF

Self-Instruction in all Branches

O F

Popular Education

COMPILED AND EDITED BY

R. S. PEALE

ASSISTED BY EMINENT SPECIALISTS IN EACH DEPARTMENT.

CHICAGO

Zhe Ibome Uibrarp association

MUCCCLXXXXII.

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—BY —

"=2jjfc{Eir-

Copyright, 1884, by R. S. Peale.
Copyright, 1885, by R. S. Peale
Copyright, :886, by R. S. Pkale.
Copyright, 1887, by R. S. Peals.
Copyright, 1888, by R. S. Peal*.
Copyright, 1889, by R. S. Pkale.
Copyright, 1890, by R. S. Pkale.
Copyright, 1891, by R. S. Peale.
Copyright, 1893, by R. S. Peale.

Press of
tCt^e {Some library Association,

Chicago.

V-
t

3f-

|IBBON has well said: "Every man has two educations: one which he receives
from others, and one, more important, which he gives to himself." Sir Walter
Scott emphasizes the sentiment when he says, using almost the same words: "The
best part of every man's education is that which he gives to himself."

The mind has been endowed with no more laudable or profitable ambition than that
of self-improvement. The educated man, in every walk of life, carries with him his own
capital — a capital unaffected by monetary crises; an investment whose interest is not regu-
lated by the success of speculation ; a treasure which none can dispute and of which none
can deprive him. It is his greatest source of pleasure and profit, and it is the best legacy
he can leave to his children.

In preparing the present volume, it has been the endeavor of the publishers to omit
no branch of study that may be useful in the busy life of these busy times, and a perusal
of the book will convince the reader that every subject has been treated concisely and
thoroughly, presenting in an attractive shape all those points that go to make a finished
education. Practical application to the affairs of life has been constantly kept in view,
and throughout has been maintained a systematic arrangement making reference easy, and
a degree of artistic typography pleasing to the eye, making the search for knowledge
doubly pleasurable.

To the youth who has not had the advantages of an early education is here offered a
means of thorough self-instruction — a complete commercial college bound in a book. The
business man who consults these pages will find every variety of forms used in business
life, and will not seek in vain for such legal information as may be needed. The profes-
sional man will have in this work a vade mecum of useful and practical information, saving
both the expense of purchasing and the time of consulting a vast number of volumes.

It is customary to burden the initial pages of a new publication with apologies. The
publishers of this book have none to make. They have invested a large amount of diligent,
painstaking labor and research, and no small amount of capital, and recognize the fact that
they must depend upon merit and excellence for success.

=k\

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Table of Oo^ttezstts-

[For an Alphabetical Index of Principal Subjects, see page 819.]

I , Page.

Educational Department 9

The Points which go to Make a Finished Education — The
Origin of Language — Classification of the Tongues of the
Earth.

The English Language 13

Its Origin, Growth, Development and Present Form — English
Grammar — Formation and Derivation of Words — Spelling:
Simple but Comprehensive Rules — Reformed Spelling — The
Use of. Capital Letters — Punctuation — The Parts of Speech
and their Proper Use — Errors in Speech, etc.

Composition and Rhetoric 32

How to Write the English Language Correctly — Accuracy in the
Arrangement of Words and Correct Expression in Written
Language — The Qualities Constituting a Good Style — Figures
of Rhetoric — Prosody and Versification — Poetic License.

Elocution

Vocal Culture and Gesture — How to Read and Speak Correctly
and Elegantly — The Three Forms of Speech — Conversation,
Reading, Public Speaking — Dramatic Action.

Business and Social Correspondence .... 48

Let ter-Wri ting in all its Forms — Style, Arrangement and Com-
position of Letters — The Proper Use of Titles — Models for all
Kinds of Epistolary Correspondence.

A Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms .

Containing over Twenty Thousand Words of both Similar and
Contrary Significance — A Ready Vocabulary from which to
Select Words that will Clearly and Forcibly Convey the In-
tended Meaning.

A Self-Instructor in the German Language

The New System of Object-Teaching, the Simplest Method
Known — Exercises for Self-Instruction, and a Comprehensive
Collection of Words and Phrases Designed to Facilitate Con-
versation in German.

French Without a Master 100

A Simple System of Self-Instruction in the French Language.

VL-

9 . Pacb

Practical and Ornamental Penmanship , .116

The Work of the Pen Described and Illustrated, from the Plain-
est Letter to the Most Elaborate Design — How to Learn and
How to Teach Writing— Faults to be Guarded Against —
Study and Practice — Copies for a Course of Twenty Lessons-
Alphabets and Specimens for all Purposes— Examples of
Blackboard Writing and Drawing, Engrossing, Flourished
Cards, Designs for Albums and Ornamental Lettering.

10.

Short-Hand and Typewriting 148

How to Acquire and How to Practice these Arts — A History of
Stenography, and a Practical Exposition of the Various Sys-
tems.

II.

A Self-Instructor in Short-Hand Writing . . . 156

A Complete Course, in Twelve Practical Lessons, based on the
Benn Pitman System of Phonography.

12.

The Art of Book-Keeping 168

The Systems of Single and Double Entry Compared Side by Side
—The Principles Set Forth Clearly and Concisely — How to
Prevent Errors and How to Detect Them— Comprehensive
Rules, of Value to the Practical Accountant as well as to the
Student— Complete Forms Illustrating the Two Systems, Pre-
senting, besides the Ordinary Forms of Single and Double
Entry, a Complete Set Illustrating the Combination of Day-
Book and Journal, as well as the Six-Column Journal (combin-
ing in One Book the Day-Book, Journal, Cash- Book and Sales-
Book), and the Combined Statement (showing, on one Sheet,
Trial Balance, Losses and Gains, Assets and Liabilities) — How
to Change Single Entry Books into Double Entry.

A Compendium of Biography 209

Embracing the Names and Records of Eminent Personages of All
Ages, Arranged in Alphabetical Order and Selected with Special
Reference to the Literature of America, Great Britain and Ger-
many.

14.

A Panorama of History 2S 2

A Graphic Account of Every Nation on the Globe— Profusely
Illustrated, and with Maps of the World and of all Countries of
Historic Interest.

5*-

••

VI.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Fags.

Historical Charts 321

A Simple Contemporaneous Exposition of Universal History
from the Flood to the Present Year, with Special Charts, Illus-
trating the Civil, Political and Military History of the United
States— A Chronological Record of the Impartant Historical
Events of Ancient and Modern Times, Presentee' in a Novel
and Original Manner— Sixteen Full-page Plates, printed in
Four Colors.

l6.

A Dictionary of Dates 337

The World's Progress as Shown in an Alphabetical Record of
Notable Events and Discoveries.

Scientific Department 340

A Brief and Simple Introduction to All the Sciences.

l8.

Natural Philosophy 342

The Forces of Nature and the Laws which Govern Them — The
Elements of Natural Science — Physic* and Chemistry — Hy-
drostatics and Hydraulics — Optics and Acoustics — Magnetism
and Electricity.

19.

Astronomy 355

The Wonders of the Heavens as Revealed by the Telescope — A
History of the Progress of Astronomical Science — Our Solar
System and the Universe of Stars — A Dictionary of Astronom-
ical Definitions.

20.

376

How to Read the Sky

Half-Hours with the Stars— A Plain and Easy Guide to the
Knowledge of the Constellations— With Twelve Maps of the
Heavens, True for Every Year.

21.

Physical Geography 390

Our Globe, as it Was, and as It Is— Weather and Climate — Ani-
mal and Vegetable Life — Geology, Meteorology, Climatology,
Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology.

22.

Commercial Law and Forms 403

Notes, Bills, Orders, Receipts, etc., Properly Drawn for Every
State — Negotiable Paper, and the Various Forms of Endorse-
ment — The Endorser's Responsibility — Necessary Legal
Points — Swindling Notes — Points of Business Law — Laws
of the United States and Canada Relating to Interest — Laws
Relating to Limitation of Actions.

23-

States and Territories 305*

Maps of nil the States and Territories showing Compara-
tive Statisli. . \n 1, Railroads, etc.— Printed In three
colors — Population given on page, following page
584.

24. P*o«-

Population of Cities and States 584*

The Population of the Cities and States of the United
States, of 8,000 and Over, Together with Population of
all the States and Territories according to 1890 census.

25.

Loisette Memory System '63

The Loisette Memory System, the Art of Never Forget-
ting.

26.

Banks and Banking «JI1

How the Business is Carried on — Discount — Officers and Em-
ployes — How to do Business with a Bank — Deposits — How
to Draw and Endorse a Check — Banking Frauds — Drafts and
Bills of Exchange — Letters of Credit — Bills of Lading as Se-
curity — The Clearing-House — Our National Banking System
— Stocks and Bonds — Common and Preferred Stock — How
Stock is " Watered " — Government Securities.

27.

The Tariff 4«9

The New McKinley Tariff Bill (iSoo>— Comparison of
New Rates with the Old— An Act to Reduce the Re.-
enue and Equalize Duties on Imports, etc.

28.

Lightning Calculator 439

Valuable Computations and Calculations for the Use of the Fanner,
Mechanic and Business Man — Complete Tables of Simple and
Compound Interest — Short Insurance Rates — Practical Cal-
culations — A Calendar for the Century — The Legal Bushel —
Standard and Foreign Weights and Measures — The Metric
System.

29.

Legal Business Department 451

How to Avoid Litigation — All Kinds of Legal Forms, and How
They are Drawn and Executed — Agreements and Contracts —
Agency and Attorney— Affidavits — Apprentices — Arbitration
— Assignments — Bills of Sale — Bonds — Corporations — Deeds
— Abstract of Title — Guaranty — Landlord and Tenant —
Rights of Married Women— Real Estate and Chattel Mort-
gages — Mechanics' Liens — Wills — Executors and t
trators — Partnership, etc., etc

SO-

Patents, Pensions, Etc.

A Complete Synopsis of the Rules and Regulations Governing the
United States Patent Office — The Pension Laws — The Legal
Fence.

3 X -

The Collection of Debts

How to Settle Accounts— Legal Steps to Enforce Payment-
Jurisdiction of Justices— Legal Forms, etc.— The Australian
Ballot System— Its History and Objects.

3 2 -

Special Laws of the States and Territories . .
Assignments, Attachments, Chattel Mortgages, Divorce, Exemp-
tions, Rights of Married Women, Deeds and Their Ackno. *-
edgmr nt , Will* , ami Mechanics' Liens— A Complete Synopsis of
State and Territorial Laws, Compiled from the Latest Sources.

483

49°

5«

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- -

£-

«1

—-,

TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii.

33. P.GK.

A 2 . Page.

Causes of Success and Failure 524

How to Avoid Failure — Choosing an Occupation — Health— Self-

The Mechanism of the Human Body — The Digestive, Circula-

Reliance — Attention to Detail — Perseverance — Decision of

tory, Respiratory and Excretory Organs — The Muscular Sys-

Character.

tem and the Bones — The Nervous System — The Eye and the
Ear— Various Ailments, and How to Treat Them — How to

34-

Proceed in Emergencies — Hygienic Suggestions,

Study of Character in its Relation to Business Sue-

43-

Physiognomy and Phrenology — The Two Paths of Life : Effects

of Training and Modes of Life on the Human Countenance —

The Latest Designs, with Plans, Specifications, and Estimates —

Face-Reading — The Temperaments Illustrated — How to Read

Beautiful Homes, and How to Build Them — Choosing a Site —

Character — A Synopsis of the Organs of the Brain.

How the Money is Applied — Water Supply — Cellar and Ice-
House— Outhouses and Barns — Valuable Suggestions.

35-

44.

Statistical Department — Population, Religion, Education, Re-

A Compendium of the Rules and Habits of Polite Society — The

sources, Productions and Industries of the World — More than

• True Spirit of Good Manners — Refinement and Good Breeding

a Hundred Thousand Facts Presented in an Alphabetical Ar-

— Etiquette for All Occasions, at Home and Abroad.

rangement of Topics, with Twenty-three Illustrative and Com-

parative Diagrams, Twenty of Which are Printed in Colors —

45-

The Only Dictionary of the Kind in any Language.

36.

Familiar Poems, and Those Who Wrote Them . 741

A Collection of the Brightest Gems of English Poetry, Those

Which we All Wish to Preserve in some Enduring Form, Illus-

Department of Public Business 587

trated with Portraits of the Poets.

A Complete Digest of Parliamentary Law and Rules — How to

Call, Organize and Conduct Meetings and Conventions — Com-

4.6.

mittees and Their Work — A Comprehensive Table of Points of

Order.

A Dictionary of Prose and Poetical Quotations 768

37-

Arranged both Topically and Alphabetically.

Memorials and Petitions 592

47-

The Right of Petition — Forms for Remonstrances, Petitions and

Memorials.

Heroes and Heroines of Prose and Poetry 786

38.

A Compendium of the Celebrated Characters in the Literature of

the World.

Lyceums and Debating Clubs 594

48.

Forms of Constitutions and By-Laws— Questions for Debate.

39-

A Comprehensive List of Assumed Names in English and Ameri-

can Literature.

The Steps in the Growth of American Liberty . . 596

49.

The Magna Charta — The Mecklenburg Declaration — The Dec-
laration of Independence.

40.

The Heathen Deities, and Other Fabulous Persons of Greek and

Roman History.

The Constitution of the United States .... 599

5 °\

Full Text of the Charter of American Liberty, with all the
Amendments.

Words of Phrases, Persons, Places, Pictures, Buildings, Streets

41.

and Monuments Frequently Alluded to in Literature and in

The Departments at Washington 604

Conversation.

A Complete Analysis of our Government — The Executive De-

5 1 -

partment — Department of Slate — The Diplomatic Service — The
Treasury Department — The War Department and th Amer-

ican Army— The Militia— The Navy Department— Oui Naval

Sentences and Quotations from both Living and Dead Languages.

History — The Post-office Department and its Workings — The

Department of the Interior — The General Land Office — Home-

5 2 -

stead and Preemption — Indian Affairs,— The Bureaus of Educa-

tion and Agriculture — The Attorney-General — The Supreme

Court — The Duties and Powers of Congress.

A Comprehensive Glossary of Logogriphs in Good English Usage.

. a

® .

"» e

EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT.

^ P^^^P^MMPMPMillMP-MPMP-MP^^MPtM

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Educational Department.

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The Points Which Co to Make a Finished Education.

gpwps

ex LANGUAGE is a collection
of certain articulate
sounds used as the signs
of our ideas, or of certain
written characters which
, represent those sounds.
Language owes its ori-
gin to the imitation and modifica-
tion, aided by signs and gestures, of
various natural sounds, the voices
of other animals and man's own
instinctive cries. Language con-
sists in the oral utterances of
sounds which usage has made the
representatives of ideas. When
two or more persons customarily
annex the same sounds to the same ideas the
expression of these sounds by one person com-
municates his ideas to another. This is the
primary sense of language, the use of which is
to communicate the thoughts of one person to
another through the organ of hearing. Articu-
late sounds are represented by letters, marks or
characters, which form words.

Language is sometimes denoted by other
terms ; as speech, tongue, idiom, dialect.

Language is generic, denoting any mode of

conveying ideas ; as the language of the deaf
and dumb.

Speech is the language of articulate sounds
and contemplates language as broken or cut
into words of different kinds ; as the parts of
speech, the gift of speech.

Tongue is the Anglo-Saxon term for the lan-
guage of a particular people ; as the English
tongue.

Idiom denotes the form of the construction
peculiar to a language.

Dialects are varieties of expression which
spring up in different parts of a country, or in
different professions, etc.

Origin of Language.

There are various ways by which men can
communicate with one another. They can make
gestures, utter cries, speak words, draw pictures,
write characters or letters. Articulate language
is peculiar to man ; but he uses, in common with
the lower animals, inarticulate cries to express
his meaning, aided by gestures and the move-
ments of the muscles of his face. This especially
holds good with the more simple and vivid feel-
ings which are but little connected with our
higher intelligence. Our cries of pain, fear, sur-
prise, anger, together with their appropriate

r\~

EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT.

actions, and the murmur of a mother to her be-
loved child, are more expressive than any words.
It is not the mere power of articulation that
distinguishes man from other animals, for, as
every one knows, parrots can talk ; but it is his
large power of connecting definite sounds with
definite ideas; and this obviously depends on
the development of his mental faculties.

Gesture Language.

When for any reason people cannot talk to-
gether by word of mouth, they take to convers-
ing by gestures, in what is called dumb show or
pantomime. Imagine a simple case. A boy opens
a parlor door; his brother sitting there beckons
to him to be quiet, for his father is asleep ; the
boy now intimates by signs that he has come
for the key of the box, to which his brother an-
swers by signs that it is in the pocket of his coat
hanging in the hall, concluding with a signifi-
cant gesture to be off and shut the door quietly
after him. This is the gesture language. Ges-
ture language has little power of expressing
abstract ideas.

The next step in the origin of language is to
show the workings of another sort of signs,
namely, the sounds of the human voice. Sounds
of voice may be spoken to express our feelings
and thoughts on much the same principle that
gestures are made, except that they are heard
instead of seen. One kind of sounds used by
men as signs consists of emotional cries or tones.
Men show pain by uttering groans as well as by
distortion of the face ; joy is expressed by shouts
as well as by jumping; when we laugh aloud,
the voice and features go perfectly together.
Such sounds are gestures made with the voice
— sound-gestures.

The next class of sounds used as expressive

.lie imitative. As a deaf and dumb child

expresses the idea of a cat by imitating the

i rc.it hit's art of washing its f.uc, so a speaking

child will indicate it by imitating its miaou.

Natural Language.

Now, joining gesture-actions and gesture-
sounds, they will form together what may be
called a Natural Language. This natural lan-
guage really exists, and in wild regions really
has some practical value, as when a European
traveller makes shift to converse in it with a
party of Australians around their camp-fire or
with a Mongol family in their felt tent. What
he has to do is to act his most expressive mimic
gestures, with a running accompaniment of ex-
clamations and imitative noises. Here there is
found a natural means of intercourse, much fuller
than mere pantomime of gestures only. It is a
common language of all mankind, springing so
directly from the human mind that it must have
belonged to our race from the most remote ages
and most primitive conditions in which man
existed. Language is one branch of the great
art of sign-making or sign-choosing, and its busi-
ness is to hit upon some sound as a suitable sign
or symbol for each thought. It is maintained by
the best philologists that emotional and imita-
tive sounds are the very source of all language,
and that, although most words now show no
trace of such origin, this is because they have
quite lost it in the long change of pronunciation
and meaning they have gone through, so that
they have now become mere symbols. Besides
the emotional and imitative ways, there were
several other devices by which man chooses
sounds to express thoughts. That there was
always some kind of fitness or connection which
led to each particular sound being taken to ex-
press a particular thought is more than likely,
and in this seems to lie the most reasonable
opinion to be held as to Oe famous problem of
the origin of 1 So far as language can

be traced to its actual source, that source doe?
not lie in some lost gifts or powers of man, but
in a state of mind still acting, and not above the
level of children and savages. The origin of
language was not an event which took place
long ago, once for all, and then ceased entirely.

•

EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT.

On the contrary, man still possesses, and uses
when he wants it, the faculty of making new,
original words by choosing fit and proper terms.
But he now seldom puts this faculty to serious
use, for this good reason, that whatever language
he speaks has its stock of words ready to furnish
an expression for almost every fresh thought
that crosses his mind.

Articulate Language.

A sentence being made up of its connected
sounds as a limb is made up of its joints, we
call language articulate, or jointed, to distinguish
it from the inarticulate, or "unjointed," sounds
uttered by the lower animals. Conversation by
gestures and exclamations, as was shown above
to be a natural language common to mankind, is
half-way between the communications of animals
and full human speech. Every people, even the
smallest and most savage tribe, has an articulate
language carried on by a whole system of
sounds and meanings which serves the speaker
as a sort of catalogue of the contents of the world
he lives in, taking in every subject he thinks
about, and enabling him to say what he thinks
about it. As in the course of ages man's
knowledge became wider and his civilization
more complex, his language had to keep up
with them. Comparatively few and plain ex-
pressions had sufficed for his early rude con-
dition, but now more and more terms had to be
added for the new notions, implements, arts,
offices and relations of more highly organized
society. New words were made by adding and
combining old ones, carrying on old words from
the old state of things to do duty to the new,
shifting their meanings and finding in any new
thought some resemblance to an old one that
would serve to give it a name. As terms in-
crease in every nation and the vast field of
language is filled up, words, by a thousand fan-
ciful and irregular methods of derivation and
composition, deviate widely from the primitive
character of their roots and lose old resem-
blance in sound of the things signified. Words

as we now use them, taken in general, may be
considered as symbols, not imitations ; as arbi-
trary or instituted, not natural, signs of ideas.

Classification of Languages.

The classification of the different languages
of the earth into a few great families is due to
the science of comparative philology and is of
recent origin. Till the latter end of the last cen-
tury the preference as to the antiquity of lan-
guage was usually given to the Hebrew, but
a striking improvement of linguistic study is
dated from the discovery of the Sanskrit, the
ancient language of the northern parts of Hin-
dustan, in the latter part of the last century. A
belief in an affinity between languages and a
separation of them into certain great groups or
families then arose.

The languages of the world are divided into
four great branches, viz., the Aryan, or Indo-
European, the most important ; next the Sem-
itic, the Turanian and the Dra vidian.

The Turanian family, called also the Tataric,
or Altaic, includes the numerous and widely dif-
ferent languages of the Manchoos, the Mongols,
the Turks (in Asia and Europe), the Magyars
(in Hungary), the Finns (in Russia), and a multi-
tude of other tribes.

The Dravidian includes the Tamil and the
dialects in Ceylon and the islands off Asia,
etc.

The Semitic includes the Hebrew, Syriac,
Arctic and Ethiopic, Basque (in the Pyrenees),
etc.

The Indo-European, to which extensive
family the English language belongs, is divided
into six principal branches.

I. The Indian branch, represented by the
Sanskrit, which has now ceased to be spoken,
but is the mother of the Hindustani, Bengali,
Mahratti and the other numerous dialects of
modern India.

II. The Medo-Persic branch, at the head of
which is the Zend, in which the Zend-Avesta
is composed and the cuneiform inscriptions of

ax*

EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT.

Cyras, Darius and Xerxes. Next follow the
Fehlevi, of the Sarsanian dynasty ; the Parsee, in
which the national poem of Ferdusi is written
(A. D. iooo), and lastly the modem Persian.

III. The Celtic branch, divided into two dia-
lects, the Gaelic and the Cymric ; the former
comprising the Irish or Erse, the Scottish Gaelic
or Highland-Scotch, and the Manx of the Isle
of Man ; and the latter Welsh, the Cornish (now
extinct) and the Armorican of Britanny.

IV. The Gr&co-Latin branch, comprising the
two ancient classical languages, and the so-
called Romanic languages, derived from the
Latin, which are six in number, namely; the
French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Walla-
chian,and the Roumanish or Romanese spoken
in the Grisons in Switzerland.

V. The Teutonic branch, which comprises all
the different German and Scandinavian dialects.

VI. The Slavonic branch, divided into three
principal classes: I. The Lettic, comprising
the Lithuanian, the Old Prussian (now extinct)
and the Lettish, the language of Kurland and
Livonia. 2. The Western Slavonic, comprising
the Polish ; the Bohemian or Tchechian, spoken
in Bohemia ; the Slovakian, spoken by the Slov-
aks in Hungary, and the Wendian, spoken in
Lusatia. 3. The Eastern Slavonic, comprising
the Old Slavonic, preserved in the translations
of the Bible made by Cyrillus in the ninth cent-
ury, and its derivate dialect, the Bulgarian; the
Russian, Servian, Croatian and Slovinian.

The Teutonic branch of the Indo-European
family of languages is divided into two great
branches, the German and Scandinavian.

The German is divisible into three principal
dialects, the Mceso- Gothic, the Low German
and the High German, the two latter being so
called because the Low German is spoken by
the inhabitants of the low or flat country near
the shores of the German Ocean, while the High
German belongs to the higher country in the
interior.

1. The Moeso-Gothic, the most easterly of
all the German dialects, has long ceased to be

spoken, but is preserved in the translation of
the gospels by Ulfilas.

2. The Low German comprised the follow-
ing dialects : ( 1 ) Anglo-Saxon, which was culti-
vated with great success in England, and in
which the second most ancient specimens of the
Germanic language are preserved. (2) The Old
Saxon, so called to distinguish it from the An-
glo-Saxon in England, formerly spoken in
Westphalia. (3) The Frisian, now confined to
a small district in Holland. (4) The Dutch,
the present language of Holland. (5) The
Flemish, spoken in many parts of Belgium.

3. The High German comprises the Old
High German, from the seventh to the eleventh
century; the Middle High German, from the
twelfth century to the Reformation, and the New
High German, which since Luther's time has
been the literary language of Germany.

The Scandinavian branch, of which the
most ancient language is the Old Norse, the lan-
guage of Norway, is represented by the Icelandic,
which was carried into Iceland by the Norse
colonists in the ninth century and which con-
tinues to be spoken on that island with little
alteration. On the Continent the Old Norse is
represented by the Swedish, Danish and Nor-
wegian, of which the last has now become a
mere patois.

The following table exhibits the relationship
of the different Teutonic languages :

1. Maso-Gothie.

2. Low German.
(i.) Anglo-Saxon.

English.

iii.) Old Saxon.
iii.) Frisian,
iv.j Dutch.
tA Flemish.
Hlgk German.
Teutonic -i ~ (i.) Old High German.

(it) Middle High German,
(iii.) Now 1 1 ivjh German.
1. OMSemmdi*

II. SCANDINAVIAN

(1.) 1> clandic

(a "

v ii.) F
2. .!/,'./<•' n Scandinavian.
[,.) Danish.
(ii.) Swedish.
[Ui.) Norwegian.

•

T> V

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

9^&9s^^^^^^^^^^&^^&59yyy^E&A

English Language.

w^w^

"WWW

Its Origin, Crowth, Development and Present Form.

HE English Language is
the descendant and repre-
sentative of the Anglo-
Saxon. It has lost very
much of the inflection and
very many of the words
which belong to the parent lan-
guage ; and on the other hand
it has borrowed words largely,
to the extent even of half its
vocabulary, from other lan-
guages, especially the French
and the Latin. Yet all the in-
flections that remain in it, and
most of its formative endings,
the pronouns and particles, and in general the
words which are in most frequent and familiar
use, have come to it from the Anglo-Saxon. All
the constituents of the English Language as it
now exists are presented in a condensed form as
follows :

1st. Saxon and Danish words, of Teutonic and Gothic origin.

2nd. British or Welsh, Cornish and Armoric, of Celtic origin.

3rd. Norman, a mixture of French and Gothic

4th. Latin.

5th. The French, chiefly Latin corrupted.

6th. Greek.

7th. A few words directly from the Italian, Spanish, German,
and other Continental languages of Europe.

8th. A few foreign words introduced by commerce or by
political and literary intercourse.

"Suppose," says Dr. Trench {English Past
and Present), "the English language to be di-
vided into a hundred parts; of these, to make a
rough distribution, sixty would be Saxon, thirty
would be Latin (including of course the Latin
which has come to us through the French), five
would be Greek; we should then have assigned
ninety-five parts, leaving the other five, perhaps
too large a residue, to be divided among all the
other languages from which we have adopted
isolated words."

The English Language from the time of its
first formation has been subject to continual
changes. Old words have been from time to
time falling away, and new ones have been
formed and brought into use.

The oldest Saxon manuscript dates about
A.D. 700, and the Lord's Prayer then ran thus:

"Uren fader thic arth in heofnas, sic gehalgud thin noma, to
cymeth thin ric, sic thin willa sue is in heofnas, and in eortho,"
etc.

The Modern Period of English commenced
with the middle of the sixteenth century, and
its present form was then assumed.

Though it is impossible to assign any exact
date to the change of Anglo-Saxon into English,
the chief alterations in the language may be
arranged approximately under the following
epochs :

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

I. Anglo-Saxon, from A.D. 450 to 1 150.

II. Serai-Saxon, from A.D. 1150 to 1250, so called because it par.
takes strongly of the characteristics of both Anglo-Saxon and Old
English.

III. Old English, from A.D. 1250 to 1350.

IV. Middle English, from A.D. 1350 to about 1550.

V. Modern English, from A.D. 1550 to the present day.

ANGLO-SAXON.

A.D. 700.

From the Anglo-Saxon Version of Matthew, Eighth Chapter.

S6dllce tha se Haelend of tham munte nydher astah, tha fylig-
don him mycle manio. Tha genealsehte an hre6fla to him and hine
td him ge-eadhmSdde, and thus cwadh : Drihten, gyf thu wylt'
thu miht me geclaensian. Tha astrehte se Haelend hys hand
and hrepode hyme and thus cwadh : Ic wylle, beo geclaensod
And hys hreofla was hradlice geclaensod. Tha cwadh se Hselend
to him : Warna the thai thu hyt naenegum men ne secge ; ac
gang, 3te6w the tham sacerde, and bring hym tha lac the Moy-
ses bebead, on hyra gecydhnesse.

Translation. — [Words wanting- in the original are introduced in
italics; explanations or kindred words are inserted in brackets.]
Shortly when the Savior from the mountain came-down, there fol-
lowed him a great multitude [mickle, many]. Then came-near a leper
to him, and him[sclf] to him humbled and thus said [quoth] : Lord,
if thou wilt, thou may est me cleanse. Then stretched-outthe Savior
his hand and touched him and thus said : I will, be cleansed. And his
leprosy was quickly cleansed. Then said the Savior to him : Beware
[warn thee] that thou it to no man say; but go, show thee to-the
priest [Latin, sacerdos] and bring them the gift that Mo«es bade, for
their information.

A.D. 700.

From Beowulf.

Tha com of more under mist-hleodum

Grendel gongan, godes yrre bar.

Mynte se mlnscadha manna cynnes

sumne besyrwan in sele tham hean,

wod under wolcnum to thas the he winreced

goldsele gumend gearwost wisse

fiettiun feline : ne was that forma sidh

that he HrOdhglres him ges6hte.
Translation. — Then came from the moor under mist-hills Grendel
to-go, God's ire he bare. He meant, the wicked destroyer [scather],
of nirn's kin some one to. ensnare in the high hall, raging under wel-
kin, seeing that the friend-mansion, the gold-hall of men, he most*
readily knew, with jewels bedecked ; nor was that the first [foremost]
time that Hrothgar's home he visited [sought].

A.D. 800.

From King Alfred's Translation of Boethius.

On tharc tide the Gotan of Scidhdhiu-mcegdhe widh Rfimana-
rice gewin upfthofon, and mid heora cyningum, Rsdgota and
Kallcrlca mron hatne, Romana-bwih abraecon and call Italia-
rice, that is betwux tham muntuin and Sicilia tham e&londe, in
anwald gerehton ; and thA after tham foresprecenan cyningum
1 hcodrlc feng to tham ilean rice.

Translation. — In the time that the Goths from Scythla-country
against the Komi an -empire commeiieril u.ir [war upheaved], and with
their kings, who Ilhadagast ami Al.iric were called [hight], the Roman*
city sacked [broke] and all Italy-realm, that is betwixt the mountains
and Sicily the island, into their dominion reduced ; and when alter the
• lid [fore-spoken] kings Theodoric obtained [took to] the
same kingdom.

A.D. MOO.

From Ike Latter Part of the Saxon Chronicle.

Thissum thus gedone, se cyng Willem cearde ongein to Nor-
mandige. Re6wlic thing he dyde and redwltcor him gelamp.
Hfl re6wlicor? Him geyfelade, odh that him strangllce eglade.
Hwat mag ic teollan ? Se scearpa deadh, the ne forbet ne rice
menn ne heine, se hine genam. He swealt on Normandige on
thone nehstan dag after nativitas See Marie; and man be-
byrgede hine on Cathum at See Stephanes mynstre; aerer
he hit araerde, and sidhdhan manifaldlice gegodade.

Translation.— This being thus done, the king William returned
again to Normandy. A rueful thing he did and a ruefullcr befel him.
How ruefullcr? He [literally, to him] grew-ill, till that// strongly
ailed him. What may I tell? The sharp death, that does not let-pass
neither rich men nor poor, thus took him. He died in Normandy on
the next day after the nativity of St. Mary; and men [man] buried
him in Caen at St. Stephen's minster ; earlier he up -reared it and af-
terward [sithence] manifoldly enriched [conferred-goods-on] it.

SEMI-SAXON.

A. D. 1150.

From Layamon's Brut. — Earlier Text.

An preost wes on leoden,

Layamon wes ihoten:

he wes Leouenadhes sone ;

lidhe hein beo drihten ;

he wonede at Emleye,

at cedhelen are chirechen,

uppen Scuarne stathe.
Translation.— There was a priest on earth [or in He land] trio was
named Layamon ; he was son of Lsovenath — may the Lord be
gracious to him !— -he dwelt at Ernley at a noble church upon Severn's
bank.

A.D. 1260.

From Layamon's Brut. — Later Text.

A priest was in londe

Laweman was [i] hote :

he was Leucais sone;

lef him beo drihte:

he wonede at Ernleie

wid than gode cnithe,

uppen Scuarne.
Translation. — There was a priest in /*/ land who was named Laya-
mon ; he was a son of Lcuca— may the Lord be gracious to him :— he
dwelt at Krnlcy with the good knight upon the Severn.

A.D. 1260.

From the Ormulum.
Nu, brotherr Wallterr, brotherr min

affterr the pheshess kinde ;
annd brotherr min i Crisstenndom

thurrh fulluhht annd thurrh trowwthe ;
annd brotherr min i Godess hus,

yet o the thride I
thurrh thatt witt hafenn takenn b*

an rcyhellboc to follyhenn.
unmlerr kanunnkess had annd lif,
twa summ Sannt Awwstin sette.
TlsmHsslslH tTmr brother Walter, brother mine after the flesh's
kindred; and brother mine in Christendom through baptism and

Y-

•saS.*

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

through truth ; and brother mine in God-s house, yet on the third
wise, seeing [through] that we -two have taken both one rule-book to
follow, under a canonic's hood and life, so as St. Austin set.

OLD ENGLISH.

A.D. 1300.

From the Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester.
Thus com lo ! Engelond into Normannes honde,
and the Normans ne couthe speke tho bote her owe speche,
and speke French as dude atom, and here chyldren dude al so
so that heymen of thys lond, that of her blod come, [teche :
lioldeth all theilke speche that hii of hem nome.
vor bote a man couthe French, me tolth of hym wel lute.

Translation. — Thus came, lo ! England into the Normans' hand,
and the Normans knew not how to speak then but their own speech,
and spoke French as they did at home, and their children did all so
teach, so that the high -men of this land, that of their blood came,
hold all the-same [the ilk] speech that they of them took: for unless
[but] a man should-know French, men reckon [tell] of him very
[well] little.

MIDDLE ENGLISH.

A.D. 1350.

From the Travels of Sir John Mandeville.
After for to speke of Jerusalem the holy cytee, yee schull un-
derstonde that it stont* full faire betwene hilles, and there be
no ryveres ne welles, but water cometh by condyte from Ebron.
And yee schulle understonde that Jerusalem of old tyme, unto
the tyme of Melchisedech, was cleped f Jebus; and after i*. was
clept Salem, unto the tyme of Kyng David, that put these two
names to gider, and cleped it Jerosolomye. And after that
men cleped it Jerusalem, and so it is clept yit

A.D. 1350.

From the Vision of Pier's Ploughman.
In a somer seson when softe was the sonne,
I shoop me into shroudes J as I a sheep \ weere.
in habit as a heremite unholy of werkes,
wente wide in this world wondres to here.

A.D. 1375.

From the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.
When that Aprille with his schowres swoote ||
the drought of Marche hath perced to the roote,
and bathud evrry veyne in swich licour,
of which vertue engendred in the flour.

A.D. 1380.

From Wycliffe's Translation of the Bible.

Forsothe when Jhesus hadde comen doun fro the hill, many
cumpanyes folewiden hym. And loo ! a leprouse man cum-
mynge worshipide hym, sayinge : Lord yif thou wolt, thou
maist make me clene. And Jhesus holdynge forthe the hond,
touchide hym, saying: I wole, be thou maad clene. And

* Stont, standcth. { Shoop me into shroudts, put me

t Cleped, clept, called. into clothes.

§ Sheep, shepherd. || Swoote, sweet.

anoon the lepre of hym was clensid. And Jhesus saith to hym :
See, say thou to no man : but go shewe thee to prestis, and offre
that yifte that Moyses comaundide, into witnessing to hem.

A.D. 1400.

From Purvey' s Recension of Wycliffe's Translation.
But whanne Jhesus was come doun frc the hil, mych puple
suede hym. And loo ! a leprouse man cam and worschipide
hym and seide: Lord if thou wolt thou maist make me clene.
And Jhesus helde forth the hoond and touchide hym and seide :
Y wole: be thou maad cleene. And anoon the lepre of hym
was clensid.

A.D. 1450.

From Caxton's Prologue to Malory's Morte a" Arthur.
For it is notoyrly knowen thorugh the unyversal world that
there been IX worthy and the best that ever were, that is to
wete, thre paynyms, thre jewes, and thre crysten men. As for
the paynyms, they were tofore the incarnacyon of Cryst, whiche
were named, the fyrst Hector of Troye, of whome thystorye is
comen bothe in balade and prose ; the second Alysaunder the
grete; and the thyrd Julyus Cezar, emperour of Rome, of
whome thystoryes ben wel kno and had.

A.D. 1500.

From Tyndale's New Testament.
When he was come downe from the mountayne, moch pecple
folowed him. And lo ! ther came a lepre and worsheped him,
sayinge : Master if thou wylt thou canst make me clene. And
Jesus put forthe hys hond and touched hym; saying: I wylL be
thou clene, and immediately his leprosie was clensed. And
Jesus sayde vnto him : Se thou tell nc man, but go and shewe
hy selfe to the preste and offer the gyfte that Moses com-
maunded, in witness to them.

MODERN ENGLISH.

A.D. 1550.

From a Letter of the Duke of Northumberland.
Hon ble Lord, and in this distress my especiall refuge, most
wofull was the newes I recey ved this evenynge by M r Lieutenant
that I must prepare myselfe against tomorrowe to receyve my
deadly stroke. Alas, my good lord, is my cryme so heynous as
noe redemcion but my blood can washe awaye the spottes
thereof? An old proverb ther is, and that most true, that a
lyving dogge is better than a dead lyon.

A.D. 1650.

From a Letter of Queen Henrietta Maria.
This day I received yours of the 21, to which, being streight-
ened in tyme, I shall answer in English that it may be soonest
put into cypher. In the first place you conclude right, that noth-
ing but the abundance of my love could make me take upon
me the harsher part of pressing things which are inacceptible
to you.

'■

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A.D. 1760.

From a Letter of John Wesley.

Always take advice or reproof as a favour: it is the surest
mark of love. I advised you once and you took it as an affront:
nevertheless I will do it once more. Scream no more at the
peril of your soul. God now warns you by me, whom He has
set over you.

A.D. 1850.

From a iMter of H'm. M. Thackeray.
My dear Reed — Though I am rather slow in paying the
tailor, I always pay him : and as with tailors so with men ; I
pay my debts to my friends, only at rather a long day. Thank
you for writing to me so kindly, you have so much to do. I
have only begun work ten days since, and now, in consequence,
have little leisure.

&-&-¥&

ENGLISH

Cmmnw^^^n\^m\\L

V » Q

GRAMMAR.

English Grammar is the art of speaking,
reading and writing the English language cor-
rectly.

It is divided into four parts : Orthography,
Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words
and spelling.

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech with
their classes and modifications.

S> lltax treats of the relation, agreement, government and
arrangement of words in sentences.

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures and versi-
fication.

LETTERS.

A Letter is an alphabetic mark or character commonly ren-
ting some elementary sound of a word.

An elementary sound of a word is a simple or pri-
mary sound of the human voice usnl In speaking.

The sound of a letter is commonly called its power:
when any letter of a word is not sounded it is said to be silent
or mute.

The letters in the English lang-^-ge are twenty-six ; the sim-
ple or primary sounds in the language are forty-one.

lett«n "re: A a; 11 b; C c; D d; E e; F f; ft g;
JIli; Ii;]j; Kk; I.[| Mm; \n; O o; P p; Q q; Rr;
Ss : Tt; U u; V v; W w; Xx; Vy; Zi.

The letters are divided into two general classes, Towels
and consonants.

fl » J>

A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when ut-
tered alone ; as, a, e, o.

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered
till joined to a vowel ; as, b, c, d.

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w andj'.

W or y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard
in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, ye, yet. In all other
cases these letters are vowels ; as, newly, dewy, eye-trow.

Consonants are divided intosemi-vowels and mil ti -.

A semi-vowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly
sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its
sound may be protracted ; as, /, n, t, in al, an, ax.

A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all
without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly
stops tlu.- breath ; as, I; p, t, in ah, a/, at.

The semi-vowels are/, *,/, /, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y,
;. and c axukg soft; but w or y at the end of a syllable is a
vowel.

The mutes are eight : b, d, i, p, q, t. and c and g hard ;
three of these — i, f, and e hard — sound exactly alike.

The four semi-vowels, /, m, n and r, are also called
liquids. 1". UN they readily unite with other consonants,
flowing, as it were, into their sounds.

The following consonants are styled dentals. \i-.: ,/,/, s,
t, t, and g soft, being pronounced chiefly by the aid of the
teeth.

D,g,j, h, I, n and q are called palatals, from the use
made of the palate in pronouncing them.

B, p, /, v and m are called labials, being pronounced
chiefly by the lips.

4—

— s>

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

M, n and the digraph ng are called nasals, being sounded
through the nose.

A", q and c and g hard are called gutturals, being sound-
ed by the throat.

Peculiarities in Sounds of Consonants.

B preceded by m in the same syllable is generally silent ; as,
lamb, limb, comb; but succumb is an exception. It is silent
befo«e / in the same syllable ; as in debt, doubt, etc.

The letter C is hard and sounds like k before a, and u; it is
soft and sounds like j before e, i and_y; except in sceptic, scir-
rhus, and their derivatives, in which it is hard, like k. In the
words indict, indictable, indictment, czar and victuals, c is
silent. Where c comes after the accent and is followed by ea,
ia, to or eous, it takes, like s ox t under the same circumstances,
the sound of sh; as, ocean, social, tenacious, cetaceous. In the
words discern, sacrifice and suffice, c has the sound of z.

The regular sound of the digraph Ch is the same as that of
tch or tsh; as in chair, child, rich. In words from the French
it has the sound of sh; as in chagrin, chaise. In words derived
from the ancient languages ch is generally hard, like k; as,
chemistry, choler, echo, chorus, stomach. Exceptions, cherub,
charity, chart, charter. Ch is hard in all words where it is fol-
lowed by / or r; as, Christian, chlorosis. When arch, signify-
ing chief, begins a word from the Greek language, followed by
a vowel, it is pronounced ark; as, archangel, architect; but
when arch is prefixed to an English word it is pronounced so as
to rhyme with march; as, archbishop, archduke. In drachm,
schism and yacht, ch is silent.

D is silent in Wednesday and handkerchief.

G, like c, has two sounds, one hard and the other soft. It is
hard before a, and ». The only exception is gaol, which is
commonly written as well as pronounced/a//. G followed by «
at the beginning of a word is silent ; as, gnarl, gnash, gnat. It
is also silent when followed by n at the end of a word ; as, ar-
raign, design, impugn. G before e, i and y is sometimes hard
and sometimes soft. It is generally soft before words derived
from the Greek, Latin and French, and hard before words from
the Saxon.

Gil. At the beginning of a word the h is silent; as ghost,
ghastly. At the end of words both letters are commonly silent ;
as, sigh, nigh, weigh. In some words it has the sound of f;
as, rough, laugh; and in some the sound of k; as, hough,
lough.

The combination of letters ougll at the end of words has no
less than seven different sounds, which are exhibited in the
following lines :

'Tis not an easy task to show
How o-ug-h sounds ; since, though
An Irish lough and English slough
And cough and hiccough, all allow,
Differ as much as tough and through,
There seems no reason why they do.

Gilt. In this termination the letters gh are always silent ;
as, fight, right; except in draught, which is pronounced, and
in some of its senses usually written, draft.

The letter h is a note of aspiration, and it is silent at the be-
ginning of a number of words ; as, heir, heiress, honor, honesty,

honorable, honor, hour, hostler, etc. In hospital, humble,
humor, herb, etc., according to some authorities, it is silent;
according to others it is sounded. It is always silent after r;
as, rheum, rhetoric, rhapsody.

J has the same sound as sohg.

K. has the same sound as c hard. It is always silent before
n; as, knee, know. It is also silent after c; as, barrack, back.

Li is silent in many words ; as, calf, half, talk, balm, calm,
would, should, etc.

M always preserves its sound except in accompt, accomptant,
comptroller, pronounced and more commonly written account,
accountant, controller. M is silent when it precedes n ; as,
mnemonics.

K is mute when it ends a syllable and is preceded by / or m ;
as in kiln, hymn, limn, solemn, column.

P is silent before n, s and / at the beginning of words ; as,
psalm, psalter, ptisan, pneumonia.

Ph has generally the sound of f; as, physic, philosophy. In
nephew and in Stephen it has the sound of v ; and in diph-
thong, triphthong, naphtha, the h is silent.

<J is always followed by «, and qu has commonly the sound
of kw; as, queen, quart; but in many words, mostly from the
French, it has the sound of k; as coquette, etiquette, liquor,
mosque.

§ final has the sound of z when it immediately follows any
consonant except the mutes k,p, t, the semi-vowely and th aspi-
rated, a; in ribs, heads, hens; also when it forms an additional
syllable with z before it, in the plural of nouns and the third
person singular of verbs, as churches, boxes, teaches; likewise in
some verbs ending in se to distinguish them from nouns and
adjectives of the same form, as abuse, use, close, diffuse, as dis-
tinguished from the nouns abuse, use, and the adjectives close
and diffuse.

S takes the sound of sh in words ending in sion preceded
by a consonant; as diversion, passion, mission; also in censure,
sure, sugar, fissure, etc.

S has the sound of zh in the termination sion preceded by a
vowel; as evasion, decision, explosion; also in a number of words
in which s is preceded by an accented vowel and followed by
the termination ure, as in measure, pleasure, treasure, leisure;
also in several words ending in sier, as crosier, osier, hosier; also
in ambrosia, ambrosial, elysium, elysian ; also in the words
abscission, scission, and rescission. S is silent in the words
aisle, isle, island, demesne, puisne, viscount, and generally at
the end of French words adopted into English, as chamois,
corps, vis-a-vis, etc.

T, when it comes immediately after the accent and is followed
by the vowels ia, ie or to, takes the sound in these cases of sh;
as, partial, patient, nation, militia.

Th. The h is silent in the words Thomas, thyme,
phthisic, Thames. The th is silent in asthma and isthmus.

W is always silent before r; as, write, wren, wrist. It is
also silent in answer, sword, toward and two.

X at the beginning of words has the sound of z; as, Xenophon,
xylography.

Z is silent in rendezvous.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Combinations of Vowels.

The powrr of a letter is its sound in a given word. Some
letters stand for more than one sound ; as a in ale, are, awl.
Some sounds have more than one letter to stand for them ; thus
in her, sir, fur, the same sound is represented by e, i and u.
Our twenty-six letters represent forty-one sounds.

A Diphthong is two vowels formed in one syllable; as
ea in beat, ou in sound.

A>proper diphthong is one in which both the vowels
are sounded ; as, oi in voice.

An improper diphthong is one in which only one
of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf.

A Triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable; as,
eau in beau, tew in view.

A proper triphthong is one in which all the vowels
are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy.

An improper diphthong is one in which only one
or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beauty, iou in
anxious.

SYLLABLES.

A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one
sound and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, ant.

In every word there are as many syllables as there are dis-
tinct sounds ; as, gram-ma- ri-an.

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as,
home. A word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; as, he-ro.
A word of three syllables, a trisyllable ; as, ke-ro-ic. And
a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable; as,
im-per-a-tive, dis-con-nect-cd-ly, sex-a-ge-na-ri-an.

In dividing words into syllables we are to be directed chiefly
by the ear ; it may, however, be proper to observe, as far as
practicable, the following rules :

Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diph-
thongs which they modify in utterance ; as, ap-os-tol-ic-al.

Two vowels coming together, if they do not make a diphthong,
must be parted in dividing the syllables ; as, a-e-ri-al.

Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be
separated from the radical words to which they are added ; as,
harm-less, great-ly, eon-nect-ed.

Prefixes in general form separate syllables ; as, mis-place, out-
ride, up-lift; but if their own primitive meaning be disregard-
ed, the case may be otherwise ; thus, re-create and rec-reate are
words of different import.

Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple
words which compose them ; as, no-where.

At the end of a line a word may be divided if necessary ; but
a syllable must never be broken.

ACCENT.

Accent is stress of voice laid on a certain syllable when a
word is uttered. The syllable that receives the stress is said to
be accented. It may be denoted by a mark called the acute ac-
cent ('), placed above it to the right; as, lemon, engrave".

Accent is of two kinds: primary, as in in-tend", where
the full force of the voice is on the last syllable ; and second-

ary, as in su'per-in-tend , where the first syllable is distin-
guished by a stress greater than that laid on the second and
third syllables, though less than that laid on the last. In some
words there are two secondary or subordinate accents ; as, in-
com 'pre-hen 'si-bit 'i-ty .

There are about eighty dissyllables in which the same word
is used for a verb on the one hand and a noun or adjective on
the other. To distinguish them we accent the nouns and the
adjectives on the first syllable, and the verbs on the last; as, a
con'vert, to convert" ; a contract, to contract"; an object, to
object"; an o'verflow, to overflow'; a perfume, to perfum/,
etc.

There are a few dissyllables which are at once nouns and ad-
jectives. These are distinguished by accenting the nouns on
the first syllable and the adjectives on the last.

NOUNS.
Au'gust, the month.
Com'pact, an engagement.
Kx'lle, banishment.
In'stfnct, an impulse.
Minute, of time.
Su'pine, in grammar.

ADjacrivas.
August', noble.
Compact', close.
Exile', small, slender.
Instinct', animated.
Minute', very small.
Supine', indolent.

The word gallant departs from the above rule. When it de-
notes a suitor or "attentive to ladies," it is accented gallant",
and is changed into gaflant when it means high-spirited or
daring.

Simple words of two syllables have only one syllable accent-
ed, except 'he word amen, which Walker says "is the only word
in the language which has necessarily two consecutive accents."

WORDS.

A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the
sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought.

Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative,
and as simple or compound. The former division is
called their species ; the latter, their figure.

A primitive word is one that is not formed from any
simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great.

A derivative word is one that is formed from some sim-
pler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly, disconnect,
unconnected.

A simple word is one that is not compounded, not com-
posed of other words; as, watch, man, never, the, less.

A compound word is one that is composed of two or
more simple words; as, watchman, nevertheless.

Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, bookseller,
schoolmaster. Others, which may b« called temporary com-
pounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass-house, negro-mer-
chant.

Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known
as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken
apart.

When the simple words would only form a regular phrase of
the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to
be avoided.

Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood must be joined
together or written separately as the sense and construction
may happen to require.

=7?

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence
none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word.

When the parts of a compound do not coalesce, as, to-mor-
row, to-night, to-day, or when each retains its original accent,
so that the compound has more than one, or one that is mova-
ble, as, first-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving, the hyphen
should be inserted between them.

When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronun-
ciation, as, watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts
are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should
be inserted between them.

WORD-BUILDING.

The primitive words of the English language are few com-
pared with the derivatives. This is because many derivatives
sometimes come from a single primitive. Thus from the prim-
itive part are formed counter/a/-r, depart, impart, party, part-
isan, /article, imparted, copartner, etc.

A Prefix is a letter or letters placed before a primitive or
compound to modify its meaning ; as, de in depart, un in ««-
gentlemanly.

A Suffix is a letter or letters placed after a primitive or
compound to modify its meaning; as, isan in partisan, ly in
ungentlemanly.

Some derivatives come from roots not separately used as
words. Thus avert, revert, convertible, etc., come from the
root vert, meaning to turn.

These roots are mostly from Latin words, and some of them
enter into a great number of derivatives. The most important
of these inseparable roots are:

cede, ceed, cess, to go.
ceive, cept, to take.
elude, clus, to shut.
cur, curs, to run.
diet, to say or speak.
duce, duct, to lead.
feet, flci, to do, make.
fer, to bear, to carry,
fuse, to pour.
Ject, to cast.
late, bear, carry.
lect, to choose, gather.

lude, lus, to play.
mit, miss, to send.
pel, puis, to drive.
pend, pens, to hang.
pone, pose, to place.
port, to earn.-.
scribe, script, to write,
sist, to stand.
tain, tent, to hold.
tend, tens, to shield.
tract, to draw.
vene, vent, to come.

A derivative may be formed by uniting two or more prefixes
or suffixes with a primitive or inseparable root; as, nr-«r-port,
to carry-OK l-again ; just-ify-ing, conlinuing-to-make-just; re-
col-\ed-ions, more-lhan-one-acf-of-ga,thermg-together-again.

A derivative may be formed by uniting a prefix or suffix with
a compound ; as, good-humor-^*/.

Compounds may be formed by uniting two primitives ; as,
moon-beam ; a primitive and derivative, as, bright-eyed ; two de-
rivatives, as, brightest-eyed ; an inseparable root and a primi-
tive, as, multiform ; two inseparable roots, as, geography.

The Prefixes.

In the formation of words, the particles which are employed
as prefixes generally have some peculiar import, which may be
separately explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon ori-
gin, and the greater part of these are still employed as separ-
ate words in our language. The rest are Latin, Greek and

French prepositions. The roots to which they are affixed are
not always proper English words. Those which are such are
called separable radicals, and those which are not such,
inseparable radicals.

English or Anglo-Saxon Prefixes.

A, as an English prefix, signifies on, in, at or to; as in
a-broad, a-shore, a-sleep, a-far, a-field. The French a {to) is
probably the same particle ; as in a-dieu. This prerix is some-
times redundant ; as in a-wake, a-rise.

Be signifies upon, to, by or for; as in bespatter, be-times,
be-tide, be-speak. It is sometimes redundant; as in be-gird,
be-deck, be-loved.

Counter means against or opposite; as in counter-poise,
counter-evidence, counter-natural.

For, in composition, seems to signify from. It is found in
the irregular verbs for-bear, for-bid, for-get,for-give, forsake,
forswear ; and in for-do, for-pass, for-pine, for-say, for-thinh,
for-waste, which last are now seldom used.

Fore, prefixed to verbs, signifies before; as, fore-know,
fore-tell; prefixed to nouns it is an adjective and signifies an-
terior; as, fore-side, fore-part.

Half, signifying one of two equal parts, is much used in
composition, and often merely to denote imperfection ; as, half-
sighted, seeing imperfectly.

Mis signifies wrong ; as, mis-do, mis-place.

Out, prefixed to verbs, generally denotes excess ; as, out-do,
out-leap; prefixed to nouns it is an adjective and signifies ex-
terior ; as, outside, out-parish.

Over usually denotes superiority or excess ; as, over-power,
over-strain, over-large, over-dose.

Self signifies one's own person or belonging to one's own
person. It is much used in composition; as, self-love, self-
willed, self -accusing. Sometimes self means very; as, self-
same.

Un denotes negation or contrariety; as, un-kind, un-
load.

Under denotes inferiority ; as, undervalue, under-cleri.

Up denotes motion upwards ; as, up-lift ; sometimes sub-
version ; as, up-set.

With, as a prefix (unlike the common preposition with),
signifies against, from or back; as, withstand, with-hold,
with-draw.

Latin Prefixes.

Not many of the primitives to which these ar^ prefixed are
employed separately in English. The final letter of the prefix
ad, con, ex, in, ob or sub is often changed before certain con-
sonants.

A, ab, abs, means from or away ; as, a-vert, to turn
from ; ab-duce, to lead from ; abs-tract, to draw away.

Ad, ac, af, al, an, ap, as, at, mean to or at; as,
ad-vert, to turn to ; ac-cede, to yield to ; af-flux, a flowing-to ;
al-ly, to bind to ; an-nex, to link to ; ap-ply, to put to ; assume,
to take to ; at-test, to witness to.

Ante, before; as, ante-cedent, going before; ante-mun-
dane, before the world ; ante-date, to date before.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

(' i I'C'li ill, around or about ; as, circum-volvc, to roll
around.

Con, com, CO, COl, Cor, together; as, con-tract, to
draw together; corn-pel, to drive together; co-erce, to force to-
gether; col-lect, to gather together; cor-rade, to scrape together;
eon-Junction, a joining-together.
' Contra, against ; as, contra-diet, to speak against

De, of, from or down ; as, de-note, to be a sign of; de-tract,
to draw from ; de-pend, to hang down ; de-press, to press down.

Dis, di, away ox apart ; as, dis-pel, to drive away; </«-
J«/, to cut apart ; di-vert, to turn away. Dis, before English
words, generally reverses their meaning; as, please, dis-please.

E or ex, ec, ef, out; as, e-ject, to cast out; ex-tract, to
draw out ; ec-stacy, a raising-out ; ef-face, to blot out.

Extra, beyond ; as, extra-vagant, wandering beyond.

In, il, ■ III, ir, in, into, against or upon; as, inspire,
to breathe in ; il-lude, to draw in by deceit ; im-mure, to wall
in ; ir-ruption, a breaking-in ; in-cur, to run into ; in-diet, to
declare against ; im-pute, to charge upon. These syllables pre-
fixed to nouns or adjectives generally reverse their meaning ;
as, ir-religion, ir-rational, in-secure, in-sane.

Inter, between; as, intersperse, to scatter between ; inter-
jection, something thrown in between.

Intro, within ; as, intro-vert, to turn within

Ob, OC, ©f, op, against ; as, ob-trude, to thrust against;
oc-cur, to run against; of-fer, to bring against; op-pose, to place
against ; ob-ject, to cast against.

Per, through or by; as, per-vade, to go through; per-
chance, by chance ; per-cent, by the hundred.

Post, after; as, post-pone, to place after.

Prae or pre, be/ore ; as, presume, to take before ; pre-
position, a placing-before or something placed before.

Pro, for, forth or forwards; as, pro-vide, to take care for;
pro-duce, to bring forth ; pro-trude, to thrust forward.

Preter, past or beyond; as, preter-it, gone by ; preter-
natural, beyond what is natural.

He, again or back ; as, re-view, to view again ; re-pel, to
drive back.

Retro, backwards; as, retro-cession, a going backwards.

Sc, aside or apart; as, se-duce, to lead aside ; se-cede, to go
apart.

Semi, /ia^r"; as, semi-colon, half a colon ; semi-circle, half
a circle; semi-vowel, half a vowel.

Sub, sup, sur, under, beneath ; as, sub-terranean, be-
neath the earth ; subscribe, to write under ; sup-ply, to put
under; sur-reption, a creeping-undcr ; sub-ject, cast under.

Sllbter, beneath; as, subter-fluous, flowing beneath.

Super, OT'^r or above; as, super-fluous, flowing over;
super-lative, carried over.

Trans, beyond, over, to another state or place ; ax, trans-
gress, to pass beyond or over; trans-mit, to send to another
place ; trans-form, to change to another shape.

Greek Prefixes.

A, an, denote privation; as, a-nomalous, wanting rule;
an-onymous, wanting name; an-archy, want of government.

A in phi, both or two; as, amphi-bious, living in two ele-
ments.

Anti, against; as, anti-acid, against acidity; anti-febrilt,
against fever; anti-thesis, a placing-against.

Apo, a ph. from; as, apostrophe, a turning-from ; afh-
aresis, a taking-from.

Dia, through ; as, dia-gonal, through the corners ; dia-
meter, the measure through.

Epi, eph, upon ; as, epi-demic, upon the people ; eph-
emera, upon a day.

Hemi, half; as, hemisphere, half a sphere.

Hyper, over ; as, hyper-critical, over-critical.

Hypo, under; as, hypostasis, substance or that which
stands under; hypo-thesis, supposition or a placing-under.

IHeta, beyond, over, to another state or place; as, meta-
morphose, to change to another shape ; meta-physics, beyond
physics.

Para, against; para-dox, something contrary to common
opinion.

Peri, around; as, peri-phery, the circumference or meas-
ure around.

Syn, syni, syl, together; &s,syn-tax, a placing-together ;
sym-pathy, a suffering-together; syl-lable, what is taken to-
gether.

French Prefixes.

A is a preposition of very frequent use in French and gener-
ally means to. We have suggested that it is probably the same
as the Anglo-Saxon prefix a. It is found in a few English com-
pounds that are of French and not of Saxon origin ; as, a-dieu,
to God ; a-bout, to the end or tum.

I>e, of or from; as in de-mure, of manners; de-liver, to
ease from or of.

Demi, half; as, demi-man, half-man; demi-god, half-god.

En, em, in, into or upon; as, en-chain, to hold in
chains ; em-brace, to clasp in the arms ; en-tomb, to put into a
tomb ; em-boss, to stud upon. Many words have wavered be-
tween the French and the Latin orthography of this prefix ; as,
embody or imbody, ensurance or insurance, ensnare or insnare,
enquire or inquire.

Sur, upon, over or after ; as, sur-name, a name upon a
name; sur-vey, to loo's over; sur-vive, to live after, to over-
live.

Suffixes.

Able, ible, blC, denote that may or can be, worthy to be,
worthy of; as, attainaWe, that may be attained ; \>\*mable, that
may be blamed, worthy of blame ; \auc\able, worthy of praise.

Ac denotes of, pertaining to; as, cardiac, pertaining to the
heart ; elegiac, pertaining to elegy.

AceoUS denotes resembling or having the nature ef,
consisting of; as, arenaceous, consisting of sand ; (oMaceeus,
resembling leaves, consisting of leaves, leafy.

Acious denotes very or greatly; accustomed to or greatly
addicted to, strongly ; as, audacious, daring much, very daring;
capacious, taking or containing much; tenacious, holding
strongly or firmly.

Acy denotes — nets, state of being, quality or attribute ef
office; as, accurals the quality of being accurate, accurateness ;
curacy, the office of a curate ; celiba<-_y, the state of being un-
married.

-" 1 v" 1

~7[

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Age denotes act of, — ing, state or condition of being, allow-
ance for ; as, marriage, the act of marrying, the state of being
married ; bondag-e, the state of being in bonds ; foliage, a col-
lection of leaves ; peerage, the condition or rank of a peer, the
peers taken collectively ; wharfa^allowance for use of the wharf.

Al denotes of, pertaining to, befitting, done or made by; as,
celestia/, of or pertaining to heaven; manual, of the hand,
done by hand; maternal, of a mother, befitting a mother.

An, can, tail, in nouns, denote one who, one who belongs
to, native, inhabitant of; as, artisan, one who practices some
art ; Christian, one who belongs to Christ ; European, a native
or inhabitant of Europe.

Ance, ancy, ency, denote the act of, — ing, state of be-
ing, quality or attribute of; as, acceptanee, the act of taking to
or of receiving ; assistant?, a standing by, aid ; constancy, a
standing together, the state or quality of being constant ; inno-
cence, the state or quality of being harmless.

Ant, ent, in adjectives, denote —ing; as, militant, fight-
ing ; pendent, hanging.

Ar denotes in the form of, like, of, pertaining to, having;
as, angular, having angles, in the form of an angle ; annular, in
the form of a ring.

Ar denotes also one who ; as, liar, one who lies.

Ard denotes one who has an habitual fault ; as, drunkaro',
one who gets drunk habitually ; sluggard, one who is habitually
sluggish.

Arious denotes pertaining to ; as, gregarious, pertaining to
flocks.

Ary in nouns denotes one who, the thing that or that which ;
as, adversary, one who is against or opposed to ; boundary,
that which bounds ; vagary, a thing or thought that wanders, a
whim.

Ary in adjectives denotes of or pertaining to, by; as,
epistolary, pertaining to letters, by letters.

Ate denotes office; as, consular, the office of consul; also,
one who ; as, legate, one who is sent as ambassador.

Ate in adjectives denotes having, — ed or — d; as, for-
tunate, having fortune ; illiterate, unlettered.

Ate in verbs denotes to make, to give, to put, to take; as,
antiquate, to make ancient ; depopulate, to take the people
from ; incarcerate, to put into prison.

Atic denotes one who ; as, lunatic, one who is afflicted with
lunacy.

Cle, Cule, Ule, denote little, minute; as, animalcule, a

minute animal ; globa/e, a little globe.

Dom denotes the place in which dominion or jurisdiction
is exercised, rank, quality or state; as dukeaW, the place or
territory in which a duke exercises jurisdiction, the rank or
quality of a duke ; wisdom, the quality or attitude of being wise.

Ee denotes one to whom something is done or given, one
who; as, absents, one who is absent; trusts, one to whom a
trust is given.

Eer, ier, denotes one who manages or has charge of, one
who engages in or passes h is time in ; as, charioteer, one who
manages or drives a chariot ; mountaineer, one who passes his
time or lives in the mountains ; mutineer, one who engages in
mutiny.

En, n, in adjectives derived from nouns, denote made of,
like; as, brazew, made of brass, like brass.

En in verbs mostly derived from adjectives denotes to make;
as, darken, to make dark.

EoiIS denotes consisting of, like, pertaining to, — y; as,
igneous, pertaining to fire, consisting of fire, like fire, fiery.

Er denotes one who; as, builder, one who builds.

Escence denotes state of growing or becoming, period
of growing or becoming ; as, convalewence, the state or period
of growing entirely strong.

Escent denotes growing or becoming, somewhat; as, rub-
escent, growing red, somewhat red.

EtiC denotes having ; as, pathefiV, having feeling.

Ey denotes consisting of; as, claye_y, consisting of clay.

FiC denotes making or causing; as, horri/fe, causing hor-
ror.

Ful denotes full of; as, norteful, full of hope.

Fy denotes to make; as, forti//, to make strong.

Hood, head, denote state of being, the nature or distin-
guishing attitudes of being ; as, childhood, state of being a
child ; Godhead, the attitude or nature of God, divinity.

lac denotes one who ; as, mani'ae, one who is mad.

Ic denotes thing, art, science; as, fabr/e, the thing made,
logic, the science of words.

IC denotes also one who ; as, critiV, one who judges.

Ic, ical, denote of, pertaining to, like; as, angelte, oran-
gelical, of or pertaining to an angel, like an angel ; heroi'e, or
heroical, like a hero.

Ice denotes quality or attitude of being ; as, avarz'ee, the
quality of being avaricious; justice, the quality of being just

Ician denotes one versed or skilled in ; as, arithmetician,
one versed in arithmetic ; musician, one versed or skilled in
music.

ICle denotes little ; as, parti'e/e, a little part.

ICS denotes the science or art of; as, tactics, the science or
art of military arrangement ; economies, the science of house-
hold affairs.

Id denotes — ing ; as, fervid, burning, glowing.

He denotes of , pertaining to, like, that may or can be easily ;
as, docile, that may be easily taught ; juvenite, of or pertaining
to youth.

I lie denotes one who ; as, marine, one who serves at sea ;
also, of or pertaining to, like ; as, canine, pertaining to dogs,
like dogs ; crystalline, of crystal, like crystal ; divine, pertaining
to God, like a god.

Ion denotes the act of, state of being ; as, probation, a try-
ing or proving ; salvation, the act of saving, the state of being
safe or saved.

Is denotes act of, state of; as, synthesis, act of putting to-
gether ; crisiV, state or point of judging.

Ish in adjectives denotes somewhat, of or belonging to,
like; as black/in, somewhat black ; Spanish, of or belonging to
Spain ; childijn, like a child.

Ish in verbs denotes to make ; as, finish, to make an end of.

Ism denotes state or quality of being, an idiom, doctrine
or doctrines of; as, barbarian, the state of being barbarous ;
Gallicism, a French idiom ; Calvinum, the doctrines of Calvin.

1st denotes one who, generally one who is engaged in some
pursuit or study ; as, artist, one who practices an art

¥L

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Ite denotes a descendant of, a follower of, a sectarian or
party leader; as, Amalek»7e, a descendant of Amalek; Hussi'/e,
a follower of John Huss.

It* also denotes having ; as, definite, having bounds; op-
posite, having opposition.

'*Fj ^y> denote state or quality of being; as, amity,
the state of being friends, friendliness, friendship ; antiqui'/y,
ancientness, ancient times.

Ive in nouns denotes one who, that which ; as, captive, one
who is taken ; motive, that which moves or actuates.

Ive in adjectives denotes having the power, disposed or
having the disposition ; as, adhesive, having the power of stick-
ing to, having a tendency to adhere.

Ize, or ise, denotes to mate, to give, to act or do Hie; as,
fertilize, to make fertile ; authorize, to give authority ; criticise,
to act the judge or critic

Kin denotes little; as, lamblin, a little lamb.

Less denotes free from, without; as, careless, free from
care, without care.

Lot, et, denote little, young ; as, cygnet, a young swan;
eyelet (literally, a little eye), the hole or eye of a needle; mail*/,
a little mall.

Like denotes resembling ; as, childlike, resembling a child;
Godlike, like or resembling God.

Ling denotes little, young ; as, found/i'»,f, a little child
found without parent or owner ; gosling, a little or very .young
goijse.

L.y in adjectives denotes like ; as, beastly, like a beast

Ly in adverbs denotes in a manner or way; as, joyfully, in
a joyful manner.

Ment denotes the act of, state of being, that which ; as,
accomplishment, the act of accomplishing, the state of being
accomplished ; payment, the act of paying, that which is paid.

Mony denotes state of being, quality of being, that
which; as, acrimony, the quality of being sharp or acrid; mat-
rimony, the state of being a mother or wife, marriage ; patri-
mony, that which is inherited from a father.

Oid, or oidal, denotes having the form or appearance of,
resembling ; as, ovoid, or ovoidal, having the form of an egg ;
varioloid, a disease resembling small-pox.

Ness denotes state of being, quality or attribute of being;
as, baldness, the state of being bald ; holiness, the quality or
attribute of being bold.

Or denotes one who; also, the act of, sensation or emotion,
that which causes or brings sensation ; as, auditor, one who
hears, a hearer; color, a peculiar sensation in the eye, that
which causes the sensation of color ; favor, the act of favoring,
that which causes or brings favor ; splendor, brightness.

Ory in nouns denotes the place or thing where; as, armory,
the place where arms are kept.

Ory in adjectives denotes giving, making or causing, per-
taining to; as, adulatory, giving flattery, flattering; amatory,
pertaining to love or lovers, causing love.

Ose denotes full of; as, jocose, full of jokes.

Ous denotes full of, consisting of; as, cartilaginous, con-
sisting of cartilage, like cartilage ; timorous, fearful, fearing.

Ry denotes state or qualify of being, the art or practice of,
the place where, things of a certain kind or class taken collect-

ively ; as, gallantry, the quality or attribute of being gallant,
gallantness, nobleness, bravery; slavery, the state of a slave;
brewery, the place where beer is brewed ; cutlery, knives
and other cutting instruments taken collectively ; also, the art or
business of a cutler.

Ship denotes office of, state or relation of; as, cltrVship,
the office of clerk ; friendship, the state or relation of a friend.

Some denotes full of, making or causing ; as, blithesome,
full of gayety, causing gayety or blitheness ; wearisome, making
weary.

Ster denotes one that; as, songster, one that sings songs.

T denotes a thing done; as, gif/, a thing given; droit, a
drawing; join/, a joining.

Th denotes the act of, state of being, that which; as,
breadM, broadness ; grow/A, growing or the act of growing,
that which is growing, increase ; weal/A, the state of being well
off or rich, that which makes rich.

Tilde, or ude, denotes — ness; as, altitude, highness,
height ; solicitude, anxiousness, anxiety.

I lent, olent or lent denotes full of ; as, fraudulent,
full of fraud, deceitful, dishonest ; pesti/eu/, full of plague or
pestilence, corrupt, troublesome ; \iolent, full of force or vio-
lence.

lire denotes the act of, state of being, that which ; as, creat-
ure, that which is created ; curvature, a bending ; rapture, the
state of being carried away (with joy); seizure, the act of seiz-
ing.

Ward denotes towards ; as, homeward, towards home.

Y in nouns denotes the state or quality of being; as, anarchy,
the state of being without government ; lithography, engraving
on stone.

If in adjectives formed by adding this suffix to nouns denotes
full of, consisting of, like ; as, rocky, full of rocks, like a rock ;
sandy, full of sand, consisting of sand, like sand.

i3-?

SPELLING.

iS-%

Spelling is the art of expressing words by
their proper letters.

Before the invention of the art of printing lit-
tle attention was paid to the mode of spelling
words either in Anglo-Saxon or the English
language, and, the orthography of most of the
words being wholly unsettled, every writer, hav-
ing no guide but his own ear, was at liberty to
follow his own fancy or judgment. In the writ-
ings of the Anglo-Saxons and the early English
authors almost all the words are spelled in more
than one way, and for a long time subsequent to
the invention of the art of printing the spelling
of the English language remained in a very un-

3<T

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

=7?

settled state. As an illustration of this unset-
tled state, nearly a century after this invention,
it may be mentioned that in the translation of
the New Testament by Tindale, who was dis-
tinguished for talents and learning, the pronoun
it is spelled in no less than eight different ways,
as follows : it, itt, yt, ytt, hit, hitt, kyt, hytt ; and in
some cases four or five different modes are to
be found in the same chapter.

The spelling of the language has been under-
going continual changes from the time of its
first formation to the present day, although for
a century or upwards it may be regarded as
having assumed a comparatively settled form.

The dictionary of Samuel Johnson, first pub-
lished in 1755, has contributed more than any
work written before or since to introduce some-
thing like consistency into English orthography,
and succeeding lexicographers have followed in
his footsteps.

Rules for Spelling.

Monosyllables ending in/, / or s, preceded by a single vowel,
double the final consonant; as, staff, mill, pass; except three
in/, viz. : clef, if, of; four in /.• bul, nut, sal, sol; and eleven
in s; as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, pus.

Words ending in any other consonant than f I or s do not
double the final letter ; except abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err,
burr, purr, yarr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names.

Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, when
they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or
by a vowel after qu, double their final consonant before an ad-
ditional syllable that begins with a vowel ; as, rob, robber; per-
mit, permitting ; acquit, acquittal, acquitting. X, being equiv-
alent to is, is never doubled.

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel,
or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain
single before an additional syllable; as, toil, toiling ; visit,
visited ; general, generalize.

Words ending with any double letter preserve it double be-
fore any additional termination not beginning with the same
letter ; as in the following derivatives : seeing, blissful, oddly,
hilly, stiffness, agreeable. The irregular words fled, sold, told,
dwelt, spelt, spilt, shall, wilt, blest, past, and the derivatives from
the word pontiff, are exceptions to this rule.

The final e mute of a primitive word is generally omitted be-
fore an additional termination beginning with a vowel ; as, rate,
ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving ; eye, eying. Words end-
ing in ce or ge retain the e before able or ous, to preserve the
soft sound o{c and^-; as, peace, peaceable ; change, changeable;
outrage, outrageous.

The final e of a primitive word is generally retained before
an additional termination beginning with a consonant; as, pale,
paleness. When the e is preceded by a vowel it is sometimes
omitted; as, true, truly; awe, awful; and sometimes retained;
as, rue, rueful ; shoe, shoeless.

The final ^ of a primitive word, when preceded by a conso-
nant, is changed into i before an additional termination ; as,
merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied,
pities, pitiful. Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doub-
ling of i ; as, pity, pitying. Words ending in ie drop the e and
change the i into_y for the same reason ; as, die, dying. When
a vowel precedes, y should not be changed ; as, day, days,
money, moneys.

Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple
words which compose them; as, hereof, horseman, uphill. In
permanent compounds the words full and all drop one / ; as,
handful, careful, always, withal; in others they retain both;
as, full-eyed, all-wise.

I before e, except after c, is a rule worth remembering in such
words as believe, conceive, deceive.

In derivatives formed from words ending in c by adding a
termination beginning with e, i or y, the letter k is inserted after
the c ; as, zinc , zincky ; colic, colicky ; traffic, traffic ky.

Verbs of one syllable ending with a single consonant preceded
by a single vowel (as, plan), and verbs of two or more syllables
ending in the same manner and having the accent on the last
syllable (as, regret), double the final consonant of the verb on
assuming an additional syllable; as, plan, planned; regret, re-
gretted. But if a dipthong precedes the last consonant, or
the last syllable is not accented, then the consonant is not
doubled ; &s join, joined ; suffer, suffered.

REFORMED SPELLING.

Many efforts have been made to secure a re-
form in the mode of spelling, and many philo-
logical associations have earnestly advocated a
system of phonetic orthography, or spelling by
sound. The English language contains over
100,000 words, although in ordinary conversation
only from 3,000 to 5,000 are used. Few writers
or speakers use more than 15,000. Shakspere
is said to have only used 24,000, Milton 17,000,
and in the Bible, exclusive of the proper names,
there are said to be only 7,000 words. The
mixed origin of the English language, with its
constant modifications, will in some degree ac-
count for the striking anomalies which appear
in our spelling. Signs representing sounds
were multiplied especially by the introduction
of the printer's art, and thus letters or combina-
tions of letters for a single sound occur fre-
quently. Many plans have been devised at dif-

2 4

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

ferent times, especially in late years, for reduc-
ing the spelling of words to absolute uniformity
and the greatest simplicity by a complete re-
form in the method of representing the sounds
of words by written characters, that is, by em-
ploying a new alphabet in which each sign
stands for one, and only one, definite sound, and
each sound is represented by one and only one
character. The American Philological Associa-
tion took up the matter in 1875, and in the suc-
ceeding year an international convention was
held and a Spelling Reform Association organiz-
ed. Meetings were held by several educational
societies both in England and this country, urg-
ing on the work of reform, but after all there
has really been very little practical result. The
Spelling Reform Association adopted a phonetic
alphabet on the principles enumerated above.
The association advocated the dropping of silent
letters on the score of economy, etc., and form-
ulated the following five rules :

1. Use e for ea when equivalent to short e.

2. Omit silent e after a diphthong or a short vowel, unless
preceded by or g.

3. Use/ for ph.

4. Omit one letter of a double consonant, unless both are
pronounced.

5. Use / instead of ed when it represents the sound.
Some of the newspapers then began advocat-
ing reform in spelling, and in 1879 the Chicago
Tribune appeared in improved orthography, and
was followed by the Home Journal of New York
and other papers. The rules adopted by these
journals for their amended spelling were as fol-
lows:

1. Drop ue at the end of words like dialogue, catalogue, etc.,
where the preceding vowel is short. Thus spell demagog, ped-
ag°g> 'pHog, etc. Change tongue for lung. When the preced-
ing vowel is long, as in prorogue, vogue, rogue, retain final let-
ters as at present.

2. Drop final e in such words as definite, indefinite, favorite,
whore the preceding vowel is short. Thus spell opposit, hypo-
crit, preterit. When the preceding vowel is long, as m polite,

finite, unite, write, etc., retain present form unchanged.

3. Drop final te in words like quartette, coquette, cigarette.
Thus spell roset, epaulet, gazet, vedet.

4. Drop the final me in words like programme. Thus spell
program, orifiam, gram, etc

5. Change pit for/ in works like phantom, telegraph, phase,
Thus spell alfabet, paragraf,filosofy,fonetic,fotograf, etc

P.S. No change in proper names.

The newspapers, however, have not continued
to follow these rules, and in most cases have
lapsed into the accustomed form of spelling, and
the present outlook is not very nattering for the
universal introduction of phonetic or reformed
spelling.

FORMS OF LETTERS.

Different sorts of types or styles of letters are employed in the
English language. Generally 'he Roman characters are used ;
sometimes the Italic, and occasionally the Old English. In
writing we use the Script-

Roman.

Italic.

1» CnrjttBl,, <g&^/

The letters have severally two forms, by which they are dis-
tinguished, as capitals and small letters.

Small letters constitute the body of every work ; capitals
are used for the sake of eminence and distinction.

The improper use of capitals or their omission is a common
fault in composition, and should be guarded against Sometimes
more capitals are used than are necessary. The great number
of words begin nearly all with small letters. When capitals are
to be used is explained in the following rules.

•'• -°*°

•M-

*H1jb Use of Capital Letted

.-• •:-'.-

»-*■«• 3?& ■©-♦•«

Begin with a capital :

1. Every sentence and every line of poetry.

Examples. — Forget others' faults. How bright the day! What U
fame? Custom forms us all.

"Time is the warp of life ; oh ! tell
The young, the fair, to weave it well."

2. All proper nouns, and titles of office, honor and respect.
Examples. — Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Germany ; Robert Roe,

Esquire; His Honor the Mayor; Elizabeth Barrett Browning; the
lied River; Union Square; the Superior Court of the City of New
York.

3. All adjectives formed from proper names.
Examples. — African, Italian, Welsh, Ciceronian.
Also adjectives denoting a sect or religion.
Examples. — Methodist, Puritan, Catholic.

4. Common nouns, where personified in a direct and lively
manner; not where sex is merely attributed to an inanimate
object.

Examples.— Then War wave* his ensanguined sword, and fair
Peace Ikes sighing to some happier land. Dot, the sum pursues his
ticrv course ; the moon sheds her silvery beams.

5. All appellations of the Deity. The personal pronouns
Thou and He standing for His name are sometimes cap-
italized.

Examples.— The Almighty ; the King of kings; the Eternal Es-
sence ; Jehovah ; the Supreme Being; our Father.

-=^v~

JV2=

**\

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

2 5

In the standard editions of the Bible, the pronouns, when
referring to God, are never capitalized, not even in forms
of direct address to the Deity.

6. The first word of a complete quoted sentence not intro-
duced by that, if ox any other conjunction.

Examples. — Thomson says, "Success makes villains honest." But,
Thomson says that success makes villains honest.

7. Every noun, adjective and verb in the title of books and
headings of chapters.

Examples.— Butler's "Treatise on the History of Ancient Philoso-
phy;" Cousins' "Lectures on the True, the Beautiful and the Good."

8. Words that denote the leading subjects of chapters, arti-
cles or paragraphs.

A word defined, for instance, may commence with a capital.
Do not introduce capitals too freely under this rule. When in
doubt use a small letter.

9. The pronoun / and the interjection 0.

10. Words denoting great events, eras of history, noted
written instruments, extraordinary physical phenomena and the
like.

Examples.— The Creation; the Confusion of Languages; the Res-
toration; the Dark Ages; the Declaration of Independence; the
Aurora Borealis.

11. Letters standing for words are generally written as
capitals.

Example. — A.D. for Anno Domini, the year of our Lord.

12. The months of the year, and the days of the week. The
names of the seasons, however, should not generally be cap-
italized, although it is customary with some authors.

13. The words North, South, East and West, and their com-
pounds, as Northwest, when they signify a section of country.
Also adjectives derived therefrom. This class of words should
not be capitalized, however, when merely denoting direction.

-Tr~9i —j-^y^J>>

PUNCTUATION.

/&-

-5-3 ^^-9- "~>*

Punctuation is the art of dividing compo-
sition by points or stops for the purpose of
showing more clearly the sense and relation of
the words, and of noting the different pauses
and inflections required in reading.

Although a knowledge of Punctuation is necessary to the
clear expression of thought in writing, there are comparatively
few who have mastered it, even among educated people. That
it is important may be illustrated by the following sentence :

The company consisted of Mr. Jones a lawyer his brother a soldier
Mr. Black a New Yorker his sister and a boy.

Without punctuation it is impossible to say how many were
in the company, or what their relationship was. If commas are
inserted it will appear that the company comprised eight
people :

The company consisted of Mr. Jones, a lawyer, his brother, a sol-
dier, Mr. Black, a New Yorker, his sister and a boy.

By inserting semicolons in the place of some of the commas
the number of the company is reduced to five, as follows :

The company consisted of Mr. Jones, a lawyer ; his brother, a soldier;
Mr. IUack, a New Yorker; his sister and a boy.

By otherwise punctuating it various changes would be made.
As an illustration of the ludicrous errors which might occur
from incorrect punctuation the following will serve :
Woman, without her man, would be a savage.

The proper sense and punctuation is :

Woman — without her j man would be a savage.

Such instances could be multiplied indefinitely.

Usage, which is really the foundation for all rules of punc-
tuation as well as of grammar, authorizes the three following
methods of punctuating the same sentence. In the present
work the method indicated in the first sentence has been
followed :

Rank, fame and honor are often undeserved.

Rank, fame, and honor are often undeserved.

Rank, fame, and honor, are often undeserved.

Punctuation Points.

The Punctuation Points are as follows :

Period

Paragraph

Colon
Semicolon

Comma

Brace

Acute Accent

Interrogation
Kxclamation
Dash

Point
Point

Grave Accent
Circumflex Accent
Tilde, or Circumflex

Parep*-V-^S.
Brackets

()
[]

The Long, or Macron
The Short, or Breve

Hyphen

Quotation Marks
Apostrophe

Kllipsis J

* * * *

Diaeresis

Cedilla
Asterisk

Dagger, or Obelisk
Double Dagger

t
t

Caret

Section

Index

*2-

Parallel

Rules for Punctuation.

The Period must be placed after every declarative and
imperative sentence and every abbreviated word.

Examples. — Obey your parents. Virtue is the only nobility. We
write Jas. for James, N. Y. for New York, No. for number, George I.
for George the First.

A period after an abbreviation does not take the place of
other points. Punctuate just as if the word were not abbrevi-
ated. But at the end of a sentence closing with an abbreviation
only one period must be used.

Example.— "Goto the P. O., I tell you, and ask for a letter for H.
Rob, Jr., M. D."

A nickname which is not really an abbreviation is not followed
by a period.

Examples. — Dave Bidwell ; Sam Slick.

The Interrogation Point must be placed after
every interrogative sentence, member and clause ; also after the
interjections eh and hey implying a question.

Example. — Has the air weight? Air has weight; do you not believe
it? You thought it would rain, eh?

The Exclamation Point should be placed after
every exclamatory sentence, member, clause and expression.

Examples. — How disgusting is vice ! Life is short ; how careful we
should be to use it aright ! For shame !

An exclamation point must also be placed after every inter-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

jection except 0, eh and hey, unless very closely connected
with other words.
Example. — Ah ! who could have foreseen it? Pshaw ! you are trifling.

The Colon must be placed between the great divisions
of sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by
semicoions.

Example. — Man has effected wonders ; he is every day advancing in
knowledge and power: yet, surpassed by nature in even her hum-
blest efforts, he can not so much as make a blade of grass.

A colon must also be placed before a formal enumeration of
particulars, or a direct quotation, referred to by the words thus,
following, as follows, this, these, etc.

Example, — There is much justice in this warning of Lavater: "Be-
ware of him who hates the laugh of a child."

A formal enumeration is one in which the fiords first, second-
ly, etc., or similar terms, are introduced. These words are set
off with the comma, the particulars are separated by the semi-
colon, and before the whole enumeration a colon must be placed.

Example. — There were fourgreat empires in ancient times: first, the
Assyrian; second, the Persian; third, the Macedonian; fourth, the
Roman.

The Semicolon must be placed between the members
of compound sentences, unless the connection is exceedingly
close.

Example. — The wheel of fortune is ever turning; who can say, "I
shall be uppermost to-morrow"?

If the members are very short and the connection is close,
the comma may be used instead of the semicolon.

Example. — Man proposes, but God disposes.

A semicolon must be placed between the great divisions of
sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by
commas.

Examples. — Plato called beauty a privilege of nature; Theocritus, a
delightful prejudice.

A semicolon should be placed before as when it introduces
an example.

Example. — An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun; as, a
■white hat.

The Comma, Adjuncts and clauses, not essential to
(he meaning of a sentence or modifying the whole proposition,
are set off with a comma on each side when introduced between
a subject and its verb, or other parts that are closely connected.
At the commencement or end of a sentence, such adjuncts
and clauses are set off with a comma after or before them, as the
case may be.

Example. — The bones of birds, in a word, combine strength with
lightness in a remarkable degree. Blankets, which derived their
name from Thomas Blanquct, were Introduced into England in 1340.
By the way, gunpowder was first known to the Chinese. No man can
be an atheist, if he will only examine his own structure.

Subjects introduced by as well as, and not, etc., fall under this
rule.

Example.— Toledo, as well as Damascus, was noted for its sword
blades.

Single words relating to a whole proposition, and all vocative
expressions, are also set off with the comma.

Examples.— Galileo, accordingly, was imprisoned. Smile, O For-
tune, smile on our attempt.

No comma must be placed between restrictive adjuncts or
clauses and that which they restrict.

Examples.— All must pay the debt of nature. All lk.it glitters Is not
gold. Tht man w/10 plants the f eld should reap the harvest.

A noun in apposition, modified by an adjunct or adjective, is
generally, with its modifiers, set off by the comma.

Example.— Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, was defeated by Octavius.

A comma should be placed between short member* of com-
pound sentences, connected by and, but, or, nor, because,
whereas and other conjunctions.

Example. — Beauty dazzles, but amiability charms.

A comma must also be placed before a conjunction connect-
ing the parts of a compound predicate, unless they are very
short and so closely connected that no point is admissible.

Example.— The sun shines on all, even the wicked and ungrateful.

A comma must be placed before or introducing an equiva-
lent, or a clause defining the writer's meaning.

Example. — Spelter, or zinc, comes chiefly from Germany.

A comma is required by some authorities on the subject of
Punctuation before and, or and nor preceding the last of a
series of clauses, or words that are the same part of speech and
in the same construction.

Example.— Sunshine, cloud, and storm, all are sent for some wise
purpose.

When, to avoid repetition, and, or, nor, or a verb previously
used, is omitted, a comma takes its place.

Examples. — Tin is found in England, Bohemia, Saxony, Malacca
and Banca. [Instead of saying England and Bohemia and Saxony
and Malacca, to avoid repetition we omit and, and a comma takes its
place.] Methusaleh was the oldest man ; Samson, the strongest.
\Was is omitted after Samson, and a comma takes its place.]

Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair.

Example.— Joy and sorrow, cloud and sunshine, are alike sent for
our benefit.

Words repeated for the sake of their emphasis must be set
off with their adjuncts, if they have any, by the comma.

Example.— Truth, truth, and nothing but the truth, will satisfy the
candid enquirer.

A good general rule for the use of commas, as, in fact of
other marks for punctuation, is : Use them when the meaning is
thereby made clearer.

The Dash is used to denote :

1. A break in the construction.
Example.— Glory— what is it ?

2. A transition in the sentiment from grave to humorous.
Example. — London is noted for its magnificent buildings, its exten-
sive shipping, and— its dexterous pick-pockets.

3. A sudden interruption.

Example.—" You know my feelings ; you know—" " Hold ! " inter-
rupted my friend.

4. Hesitation.

Example.— Such a man is a— a— I know not what to call him.

5. An abrupt or exclamatory repetition.

Example. — Such was the testimony of Solomon — Solomon who had
all the pleasures of the world at his command.
A dash is sometimes used to denote the omission of letters,

figures or words.

Example.— In the year iS— , I stopped over night at the village of
G .

A dash after other points makes them indicate a greater de-
gree of separation than they generally denote.

Parentheses. Marks of Parentheses are used to enclose
words which explain, modify or add to the main proposition,
when so introduced as to break the connection between de-
pendent parts and interfere with the harmonious flow.

Example.— The Saxons (for they descended from the ancient Sac*)
retained for centuries the energy and morality of their ancestors!

■*£

ps"

T 7

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

2 7

If no point would be required between the parts of a sentence
in case there were no parenthesis, then no points should be
used at that place in addition to the marks of parenthesis.

Example. — He (the aforesaid defendant) was ignorant of this matter.

If a point would be required between the parts of a sentence,
in case no parenthesis were there, then, when the parenthesis is
inserted, said point sho.:ld be also inserted, and should be
placed after the second mark of parenthesis.

Example. — Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the
proud man himself), is the most ordinary spring of action.

When a complete sentence or complete sentences are enclos-
ed in marks of parenthesis, they should be punctuated the same
as if not thus enclosed, and the last point of punctuation should
come before the last mark of parenthesis.

Brackets. Brackets are used principally in quoted pas-
sages, to enclose words improperly omitted or added by way
of correction, observation or explanation.

Example. — She is weary with [of] life.

In regard to the use of points before and after the brackets,
and the punctuation of any sentence or clause within the brack-
ets, the same rules apply that have been given in regard to the
marks of parenthesis.

The Apostrophe denotes the omission of a letter or
letters, and the possessive case of nouns.

Examples. — 'Tis for /'/ is; e'en for even; don't for do not; o'clock for
on [the] clock. So in the possessive: hero's, Charles', men's, heroes',
children's.

Pronouns never take the apostrophe in the possessive case.

The Hyphen is used to connect the elements of a com-
pound word, when each retains its own accent.

Example. — Castle-builder, father-in-law.

The hyphen is also used after a complete syllable at the end
of a line, to connect the parts of a divided word ; also to de-
note that the final vowel of a prefix does not form a diphthong
with the first vowel of a primitive ; but in this latter case a mark
of diaeresis is more appropriate.

Example.— Pre-engagement, re-establish [preengagement, reestab-
lish.]

Quotation Points are used to enclose words quoted
from an author or speaker, or represented in narrative as em-
ployed in dialogue.

Example. — "Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth."

When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words,
quotation points are unnecessary.

Matter within quotation points is to be punctuated just as if
it stood in any other position.

When quotation points are needed at the end of a sentence,
they come after whatever other point is required there if this
point applies to the quotation alone, but before this point if it
applies to the whole sentence and not exclusively to the quo-
tation.

Example.— Pilate asked, "What is truth?" Where now is the "man
of destiny"?

When a quotation encloses within it another quotation, the
external quotation has the double marks, and the one included
has only the single marks.

Example— It has been well said, "The command, 'Thou shall not
kill,' forbids many crimes besides that of murder."

If the enclosed or secondary quotation ends a sentence, three
apostrophes will there come together, of which the first will be-
long to the enclosed quotation, and the other two to the orig-

inal. When an enclosed quotation itself contains words or
phrases that are quoted, those words or phrases have the double
marks.

Example. — "French says.'What a lesson the word "diligence" con-
tains!'"

When the sentence becomes more involved than this, the ad-
ditional marks of quotation would create confusion, and may
therefore be omitted.

In some publications the order of single and double quota-
tions is inverted, single quotation marks being used where cus-
tom demands double marks, and quotations within quotations
being indicated by double marks.

The Pauses.

The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech have
in reality no definite and invariable proportions. Children are
often told to pause at a comma while they count one; at a semi-
colon, one, two; at a colon, one, two, three; at a period, one,
two, three, four. This may be of some use, as teaching them
to observe these stops that they may catch the sense; but the
standard itself is variable, and so are the times which good
sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is im-
measurable. The following general directions are as good as
any that can be given :

The comma denotes the shortest pause; the semicolon, a
pause double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause double
that of the semi-colon ; and the period, or full-stop, a pause
double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other
marks vary according to the structure of the sentence and
their place in it.

Other Marks.

The Ellipsis, or Suppression, denotes the omission
of some letters or words.

Examples.— ¥L — g, for king ; G * * * * m, for Graham ; A .... s, for
Adams; H — m — hr — y, for Humphrey.

The Caret, used only in writing, shows where to insert
words or letters that have been accidentally omitted,
would

Example. — James said he a be home to-night.

The Index, or Hand [J®*], points out something re-
markable, or what the reader should particularly observe.

The Brace [. — ' — ,] serves to unite a triplet, or to connect
several terms to something to which they are all related.

Examples. —

1 Nominative. f W. Brown.

C Hob]™' Committee £&.

I M. Mills.

The Section [J] marks the smaller divisions of a book or
chapter, and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge ref-
erences.

The Paragraph [1f] denotes the commencement of a
new subject. The parts of discourse which are called paragraphs
are in general sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line
and carrying the first word a little backwards.

iLeaderS [ ] are used in contents and indexes of

books and similar matter to lead the eye to the end of the line
for the completion of the sense.

Example. — Wharfage, 55°-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The Asterisk, or Star [*], the Obelisk, or Dagger
[f], the Diesis, or Double Dagger [J], and the Par-
allels [||], refer to marginal notes or explanations at the bot-
tom of the page. They are marks of reference.

The Asterism, or Three Stars [*»*], a sign not very
often used, is placed before a long or general note to mark t as
a note without giving it a particular reference.

Accent Marks.

The accent marks are used to denote the proper pronunciation
of words. They are:

The Acute [ '], which marks the syllable which requires (he
principal stress in pronunciation ; or to denote a rising inflection
of the voice, or a close or short vowel.

The Grave [ v ] is used in opposition to the acute to distin-
guish an open or long vowel, or to denote the falling inflection
of the voice.

The Circumflex ["] generally denotes a broad sound or
a combination of the acute and grave.

The Breve ["] is used to denote either a close vowel or a
syllable of short quantity.

The Macron [-] is used to denote either an open vowel •

or a syllable of long quantity.

The Diaeresis ["] is placed over the latter of two vowels
to show they are to be pronounced in separate syllables ; as,
aerial. In German this character is called the Cnilaut, and
denotes a modification of the sound of a vowel over which it is
placed, peculiar to the Germanic languages.

The Cedilla [,] is placed under the letter c to give it the
sound of s before a or o ; as in the words fecade, Alencon.

The Tilde [ "] is placed over the letter « in Spanish words
to give it the sound of ny ; as, sefior, miiion.

Emphasis.

Emphasis, or prominence to certain words or sentences, should
be designated by the writer by underscoring the words or
phrases to be emphasized. One line indicates italics ; two lines,
small capitals; three lines, large capitals; four lines, italic
capitals.

Example.— Strike! strike 1 strike I strike! strike! for freedom!

This would appear in print thus :

Strike! strike! strike! STRIKE! STRIKE! for freedom!

-*- ETYMOLOGY.

.<!'--
-^.,—

Etymology treats of the different parts of
speech with their classes and modifications.
To express our thoughts we use nine classes of
words, called the Parts of Speech. These
nine parts of speech are called Article, Noun,
Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Conjunc-
tion, Preposition and Interjection.

The Parts of Speech.

The Article is the word the, a or an, which points out, de-
fines or limits a noun ; as, the air, an island, a ship.

A Noun is the name of any person, place or thing that
can be known or mentioned ; as, George, York, man, apple,
truth.

An Adlective is a word which qualifies a noun ; as, a
wise man, a new book.

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, the
boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them
well.

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act or to be acted
upon ; as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I love, thou lovest, he
loves.

An Adverb is a word which modifies a verb, adverb or ad-
jective ; as, they are now Here, studying very diligently.

A Conjunction is a word which joins words and sen-
tences together ; as, Thou and he are happy, because you are
good.

A Preposition is a word used to express the relation of
different things or thoughts to each other ; as, The paper lies be-
fore me on the desk.

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to in-
dicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind; as, Oh!
alas! avaunt .'

Some Rules of Grammar.

Parsing is the revolving or explaining of a sentence or of
some sckclcil word or words, according to the definitions and
rules of grammar.

A Sentence is an assemblage of words making complete
sense; as, Reward '-urikns labor.

A Definition of anything or class of things is such a de-
scription of it as distinguishes that entire thing or class from
everything else, by briefly telling what it is.

A Rule of Grammar is some law, more or less gen-
eral, by which OTtom regulates and prescribes the right use of
language.

A Praxis is a method of exercise showing the learner how
to proceed.

An Example is a particular in*tance or model serving to
prove or illustrate some given proposition or truth.

-7

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

An Exercise is some technical performance required of
the learner in order to test his knowledge or skill by use.

The article an is used instead of a before words beginning
with a vowel or a silent h.

A Common Noun is a name that may be applied to
all objects of the same kind; as, boy, nation, country.

A Proper Noun is the name of an individual object
which cannot be applied to all others of the same kind; as,
Richard, Peru.

A Collective Noun is the name of a body of individual
living objects ; as, nation, mob, herd.

An Abstract >ouu is tne name of a quality or property;
&B,obstinacy, benevolence.

A Participial Noun is the name of an action or state,
ending in ing ; as, Seeing is believing.

A Diminutive Noun is the name of something of its
kind, derived from a primitive by the addition of a suffix.
Diminutives are formed with the suffixes kin, let, ling, ock, ule,
cule, cle, icte, et or aster, meaning a little. Streamlet, a little
stream; gosling, a young goose; animalcule, a little animal,
are diminutives.

In the gender of some nouns the feminine is formed by ap-
pending the suffix ess, ine, iua, ix or a to the masculine ; as,
abbot, abbess; hero, heroine; czar, czarina: testator, testatrix;
sultan, sultana.

Plural of Nouns.

The Plural of most nouns is formed by adding i to the
singular; as, hat, hats; number, numbers.

Nouns ending in s, sh, x, z, and ch soft, form their plural by
adding es; as, dish, dishes; gas, gases; waltz, waltzes; tax,
taxes; church, churches.

Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the /
into ies; as, fly, flies; obloquy, obloquies.

Nouns ending in i, o or u, preceded by a consonant, take tt
m the plural ; as, alkali, alkalies ; cargo, cargoes ; gnu, gnues.
Exceptions, canto, duodecimo, grotto, junto, lasso, major-
domo, memento, octavo, portico, quarto, sorocco, solo and typo,
which form the plural by adding s.

The following nouns ending in / and fe form the plural by
changing/ - or/* \s\\aves: Beef, leaf, sheaf, thief, loaf, calf, half,
elf, self, shelf, wolf, life, knife, wife; thus, beeves, leaves,
wives, etc Wharf makes both wharfs and wharves. Staff,
a cane, makes staffs and staves.

Some nouns are irregular in the plural; as, child, children;
tooth, teeth ; mousv, mice.

The following nouns have both a regular and an irregular
plural, with different meanings:

Brother, brothers (of a family) ; brethren (01 a society).

Die, dies (stamps for coining); dice (cubes for gaming).

Genius, geniuses (men of genius) ; genii (spirits).
Index, indexes (tables of contents) ; indices (algebraic exponents)

Pea, peas (distinct grains) ; pease (taken in bulk).

Penny, pennies (distinct coins) ; pence (an amountot money).

Compound nouns, to form their plural, generally vary their
principal element; as, step-son, step-sons; sister-in-law, sisters-
in-law; cousin-german coustns-german ; knight-errant,
knights-errant.

The following compounds vary both elements ;

Man-child, men-children ; man-servant, men-servants ; man-
singer, 1'ien-singers ; woman-servant, women-servants ; woman-
singer, women-singers; knight-templar, knights-templars;
knighl-daronet, knights-baronets; knight-hospitaller, knights-
hospitallers.

Rules for the Plural of Foreign Nouns.

In forming foreign plurals the following rales apply: The ter-
mination

A becomes jE, sometimes Ata : larva, larva ; miasma,
miasmata.

Is becomes Es, sometimes Ides : asis, axes; apsis, ap-
sides.

Us becomes I : magus, magi; but, genus, genera.

Uin and On become A: datum, data; phenomenon,
phenomena.

Ex and Ix become Ices . vortex, vortices; helix, helices.

O becomes 1 : virtuoso, virtuosi.

Errors in Speech.

It is not the purpose of this work to go into all the mmutise
ar.d details of grammatical rules, but the following rules and
examples will show the reader how to avoid the common and
most glaring errors in the use of language. These rules
come under four divisions : the improper arrangement of words ;
improper words or expressions ; too few words, and too many

I words. A careful scrutiny of the examples quoted below will be

| of great benefit to the reader.

These rules belong mainly to that division of Grammar term-

I ed Syntax, which means putting together, and which is that
part of Grammar which treats of the relations and arrangements
of words put together. The rules that bear on these relations
are called the Rules of Syntax. Violations of these
rules are called False Syntax.

AVOiD THESE ERRORS:

I. Do not say, "They said they could run faster than me;" bat,
"They said they could run faster than I." Me must be changed to 1,
because it is the subject of the verb could run understood.

a. Do not say, " Oh, blissful hour, and thrice blessed us that see
ft;" but, "Oh, blissful hour, and thrice blessed we that see it." Us
must be changed to -we, the nominative case, because it is used inde-
pendently.

3. When there are several modifying substantives, they are all in the
possessive case. If they separately modiiy different nouns, each has
the sign of the possessive. If they jointly modify the same noun, the
possessive sign is annexed only to the last. If John, George and
Henry have different fathers, I say: "John's, George's and Henry's
fathers have arrived;" that is, John's father, George's father and
Henry's father. If they are brothers, I say. "John, George and
Henry's father has arrived." John and George are in the possessive
case; but as all these substantives jointly modify the same noun,
father expressed, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only.

4. A succession of possessives is inelegant. Do not say, "Our
minister's son's partner's brother-in-law's store;" but, "The store
belonging to the brother- in -law of the partner of our minister's son."

5. The possessive case and of witn the objective are not always
equivalent. Thus, " Tin Lord's day is Sunday; but the day of the Lord
is the day of judgment.'* We may speak of the flower of the field, but
not of the field's flower.

-tTV

3°

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

;

6. Be careful not to use too many words. Do not say, " Consider
of my offer; " but, " Consider my offer." Also, not " He will soon re-
pent him of his crime ; " but, " He will soon repent of his crime."

7. Do not use too few words. Do not say: " Beware the tempter; "
but, " Beware of the tempter."

8. Avoid making the same word the object of a verb and preposi-
tion, or of two prepositions, separated by intervening words. " They
not only themselves vigorously prosecuted, but called on their allies
to aid them in, the war." Correct thus : " They not only themselves
prosecuted the war, but called on their allies for aid."

9. Some verbs arc frequently followed by two objectives. "We
promised the best speaker a prize." " Will you buy me a telescope."
If the objects are transposed a preposition is inserted. " Will you buy
a telescope/or me." " We promised a prize to the best speaker."

10. When such constructions arc thrown into the passive form, the
object of the verb, and not that of the Deposition, must Be made the
subject; as, "A prize was promised to the best speaker." Not, " The
best speaker was promised a prize."

u. To is omitted before home, north, south, etc., when not modified
by other words, but expressed when they are modified ; as, " He went
home, north, south." But, " He went to his home, to the north, to
the south."

11. Be careful In the use of -who and whom. Do not say, " Who
should I trust? " but, " Whom should I trust?"

13. Do not say, "It was me;" but, "It was I." After the verb to
be the pronoun must be in the nominative. Thus again: "Did you
suppose it was I ? " not, " Did you suppose it was me." " It is he ; "
not, " It is him."

14. Be careful to use the correct number and person of the pronoun.
Do not say, "One cannot collect their thoughts;" but, "One can-
not collect his thoughts." Say: " I have lost the scissors ; have you
seen them? " Not, " have you seen it ?"

15. After a superlative use that instead of who; as, " Hannibal was
the deadliest enemy that Rome ever had."

16. Never use which to apply to persons except as an interrogative.
Thus, "The man whom I met;" not, "The man which I met."

17. Do not use the pronoun them for the adjective those. "You
might have saved those trees;" not, "You might have saved them
trees."

iS. Say, this sort of men; not, these sort, because sort is singular.
These tidings; not, this tidings.

19. This here and these 'ere, that there and those 'ere are gross errors,
Correct by omitting the adverbs. This boy; not, this here boy.

20. Say, "By this means;" not, " By these means." Means is
singular.

ii. Adjectives whose meaning precludes the idea of comparison
must not be compared. Do not say, the chief est beauty, a truer state-
ment, so faultless a character, the fartherest house, a more nearer
view, the least surest course. Correct thus : the chief beauty, a more
correct statement, a character so nearly faultless, the farthest house,
a nearer view, the least wise course.

it. After the comparative degree, use other with the latter of the
terms compared if it includes the former, and only then. " The Ama-
zon is longer than any river." Correct: " The Amazon is longer than
any other river." Otherwise we assert, the Amazon being a river, that
it is longer than itself.

33. An adjective In the comparative or superlative must precede an
adjective modified by more or most relating to the same noun. Do not
say: "A more interesting and larger volume;" but, "A larger and
more interesting volume."

34. lie sure that the verb agrees with the right word. When it is sep-
aratcd from its subject by an intervening substantive, there is a ten-
dency to make it agree with the latter. "A succession of excite-
merits are sure to distract the mind from study." Wrong, because
succession Is the subject, and not excitements, which is the object of
the preposition of. "A succession of excitements is," etc., is correct.
So, " Your vessel, together with twelve others, have arrived." It
.Oi.'uUI be, " Your vessel, together with twelve others, has," etc. So,
"This confusion of ideas in educated minds is [not are] to be deplored."'

25. Do not use, " Says I ; ■ but, " Say I."

26. Do not say has went for has gone; havingwrote for having writ-
ten; I seen for /saw; I done for / did.

27. Avoid corrupt forms. Among the most common of these are had
have for had; hadn't ought for ought not; Tm a mind for / have a
mind; arn't for are not; moughtn't for might not, etc.

aS. The preposition for must not be used immediately before an in-
finitive. Do not say : N He is trying hard /or to enter college ; " but,
■ He is trying hard to enter college."

29. The preposition of should not be introduced between a partici-
ple and its object. Do not say, "by erecting of statues;" but, "by
erecting statues." Not, " for controlling of elections;" but, control-
ling elections." It is sometimes proper, however, to use of when the
participle is preceded by the.

30. Do not use how, as how, or how that, for the conjunction that.
"She said as how she would come." "Have a care how you listen to
the tempter." Correct thus: "She said that she would come."
" Have a care that you do not listen to the tempter."

31. Do not use two negatives. Do not say : " I did not do nothing; "
but, "I did not do anything;'* or, "I did nothing." Not, "It makes
no difference to you nor me;" but, " It makes no difference to you or
mi:."

32. Care must be taken to place only and not only next to the word
or words they are Intended to modify. Otherwise they give a wrong
impression of the meaning. If I say, " He only hires the store," only
modifies hire, and the impression conveyed is that another verb will
follow. He only hires the store, he docs not own it. If I say: " He
hires only the store," only modifies store, and the meaning is, he hires
the store, but nothing else — not the rest of the house.

33. Do not use an adjective for an adverb. Donotsay: "He writes
elegant;" but, "He writes elegantly."

34. After certain verbs by is used before a word denoting an agent
or living object, with before a word denoting an instrument or inani-
mate object. We say, accompanied by his friends, accompanied with
illustrations; attended by a servant, attended with evil consequences;
illustrated by an artist, illustrated with engravings; killed by an as-
sassin, killed with a dagger. Followed takes by only.

35. Do not use if for whether— or but, but that or test for that— after
the verbs doubt, fear, deny, or their equivalents. "Do you know if
[correct to whether} a train will start this evening." " Pope was ap-
prehensive lest [say that] his meaning might be mistaken." "Nobody
can deny but that [say that] experience is the best teacher."

36. Ite cartful to use nor, not or, as the correlative of neither.
"Neither youth nor [not or] innocence availed as a protection."

37. Re careful to use so. t ..as t not as.,,.as t after a negative denying
equality of degree. " Few cities were so [not as] magnificent as Bab-
ylon."

38. Do not add a pronoun to Its antecedent when the antecedent
alone would express its meaning. Do not say, " J ames he said ; " but,
"James said."

39. Avoid double comparatives and superlatives. "The most hap-
f>ii-st day of my life." Correct: "The happiest day."

40. Avoid tautology or the recurrence of the same word or expres-
sion. " The man that I met that was lame." Say: " The man that I
met who was lame.

41. Avoid the use of improper words. Do not say: "He is laying
down;" but, " He is lying down." Not: "We **•/ up;" hut, "We
Ml up." Not: "Learn me;" but, " Tear h me." Not: "I k mowed
It;" but, " I inewit." Not: "The coat sets well ; " hut, " The coat
.v;/.«wtl]." Nut: "Them that expect nothing;" but, " They that expect
nothing."

42. Do not say, " The Volga is the longest of any river In Europe."
Omit of any and correct: "The Volga is the longest river In
Europe."

43. Apply who to persons, which to things, and that to both.

44. Do not say: "Which did you naymri the largest lake In the
world ? " Say is. Present facts and unchangeable truths must be ex-
pressed in the present tense.

-fr.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

45. Avoid all improper modes of expressing- comparison or the
plural of nouns. Do not say: beaut ij 'idlest ; but, most beautiful. Not
" I saw three deers ; " but, " I saw three deer."

46. Avoid clumsy use of participles. **Afy being sick was the cause
of my being absent ." Correct thus: "My sickness was the cause of
my absence."

47. Do not needlessly use the passive form in verbs. " He is come ; M
say, " He lias come."

48. Do not use needless compound participles. " The theatres are
now being open on Sundays;" say, M The theatres are now open Sun-
days."

49. An adverb should not'be used where a preposition and a relative
pronoun would better express the relation of the terms. "A cause
where [say in which] justice is so much concerned."

50. When verbs are connected by a conjunction they must either
agree in mood, tense and form, or have separate nominatives expressed.
"They would neither g-o in themselves, nor suffered [say, would suf-
fer] others to enter." "If he understands his business, and attend

[say attends] to it, wherein is he deficient? "

FIGURES.

A Figure in Grammar is an intentional deviation from the
ordinary spelling, formation, construction or application of
words.

There are, accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of
Etymology, figures of Syntax and figures of Rhetoric.

When figures are judiciously employed, they both strengthen
and adorn expression. They occur more frequently in poetry
than in prose, and several of them are merely poetic licenses.

Figures of Orthography.

A Figure of Orthography is an intentional devia-
tion from the ordinary or true spelling of a word.

The principal figures of Orthography are two, namely :

Mimesis, or Mimicry, a ludicrous imitation of some
mistake or mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is
mimicked by a false spelling or the taking of one word for an-
other.

Example— "Ay, he was pom at Monmouth, Captain Gower." —
Shakspere.

"Jfaisler, says he, have you any wery good weal in your valletT" —
Columbian Orator.

This figure includes all imitations of brogues and dialects.

Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to
ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthography.
Examples. — " Unpleasing sight, I -ween."

" Bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue."

Figures of Etymology.

A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation
from the ordinary formation of a word. The principal figures
of Etymology are eight

Aphaeresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of
a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'neath, for against, began, beneath.

Prothesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a
word; as, adown, a/paid, ikstrown, evanished, _yclad, for down,
paid, strown, vanished, clad.

Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters of a
word ; as, tried' cine for medicine ; e'en for even ; o'er for over ;
conq'ring for conquering ; se'nnight for sevennight.

Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters of a
word ; as, tho' for though ; th' for the; t'other for the other.

ParagOge is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a
word; as, wilhouten for without; deary for dear; Johnny
for John.

Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels that might form
a diphthong; as, cooperate, not cooperate; aeronaut, not aero-
naut; orthoepy, not orthapy.

Synasresis is the sinking of two syllables into one ; as,
seest for seist; tacked for tack-cd; drowned for drown-ed.

Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of a
compound; as, "On which side soever;" "Toms ward;" "To
God ward."

Figures of Syntax.

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from
the ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of
Syntax are seven.

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are
necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to
convey the meaning. Such words are said to be understood,
because they are received as belonging to the sentence though
they are not uttered ; as, "A man and [a] woman ; " " The com-
mon [/aw] and the statute law;" "I love [him] and [/] fear
him ; " " The active commonly do more than they are bound to
do; the indolent [commonly do] less [than they are bound
to do].

ApOSCOpesiS is the leaving of something unsaid; as,
" Whom /—but first 'tis best the billows to restrain."

Zeugma is the referring of a word to two different ones
which in strict syntax can agree with only one of them ; as, " In
him who is, or him who finds a friend."

Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words ; as,
"He that hath ears to hear, let him hear ; " "I know thee who
thou art;" "All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on
the earth."

Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figurative
sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken
of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term ;
it is therefore, in general, connected with some figure of Rhet-
oric ; as, "The IVordv/as made flesh and dwelt among us, and
we beheld his glory." "Then Philip went down to the city of
Samaria and preached Christ unto them."

Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one modi-
fication, for another ; as, " You know that you are Brutus that
speak this ; " " Destruction's gates at once unlock."

Hyperhaton is the transposition of words; as, "He
wanders earth around."

COMPOSITION.

■ ^cyjyk -

^Composition. •

low to Write tr^e Qnalisr} Qanauaae Oorrectl

I^VERY educated person desires to write
f, well, and with some elegance of diction.
Accuracy in the arrangement of words
and the ready and ccrrect expression of
them in written language is not only a
desirable but a needful attainment.
This is taught by Composition.
Style is the particular manner in which a
person expresses his conceptions by means of
language. It is different from mere words, and
is not to be regulated altogether by rules of
construction. It always has some relation to
the author's peculiar manner of thinking, and,
being that sort of expression which his thoughts
most readily assume, sometimes partakes not
only of what is characteristic of the man, but
even of national peculiarity. The words which
an author employs may be proper and so con-
structed as to violate no rule of syntax, and
yet his style may have great faults.

To designate the general characters of style,
such epithets as concise, diffuse — neat, negli-
gent — nervous, feeble — simple, affected — easy,
stiff — perspicuous, obscure — elegant, florid —
are employed. A considerable diversity of
style may be found in compositions all equally
excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different
subjects, as well as the different endowments by
which genius is distinguished, require this divers-
ity. But in forming his style the learner should
remember that a negligent, feeble, affected,
stiff or obscure style is always faulty, and that
perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength and neat-
ness are qualities always to be aimed at.

In order to acquire a good style, the frequent
practice of composing and writing something
is indispensably necessary. Without exercise
and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the
attainment of this object will be of no avail.
When the learner has acquired such a knowl-
edge of grammar as to be in some degree qual-
ified for the undertaking, he should devote a
stated portion of his time to composition. This
exercise will bring the powers of his mind into
requisition in a way that is well calculated to
strengthen them. And if he has opportunity
for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the
best authors, acquire both language and taste,
as well as sentiment; and these three are the
essential qualifications of a good writer.

In regard to the qualities which constitute a
good style, we can here offer no more than a
few brief hints. With respect to words and
phrases, particular attention should be paid to
purity, propriety and precision; and with
respect to sentences, to perspicuity, unity
and strength. Under each of these heads we
shall arrange, in the form of short precepts, a
few of the most important directions for the
forming of style.

Of Purity.

Purity of style consists in the use of only such words and
phrases as belong to the language which we write or speak.

I, Avoid the unnecessary use of (preign words or idioms ;
as, fraichtur, hauteur, dclicattsst, politesse ; he repented him-
self ; it senes to an excellent purpose.

a. Avoid, on ordinary occasions, obsolete or antiquated
words ; as, whilom, erewhile, albeit, aforetime, methinkt,

3. Avoid strange or unauthorized words ; as, Jiutteration,
unspectator, judgematical, electerixtd.

COMPOSITION.

"7f

4. Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is
ridiculous, however serious the subject ; as, "Personifications,
however rich the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude ;
analysis, however imposing the objects of parallel and the
media of comparison : can never expose the consequences of
sin to the extent of fact, or the range of demonstration."

Of Propriety.

Propriety of language consists in the selection and right con-
struction of such words as the best usage has appropriated to
those ideas which we intend to express.

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions ; such as, "says
I," "thinks I to myself," "to get into a scrap" "Stay here
while I return."

2. In writing prose, avoid words or phrases that are nearly
poetical; such as morn, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy.

3. Avoid technical terms, except where they are necessary
in treating of a particular art or science. In technology they
are proper.

4. Avoid the recurrence of words in the different senses, or
such repetitionof words as denotes paucity of language; as,"His
own reason might have suggested better reasons" " Gregory

favored the undertaking for no other reason than this : the
manager, in countenance, favored his friend." " I want to go
and see what he wants."

5. Supply words that are wanting. Thus, instead of saying,
"This action increased his former success," say, "This action
increased the merit of his former success."

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions ; as, " His mem-
ory shall be lost on the earth." " I long since learned to like
nothing but what you do."

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions ; as, "I
have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house
politicians proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion."
" These words do not convey even an opaque idea of the
author's meaning."

8. Observe the natural order of things and events and do
not put the cart before the horse ; as, " The scribes taught and
studied the law of Moses." " They can neither return to nor
leave their houses." "He tumbled, head over heels, into the
water."

Of Precision.

Precision consists of avoiding all superfluous words and adapt-
ing the expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither
more nor less than is intended by the author.

1. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or senti-
ment; as, "return again; return back again; converse
together ; rise up ; fall down ; enter in ; a mutual likeness to each
ether; the latter end ; liquid streams ; grateful thanks ; the last
cf all; throughout the whole book." " Wherever I go, he al-
ways meets me there." "Where is he at?" " In there." "Noth-
ing else but that." "It is odious and hateful" "His faith-
fulness and fidelity should be rewarded."

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonym-
ous, and employ those which are the most suitable ; as, "A
diligent scholar may acquire knowledge, gain celebrity, obtain
rewards, win prizes and get high honor, though he earn no

money." These six verbs have nearly the same meaning, and
yet they cannot well be changed.

Of Perspicuity.

Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity.
It is a quality so essential in every kind of writing that for the
want of it no mciit can atone. "Without it," says Blair, "the
richest ornaments of style only glimmer through the dark, and
puzzle instead of pleasing the reader." Perspicuity, being the
most important property of language, and an exemption from
the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to a degree
of positive beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that
frees us from all suspense in regard to the meaning ; that
"carries us through the subject without embarrassment or con-
fusion, and that always flows like a limpid stream, through
which we can see to the very bottom."

1. Place adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs
and explanatory phrases as, near as possible to the words to
which they relate, and in such a situation as the sense requires.
The following sentences are deficient in perspicuity : " Rever-
ence is the veneration paid to superior sanctity, inter-
mixed with a degree of awe." "The Romans understood
liberty, at least, as well as we." "Taste was never made to
cater for vanity."

2. In prose avoid a poetic collocation of words.

3. Avoid faulty ellipsis, and repeat all words necessary to
preserve the sense. The following sentences require the words
inserted in brackets: "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us both
for the enjoyment of peace and [for] the performance of our
duty." "The Christian religion gives a more lovely character
to God than any {other] religion ever did."

Of Unity.

Unity consists in avoiding useless breaks or pauses and keep-
ing one object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph.
Every sentence, whether its parts be few or many, requires
strict unity.

1. Avoid brokenness and hitching. The following para-
graph lacks the very quality of which it speaks: "But most of
all, in a single sentence, is required the strictest unity. It may
consist of parts, indeed, \>\sXthese partsraxiL^tha so closely bound
together as to make the impression upon the mind of one object,
not of many."

2. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and dis-
tinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error: "The two vol-
umes are, indeed, intimately connected and constitute one uni-
form system of English grammar."

3. In the process of a sentence, do not desert the principal
subject in favor of adjuncts. Error: "To substantives belong
gender, number and case ; and they are alt of the third person
when spoken of, and of the second when spoken to."

4. Do not introduce parentheses except where a lively re-
mark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long
from the principal subject

Of Strength.

Strength consists in giving to the several words and members
of a sentence such an arrangement as shall bring out the
sense to the best advantage and present every idea in its due

4k>

« — «w

COMPOSITION.

importance. A concise style is the most favorable to strength.

1. Place the most important words in the situation in which
they will make the strongest impression.

2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and
when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should
be the concluding one.

3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their re-
semblance or opposition will be rendered more striking if some
resemblance in the language and construction be preserved.

4. It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an
adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase,
which may either be omitted or introduced earlier.

A Discourse and its Paris.

A composition in which a proposition is laid down and an
p.ttempt made to persuade others that it is true is an argumen-
tative discourse. If it is on religious subjects, it is a sermon;
on other subjects, a speech or oration.

Orations by the ancients were divided into six parts, to-wit:

The Exordium, or introduction, in which the speaker strove
to make his hearers attentive and disposed to receive his argu-
ments.

The Division, or plan the speaker intended to pursue in treat-
ing the subject.

The Statement, in which the subject and facts connected
therewith were laid down.

The Reasoning, in which the arguments were set forth.

The Appeal to the feelings — a most important division of a
discourse.

The Peroration, in which the speaker summed up all he had
said and concluded his discourse.

An Essay.
An Essay is a composition, generally on some abstract sub-
ject, devoted rather to an investigation of causes, effects, etc.,
than to an examination of visible and material peculiarities.
Brief descriptions and narrations may be introduced with ad-
vantage.

Figures of Rhetoric.

A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation
from the ordinary application of words. Some figures of this
kind are commonly called Tropes, i.e., turns.
The principal figures of Rhetoric are twenty-two, namely :
A Simile is a simple and express comparison and is
generally introduced by like, as or so.

Example. — "At first, tike thunder's distant tone.

The rattling din came rolling on." — Hogg.
" Man, like the generous vine, supported lives.
The strength he gains is from th' embrace he gives. '•

— Poft.

A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance
of two objects by applying either the name or some attribute,
adjunct or action of the one directly to the other.

Example. — " His eye was morning's brightest ray." — Hogg.
" Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow."

— Longfellow.
An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events,
designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus
the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol

of a vine: "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou
hast cast out the heathen and planted it," etc

Note. — The allegory includes most of those similitudes which
in the Scriptures are called parables ; it includes also the better
sort of fables.

Metonymy is a change of names— calling one object
by the name of another that sustains some relation to it. The
principal relations on which this figure is founded are as fol-
lows:

1. Cause and effect ; as, " Extravagance is the ruin of many"
— that is, the cause of ruin.

2. Ancestor and descendants ; as, " Then shall Judah
triumph" — that is, the descendants of Judah.

3. Attribute and that to which it belongs ; as, " Pride shall
be brought low " — that is, the proud.

4. Container and the thing contained ; as, " The kettle
boils " — that is, jlhe water in the kettle.

5. Emblem and thing represented ; as, "This was offensive
to the crown " — that is, the king.

6. Material and thing made of it; as, "Gold is all-power-
ful " — that is, money.

Synecdoche is the meaning of the whole for apart, or
of a part for the whole; as, "This roof [i.e., house] protects
you." " Now thenar [/>., summer] is beautiful."

Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the
imagination is indulged beyond"the sobriety of truth.

Example. — "The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread.

And trembling Tiber div'd beneath his bed." — Dryden.

Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker
represents the objects of his imagination as actually before his
eyes and present to his senses.

Example. — "I sec the dagger-crest of Mar !
I see the Moray's silver star
Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war
That up the lake comes winding far! "'—Scott.

Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the
subject into an animated address.

Example. — " Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death 1 where is
thy sling r O grave ! where is thy victor)?"— /. Cor., ij: S4SS-

Prosopopoeia, or Personification, is a figure by

which in imagination we ascribe intelligence and personality
to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities.
Examples. — "The H'orm, aware of his Intent,

H.ir.:njrued him thus, right eloquent.".— Cowper.
"Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears 1 " — Roger*.

Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form
of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, con-
fidently to assert the reverse of what is asked.

Example.—" Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder
with a voice like him? "— Job , 40:0.

Kcphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some
violent emotion of the mind.

Example.—" O liberty ! — O sound once delightful to every Roman
ear! — O sacred privilege of Roman citizenship !— once sacred — now
trampled upon." — Cicero.

Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition to heighten
their effect by contrast

\9-

COMPOSITION.

Example. — "Contrasted faults through all his manners reign :

Though/00/", luxurious ; though submissive, vain ;
Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ;
And e'en in penance, planning sins anew."~Goldsmith.

Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance
by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more important
and interesting, or to descend to what is more and more min-
ute and particular.

Examples. — "Then Virtue became silent, heartsick, pined azoay and
died.*'

Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the
direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood; as, "Go
on ; lime is worth nothing " — meaning that it is very valuable.

Apophasis is the pretended suppression of what one is
all the time actually mentioning ; as, "I shall say nothing of the
immorality prevalent in Paris — immorality which is all the more
dangerous because arrayed in the most attractive garbs."

The Parallel is a figure used to show the resemblance
between two characters or writings, to show their conformity in
essential points ; as, the parallel between the Old and New
Testament.

Paralipsis pretends to conceal or omit what is really
suggested and enforced.

Example. — " I will not call him a villain because it would be unpar-
liamentary,"

Allusion is a figure by which some word or phrase in a
sentence calls to mind, as if accidentally, another similar or
analogous subject.

Example. — "I was surrounded with difficulties, and possessed no
clue by which I could effect my escape."

Repetition seizes some emphatic word or phrase, and, to
mark its importance, makes it occur frequently in the same
sentence.

Example. — "He sang Darius, great and good,
By too severe a fate,
Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen,

Fallen from his high estate and weltering in his blood.*'
Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter at the be-
ginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each
other.
Example. — "The lordly lion leaves his lonely lair."
Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for what
would be disagreeable or offensive if told in the plainest lan-
guage.

Example. — Cushi did not say to David, "Absalom is killed ; " but,
''May all the enemies of the king be as that young man."

Onomatopoeia is the formation of words in such a man-
ner that their sound will suggest the sense; as, buzz, hiss, roar.
Example. — "On the ear
Drops the light drip of the suspended oar."

PROSODY. -*-

Dr. Blair says that the best definition of
Poetry is this : " Poetry is the language of pas-
sion, or of enlivened imagination, formed most
commonly into regular numbers." Poetry is
older than prose. Poems and- songs are the
first objects that make their appearance in all
nations. During the infancy of Poetry all its
different kinds were mingled in the same com-
position ; but in the progress of society poems
assumed their different regular forms.

Prosody is that part of Grammar which
treats of the quantity of syllables, of feet, and
the modes in which they are combined inverse.

Versification.

Versification is the art of arranging words into lines of
corresponding length so as to produce harmony by the regular
alternation of syllables differing in quantity. Verse is therefore
language so arranged in lines that syllables of certain length
may occur at certain intervals.

Verse is the form in which poetry generally appears. Poetry
is distinguished from prose not only by this form, but by its

containing more figures, as well as peculiar words and ex-
pressions.

There are two kinds of verse, Rhyme and Blank Verse.
Rhyme is that kind of verse in which there is a corre-
spondence of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines ; as :
"True wit is nature to advantage dress 'd,
What oft was thought, but ne'er so well express' d."
It lank Verse is metrical language without rhyme ; as :
"Shall we serve Heaven
With less respect than we do minister
To our gross selves? "

Quantity.

By the Quantity of a syllable is meant the time required
for its utterance. According to this time, syllables are distin-
guished as Long and Short. One long syllable is equivalent to
two short ones.

A long syllable may be denoted by a short horizontal line
placed over its vowel ; a short syllable, by a curve.

In the case of monosyllables, nouns, adjectives, verbs, ad-
verbs and interjections are for the most part long ; articles are
always short; prepositions and conjunctions are generally
short; pronouns are long when emphasized; when not, short.

Poetic Feet.

A Poot is two or more syllables constituting a portion of a
line.

A I.i IM> of Poetry consists of successive combinations
of feet

-ft

COMPOSITION.

The most important feet in English verse are as follows :
The Iambus, a short syllabic and a long ... * * severe.
The Trochee, a long syllable and a short . . . " " trembling.
The Spondee, two long syllables .... " " cold winds.

The Pyrrhic, two short syllables .... ' " wiljderness.
The Anapest, two short and a long . . . . " " " barricade.
The Dactyl, a long and two short . . . . * " " tenderly.
The Amphibrach, a short, a long and a short . * " " tremendous.
The Amphlmacer, a long, a short and a long " " " saddle-bags.

In addition to these there are the Molosse, of three long sylla-
bles ; the Tribrach, of three short ; the Bacchy, a short syllable
and two long ones ; the Antibacchy, or Hypobacchy, two long
syllables and a short one.

The four principal kinds of verse or poetic measure are the
Iambus, Trochee, Anapest and Dactyl.

When a line is wholly composed of any of these four feet, it
is called Pure. The remaining feet never form whole lines
by themselves, but are sometimes interspersed with other feet
A line into which different feet enter is called Mixed.

Metre.

By Metres are meant the different systems according to
which verses or lines are formed. They are named from the
feet employed and their number.

Metres in which the iambus prevails are called Iambic ; those
in which the trochee prevails, Trochaic; the anapest, Anapestic ;
the dactyl, Dactylic.

Distinguished by the number of feet in a line, the varieties of
metre are as follows : Manometer, which consists of one foot ;
Dimeter, of two feet; Trimeter, of three; Tetrameter, of four;
Pentameter, of five ; Hexameter, of six ; Heptameter, of seven ;
Odometer, of eight.

Some metres, besides a certain number of complete feet, con-
tain a syllable over at the end of the line. Such metres are
called Hypercatalectic, or Hypermeter. When a syllable is want-
ing the verse is said to be catalectic ; when the measure is ex-
act the line is acatalectic.

Scanning, or Scansion, is the process of dividing a
line into the feet of which it is composed.

Stanza- Long, Short and Common Metre.

A Stanza is the combination of several lines in poetry,
forming a distinct division of the poem ; as :

"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
T'lc lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,
TK„ ploughman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me."

A Verse is but a single line of a stanza — a certain number
of long and short syllables, metrically disposed.

"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day."

Long Metre.

The long, short and common metres are known by the num-
ber of feet or syllables found in them. Long metre stanzas
contain in each line four iambic feet ; as :

"Through every age, eternal God,
Thou art our rest, our safe abode:
High was thy throne ere heaven was made,
Or earth, thy humble footstool, laid."

Short Metre.
Short metre stanzas contain three lines of six syllables and
one of eight syllables — the third line being the longest and con-
taining four iambic feet ; as :

"Sweet is the time of Spring,

When nature's charms appear;
The birds with ceaseless pleasure sing
And hail the opening year."

Common Metre.

Iambic verse of seven feet, divided into two lines, the first
containing four and the latter three feet, makes what is known
as common metre ; as :

"When all thy mercies, O my God!

My rising soul surveys,
Transported with the view, I'm lost
In wonder, love and praise."

Iambic Verse.

This is the regular English heroic. It is perhaps the only
measure suitable for blank verse. The Elegiac stanta consists
of four heroics rhyming alternately ; thus :

Measure «th. Iambic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter.

"The joys | above | ire on' derstOod
Ami reli-Uh'd on|-ly by 1 the good."

Measure flth. Iambic Of Three Feet, or Trimeter.

"Blue llghtl -nlngs singe | th* wives,
And than j -der rends | the rock."

4fe

— fc V

COMPOSITION.

Measure 7th. Iambic of Two Feet, or Dimeter.

"Their love | and awe
Supply | the law."

Measure 8th. Iambic of One Feet, or Monometer.

"H6w bright
The light."

In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied by introducing
a trochee ; as :

"Planets | and suns | run law|-less through | the sky."
By a syndesis of the two short syllables, or perhaps by mere
substitution, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iam-
bus, or a dactyl for a trochee ; as :

"O'er man\-y a/r«|-en, man|-_y afi\-eify Alp."

Trochaic Verse.

In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and
the even ones are short. Single-rhymed Trochaic omits the
final short syllable, that it may end with a long one. This kind
of verse is the same as iambic would be without the initial short
syllable. Iambics and trochaics often occur in the same poem.

SINGLE RHYME.

Measure 3rd. Trochaic of Six Feet, or Hexameter.

SINGLE RHY5IE.

Measure 4th. Trochaic of Five Feet, or Pentameter.

"Virtue's | bright'nlng | riy shall | beam for] ever."

SINGLE RHYME.

Measure 5th. Trochaic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter.

SINGLE RHYME.

"Restless | mortals I toll f3r | naught,
Bliss in | vain from [ earth is | sought."

Measure 6th. Trochaic of Three Feet, or Trimeter.

"When our | hearts are [ mourning."

SINGLE RHYME.

"In the | days of I old
Stories I plainly J told."

Measure 7th. Trochaic of Two Feet, or Dimeter.

"Fancy | viewing,
Joys enj-suing."

SINGLE RHYME.

"Tumult I cease,
Sink to | peace."

Measure 8th. Trochaic of One Foot, or Monometer.

"Changing,
Ranging."

Anapestic Verse.

In Anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third syllable.
The first foot of an anapestic line may be an iambus.

Measure 1st, Anapestic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter.

"At the close | Of the day, | when the ham| -let Is still,
And mor~ \ tals the sweet | of forgetl -fulness prove."

HYPERMETER WITH DOUBLE RHYME.

HYPERMETER WITH TRIPLE RHYME.

Measure 2nd. Anapestic of Three Feet, or Trimeter.

"I am mOnJ-arch 6f all | I survey;
My right j there is none | to dispute."

Measure 3rd* Anapestic of Two Feet, or Dimeter.

"When I look | On my boys,
They renew | all my joys."

Measure 4th. Anapestic of One Foot, or Monometer.

"On the land
Let me stand."

Dactylic Verse.

In the pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first sylla-
ble of each successive three ; that is, on the first, the fourth,
the seventh, the tenth syllable, etc Full dactylic generally
forms triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is
omitted the rhyme is double ; when both, single. Dactylic
with single rhyme is the same as anapestic would be without
its initial short syllables. Dactylic measure is rather uncom-
mon, and, when employed, is seldom perfectly regular.

Measure 1st. Dactylic of Eight Feet, or Octometer.

Measure 2nd. Dactylic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter.

Measure 3rd. Dactylic of Six Feet, or Hexameter.

-71

■m

COMPOSITION.

EXAMPLE WITHOUT KHYME.

Measure 4th. Dactylic of Five Feet, or Pentameter.

Measure 5th. Dactylic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter.

Measure 6th. Dactylic of Three Feet, or Trimeter.

"Evfir sing | merrily, | merrily."
Measure 7th. Dactylic of Two Feet, or Dimeter.

"Free from si|-tl*ty,
Care and anx[-iety,
Charms in va[-ricty
Fall to his | share."

Measure 8th. Dactylic of One Foot, or Monometer.

"Fearfully,
Tearfully."

Caesural Pause.

A slight pause should be made, in reading poetry, at the end
of every line, though the sense may not require it. Often a
pause is made in or near the middle of the line, especially when
it is a long one. This brings out the meaning and improves
the rhythm and effect. This pause is called the ca-sural pause
(i.e., cutting). The final pause is that occurring at the end of
a line, and should not be distinctly marked when the sense does
not require it.

Varieties of Poetry.

Poetry is of various kinds, such as Epic, Dramatic, Lyric,
Elegiac, Pastoral and Didactic,

Epic Poetry is the most dignified. An epic poem is
the recital of some illustrious enterprise in a poetical form.
The action or subject of an epic poem must have three proper-
ties: it must be one; it must be great; it must be interesting.
One action or enterprise must constitute its subject. Homer's
Iliad, Virgil's AZncid and Milton's Paradise Lost are examples
of epic poetry.

Didactic Poetry is written with the express intention
to convey instruction and knowledge. It may be executed in
different ways. The poet may treat some instructive subject in
a regular form, or he may inveigh against particular vices or
make some moral observations on human life and character.

Descriptive Poetry is indicated by its name. In
general, description is introduced as an embellishment, not as
the subject of a regular work.

Various Kinds of Poems.

There are many kinds of poems, of which the following are
the chief designations :

A Song is a short poem to be sung or uttered with musical
modulations.

A Chant is a song or words suited to musical tones with-
out musical measure.

A Hymn is a song of praise, generally of a religious char-
acter.

An Ode is similar to a song or hymn. There are four de-
nominations of these. I. Odes addressed to God or composed
on religious subjects. 2. Heroic odes, which concern the cele-
bration of heroes and great actions. 3. Moral or philosophical
odes, which refer chiefly to virtue, friendship and humanity. 4.
Festive and amorous odes, which are calculated merely for
amusement or pleasure.

A Pcean is a loud and joyous song, a song of triumph or
rejoicing.

A Ballad is a popular song, narrative or sentimental, in
simple, homely verses.

An Epithalamillin is a nuptial song or poem in praise
of the bride or bridegroom. The Song of Solomon in the Bible
is a specimen.

An Epigram is a short poem treating only of one thing
and ending with some lively, ingenious and natural thought.

A Sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, two stanzas of four
verses each and two of three each, and so arranged that in the
first part the first line is made to rhyme with the fourth, fifth
and eighth, the second rhyming with the third, sixth and
seventh, while in the second part the fir>t, third and fifth, and
the second, fourth and sixth, also rhyme with each other.

A Cantata is a poem set to music, comprising choruses
and solos and recitations, arranged in a somewhat dramatic
manner.

A Canzonet is a short song in one, two or three parts.

A Charade may be in prose as well as poetry. It is based
upon a word, the parts of which taken separately are significant
of their meaning and that of the whole word.

An Epitaph is a brief descriptive sentence, in prose or
verse, which is used on a tombstone.

A Satire is a composition, generally poetical, holding up
vice or folly to reprobation ; a keen or severe exposure of what
in public or private morals deserves rebuke; an invective
poem.

A Parody is a kind of poetical pleasantry in which what is
written on a subject, generally serious, is altered and applied
in a ludicrous vein.

A Prologue is a poem introductory to a play or discourse,
generally spoken before the play begins.

An Epilogue is a short poem reviewing the main inci-
dents of a play, spoken by the actor or actors at the termination
of a performance.

An Impromptu is a verse or poetical composition writ-
ten off-hand without previous study.

An Acrostic is a composition, usually in verse, in which
the first or last letters of the lines, in their order, or of words,
one in each line, form a name or sentence.

Poetical Peculiarities or License.

The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in
which poets indulge and are indulged, and which are termed
poetic license, which is a deviation from the strict rules of gram-
mar.

COMPOSITION.

~7[

1. Tb,ey very often omit the articles; as:

u What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime
Like shipwreck' d mariner oj. desert waste! "

2. They abbreviate many nouns ; as, amaze for amazement;
corse for corpse; fount [or fountain.

3. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose or
are used but rarely; as, benison,fane, ten, welkin.

4. They introduce the noun self after another noun in the
possessive case ; as :

"Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom."

5. They often place adjectives after their nouns ; as :

" Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue."

6. They place before the verb nouns or other words that
usually come after it ; and after it, those that usually come be-
fore it ; as :

" No jealousy their dazon of love o'ercast,
Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife."

7. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not liter-
ally belong ; as :

" Or drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds."

8. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities (i.e.,
adjectives for nouns) ; as :

" Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new,
Sublime or dreadful, on earth, sea or sky."

9. They substitute quality for manner (i.e., adjectives for ad-
verbs) ; as :

" Thither continual pilgrims crowded still."

10. They form new compound epithets ; as :

" In world- rejoicing state, it moves sublime."

1 1. They connect the comparative degree to the positive ; as :

u Near and more near the billows rise."

12. They form many adjectives in y which are not in common
use; as, a gleamy ray; towcry height ; vasty deep.

13. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form; as,
drear for dreary ' ; scant for scanty ; ebon for ebony.

14. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose,
or are used but seldom ; as, azu> e, darksome, rapt, sear.

15. They employ personal pronouns and introduce their nouns
afterwards ; as :

"// curled not Tweed alone, that breeze"

16. They sometimes omit the relative of the nominative case ;
as:

" For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise? "

17. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the rela-
tive ; as :

" Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys."

18. They remove relative pronouns and other connections in-
to the body of the clauses ; as :

" Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck."

19. They make intransitive verbs transitive ; as :

" A while he stands,

Gaziuglhe inverted landscape, half afraid
To meditate the blue profound below."

20. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third
person ; as :

" Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight."
" Be man's peculiar work his sole delight "

21. They employ can, could and would as principal verbs
transitive ; as :

" What for ourselves we can, is always ours."

22. They place the infinitive before the word on which it
depends; as :

" When first thy sire to send on earth
Virtue, his darling child, designed."

23. They place the auxiliary after its principal ; as :

"No longer heed the sunbeam bright
That plays on Carron's breast he can."

24. Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit
prefixes; as, begird, bedim, for gird, dim; lure, wail, for al-
lure, bewail.

25. They abbreviate verbs ; as, list for listen ; ope for open.

26. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose or
are used but rarely ; as, astound, ween, trow.

27. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the in-
finitive ; as :

" For not to have been dipp'd'm Lethe lake
Could save the son of Thetis from to die."

28. They employ the participles more frequently than prose
writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar ; as :

" He came, and, standing in their midst, explained
The peace rejected, but the truce obtained"

29. They employ several adverbs that are not used in prose
or are used but seldom ; as, haply, felly, rifely.

30. They give to adverbs a peculiar location ; as :

" Peeping from forth their alleys green."

31. They omit the introductory adverb there; as :

" Was naught around but images of rest."

32. They employ the conjunctions or ....or and nor ....
nor ; as:

" Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po."

33. They often place prepositions and their adjuncts before
the words on which they depend ; as :

"Against your fame with fondness hate combines."

34. They sometimes place the preposition after its object ;
as:

"When beauty, Eden's bowers within."

35. They employ interjections more frequently than prose
writers; as:

" Oh, let me gaze — of gazing there's no end.
Oh, let me think — Thought too is wilder'd here."

36. They employ antiquated words and modes of expression;
as:

" Withouten that would come an heavier bale."
" He was to weel, a little roguish page,
Save sleep and play, who minded naught at all."

*NW

"7!

ELOCUTION.

HOW TO READ AND SPEAK CORRECTLY AND ELEGANTLY.

§!||V;LOCUTION does not consist, as many
*T*r suppose, in merely learning to " recite
ffippy pieces." It is the art of reading and
?<&$*<■ speaking in the most correct and ele-
I gant manner. Before this can be at-
tained it is necessary to articulate dis-
tinctly, to pronounce correctly, and to cultivate
and strengthen the vocal organs.

The study of Elocution is one in which
none can be pronounced perfect. As, in pen-
manship, a proficient may greatly improve by
practice, and thousands are content to possess a
handwriting next to illegible, instead of the
neat, elegant hand of which they could easily
become master, so thousands are satisfied with
a harsh, disagreeable voice, a careless articula-
tion, a monotonous expression and a repulsive
manner, when by a proper training they might
become fluent conversationalists, expressive
readers and easy, if not eloquent, speakers.
How many are content to work with one
talent, when they could readily possess five!
Among well educated persons of taste and
refinement, how often do we find those to
whom a knowledge of Elocution would be inval-
uable, because of its power to set forth their
other accomplishments ! The first tones of a
speaker's voice always convey an idea, favorable
or unfavorable, of the speaker himself; and, if
the latter, much effort will be required of him
to regain the estimation so unwittingly lost.
What can be more satisfactory to its possessor
than a rich, clear, melodious tone, a distinct,
clean-cut articulation, a perfect command of the
modulations, and a pleasing style both in voice

and manner? All this is possible to any one
who does not possess imperfect vocal organs
and who will assiduously devote himself or her-
self to the study, believing :t to be worthy of
all efforts required to obtain a mastery of the
art.

Elocution consists in the utterance or ex-
pression of thought.

Thought may be conveyed by voice or ges-
ture ; the latter reaching the hearer through the
eye, the former through the ear.

Elocution may be divided into four branches,
viz.: Vocal Culture, Articulation, Expression, or
Modulation, and Gesture.

Vocal Culture.

Voice is produced by breath passing over the vocal chords,
which are situated in the larynx, or upper portion of the wind-
pipe.

The voice is the principal agent by which thought is conveyed,
and Is the basis of elocution.

Proper Breathing consists in taking in and giving
out full inspirations of pure air in such a manner as not to in-
terfere with speech. Correct breathing is an important factor
in elocution, of more consequence than might be supposed. It
should be so timed as not to interfere with speech. Breath should
be taken only at pauses. Study at first never to destroy the
connection of the thought by a pause for breathing purposes. In
long sentences we should economize the breath as much at
possible.

The culture of the voice should be a matter of necessity a*
well as the training of the mind or the development of the body.
Frequent vigorous practice induces healthy activity ; the voice U
strengthened and rendered pure and resonant.

Articulation.

Articulation consists of a distinct and correct utterance
of the elementary sounds. These sounds, forty-six in number,
are formed by the organs of speech and are divided into Vocal
Sounds, Aspirati Sounds and Combined Sounds.

♦4

ELOCUTION.

The Organs of Articulation are the tongue, lips,
palate and teeth, forming the Lingual, Labial, Palatal and
Dental sounds, respectively. These organs, like valves, act
either singly or together upon the stream of breath issuing from
the larynx, and mould sound into speech. The mouth cavity
and nasal cavity assist in modifying the tone of voice, giving it
character and resonance.

Vocal Sounds are those having vocality.

Aspirate Sounds are those produced by the breath only.

Combined Sounds are those which are produced by
both voice and breath. '

Cognates are those sounds which occur in pairs, one vo-
calized and the other not, but both having the same articulate
modification.

The Trilled " R " often adds much to the rendering of
a passage ; but, like the flourish, it may be misplaced. It
should be used sparingly, seldom or never in the most serious
discourse. In light descriptions and imitative modulations it
may be employed, taking care, however, that it is never used
unless immediately followed by a vowel sound.

Practice in articulation should be directed especially to those
exercises in which transitions or repetitions of the
same sound occur, as those will be quite difficult of mastery.
See that both sounds are correctly and distinctly given, and that
the organs of speech pass rapidly from one to the other.

Examples. — S, s. False sounds.

s/i, s/j. Hush, Charlotte!

z, X. As zealous.

*/, st. Severest storms.

Pronunciation.

The subject of Pronunciation should receive special attention
by the learner, as a good voice and a distinct articulation tend
to magnify any defect in utterance. In reading, foreign words
are often found which are utterly unpronounceable to one not
having at least an elementary knowledge of the language to
which they belong. To pronounce such words according to
English rules would in many cases be allowable ; but this could
not apply to Goethe and similar names. Clearly the only cor-
rect way is to approach as nearly as possible to the native pro-
nunciation, except in words and names thoroughly anglicized.
To pronounce Paris Paree would be pedantry.

Modulation.

Modulation consists in such a use of the voice as will
convey the thought in the best manner. It has reference to
Quality, Melody, Form, Force, Time and Stress. Modulation
concerns the proper management of the voice in speech and
treats of those changes that should be made in it to best express
the sentiment.

QUALITY OF THE VOICE.

The Quality or kind of voice may be Pure or Im-
pure. In ordinary conversation, reading or speaking, we
should always use the Pure ; but in expressing fear, anger, con-
tempt, hatred, loathing, etc., we should employ a different qual-
ity of tone. When we feel the influence of these passions, we
can easily make use of the proper form, but we should so con-
trol the voice that, in reading or speaking in the absence of

passion, we can assume the tone best adapted to give expression
to the sentiment.

The Pure quality is used in all cases when there is not a
demand for the Impure. Great attention should be given to
the cultivation of the conversational voice, until a habit of cor-
rect speech is acquired. This tone should always be full, rich
and resonant. Of it there are two varieties, the Simple and
Orotund.

The Simple Pure is used in ordinary conversation,
reading and speaking.

Example. — And he said, A certain man had two sons; and the
younger of them said to his father, Father, give me the portion of
goods that falleth to me. And he divided unto them his living.

The Orotund is a full, round tone used in expressing
grandeur, awe, sublimity, courage, reverence, veneration and
other holy emotions.

Example.— Thou too, sail on, O Ship of State !
SaiJ on, O Union, strong and great!
The Impure quality of voice is used to express the action
of the baser passions. It is also used in mimicry. The Impure
qualities are the Aspirate, Pectoral, Guttural and Falsetto.

The Aspirate is the intense whisper, with little or no vo-
cality. It is used to denote fear, secrecy, great caution, etc.

Example. — Soldiers, you are now within a few steps of the enemy's
outposts.

The Pectoral is the deep tone of despair and anger. It
is used to denote great solemnity and in describing the super-
natural. It is orotund, very low in pitch, and is formed wholly
in the throat.

Example. — Oh, I have passed a miserable night —

So full of dreadful dreams and ugly sights,
That, as I am a Christian, faithful man,
I would not spend another such a night,
Though 'twere to buy a world of happy days—
So full of dismal terror was the time.
The Guttural is a harsh throat-tone, lacking the orotund
quality of the Pectoral — the language of hatred, intense anger,
loathing and contempt

Example. — I loathe ye in my bosom,

I scorn ye with mine eye,
And I'll taunt ye with my latest breath,
And fight ye till I die !
The Falsetto is a shrill, high-pitched tone used in ex-
pressing pain or terror. It is also employed in imitating the
female voice.

Example. — When the lorn damsel, with a frantic screech
And cheeks as hueless as a brandy peach,
Cries, "Help, kyitid Heaven!" and drops upon her knees
On the green — baize, beneath the — canvas — trees.

MELODY.

Melody in elocution is the effect produced upon the ear
by the succession of vocal notes. It has reference to Pitch,
Slides and Cadence.

Pitch.

Pitch relates to the elevation or depression of the tone.
It may be Natural, Low or High.
Natural Pitch is used in all ordinary discourse.

Example. —

England's sun was slowly setting o'er the hills so far away,
Filling all the land with beauty at the close of one sad day.

■» V

■VI-

ELOCUTION.

Low Pitch is used in language serious, grave, sublime,
grand, solemn, reverential and vehement

Example.— Silence how dead, and darkness how profound;
No eye nor listening ear an object finds;
Creation sleeps.
High Pitch is used to express sentiment lively, joyous
or impassioned. It is also characteristic of fear and grief.
Example.—" Oh, spare my child, my joy, my pride;
Oh, give me back my child!" she cried.

Slides.

Slides are inflections of the voice used to prevent monotony
and to give better expression to the idea. They are Ascending
and Descending; both are united in the Circumflex. In music
the ascent and descent is made by distinct steps ; but in speech
the voice is bent more or less up-
ward or downward. These
changes are continually taking
place, except in the Monotone,
and they give expression to the
voice.

Ascending Slides de-
mote uncertainty, doubt, interro-
gation and incompleteness of
idea.

Example.— Hast ^hou ever known
the feeling
I have felt, when 1 have
seen,
'Mid the tombs of aged
heroes,
Memories of what hath
been?

Descending Slides in-
dicate positiveness, determina-
tion or a completion of the
thought.

£rfl«//f.-Come one, come all, this
rock shall fly
From its firm base as
soon as II

The Circumflex is used

to denote surprise or to express

a secondary meaning which may

be in harmony with or directly

opposite to that conveyed by the

worc ] s< SELF-POSSESSION ON THE PLATFORM.

Example. — Whalt shear a wolf, a prowling violft

Cadence.

Cadence is the tone with which a sentence terminates.
According to the sentiment, it may have the ascending or the
descending slide, the rising or the falling circumflex, or it may
vanish with no slide whatever. A sentence expressing a com-
plete thought, having no modifying phrase or clause, and not
affected by anything preceding or following it, should always
terminate with a downward inflection ; but when so modified it
should close with a tone adapted to the connection or meaning.
The reader should study variety and avoid uniformity in closing
sentences.

FORM.

Form of voice may be Natural, Effusive, Expulsive or
Explosive.
The Natural is that ordinarily used in conversation.

Example. — While a single white cloud to its haven of rest.

On the white wing of peace floated off in the west.
The Effusive is a very light, gentle form usually charac-
terized by a swell. It is -used in expressing that which is beau-
tiful, tranquil or pathetic It is characteristic of lofty sentiment
not requiring vigorous expression.

Example. — How beautiful she Is! how fair

She lies within those arms that press
Her form with many a soft caress
Of tenderness and watchful care.
The Expulsive is a forcible utterance expressive of de-
termination and intensity ol
feeling.

Example. — Up, all, and shout for
Rudiger —
Defiance unto Death!
The Explosive is used
in vehement language and in
powerful description. It usually
manifests itself in the bursting of
the voice on a single word.

Example.—
"Halt!" —the dust-brown rank

stood fast ;
"Kirc ! "—out blaied the rifle blast.

FORCE.

Force or power of the voice
lsof three kinds. Natural, Heavy
and Gentle.

Natural Force is that
most commonly used in speak-
ing or reading.

Example.—
We are two travcllcrs.Roger and 1.
Roger's my dog — come here,
you scamp !
Jump for the gentleman— mind your
eye 1
Over the table— look out for the
lamp!

Heavy Force is used in
grand description and in con-
veying any idea of power.

Example.— Bell never yet was hung

Between whose lips there swung
So grand a tongue.
Gentle Force is used in tender and pathetic descrip-
tion, and in all cases where a subdued form is necessary to cor-
rectly express the sentiment.

Example.— Noiselessly as the daylight

Comes when the night is done ,
And the crimson streak on ocean's cheek
Grows into the great sun.

TIME.

Time in Elocution has reference to Quantity, Rate and
Pause.

V-

ELOCUTION.

Quantity.

Quantity is the amount of time given to a word. It may
be Natural, Long or Short.

Natural Quantity is that usually given to words in

unemotional language.

Example.— There is on' accomplishment, in particular, which I
would earnestly recommc cd to you. Cultivate assiduously the ability
to read well. *

Long Quantity is used in expressing that which is
grand, sublime, gloomy or humble.
Example. — O thou Eternal One! whose presence bright

All space doth occupy, all motion guide.
Short Quantity is used to express sentiment light,
joyous, gay and brisk. It also expresses haste, fear, command,
indignation, etc

Example. —
The year is going, let him go ;
Ring out the false, ring im the true.

Rate.

Rate is the degree of rapid-
ity or slowness with which sev-
eral successive words are utter-
ed. It may be Natural, Slow
or Fast.

Natural Rate is that
which a person naturally uses
in reading or speaking.

Example. —
O good painter, tell me true,
Has your hand the cunning to draw
Shapes of things that you never
saw?

Slow Rate may denote
horror and awe; it should be
used in language serious, sub-
lime and pathetic.

Example. —
Meanwhile the shapeless iron mass

Came moving o'er the wave,
As gloomy as a passing hearse,

As silent as the grave.

Fast Rate is used to ex-
press sentiment lively, joyous,
impassioned and vehement.

Example. —

Hurrah ! the foes are moving! Hark to the mingled din

Of fife and steed, and trump and drum, and roaring culverin !

Example.— Have you heard the tale of the Aloe plant.
Away in the sunny clime ?
By humble growth of a hundred years
It reaches its blooming time.

Long Pause usually accompanies Slow Rate or a change
of sentiment, and marks a suspension of the sense.

Example.— Pause a moment. I heard a footstep. Listen now. I
heard it again. But it is going from us. It sounds fainter — still
fainter. It is gone.

Short Pause accompanies Fast Rate, and is character-
istic of haste, fear, etc

Example. — John, be quick! Get some water! Throw the powder
overboard! It cannot be reached ! Jump into the boat, then! Shove
off! There goes the powder — thank Heaven, we are safe!

Pause.

Pause is the suspension of the voice. Poetic and Oratori-
cal Pauses express emotion. Rhetorical Pauses are those de-
manded by the sense and structure of a sentence. Grammatical
Pauses are those indicated by the usual marks of punctuation,
and Prosodical Pauses are those used only in verse. But in
this connection it is best to make three divisions, viz.: Nat-
ural Pause, Long Pause and Short Pause.

Natural Pause is used in unimpassioned language and
ordinary description.

STRESS.

Stress has much to do with
the power, beauty and general
effect of a sentence. It is that
finishing, polishing touch which
causes the thought to stand out
in relief — throwing it vividly
upon the background, with its
profile welk defined, its lights
and shadows harmoniously
blended — rendering it com-
plete, beautiful and sym-
metrical.

There are six distinct kinds
ot Stress, viz.: Initial, Final,
Median, Compound, Thorough
and Tremulous.

Initial Stress is an ex-
plosive force on the first part of
a syllable or word. It is char-
acteristic of lively, joyous de-
scription.

Example. —
I come from haunts of coot and
hern ;

I make a sudden sally,
And sparkle out among the fern,

To bicker down a valley.

The Final Stress is an

explosive force on the latter part
It is used in expressing defiance, de-

THE AWKWARD SPEAKER.

of a syllable or word.

termination, or intensity of feeling or purpose.
Example.— A breath of submission we breathe not ;

The sword we have drawn we will sheathe not.
Median Stress, or the Swell, .characteristic of the Oro-
tund Quality and Effusive Form, is most marked in the sublime,
but it is found in all classes of literature, sometimes occurring
on a single word and again continually through an entire sen-
tence.

Example.— Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll!
Compound Stress is a union of the Initial and Final
in one word. It is indicative of surprise, irony and determi-
nation.
Example.— Gone to be married! Gone to swear a peace!

Shall Lewis have Blanche, and Blanche these provinces t

"7f

ELOCUTION.

Thorough Stress is an abrupt, heavy force, used in
command, fearlessness and braggadocio.

£xampfe.—Tl]iizc t with your serried columns!
I will not bend the knee !
The shackles ne'er again shall bind
The arm which now is free.

Tremulous or Intermittent Stress is used in
fear, joy and laughter, in the broken voice of sorrow, and in
imitation of the feeble voice of age.

Example. — Ho, why dost thou shiver and shake. Gaffer Gray,
And why does thy nose look so blue? *
" 'Tis the weather Is cold, 'tis I've grown very old,
And my doublet is not very new, wcll-a-day."

Emphasis.

" Emphasis," it has been said, " is in speech what coloring is
in painting. It admits of all possible degrees, and must, to in-
dicate a particular degree of distinction, be more or less intense,
according to the groundwork or current melody of the dis-
course." It consists of any peculiarity of utterance which will
call special attention to a particular word or words in a sentence.
Thus it will be seen that emphasis may be of force, stress, qual-
ity, pitch or rate. No definite rule can be given for the use of
emphasis. It is so subtile, its shadings so delicate, that it can
never be cabled to inflexible rules. But in general we should
emphasize:

1. Words, phrases or clauses that are particularly significant.

2. Words, phrases or clauses that contrast.

3. Anything repeated for the sake of emphasis.

4. A succession of objects or ideas.

Word Individuality.

The "royal road" to success in reading lies in a true concep-
tion of the spirit of the piece and a faithful delineation of the
author's meaning. Endeavor to grasp the ideas, make them a
part of yourself and clothe your hearers with them. Another
element of power lies in playing upon words and giving them
their full individual expression. For instance, the word firm
should usually be spoken in a firm tone of voice, strong in a
strong tone, light in a light tone, grand in a manner conveying
an idea of grandeur.

Word Individuality. Expressive Intonation, Imi-
tative Modulation and Sound to Sense are the terms used to
express the act of playing upon words, sounding the syllables
or intoning the vowels in such a way as to more fully bring out
the meaning of the word by its sound. Old, sweet, long, gay,
cold, deep, roar, whisper, fierce, wild, growl, titter, gush, burst,
dash — these and similar words may be rendered infinitely more
expressive by giving each word its own peculiar individual
character.

The following table of derivatives indicates the peculiar char-
acter of words :

St denotes firmness or strength ; as, stand, stay, stout, stop,
stamp, etc.

Sir indicates violent force or energy; as, strive, stress,
strength, strife, etc.

Thr indicates forcible motion; as, throw, throb, thrust,
threaten, thrill, etc.

CI indicates smoothness or silent motion j as, glib, glide,
glow, etc

rVr denotes obliquity or distortion ; as, wry, wrest, wrestte,
wring, wrath, wrangle, etc.

Sw implies silent agitation or lateral motion ; as, sway, sweep,
swerve, swing, etc

SI denotes gentle fall or less observable motion ; as, sly, slide,
slip, slit, slack, sling, etc

Sp indicates dissipation or expansion ; as, spread, sprout,
sprinkle, split, spoil, spring, etc

— ash indicates something actingnimbly or sharply ; as, crash,
dash, rash, flash, lash, splash, etc

— ush denotes something acting more obtusely and dully ; as,
crush, brush, hush, gush, blush, etc

Analysis and Grouping.

In reading it is necessary first to analyze the thought, to de-
cide in the mind what portions are most prominent, and these
should receive greatest emphasis. The subordinate thoughts
should be properly grouped together and expressed in such a
manner as will clearly show them to be subordinate. To use a
figure of speech, let the more important parts stand in the fore-
ground, giving them intensest light ; the auxiliary thoughts may
repose in the shadows of the background. In general the sub-
ject, predicate, object and connectives of a sentence should re-
ceive emphatic force. Give the same degree of force to words
having a close grammatic connection, but separated from each
other in the sentence. The intervening portions should be read
parenthetically.

Transition.

Transition is the art of changing easily, rapidly and
completely from one modulation or form of voice to another. It
should be carefully practiced.

Climax.

It has been previously stated that a succession of objects or
ideas should receive emphasis ; that is, each of the series should
be made more emphatic than the one immediately preceding.
This gives a constantly increasing emphatic scale. The extreme
point of the scale is called the Climax. There the vocal ef-
forts should reach their culmination, giving great strength to the
sentence.

Repose.

Repose is the sublime emblem of infinite power. It is
reserve force that is immeasurable. He who by violent exertion
shows that he has reached his limit loses that greater concep-
tion that we may have formed regarding his powers. Where
I'lim.ix is employed in speech, in order to convey the greatest
I of power it is necessary to make the concluding
11 of the sentence with that repose which indicates unlim-
ited reserve strength. It has been well said, "The highest
power is master)', and the highest mastery is self-master)', and
of self-master)' repose is the emblem."

^L!

"7[

ELOCUTION.

Impersonation.

In Impersonation the reader or speaker puts himself
in the place of another, using the tone and style required by the
assumed character. This, however, should not be resorted to
when the beauty or sublimity of thought contained in a passage
would be weakened thereby, as an assumed form always de-
tracts from the ideas by directing our attention to the manner.
But there are many times when personation really adds to the
beauty and effectiveness of the rendering. The judgment of the
reader must decide when it should be employed, and in what
particular cases it may be omitted. 'When impersonating the
voice may be changed, as well as the general manner. A heavy
or light voice, fast or slow rate, low or high pitch will often be
a sufficient change. Old age requires a feeble or cracked voice,
higher pitch, slower rate, gentler force, a greater use of the in-
flections, and an apparent toothlessness easily secured by re-
tracting the lower jaw and drawing the underlip as far as possi-
ble over the teeth. Children's voices are imitated by light

force, many rising and falling slides, using great expression.
Let the throat be contracted that the voice may appear to be
formed in the front part of the mouth. In imitating the voices
of women the reader should employ greater or heavier force, as
required.

Dialogue Reading.

In dialogue reading several impersonated voices may occur,
varying one from another by changes of force, pitch, rate or
quality. As a general rule, the direction of the eyes and head
should change with each transition of character. When only two
speakers are represented, the whole body may change position,
but when several appear a slight change only is required. In
representing two characters the gaze is alternated left and right,
but the descriptive portions (those not spoken by either of
the characters) should always be given front. Let changes of
position and voice be sudden and decided, especially so when
one speaker is interrupted by another.

-S"—'

-McG B S T U R B.3N-

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Elocution maybe divided into two parts : that which is heard,
and that which is seen. The former is called Voice , the latter,
Gesture. Both are important and indispensable to its
proper study. The manner may be so out of harmony that it
entirely contradicts the words, and an idea is conveyed directly
opposite to that intended. It is important, then, that we study
manner as well as matter. A pleasing style of delivery adds
much to the effectiveness of a production, and in this Gesture
plays an important part. It is absolutely essential to the per-
fect success of vocal delivery that it be accompanied by a man-
ner that will not provoke criticism, nor in any way draw the
hearer's attention from the thought uttered. It should rather
aid that thought by conveying to the eye what the voice sends
to the ear. Gesture should always be an assistant, never a hin-
drance, as it certainly is when not properly used. Those who
naturally employ many gestures should learn how to correctly
use them ; those who use few should cultivate the use of more
by making themselves familiar with the laws that govern intel-
ligent gesticulation. Double Gestures have the same signifi-
cance as single gestures. They are used for variety and greater
effect and force. In speaking, do not employ one hand exclu-
sively, but occasionally use the other to avoid sameness.

Rules Governing Gesture.

Gesture is that part of elocution which appeals to the eye.
It relates to Position and Movements.

POSITION OF THE BODY.

The position of the body should be in harmony with the
character of the thought. Vigorous expression requires a firm
posture ; beauty of sentiment, a graceful attitude. The position
should be changed, not too often, as quietly and with as few
movements as possible. The arms, when not in use, should
hang easily at the sides, and one foot should be slightly in ad-
vance, the head being held naturally erect The speaker should
always take his position near the front of the stage, to be better
seen and heard. In reading, always stand or sit erect, with
lungs well inflated.

MOVEMENTS.

Movements of the body are necessary to give character to the
delivery, but they must be natural, graceful and appropriate.

The Head.

The Head should maintain an easy position and allow the
eyes to move deliberately over the audience. Do not stare into
vacancy while before a company, but fix your gaze upon the in-
dividuals composing the assemblage. Avoid an excessive use
of the head, both in reading and speaking. In reading, the
eyes should be raised from the book as much as possible. Prac-
tice will give facility in reading long sentences with a single
glance at the book. The expression of the face should reflect
the character of the thought.

UNIVERSITY )

4 6

ELOCUTION.

The Hands in gesture should be used easily and grace-
fully. Frequent practice before a mirror will be advantageous
in securing freedom and grace of movement. The hands may
be Supine, Prone, Vertical, Pointing and Clenched.

The Supine Hand lies easily opened, with the palm upward.
It is a common form of
gesture.

The Prone Hand is
opened with the palm
downward. It is used
to denote negative as-
sertion, superposition,
etc.

The Vertical Hand
is opened, with the palm
outward from the
speaker. It is used in
warding off and in de-
noting a limit

The Pointing Hand,
forefinger extended, is
used in designating or
pointing out any partic-
ular thing or place. Or-
dinarily, the hand is
loosely opened, but,
when the gesture i s
emphatic, it is tightly
closed.

The Clenched Hand
denotes intense action
of the will or passions.

The accompanying il-
lustration, with explan-
ations appended, shows
the principal forms of
hand gestures.

The Arms.

The Arms should
be used naturally and
with decision. In forci-
ble utterance they move
in straight lines; in
graceful expression they
move in curves, but
even in the curves they
should show that they
are servants sent to per-
forin certain duties, and
that they arc guided in
every motion by a
power beyond them-
selves. Sometimes, in familiar gesture, the forearm only is used,
but ordinarily the arm moves freely from the shoulder.

Hand and Arm Gestures.

Hand and Arm <-«'s*ures are made in four general
directions, viz.: Front, O/diaue, Lateral and Backward,
Each of these is subdivided into Horixontal, Descending and

Ascending,

POSITIONS OF THE HANDS.

1. Simple affirmation. a. Emphatic declaration. 3. Apathy or prostration.
4. Energetic appeal. 5. Negation or denial. 6. Violent repulsion. 7. Indexing
or cautioning. S. Determination or anger. 9. Supplication, to. Gentle cn>
treaty. 11. Carelessness, ia. Argumentation. 13. Earnest entreaty. 14. Resig-
nation.

Front Gestures are used to designate or to illustrate that

which is near to us, whether it be an object, a thought or

a feeling. In addressing an object, real or ideal, we suppose it

to be placed in the direction of the Front gesture.

Oblique Gestures are less emphatic and more general in

their application than
the Front Gestures.
They* relate to things
indefinitely.

Lateral Gestures
denote expansion, ex-
treme distance, breadth,
or the placing of per-
sons, objects or ideas in
contrast with one an-
other.

Backward Gestures
indicate things remote,
obscure or hidden.

Horizontal G e s -
TURF.S are employed in
general allusions ; they
indicate a level or
equality and belong to
the realm of the Intel-
lect.

Descending Ges-
tures denote inferior-
ity or inequality, and,
when emphatic, they
show determination
and purpose. They
belong to the WilL

Ascending Ges-
tures denote superior-
ity, greatness, an un-
folding or lifting up
figuratively or literally.
They belong to the
Imagination.

Make all gestures
with decision. When
the gesture is com-
pleted, let the arm fall
slowly to the side.
Never allow the arms
to swing.

Ijl THp FO^g OF gpEEtln.

Conversation. This is the simplest form of speech, and
it is the most natural. In conversation we are ourselves ; we
use no forced, unnatural style of utterance. Always endeavor in

*7^

conversation to express the best thoughts in the best manner,
avoiding those subjects not of general interest to the listeners,
using the best language at command.

Reading. In conversation our ideas are evolved from
oar own minds. In reading the thought may be the same and
the manner the same, though the phraseology differ. In read-
ing our own composition, we are too liable to fall into a read-
ing tone — air 'innatural mode of expression. This droning
process causes the hearer to lose a large portion of the thought
which he would receive were the reading intelligent instead of
mechanical. In emotional reading, he receives all the thought,
and it is intensified in its conveyance to him. When you desire
to read well, be sure to previously familiarize yourself with the
words, arrangement of paragraphs and logical connection of
all the thoughts contained in the piece of reading. Always hold
your book or paper in such a way that you can readily take in
a whole line at once. Allow the letters to be about fourteen
inches from the eye, not directly below, nor horizontal with the
eye, but half-way between these two positions. Look off the
book as much as possible.

Public Speaking. This is conversation magnified.
The same forms of voice are employed as in conversation ; the
difference lies in a symmetrical enlargement of the sentences.
In this, do not distort, but preserve the form in its simplicity
and you will have it in its greatest purity and power. Apply
all rules of elocution and rhetoric to your conversation, and you
will have the form best suited to public address. Always make
a marked distinction between the conversational (or explana-
tory) and the oratorical and dramatic portions. Studiously
avoid anything like an oratorical style in simple descriptions or
narratives. Never appear in public without thorough prepara-
tion, and be sure that this is succeeded by a period of rest, that
you may be in your best condition. Tone the voice just before
beginning your vocal effort. In your approach, do not appear
hurried ; but let your manner be graceful and your bearing dig-
nified. This will insure respect. Put yourself at ease by a
strong mental effort and begin deliberately, gradually warming
up with your subject. Never acquire the useless habit of drinking
water during a vocal performance. Water will not supply the nat-
ural moisture of the vocal organs, and if they are properly used
there is no necessity for artificial moistening. Pay special at-
tention to the articulation, and let it always be distinct. Deliver
she sounds sharply and correctly, and your audience will ap-
preciate your efforts, though they may not themselves know
wherein lies the charm of the voice to which they listen.

DRAMATIC ACTION.

Dramatic action differs from oratory, though it employs the
same vocal expression. The orator is always himself, in his
best condition ; the actor acts an assumed character which
would often not be consistent with the dignity of the orator. In
oratory we may borrow certain gestures (termed Special Ges-
tures) from the art of acting; hence it is necessary for us to be
informed as to the significance and proper method of using
these gestures.

In acting, the moderate step may become a stride. Actors
are permitted to move in a lateral direction, while the oratof
can only advance and recede from his audience. The actor may
also stamp, start or kneel. These demonstrations are forbidden
the orator.

An erect position is the only one suitable to the dignity of the
orator. In acting, grief depresses, and pride throws the body
backward.

The head is raised in arrogance, inclined in languor or indif-
ference, and hung in shame. The head may take the following
positions: Inclined, Erect, Assenting, Denying, Shaking,
Tossing, Aside,

Considered in reference to the direction of the eyes, it may be
Averted, Downward, Upward, Around or on Vacancy.

The countenance may take the expression of anger, shame,
contempt, pride, despair, terror or any other violent passion.
In oratory this is not admissible.

The hand may take the following positions : Hollow, Hold-
ing or Grasping (according to the degree of energy), Applied
(palms together), Clasped, Crossed (upon the breast), folded
(fingers of right hand between the thumb and forefinger of the
left), Enclosed (back of the one within the palm of the other),
Touching (points of the thumb and fingers of each hand
brought into contact), Wringing (clasped hand, lowered, and
separated at wrists, but without fingers disengaged), Enumer-
ating (first finger of the right hand laid successively upon first
and other fingers of the left).

The arms may be Folded (crossed and enclosing each other),
Akimbo (one or both hands on hips, elbows extended at one or
both sides), Reposed (elbows nearly resting on the hips, one
hand holding the wrist of the other — a female position).

In designating the manner of motion, Gesture may be con-
sidered as Noting (the hand being drawr back and raised, then
advanced and by gentle stroke depressed), Projecting (arm
thrust forward in the direction in which the hand may be point-
ing), Retracting (the arm drawn back preparatory to projecting
or to avoid an object), Waving (fingers pointing downward,
the hand flung smartly upward), the Flourish (in which the
hand describes a circle or part of a circle above the head), the
Sweep (the hand making a curved movement, descending from
the opposite shoulder and rising high above the head ; or the
reverse, changing in the first case from the Supine to the Ver-
tical, and in the second from Vertical to Supine ; sometimes a
Double Sweep is used, combining both movements), Beckoning
(with whole hand or simply the forefinger), Repressing (the op-
posite of Beckoning), Advancing (the hand moved slowly for-
ward and upward to the horizontal, the whole body aiding the
action, and a step in advance being taken), Springing (the
hand, having nearly arrived at the limit of the gesture, spruigs
suddenly up to it by a quick movement of the wrist), Striking
(hand and arm), Bending (preparation for Striking), Recoiling
(a return to position after Striking), Throwing (arm flung out-
ward in the direction of a person addressed), Clinching (clench-
ed hand raised threateningly), Collecting (arm sweeps inward
toward the body), Shaking (tremulous motion given to arm and
hand), Pressing (the hand being laid upon any part, the elbow
is raised and the fingers contracted), Rejecting (vertical hand
pushed toward the object, head averted).

£_

4»

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BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

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BUSINESS^

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Letter-Writing in All Its Korms.

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ETTER-WRITING in its true ex-
cellence can scarcely be regarded
as an art. Instruction may, no
doubt, be imparted through the
medium of rules, but those appli-
cable to the subject are few and, at the same
time, of the simplest character. The following
observations will, it is hoped, be found of some
practical use to young persons, and assist them
in avoiding errors and in acquiring a degree of
proficiency in epistolary composition.

It should always be borne in mind that letter-
writing is but "speaking by the pen." The
first endeavor of a writer should, therefore, be
to express himself as easily and naturally as in
conversation, though with more method and
conciseness.

STYLE.

The style should be determined in some measure by the
nature of the subject, but in a still greater degree by the
relative positions of the writer and the person addressed. On
important subjects, the composition is expected to be for-
cible and impressive , on lighter subjects, easy and vivacious ;
in condolence, tender and sympathetic; in congratulation,
lively and joyous. To superiors, it should be respectful ; to
inferiors, courteous; to friends, familiar; and to relations,
affectionate. An old writer justly remarks: "Much has been
said on the epistolary style, as if any one style could be

appropriated to the great variety of subjects which are treated
of in letters. Ease, it is true, should distinguish familiar
letters, written on the common affairs of life, because the
mind is usually at ease while they are composed. But even
in these, topics incidentally arise which require elevated ex-
pression and an inverted construction. Not to raise the style
on these occasions is to write unnaturally ; for nature teaches
us to express animated emotions of every kind in animated
language. The dependent writes unnaturally to a superior
in the style of familiarity ; the suppliant writes unnaturally if
he rejects the figures dictated by distress. Conversation
admits of every style but the poetic ; and what are letters but
written conversations ?"

Arrangement of Ideas.

The purport of every letter should be well considered
before its commencement — not only with a view to the attain-
ment of a thorough clearness of expression, which is of pri-
mary importance, but likewise that the principal points to be
discussed may be prominently brought forward, while those
of a trivial nature are slightly mentioned. It requires, how-
ever, not only a certain amount of tact, but some quickness
of perception to avoid the stiffness and formality which are
incident to the arrangement of the subject, and which are
great defects in letter- writing.

Ornamentation.

A redundancy of ideas and of language is a common fault
with those capable of writing with facility. A» a rule, there-
fore, all striving after effect or attempt at ornamentation should
be avoided ; and as the chief charm of a letter is its origin-
ality, writer* should not avail themselves either of hackneyed

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

expressions or of ideas borrowed from others. An exhibition
of epistolary talent is far less likely to gratify a correspondent
than an easy, free and faithful expression of the sentiments
of the writer; and by thus expressing himself he will also
naturally avoid any excess of flattery or exaggerated profes-
sions of regard, so peculiarly objectionable in a letter, and at
variance with all delicacy of taste. At the same time, a strict
adherence to the natural expression of the thoughts will grad-
ually introduce a degree of ease, fluency and force which
may be carried to a high degree of perfection.

Long Sentences.

Unpracticed persons will at first find it desirable to make
their sentences as short as possible, that they may have them
completely under control. Long sentences, even when well
constructed, frequently occasion some degree of obscurity,
and are less forcible than short ones. Parentheses, though
sometimes necessary, likewise tend to obscure the meaning
of a writer, besides weakening the effect of sentences ; they
should therefore be avoided as much as possible.

COMPOSITION OF LETTERS.

As regards the composition of letters, it is generally desir-
able to commence with some introductory remarks, not as a
mere formality, but for the purpose of conciliating attention
to the main subject of communication, which may otherwise
strike too abruptly upon the mind of the reader. The intro-
duction should be followed by the development of the topics
for discussion, according to the importance attaching to each ;
and the conclusion should, when occasion requires, be de-
voted to the confirmation or summing up of what has been
previously stated, and to expressions of regard or affection.

Tautology.

Tautology, or the repetition of the same words, should be
guarded against, as forming a blemish of a striking character.
In this effort, the continual need of words of like meaning
will soon render a writer familiar with a variety of synonyms ;
and the possession of a copious vocabulary will conduce
greatly to the general freedom of the composition.

Postscripts.

Postscripts are generally indicative of thoughtlessness, and
should be avoided, except when necessary for the purpose of
mentioning some circumstance that has occurred after a letter
has been written. To convey any assurance of regard or
affection by means of a postscript is a great impropriety, as
appearing to imply that the sentiments are so slightly im-
pressed upon the mind of the writer as to be almost forgotten.
There are special circumstances, however, which may render
an expression of feeling in a postscript even more impressive
than in the body of the letter; but such cases are exceptional,
and must be left to the judgment of the practiced writer.

Quotations.

Quotations should not be introduced too frequently, for,
though a short and appropriate one, occasionally given, is
both effective and elegant, yet to give them prominence in a
letter appears pedantic and affected. The common use of
French or proverbial phrases also offends against good taste.

Underlinings.

Underlinings and interlineations are objectionable. A well
constructed sentence will seldom require the emphasis to be
marked by underlining any of the words, and a frequent re-
petition of the practice is not complimentary to the under-
standing of a correspondent. Any occasion for interlineations
may usually be superseded by the exercise of care in writing
and by a little forethought.

Grammatical Correctness.

It is scarcely necessary to observe that correctness in
grammar and spelling is of the highest importance, and that
no elegance of diction compensates for imperfection in these
respects, but rather serves to render more glaring errors so
essentially indicative of a defective education. When the
rules of grammar are understood, the constant attention to
apply them will soon render them familiar, and, at the same
time, tend to promote readiness of expression. Abbreviations
in spelling, even though warranted by general practice, have
a certain appearance of laxity, ana detract much from a good
style.

Contractions and Abbreviations.

Be careful and do not use the character $ except in the title
of firms ; as, Brown & Cox, A. T. Scott & Co. As a general
thing, characters are to be avoided. The economy of time
and space secured by their use hardly compensates for the
mutilated appearance of the words and the liability to error
involved. Don't, can't, isn't, and other contractions of the
same class, are allowable in familiar letters, and where familiar
conversation is quoted, but not in any graver style.

Figures of Arithmetic.

Numbers, except dates and sums of money, should be
spelled in full, unless exceeding three words in length. Never
write, "I saw 5 birds," "We have 8 cats."

Capitals.

Capitals should be cautiously used in letter-writing. We
should certainly not confine the writer of a letteY to the
rigid rules observed in printed literature, because an impor-
tant word may sometimes be graced with a capital which in a
printed form would begin with a small letter. But an indis-
criminate, or even frequent, use of capitals may be taken as a
proof of the ignorance of the writer.

!*•"

5°

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

Punctuation.

Proper punctuation is essential to a
correct and regular mode of expression.
The best general rule to follow is to
place the points where a pause would
occur in speaking. Dashes should only
be used to mark a sudden change in
sentiment or in place of parentheses.
Correct punctuation not only gives ele-
gance to a composition, but it makes its
meaning clear, enforces attention to those
words or passages which most require it,
and, to a great extent, prevents a mis-
understanding or wilful misconstruction
of the writer's meaning.

[Da,,.]

Repetition.

Avoid repetitions. They always offend
the judicious ear, and are seldom proper,
except when they enforce any particular
meaning or explain it more fully.

Form of a Letter.

A letter usually consists of six parts,
viz.: the date, complimentary address,
body of the letter, complimentary closing,
signature, superscription.

Position

of the Parts
Letter.

of a

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\Body of LctttT.\

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[ Complimentary dosing. ]

\Signaturf.\

The Date is written near the upper
right-hand corner of the sheet.

The Complimentary Address is be-
gun on the line next beneath, one inch
from the left side of the sheet.

The Body of the Letter is com-
menced nearly under the last letter of the complimentary
address.

The Complimentary Closing is begun on the line next
beneath the body of the letter, one-half of the distance from
the left to the right side of the page.

The centre of the Signature should be under the last
letter of the complimentary closing.

The Name and Address of the person written to should
come on the line beneath the signature at the left of the sheet.

The Date.

The date is a matter of great importance, particularly in
business letters. You cannot be too careful, therefore, to state
it in full and correctly. Unless you write from a large city
like New York, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, New Orleans, Cin-
cinnati, Boston, Chicago or St. Louis, you should always
mention the State, and generally the county, as there are

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many post-offices of the same name In the United States. If
you write from a street, mention the name and number of the
street, or the name of the hotel. With English writers, it is
customary to put the day before the month in dating a letter j
as, 1 8th September, instead of September iSth. Custom
favors the latter in this country.

Proper Modes of Address.

The styles of address are varied to suit the occasion, and
the terms of compliment at the close of a letter are always
considered as mere courtesy or form ; they should not, there-
fore, on any occasion be avoided. To a person with whom
a writer is not well acquainted he should say " Sir," or
"Madam," concluding with "Your obedient servant," or
"Yours respectfully;" to those with whom he is tolerably
well acquainted, "Dear Sir." or "Dear Madam," with
"Yours faithfully ;" and to those with whom he is on familiar

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BUSINESS AND

SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 5 1

terms, " My dear Sir," or " My dear Madam," with "

Yours

My dear Cousin :

truly," "Yours very truly," "Yours sincerely," or '

Yours

I have been so busy —

very sincerely." To two or more ladies, married or single,
the form of address is "Ladies." To a young unmarried

My dear Son :

lady, the salutation is usually omitted to avoid the repetition

You have not written —

of "Miss," the address alone being used as an introduction.

The complimentary address is generally written at the

top of

Materials.

a business letter.

The names of the different kinds of papers, and when used.

Model Headings.

are as follows :

Mr. William C. Jones,

Legal-cap is used in writing all legal documents, articles

Washington, D. C.

of agreement, etc. The characteristic of legal-cap is a red
line running from top to bottom of the sheet.

Dear Sir:

Bill-paper is used for bills, etc., and is ruled expressly

Your letter of the 12th —

for the purpose, and usually bears the name and business of
the person using it at the top.

Mrs, Maria Jansen,

Foolscap is used in writing notes, orders, receipts, com-

Philadelphia.

positions, petitions, subscription headings, etc.

Dear Madam :

Letter-paper is used for the ordinary letter.

I send you herewith —

Note and billet paper is used for notes of invitation,
parents' excuses for children to teachers, and all brief com-
munications. It is the smallest sheet-paper made.

Commercial note is used for business letters, and is

Miss Edith Blaine,

Chicago :

You will receive by express —

generally narrower than ordinary paper.

Titles.

Messrs. Harper Bros.,

Broadway,

Titles in America are either social, scholastic or official.

New York.

Social titles are Mr. (Mister, formerly Master), Sir, Esq.

Dear Sirs:

(Esquire), Gentlemen (only in the plural). Master (for boys

Yours of the 1st inst.—

only), Mrs. (Mistress), Madam, Miss, and Ladies. Esq. is
properly used only to persons of some prominence.

Scholastic titles are those conferred by universities or other

Messrs. Harper Bros.,

institutions of learning. They may follow or precede the

Broadway,

New York .

name, as Prof. W. M. Jones; W. M. Jones, A.M. ; Dr. W.
M. Jones; W. M. Jones, M.D.

Dear Sirs: Yours of the 26th ult, was —

Official titles include titles applied to persons in the civil,
military or naval service.

The following list illustrates the various titles used for the

Messrs. Smith, Beggs !r Co.,
Chestnut St.,

different ranks among individuals either in the complimentary

Philadelphia.

address or superscription on the envelope :

Gentlemen :

To Royalty— To the King's Most Excellent Majesty.

We have none of the goods —

To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty.
To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.
To Her Royal Highness tiie Princess of Wales.
To His Royal Highness the Duke of Connaught.
To Her Royal Highness the Princess Beatrice.
To Nobility — To His Grace the Duke of Devonshire.

Messrs. Smith, Beggs Sf Co.,
Chestnut St.,

Philadelphia.

To Her Grace the Duchess of Devonshire.

Gentlemen : We have th

e —

To the Most Noble the Marquis of Salisbury.
To the Most Noble the Marchioness of Salisbury.
To the Right Honorable Earl of Carlisle.

Miss Lucy Hooper,

To the Right Honorable the Countess of Carlisle.

Paris, III. :

To the Right Honorable Lord Viscount Palmerston.

We have received your—

To the Right Honorable the Viscountess Palmerston.
To the Honorable Baron Crandall.

To the Honorable the Baroness Crandall.

My dear James :

The younger sons of noblemen in England are addressed

Your note of the 10th —

as Honorable ; also members of Parliament and other persons

. o)

/ ..

a "■

AS=

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

holding certain positions of honor and trust. The elder sons
of noblemen take by courtesy the title next in rank below that
of their fathers.

Baronets are addressed thus : Sir Waiter Scott, Bart. ; and
Knights thus : Sir Morton Peto, Kt

Clerical Titles.
The Pope— His. Holiness Tope Leo XIII.
Cardinal— -His Eminence, John, Cardinal McCloskey.
Archbishop— Most Rev. Peter R. Kenrick, D.D.
Bishop— Rt. Rev. P. J. Ryan, D.D.
Vicar-General— -V 'try Rev. Henry Muehlsiepen.
Priest or Clergyman — Rev. James Farquhar.
Rev. Dr. Amos Foley.

Titles Used in the United States.

His Excellency— The President of the United States,
Governor of any State, Ministers to foreign countries.

Honorable — Vice-President of the United States, members
of the Cabinet, members of Congress, heads of Departments,
Assistant-Secretaries, Comptrollers and Auditors of the
Treasury, Clerks of the Senate and House of Representatives,
State Senators, Judges, Mayors of cities.

Miscellaneous Titles.
His Excellency and Mrs. R. B. Hayes.
Governor and Mrs. Thos. T. Crittenden.
Hon. and Mrs. James G. Blaine.
Rev. Dr. and Mrs T. De Witt Talmage.
Professor and Mrs J. F. Crunden.
Mr. and Mrs. Henry Ames.
Drs. John M. and Chester H. Thorn.
Drs. Walter C. and Mary C. Williams.
Mr. W. T. and Mrs. Dr. E. C. James.
Rev. H. E. and Mrs. Dr. E. C. Howe.
Rev. Mrs. William Bass.
Rev. Mrs. W. H. Crow.
Rev. Jane H. Moon.
Rev. Miss Jane H. Moon.

The Envelope.

The superscription on the envelope should be written very
plainly. It is fashionable to write it as near the right-hand
under angle or corner of the envelope as convenient The
full name and title of the person addressed, with place of res-
idence, written out fully, including town, county, State, and
country, if it goes abroad.

The number of the post-office box, or the door number and
the name of the street, or the name of the county, may stand
at the lower left-hand corner.

P. ft Sex jtx).

<<=%&». ^i^uu. &/c<A,

»37S Ckatnul SI.

Or:

f >i >i .

In writing to the President of the United States, he is
addressed on the envelope thus :

'VWW\NVWl>

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

The Governor of a State is thus addressed :

u <a*>.

^e^i^u^ (iT(ir<38UtMe*uJe*t,

When a person's official designation is given in full it forms
the next line below the name.

A letter of introduction should be addressed in this manner :

Qfy.c@£u&.®!Z 4 Jl tft 4

•mct&yi.

Introducing

Mr, Edward Granger,

0/ Charleston, S. C.

When a letter is sent by a friend the name of the bearer it
written on the lower left-hand corner.

8^5 +-

- ■■/■'-•■'■ .

o *° 5^9

GENERAL HINTS.

J ^w L

-^ Z^

Be sure you affix the propef stamp to every letter before you send
it. Alerter will not be forwarded unless it is prepaid at least one
full rate.

In writing' a letter the answer to which is of more benefit to your-
self than the person to whom you write, enclose a postage stamp for
the reply.

A letter of introduction or recommendation should never be sealed,
as the bearer to whom it is given ought to know the contents.

As a rule, every letter, unless insulting in its character, requires an
answer. To neglect to answer a letter when written to is as uncivil
as to neglect to reply when spoken to.

In the reply, acknowledge first the receipt of the letter, mentioning
its date, and afterwards consider all the points requiring attention.

In business and ceremonious letters do not write on both sides.

A person in -nourning should never write a congratulatory letter on
mourning paper.

Either ruled or plain paper may be used, but unruled or plain paper
is more stylish, and is to be preferred.

Avoid all erasures or blots, even if compelled to rewrite your letter.

Letters of compliment should always be written in the third person.

Avoid writing with a pencil. Never write other than business
letters on a half sheet of paper.

Owing to the almost universal use of gummed envelopes, the use of
sealing-wax has become nearly obsolete, though it adds a much more
refined appearance to a note than simply closing it with adhesive
gum. A neat little seal of red wax for a gentleman, and of gold,
blue, or other fancy color, for a lady, is elegant and appropriate.

The envelope should be adapted both in size and color to the paper.

The stamp should be placed on the upper right-hand corner of the
face of the envelope. The stamp should be right end up, and the
edges of the stamp should be parallel with the edges of the envelope,
as putting a stamp upside down or awry indicates carelessness, and
is disrespectful to the person to whom it is sent.

y^-

r- 1
V

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

:.:

JHE characteristics oi the commercial style are concise-
ness and perspicuity. With the exception of a few
terms of compliment, scarcely a superfluous word should
be used. It is, however, not at all necessary to sacrifice
correctness of style or language. A careful simplicity and
the clearness of expression necessary to convey the ideas to
be imparted, combined with the rejection of all words not
absolutely indispensable, while giving rise to a forcible style,
form in themselves some of the chief essentials of true
elegance.

Persons unpracticed in correspondence, before writing a
letter of any length, should note down the several heads of
the matter forming the subject of communication, so that the
various points may be brought forward in proper consecutive
order. If several subjects are to' be alluded to, they should
be kept perfectly distinct, as the proper division of a letter
into paragraphs is of the utmost importance. A confusion of
sentences not only looks extremely ill, but is very likely to
lead to a misapprehension of the writer's meaning, and to
result in delay or injury, or, at all events, to necessitate further
correspondence.

In replying to a letter, each point should be taken up as it
arises, and be discussed in a separate paragraph ; and each
paragraph should be so clear and unambiguous that its pur-
port may in no way be doubted. All business letters should
be answered the same day they are received. In all letters
of business, it is customary to write the name and address on
the first page, as otherwise, if the superscription were lost,
it would not appear to whom the letter had been written.
Business letters should always be written upon plain paper.
To use gilt-edged or any other fancy paper for this purpose
is accounted the extreme of vulgarity.

From a Young Man Commencing' Business to a Whole-
sale House, irith Order.

Ckkenville, III., July j, 18S3.

Mr sirs. Gray Is* Wardwtll, Now York.

Gentlemen: Having commenced business here on my own ac-
count, with every prospect of success, I shall he glad to open an
account with your house, doubting not it will be to our mutual
advantage. With this view, I note below an order, which I shall
thank you to execute with the least possible delay, and on your best
terms as to goods and prices. I beg to refer you to my late employer,
Henry Weatherby, of Chicago, who will satisfy you as to my integrity
and trustworthiness; but, a* this is a first transaction, on your for-
warding me an invoice of the goods, deducting discount for cash, I

shall remit a sight draft on a bank In your city for the amount per

return mail. Requesting your usual prompt attention, I am,

gentlemen,

Yours respectfully,

John Hardaway.

Reply from Wholesale House, vrlth Invoice.

New York, July 8th, iSSj.

Dear Sir : Agreeably to your esteemed order of the md inst., we

have the pleasure to enclose invoice of goods amounting to S ,

subject to five per cent discount for prompt cash.

We may mention that, from the opinion entertained of you by Mr.
Weatherby, we have no hesitation in opening the account, and at
once placing you on our best terms. The parcels have been dis-
patched this day per Adams Express, and we trust they will arrive
safely and receive your approval. We believe the goods will bear a
favorable comparison with those of any house in the trade, and
desire that you should satisfy yourself as to value and quantities
before remitting settlement. We are, dear Sir,
Yours respectfully.

Gray * Wardwell.

To Mr. John Hardaway, GrttnvilU, III.

From Country Merchant Complaining of Quality of
his Goods.

Waukesha, Wis., Jan. 14, *8,j.
Dear Sir : Since I entered into business transactions with you, It
has been my invariable course to act with integrity and honor, expect-
ing the same conduct in return. Until lately, indeed, I had no cause
to complain ; but the goods I had last week from you, as well as the
parcel just delivered, are so inferior in quality that I hesitate to offer
them to any of my customers. As I can have much better value else -
where, and I do not sell job goods on any account, I am reluctantly
obliged to advise you that, unless you can send me others In their
stead, I must withdraw my correspondence altogether. Meantime,
both parcels are laid aside awaiting your orders. An immediate

answer will oblige

Yours respectfully,

Abeam Matthews.
To Mr. Jamis Santo, Nrm York.

To a Publisher's Firm, Proposing to Open an Account.

Cincinnati, Jan. 1st, iSSj.
Gentlemen: As our business is rapidly on the Increase, we are
desirous of opening an account with your house, and shall feci
obliged by your t-ansmitting us a trade list of your publications, as
well as some of your general catalogues. Our usual terms of settle-
ment are as follows : (here state them). Should they be agreeable to
your house, the favor of an early attention to our request will oblige,
Gentlemen,

Your obedient servants,

Benson A Co.
To Mtitn. Scriomrr ** Co., Soto York.

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

t UR examples under this head will be useful as afford-
ing specimens of an appropriate style to be adopted
in answering advertisements or in applying for situa-
tions. On such occasions, while the proper deference due to
an employer should be exhibited, it is desirable to preserve
that tone of self-respect which, the employes should bear in
mind, has a much better effect than any subservient expres-
sions.

From a Youth Applying for a Junior Clerkship.

Albany, Jan. 16th, 18S0.

Gentlemen : Understanding by your advertisement in the Herald
of the 15th inst. that you are requiring the services of a junior clerk,
I beg respectfully to offer myself as a candidate for the appointment.
I am fifteen years of age, and from my attainments in various branches
of education, I believe myself qualified for the duties required.

I may mention that I am not altogether unacquainted with book-
keeping and accounts, having for some months past assisted my
father, Mr. Phineas Kincaid, lumber merchant, in the counting*
house department of his business.

Should you entertain my application, I beg to refer you to Mr.
Willis Bancker, of Walnut St., Philadelphia, and Mr. Paul Parker,
of Chambers St., New York, who will have pleasure in testifying to
my character and abilities. I am, gentlemen,

Your most obedient servant,

Philip Kincaid.

To Messrs. Cole &• Taylor, Trenton, N. Y.

Reply of the Firm.

Trenton, N. J., July 19th, 1883.
Sir: Having made inquiries of Mr. Parker, one of the references
mentioned in your letter of the 16th inst,, we are satisfied with his
recommendation. Before making an arrangement, however, we
should desire a personal interview, and should, therefore, be glad if
you could make it convenient to call at our counting-house on Satur-
day forenoon at eleven o'clock.

Yours,

Cole & Taylor.
To. Mr. Philip Kincaid, Albany, N. Y.

Application for Situation as Housekeeper.

No. 20 Canal St., New York.
Box 301, Post-Office: I beg respectfully to offer myself as a can-
didate for the situation advertised as above in to-day's Herald. I am
at present, and have been for five years, housekeeper in the family of
Mr. Hamilton, 2314 Madison Avenue, to whom I can confidently refer
you as to my character and qualifications for the duties required. I
am also permitted to refer you to John Houseman, Esq., Troy, N. Y.,
with whom I served two years in the same capacity previous to my
engagement with Mr. Hamilton. My age is thirty-two years, and I
am unmarried.

I am your most obedient servant,

Elizabeth Ellis.

From a Nursery Governess in Answer to an
Advertisement.

Germantown, Pa., March 4th, 1883.
Madam: i Understanding that you have a vacancy for a nursery
governess for your three daughters, I beg to state that I have occu-
pied that position for three years in the house of Mr. Anthony, and
only left in consequence of the family going to reside in the West, I
am well acquainted with the usual routine of an English education,
and have sufficient knowledge of French, drawing and music to teach
the first rudiments, and attend to the practicing in the absence of the
teacher, which, I presume, is all you would require. I enclose some
testimonials which, I venture to hope, will satisfy you as to my
character and competency for the office. Should you honor me with
your confidence, I assure you that neither kindness nor exertion shall
be wanting to do justice to your children, without exercising undue
severity or unkindness. Awaiting the favor of your reply,
I remain, Madam,

Your obedient servant,

Helen Holmes.
To Mrs. Jeremiah Borie, Philadelphia.

Application to a Clergyman for a Testimonial.

Beeker St., Boston, May 4, '82.
Reverend Sir: Being a candidate for the appointment of matron
in the New York Hospital, I beg to solicit the favor of a testimonial
from you as to my general conduct, which you have had opportunities
of observing in your capacity of director and visitor of the institution
where I, at present, fill a responsible place. And should you deem
me worthy of the more important situation referred to, anything you
can do to forward my interests will be ever gratefully acknowledged
by, reverend Sir,

Your dutiful and humble servant,

Eliza Hazlbton.
To the Rev. John Snowaen,

Riitenhouse Square, Boston.

Application for a Situation as Gardener.

No. 231 Canal St., New York, June 3d, '83.

Sir : Understanding that you want a gardener, I beg to offer myself
as a candidate to fill the vacancy. I have had constant experience
both in nursery grounds and private gardens, and am thoroughly
acquainted with the management of the green-house and hot house.

I inclose some testimonials from gentlemen with whom I have lived,
which, I hope, will prove satisfactory. The last situation I filled was
with Mr. Ogden, who will, I believe, speak favorably of my character
and fitness for the office. I am a married man, with a family of three
children, and my age is thirty-five. Should you entertain my appli-
cation, a letter directed to the above address will meet with prompt
attention from.

Sir, your most obedient servant,

^ ,, ... James O'Reillt.

To Henry Houghton, Esq., Troy, M. T.

35-

'lv

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

, N old writer says: "We all delight to talk of our-
selves; and it is only in letters, in writing to a friend,
that we can enjoy that conversation, not only without
reproach or interruption, but with the highest propriety and
mutual satisfaction. In such letters, above all things, a
natural and lucid expression of the sentiments of the writer is
necessary. Friends expect our thoughts and feelings, not a
letter filled with unmeaning verbosity ; and though, where
excellence is aimed at, considerable attention must be paid
to the disposition of the words and sentences, it must not be
at the sacrifice of the energy resulting from a free expression
of the sentiments. Let the thoughts first be mastered, and the
words be suggested by the sentiments, without the slightest
affectation of manner. The ease of diction, so essential, may,
in a measure, be acquired by familiarity with the best English
authors, and an approach thus made to that perfection which
may be said to be attained only by the happy union of ease
and freshness with the dignity of true friendship."

It is a common saying with young friends, as an excuse for
remissness in their correspondence, that they have nothing to
write about; but surely, between friends, there must be a
similarity of taste on some subjects, and a discussion of their
sentiments and opinions on any one of them, in a course of
correspondence, would be acceptable and also valuable, as
tending to their mutual improvement. But this division of our
subject comprises also the letters passing between relatives
and others united by ties of affection — excepting only the
correspondence of lovers, and of parents with their children,
which form distinct chapters. In such letters, the heart
speaks and the imagination is most eloquent. Letters of
courtesy should be written on the best paper. For those to
gentlemen the paper should be neither figured nor tinted.

To a Lady Friend, with a Ring.

Cincinnati, October 4O1, 1SS1. '
My Dear Miss Atkins: As a ring was adopted by the ancients
as ft symbol of eternity, I venture to request your acceptance of the
accompanying little circlet as an emblem of esteem and affection on
my p.irt, which, I am sure, will be perpetual. Please receive it in the
spirit in which it Is tendered. Place it on your finder, and let me hope
that as often as you look at it you will be pleasantly reminded of one
win. has experienced much happiness in your society, and who Is now,
as heretofore,

Your old and sincere friend,

Henry Lewis.

The Reply, Returning the Present.

West Thirtieth St., New York, Oct. loth, iSSa.

Dear Sir : I hope you will not be offended at the liberty I have
taken in returning your kind present, as I make it ft rule never to
receive anything in this way from gentlemen. I assure you that,
while my sentiments of respect and esteem are as cordial as ever, I
cannot allow myself, even on the score of friendship, to infringe on a
hitherto inviolate principle; and I, therefore, tru t the rejection of
your valuable and kindly-meant gift will not be thought unfeeling or
Impolite. True good-will and esteem, indeed, are superior to such
external evidences, and I am satisfied your generous mind will not for
a moment doubt the sincerity of those feelings I continue to cherish
toward you.

I am, dear Sir, your faithful well-wisher,

Lizzie Atkins.

To Mr. Henry Lewis, Cincinnati, Ohio.

k Young Lady Congratulating an Aunt on Her
Birthday.

RlTTENHOUSE SQUARE, PHILADELPHIA,

January 10th, 1SS2.
My Dear Aunt: To-morrow will be the fiftieth anniversary of
your natat day, and I should dj injustice to my feelings were I to
permit the occasion to pass without expressing my sincere congratu-
lations and wishing you many happy returns of the day. Aside from
the near tie of relationship which exists between us, I shall ever cherish
with ftft IlllHS of gratitude and affection the remembrance of the very
many favors and kindnesses I have received at your hands. Conse-
quently it is only natural I should feel a gratelul interest In each return
of this happy anniversary. Fortunate, indeed, shall 1 esteem myself
if, at your age, I can review my past life with equal satisfaction, for,
after all, there is no happiness so complete as that afforded by looking
back up:m a well-spent life. Birthdays are the m.lcstones which
mark the progress of the traveller along the difficult highway of life,
and happy is the individual who can pass each one without a sigh of
regret or a feeling of mistrust in the future. With my best wishes
for your future happiness, I remain.

Your affectionate niece,

To Mrl. Mary Page, Fifth Averne, -V. 1 '.

Kitty Pine.

To a Friend, on Being Married.

New York, Jan. 4th, iSSa.
My Dear Phil: I believe there are certain stereotyped phrases in
which it Is customary to congratulate newly-married folks; but,
utterly disregarding all rules and regulations in such cases made and
provided, I wish you joy in the familiar words which our friendship
warrants and my feelings suggest. If your married lift is half as
happy as I desire it to be, you will have good cause to be satisfied
with your lot. Present my kind regards and compliments to your
bride. Wishing you many happy returns of the anniversary of your
wedding-day, I remain.

Your friend,

Walter Cooper.
To Mr. Philip Brandon, Chief, III.

4h^

pIHp tffig

Letters of ^

Friendly Counsel and Remonstrance.

-*5^»0 ■+-

V 5 ^,

PERHAPS no class of letters demand more delicate
treatment than such as one friend sends to another
with words of counsel or remonstrance, either in com-
mon emergencies or on subjects of general importance. We
give a variety of examples. One is from the correspondence
of Franklin, and is worthy ef study as a model of the instruc-
tive class, when the writer is the acknowledged superior of
his correspondent in knowledge and experience.

From Dr. Benjamin Franklin to a Young Lady.

My Dear Friend: I send you the books I mentioned to you last
night. I beg you to accept them as a small mark of my esteem and
friendship. They are written in the familiar, easy manner for which
the French are so remarkable, and afford a good deal of philosophical
and practical knowledge, unembarrassed with the dry mathematics
used by more -,xact reasoners* but which are apt to discourage young
beginners. I would advise you to read with a pen in your hand, and
enter in a little book short hints of what you find that is curious or
that -nay be useful, for this will be the best method of imprinting such
particulars on your memory, where they will be ready either for prac-
tice on some future occasion, if they are matters of utility, or, at least,
to adorn and improve your conversation, if they are rather points of
curiosity. And as many of the scientific terms are such as you can-
not have met with in your common reading, and may, therefore, be
unacquainted with, I think it would be well to have a good dictionary
at hand, to consult immediately when you meet with a word you do
not comprehend the meaning of. This may at first seem troublesome
and interrupting, but it is a trouble that will daily diminish, as you
will daily find less and less occasion for your dictionary as you become
more acquainted with the terms ; and, in the meantime, you will read
with more satisfaction, because with more understanding. When any
point occurs on which you would be glad to have more information
than your book affords you, I beg that you would not in the least
apprehend that I should think it a trouble to receive and answer your
questions. It will be a pleasure and no trouble. For though I may
not be able, out of my own little stock of knowledge, to afford you
what you require, I can easily direct you to the book where it may be
found. Adieu, and believe me ever, my dear friend,

Yours affectionately,

B. Franklin.

To a Friend who has Traduced You.

No. 21 Madison Av., New York,
October 12th, 1882.
Sir : I have it from good authority that you have spoken of me in
most unfriendly terms to our mutual acquaintances. At first I could
scarcely believe it, and hoped that there was some mistake ; but the
proofs of your misstatements and misrepresentations are too strong
to be doubted. What could have been your motive for thus slander-
ing me, I cannot conceive. As you know full well that there were no
grounds for the disparaging assertions you have made, the least you
can do is to repair the evil by disabusing the minds of those to whom
you have traduced me. This I shall expect of you, and without delay.
Yours, etc.,

Charles Singleton.
To Sidney Delaney, Esq., Wall St., N. Y.

Answer to the Foregoing.

Wall St., Oct. 13th, 18S2.
Dear Sir: I think the remarks to wh*ch vou refer have been taken
more seriously than they should have been by the parties who re-
ported them to you. Still, I do not deny that, under the influence of
vexation, for which I now believe there was not sufficient cause, I did
speak of you in terms of which I am now ashamed. I therefore owe
you an apology, and make it freely. Any false impressions concern-
ing your character and conduct which may have been derived from
my words, I will take care to remove by a full explanation. Hoping
that this candid acknowledgment will satisfy you,
I remain, Sir,

Truly yours,

Sidney Delaney.
To Charles Singleton, Esq., No. 21 Madison Av.

From an Aged Lady to her Niece.

" The Highlands," Sept. 4th, '82.
Dear Niece: The sincere love and affection which I have for
your indulgent father, and ever had for your virtuous mother when
alive, together with the tender regard I have for your future happi-
ness and welfare, have prevailed on me to inform you of what I have
heard of your unguarded conduct, and the too great freedom you take
with Mr. Martindale. You have been seen with him at the theatres,
in the Central Park, and other public places. Don't imagine that I
write this from a desire to find fault, but believe me, your familiarity
with him gives me no small concern. His character is extremely bad,
and he has acted in the most ungenerous manner to two or three
young ladies of my acquaintance who entertained too favorable an
opinion of his honor. It is possible, as he has an uncle of consider-
able fortune, that you mi*.y be tempted to imagine his addresses an
offer to your advantage; but that is greatly to be questioned, for I
have heard that he is deeply in debt, and also that he is privately
engaged to a rich old wiJow at Flushing. Let me prevail on you,
dear niece, to avoid his company; for, notwithstanding your purity
of heart, your good name may be compromised by such open acts of
imprudence. I have no other motive but an unaffected zeal for your
interest and welfare, and I flatter myself you will not be offended
with the liberty here taken by your sincere friend
And affectionate aunt,

Sarah Glasgow.

The Young Lady's Answer.

St. Luke's Place, N. Y., Sept. 5, '8a.

Dear Aunt: I received your letter, and when I consider your
reasons for writing, thankfully acknowledge you my friend. It is
true I have been at those public places you mention with Mr. Martin-
dale, but was utterly ignorantof his true character. He did make me
proposals of marriage, bift I told him I would do nothing without m^
father's consent. He came to visit me this morning, when I told him
that a regard for my reputation obliged me never to see him any
more, nor even correspond with him by letter, and you may depend
on my adhering to that resolution. In the meantime, I return you a
thousand thanks for your friendly advice. I shall leave New York
in about six weeks, and will call to see you alter I have been at my
father's.

I am, dear aunt, your affectionate niece,

To Mrs. Sarah Glasgow. Bella Burns.

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

(T- 2 '♦' — ^■*'*V3>),,''iSV>'"« ' ^ ♦ , ,- e>

<^@ «^S'i

>&- Letters Soliciting Advice or Friendly Favors. ^c

e^ ♦ $Q^k±-&i> ■<-

-*j

«-^tS~

s F

rj-^C ETTERS of this kind, although they do not relate
i jjjt^ to transactions which bear a commercial value, are
i»- ' generally connected with business and require prompt
attention. Introductions, for example, are often of the
highest value, and as such favors can always be reciprocated,
they are seldom refused or neglected by men acquainted with
the usages of society. Such letters may be written by persons
having only a business acquaintance, or may pass between
mutual friends.

Soliciting a Loan from an Intimate Friend.

Broad St., Philadelphia, May II, '83.
My Dear Sir: A disappointment in the receipt of some money
due has exposed me to a temporary embarrassment. The sum which
would extricate me from this painful difficulty is not large, as $400
would be amply sufficient to release me from my present pressure. I
have so great an aversion to borrowing; money from a professional
lender that I prefer the course of soliciting the aid of some well-
known friend. I have thought of several, but none with a greater
degree of confidence than yourself. Can you grant me, then, the ac-
commodation of the above sum without in any way intrenching on
your own convenience? If you can, I believe I may rely on your
readiness to do so; and you may in turn depend upon it being reim-
bursed with the strictest punctuality by the 5th of April. A speedy
reply to this request will extremely oblige, my dear Sir,
Yours most sincerely,

Howard Thomas.
To Mr. Let Williams, ai Pint St., Philadelphia.

In Answer to the Above, on Account of Incapability.

No. ai Pine St., Philadelphia, May 13, '83.
My Dear Sir : I truly regret that my circumstances will not per-
mit me to oblige a friend so dear to me as yourself; but at present I
am in great need of money, and last Friday I was compelled to borrow
to meet a pressing obligation. I, therefore, do not have it within my
power to comply with your request. Trusting that you may be more
successful in some other quarter, and with feelings of regret at my
own inability to render you a service which you might otherwise
readily command, believe me to remain.

Ever your sincere friend,

Lee Williams.
To Howard Thomas, Esq., Broad St., Philadelphia.

Friendly Letter of Introduction.

Chicago, Feb. 4th, 1S80.
Mt Dear Sir : This will introduce to you my esteemed friend Mr.
Henry W. Bonsall, whom, I am sure, you will be happy to know.
Any attention you may have it in your power to bestow during his
visit to Boston will be gratefully reciprocated by
Your friend,

Chauncey Gardener.
To Raymond llowtlls, Esq., Boston,

Soliciting a Subscription for the Benefit of a Widow.

Logan Square, Philadelphia, April 4, *8a.

Madam : I venture to solicit your benevolent aid on behalf of aa
urgent and most deserving case. The widow of John Wood, a
laborer on the Hudson River Railroad, who was killed by an accident
on the line, has been left by his untimely end with a family of six
helpless children. The two youngest are at present afflicted with a
dangerous fever, and require their mother's sole care, thus preventing
her from obtaining employment or doing anything for the support of
those depending on her.

As Mrs. Wood is a respectable and well-behaved woman, and la
very much averse to applying for ward assistance, a very moderate
sum is being raised to relieve her immediate necessities, and, if
possible, to establish her in a small shop as a means of future sub-
sistence. Trusting you will excuse this intrusion, and that I may
have the pleasure of adding your name to the accompanying sub-
scription-list,

I am. Madam,

Your most obedient servant,

Jane Heaslxy.
To Mrt. Kathtrine Roosevelt,

Fifth Avenue, N. Y.

Answer to the Foregoing.

Mrs. Roosevelt has received Mrs. Headley's letter, and is happy In
being able to assist with her mite so worthy an object, and is gratified
in placing her name on the subscription-list for five dollars, which
sum is herewith enclosed. Mrs. Headley will oblige by a note of
acknowledgment.

Fipth Avenue, N. Y., April 5th, 1S81.

From a Gentleman to his Friend, Requesting the
Loan of a Book.

* INI.LESIDB," Oct. loth, 18S3.

Sir: When last at your house you called my attention to a book
entitled " The Origin of Species," which I remember as a work of so
much Interest that I feel much inclined to peruse it, and should esteem
it a great favor if you would lend it to me. I will take great care of
it and return it in a few days, as I have at present abundant leisure
for reading.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

John Carter.
To Nathan Shrwtll, Elf., " Tho Oaks."

Affirmative Answer to the Foregoing.

" The Oaks," Oct. nth, 1SS3.
Dear Sir : You are quite welcome to the volume you express a
wish to see; but I must ask you to let me have it by the middle of
next month, as I shall then have occasion to use it for some literary

purposes.

Believe me, dear Sir,

Yours very truly,

Nathan Shbwbll.
To JUkm CnrUr, Esq., " Inghside," sV. V.

^LJus.

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

Vf"

Letters of Sympathy and Condolence.

■o fr ij p lj if 1} if tj -jf. \

\if fj if. tj if v 1 t T t-4

o^.

rr>(ETTERS of this class are among the more important
mIlCj °f those which friendship and affection dictate.
<5^ r ~' Their composition should be more studied than ordi-
nary letters of friendship. The most important rule is to
avoid mere conventionalities. In the composition of such
there must be no high-flown words or expressions, no strain-
ing after effect. If heart speaks not to heart in the simplest,
most soothing language of nature, words will to the sufferer
prove cold and unimpressive — worse than useless. Be it ever
bome in mind that, to the afflicted, the mourner in spirit,
"there is only one true source of consolation, that we shall
meet those we love in another and a better world, where the
wicked cease from troubling and the weary are at rest"

Courtesy requires that the letters of condolence to a friend,
on the death of a relative, should be written on black-edged
paper and sealed with black wax, even though you should
have been unacquainted with the deceased.

To a Lady on the Death of Her Child.

Chicago, Jan. nth, 1880.
My Dear Hester: The painful news of the removal of your dear
child has just reached me, and I hasten to express my affectionate
sympathy with you under so severe an affliction.

Aias ! how fresh in my memory is the recollection of the liveliness
and innocence of the lovely departed 1 All that was mortal is changed
now, and clouded forever; but how great is your comfort in the well-
grounded assurance that the Good Shepherd, who " careth for his
flock,*' has taken the gentle lamb into his own fold ! Your child has
gone to him who said, " Suffer little children to come unto me," and
we know not how soon our hour may come. Oh, that we may all
meet in that brighter and happier world, where sorrow and sin and
suffering are alike unknown 1

That a higher than- human power may console and support you
under this heavy stroke is the earnest prayer of,
My dear Hester,

Yours sincerely,

Arabella Winters.
To Mrs. Hester Appleby, Columbus, O.

Reply to the Foregoing.

Columbus, O., Jan. 13th, 1880.
My Dear Arabella: It is indeed true, although yet "we can
scarcely believe it. A little while ago our darling child was regarded
as the strong one of the family, overflowing with happy animal
spirits — the fountain of joy in the house. Now her poor earthly
garment is laid in the early grave, and her generous, loving, truthful
spirit, with its mine of unwrought wealth, can be with us only by the
eye of faith. Wonderful is this dispensation of a heavenly Father's
chastening hand! Yet can we see many merciful preparations for
it, the foremost being the dear child's own inner life; and through

the trials of the past five or six weeks there have been mercies In.
numerable, tempering the wind to the shorn lamb. Our hope and
prayer is that, though seen no longer, she may be a ministering angel
in our home. "To do good and distribute" was her element when
visibly present. It may be that her desire to bless those she so fondly
loved may only have received a deeper and more inward power.
Believe me ever

Most truly yours,

Hester Appleby.
To Mrs, Arabella Winters, Chicago, III.

On a Sndden Reverse of Fortune.

Stamford, Ct., July 6th, 18S0.
My Dear Friend: Hackneyed phrases of condolence never yet
comforted a man in the hour of trouble, and I am not going to try
their effect in your case. And yet, let me say, in heartfelt earnest,
that I was deeply pained to hear of your sudden and unexpected
reverse of fortune. Misfortune is very hard to bear when it falls upon
one like a flash of lightning from a clear sky, without any warning.
But do not be discouraged. When Senator Benton saw the work of
many years consumed in ten minutes, he took the matter coolly,
went to work again, and saw the damage repaired before his death.
So, I hope, will you. There is no motto like " Try again " for those
whom fate has stricken down. Besides, there are better things than
wealth, even in this world, to say nothing of the next, where we shall
neither buy nor sell. Cheer up, and believe me, as of old,

Your friend,

Willis Goodhelp.
To Mr. Harvey Brown, Boston, Mass.

To a Lady on the Death of Her Hnsband.

New York, December nth, i8Sa.
My Dear Mrs. James: Although unwilling to intrude on the
sacred privacy of grief until its first pangs have, in some measure,
subsided, I participate so sincerely in your affliction that I cannot
longer keep myself from writing. And yet, so weak and ineffectual
is all human consolation, that I scarcely know how to express the
deep sense I have of the heavy stroke under which you are prostrated.
Yours is, indeed, a sad bereavement; but I doubt not, from your strong
faith in Him who "doeth all things well," you will be sustained and
comforted by his own consolations, which are " neither few norsmall."
The recollections of him who has so lately departed must be so full of
painful regret, that I will not dwell on this dark side of the picture,
but rather look to its brighter aspect, in the hope that he has gone to
a happier sphere, and that what is loss to you is to him " unspeakable
gain."

1 add no more but my fervent prayer that you may be divinely
comforted in your sore trial, and be roused from your grief by claims
of duty to those whose welfare demands your care and affection.
Believe me, my dear Mrs. James,

Your sympathizing friend,

Jane Harvey.

To Mrs. Henry James, Nantucket, Mass.

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

Letters Between Parents and Children. <

I:*: '*:•

I! lUULMI); JlILill JIlOIIIUlilLX

"^■"^ fr iif S fc^ - jft ^ a

jTp-^ETTERS expressing the feelings of children toward
s|lfr7 their parents, and the anxious affection of parents for
3 • ' their children, afford themes of the most interesting
character, and examples of the most perfect confidence. In
style, they have the widest range ; 4 « from grave to gay, from
lively to severe."

Children away from home, in the excitement of new scenes
and new acquaintances, may for a time forget and neglect
their parents; but moments must recur reminding them of
their affectionate solicitude, and in trouble and affliction mak-
ing them yearn for a sympathy they may then, only in its
absence, thoroughly appreciate ; and it is at such times that a
letter reveals the heart of the writer and moves that of the
parent Children should, however, accustom themselves to
write regularly to their parents, and they should express them-
selves in the same easy, cheerful way that they would do in
speaking at home. The only rule we think it necessary to
lay down is the propriety of preserving a due regard to the
relationship in which the writers are placed to each other.
A father, when writing to a son, should preserve his superior-
ity by a gentle degree of authority, and a son should never
lose sight of the manner in which he can best express his sense
of filial authority.

From a Father to his Son at School.

Tremont St., Boston, Sept. 23rd, 1SS3.

My Dear Son: lam delighted to hear of your progress, and send
you a little remiUance of pocket money to prove to you that I am ever
ready to give encouragement when it is deserved. You must always
bear in mind that upon your career at school much of your future life
depends. To waste the precious hours of youth is to make prepara-
tion for a useless and dishonorable old age; whereas by steady
Industry, care of that health with which God has happily blessed
you, and submission to those who have the best right, as well as
the best inclination, to advise you for your good, you may hope to
ripen into a respectable and useful member of society, and to render
yourself At to encounter those responsibilities which fall to every
man's lot. Your mother unites in hearty wishes that you may go on
as you have begun, and that your whole life may prove a credit to
yourself and a comfort to us. Give our best respects to your excellent
preceptor, and believe me

Your affectionate father,

Jamxs McIIenry.

To Matter William McHenry,

Nazareth //all, Naearetk, Pa*

From a Boy at School to Both rarents.

Nazareth, Dec. 4th, 1SS3.
Mr Dear Parents. It will doubtless give you much pleasure to
learn that, owing to the unremitting attention of the Rev. Mr. Kluge,

I have made such satisfactory progress that I have not only been re-
moved one class higher in the school, but have carried off the second
prize for Latin verse.

I sincerely hope that I may continue sufficiently industrious to keep
up all the expectations you have formed of me, and which you have
spared no pains or expense to realize. With mingled feelings of
regret at leaving my kind preceptor and of delight at the prospect ol
our speedy meeting for the holidays,
I remain, my dearest parents,

With kindest love to ail at home.

Your affectionate son,

William McHevkY.
To Mr. and Mr t. McHenry,

Tremont St., Botton.

From a Young Lady to her Mother.

Boston, Mass., June Sth, *3i.
My Dear Mamma: From what you know of Boston, you will not
be surprised to hear that I have enjoyed an incessant round of gaiety
and pleasure. My health, too, is completely recruited, and my
friends ar-: so kind that I feel almost at home. But I have another
serious matter to confess to you, at which, I hope, you will not feel
angry. It seems almost ungrateful to think of loving any one but
you; but oh, Mamma, if you saw Harry Leaning, you would forgive
me, I am sure. He is so h.indiome, so gentle in his manners, and
yet so sensible and so accomplished ! We met at a party given by
your old friend, Mrs. Grayson, and he scarcely quitted my side the
whole evening. Mrs. Grayson has so high an opinion of him that she
repeatedly invited him to her house, until his visits have become of
almost daily occurrence. He is most honorable and straightforward,
and only waits permission to write to y<>u, in order to give you full
particulars as to his condition and prospects. Forgive me, dear
mamma, when I tell you that my feelings are deeply enlisted in his
favor, and that I feel as if much of my future happiness depended on
o.ir union. I wish von were here to counsel and advise me, for never
before did I so much feel my own heart master of my reason . I hope
you will write directly or come immediately to your affectionate but
anxious child,

Minnie Howson.
To Mrt. Gertrude Howton, Fi/lk Av., A". K

The Mother's Reply.

Firm Avenue, June 10th, •8*.

Mr Dear Child: Make yourself perfectly at ease as to my consent
to anything that will promote your happiness. If Mr. Lenning prove
to be what you represent, my fondest wishes, that you might meet a
desirable partner in life, will be realized. At the same time, do not
be too hasty to give an unqualified assent to his proposals, but take
time to study his character and disposition through a longer acquaint*
ance. I shall be in Boston on the 15th, and I shall be delighted, not
only to meet my dear child again, but to be Introduced to the man
whom she has thought *o worthy of her affections.
Your ever loving mother,

Gertrude Howson.

Te Mitt Minnie Hoveton, /Jetton, Matt.

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

£*.

^mili Erui: itiimi imtiiir iff f ■iiinllii tti iiirm i r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 rn m nil f I III 11 1 1 1 mil ri 1 1 r mtiti nr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 nif mi

=*:•£ •£•{• *:**>;• *>.•»:««•«.«:* •:••:••:•:•:••:••:••:•:•:- -t •:••:• •:• •:• •:• •:• ♦ •:• •:• •:• •:■ •:■ •? * ■:■ •:• •:• ■:• •:■ •> •:• ■:■ J •:• •:• * * •:• •:• •:• -:• ■:■ ••- ■■•

fHE form of the note is most frequently adopted by
ladies, who in this way generally issue invitations to
•parties. It is, however, on many general occasions
extremely useful, as in returning thanks for any courtesy
shown, or when any misunderstanding has arisen between
friends, in which case it tends to guard against personalities.
It is a form useful, also, as being intermediate between the
distant and the familiar styles, though it is not usually em-
ployed when the communication is of any length. Notes
must be written in the third person throughout, any departure
from this rule, either in allusion to the writer or to his corre-
spondents, being a fault of the most glaring kind. It is neces-
sary, also, to avoid the too frequent use of the personal
pronouns, which may be effected by occasionally repeating
the names of writer aud correspondent when the length of the
note requires this expedient. The date and the address of the
writer should always be at the foot of the note. The
established forms for notes of invitation to dinner, to evening
parties, etc., are given under the division of Etiquette. A
note of invitation from an intimate friend may be appropri-
ately written in whatever style the degree of mutual under-
standing between the parties may justify. The chief reason
for introducing this class of letters is to point out that they
should always be definite, however brief, and however freely
written. The best guide in these cases is to consider for a
moment the time and circumstances under which the letter
will be received. How often has unnecessary trouble and
doubt been caused by a note without date or even the day of
the week, inviting the recipient to come and dine with the
family to-morrow ! Another infallible recipe for obscurity
in this class of notes is to write on a Tuesday afternoon, for
example, and write your friend to come next Wednesday.

An Inyitation to a Bachelor Party.

Sept. aoth, 1883.
Mv dear Alf: My festive self and half-a-dozen other good
fellows are going to devote a few hours on Thursday evening to the
enjoyment of a few glasses of wine, a game of euchre, and so on. I
hope you will make one, as we have not enjoyed " the feast of reason
and flow of soul" in each other's company f«r some time past.
Believe me, dear Alfred,

Yours ever,

Harry Hunter.
To Alfred Bcllville, Esq.,

No. ig Madison Av., N. K

A Lady to Her Friend in the City, Inviting Her to
Spend a Month in the Country.

Eddington, Bucks Co., Pa., June 4th, 1SS3.
My dear Friend: I need scarcely tell you that I always feel the
greatest pleasure in your society, and am selfish enough on the
present occasion to covet it for a month, or for a longer period, should
it suit your convenience. If, therefore, you are not so wedded to the
attractions of a city life as to be loth to leave them for a short time, I
think you would gather some amusement, and aiso, perhaps, improve
your health, by a sojourn in the country. Will you, then, do us the
favor of making pur rural retreat your temporary abode, assuring
yourself that your presence will enliven our family circle, and be a
source of real enjoyment to

Your sincere friend,

Eliza Hooper.
To Mrs. Letty Davidson, Fifth Av., N. Y.

Answer to the Same, Affirmatively.

Fifth Avenue, N. Y., June 5th, 1S83.
My dear Eliza: I have just received your kind letter inviting me
to spend a short time at your pleasant home. Though I live so much
in New York, I assure }'ou that there are few who feel more delighted
with the country than myself, and I could be well contented to make
it my residence during a larger part of every year, and should cer-
tainly do so did the pursuits of Mr. Davidson allow us to live out of
the city. However, my domestic duties are not at present of so press-
ing a nature as to force me to decline your friendly invitation, and
Mr. Davidson, so far from offering any obstacle to my absence from
home for a short time, has urged me to send you an affirmative
answer, as he thinks that, in addition to the enjoyment which I can -
not fail to experience in the society of yourself and family, I shall
benefit my health by a change of air and scene. I therefore accept
your kind invitation most cheerfully, I may add gratefully. And I am.
My dear Eliza,

Your ever affectionate friend,

Letty Davidson.
To Mrs. Eliza Hooper, Eddington, Pa.

An Invitation to a Water-Party.

August 10th, 1883.
Dear Charlie: Jack Halcoll, myself and four others are going
down the bay in a six-oared boat next Wednesday. Now, you're a
jolly fellow and a good steersman, so I hope you will give us your
company and your services ; indeed, we will take no excuse. Wo
shall set out from my rooms at 7:30 p.m. without fail. Do not dis-
appoint us.

Yours truly, in haste,

Edward Neville.
To Charles Ellwood, Esq., Pine St., Philadelphia.

-7T

BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE.

EfcrWM^M:

Miscellaneous Letters.

,: j. ,._;, .,,-._■, _ ,. j, ,^„ ^,. ,^,;.,_,,,_^

*HE reader will find arranged under this heading a
variety of letters for a variety of circumstances and
occasions. With the examples given on the preceding
pages, they make the department of " Business and Social
Correspondence M a complete and comprehensive guide for all
classes of letter-writers.

From One Young Man to Another in Reference to an
Attachment.

Atlanta, Ga., Feb. 4th, 18S3.
My Dear Kenneth: You will laugh at mu, and with some reason,
when I tell you that all my old skepticism about matrimonial happi-
ness is at an end. I have met with a young lady who, I believe,
would convert even you to a belief that marriage may be a very
happy state and that bachelors are only miserable wretches after
all. In brief, I am the engaged and accepted suitor of Miss P'ord,
whose visit to New York you remember. Words cannot suffice to
express how great has been the enjoyment I have hitherto derived
from her society, and the more I see of her amiable character and
high accomplishments, the more certain do I feel that the day that
first made known to me her consent to share my fortunes will prove
one *>t the happiest in my whole existence. You may think this a
very wild effusion and one strangely at variance with my former
avowed callousness on the score of domestic life; but, believe me,
you willsoonbe a convert when you see my dear Lettie. Wishing
that you may prove as fortunate in the selection of a partner us 1
have been, I remain,

My dear boy.

Ever affectionately yours,

John Norton.
To yam** CtukHl, Wall St. , N, K.

invitation from a Familiar Friend.

Dkar Mr. Mitchell: We shall look for you on Monday evening

(the 14th, mind !) at seven o'clock, and if Mrs. Mitchell can leave her

baby and come with you, 1 need not say that we shall be doubly

glad to see her. In great haste, which 1 know you will excuse

and rather admire than otherwise,

I am sincerely yours,

Gertrude Gibson.
Cambridoe, March 10th, 1833.

Requesting a Friend to Forward Letters.

Norristown, April 9th, 1883.
Dear Sir: May I trespass on your kindness to send me in the
enclosed envelope any letter that may come through you to me up to
Wednesday, aist inst. f By to doing you will add to the many kind-
nesses experienced by,

Dear Sir,

Your obliged friend,

Harriet Hart.
To Htnry CAa** t Eso„ joj Arch St. t PhtU.

To a Daughter on Her Birthday.

Mv dearest Child: Your father, brothers and sisters all unite with
me in sending you a thousand good wishes on this your fifteenth anni-
versary. We could all have desired that circumstances would have ad-
mitted of your spending it with us; but feeling in these matters must
sometimes be sacrificed for our good, and our selfish delights must not be
permitted to interfere with the prospects of those dear to us. The package
which accompanies this letter contains not only some trifling tokens of
affection from all of us, but the materials for a little entertainment which,
1 have no doubt, Mrs. Boynton wilt allow you to give to your school-fellows,
as I have written to bog a half-holiday on the occasion. God blest you,
my dear child! and that every succeeding year may see you increase in all
that is desirable in body and mind, is the earnest prayer of your ever
anxious parents. With best compliments to your mistress and teachers.
Believe me.

Your ever affectionate mother,

Margaret Thomas,
To Mis* Ltttit Thomat,

"Linden Hall" Seminary, Lititx, /It,

A Gentleman to His Son, on the Latter** Marriage.

Philadelphia. Jan. 30th, 1883.
Mv dear Son: It is with no small pleasure, and a slight feeling of
parental pride, that I now congratulate you upon your recent change of
state. That you have my best and heartiest wishes for your future happi-
ness you already know ; but I feel natural pleasure in again giving them
expression ; and here I have to add that no parent could join in those
wishes with more fervent sincerity than your dear and kind mother, who
desires to unite with me in the most affectionate regards to our new relation,
our daughter-in-law. That your marriage state may be blessed with the
same domestic happiness that has fallen to my lot. is the sincere wish 0/
Your ever affectionate father,

John Paul Jo
ToIItnry Paul yon**, PoUstown. Pm.

Requesting a Friend to Execute a Commission*

Yonrers, June 3d, 1SS3.

My dear Jennie: Will you kindly execute the following little
commissions for me as soon as you can make tt convenient ? Purchase
for me at Stewart A Co.'s the following- articles there state muslin,
lace, etc.) Will you also call at Applcton's and inquire when
Bulwer't new novel will be out, as I am all anxiety to know?

Please give them my address at Stewart's, and tell them to pack the
parcel carefully and tend it by express.

The weather up here is delightful, but f wish I had the pleasure of

your company to render it more to. Pray write a line, and let me

know how toon you can make me a visit, and thus afford me an

opportunity to thank you personally for your kindness.

Ella Forester.
To Miss 7*nni* Ifa/r,

AV 40 Sixth Avon**, .V. }'.

Application of Servant for Testimonial.

East Fourth St., N. Y m Jan. i, *Sa.
Respected Madam: Being- desirous of again entering service in
my former capacity of cook and laundress, I write to ask the favor of
a testimonial from you as to my general character and capability. I
am sorry to have to trouble you, but I feel that you will do anything
you can to further me in obtaining employment. With sincere thanks
for your past kindness,

I am, respected Madam,

Your grateful servant,

Charlotte Fields.

To Mrs, Louise Balmer,

No, 24 West Fifty-first St., Nrw York.

Acknowledging Receipt of Testimonial, with Thanks*

Beaker St., Boston, May 15, '82.
Reverend Sir; I have received your most obliging and con-
siderate communication, and I beg that you will accept my warmest
thanks for the handsome, if not too flattering, testimonial you have
been pleased to hand me. I sincerely trust that my future career may
continue to be marked by conduct worthy of your approbation, and
assuring you of my deep sense of the obligation under which you have
placed me,

I am, reverend Sir,

Your obedient and grateful servant,

Eliza Hazleton.
To the Rev. John Snowden,

Rittenhouse Square, Boston.

Inquiry Regarding a Servant's Character.

No. 1428 Pine St., St. Louis, May 4, '83.
Madam: Susan Macy, who is applying for the place of cook in my
house, refers me to you for her character and qualifications. I shall,
therefore, feel obliged by your informing me if she is honest, cleanly,
industrious and obliging; also if she is well acquainted with plain
cookery.

1 am, Madam, yours respectfully,

Mary Martin.
To Mrs. Ann Cooler, 24J Arch St., Phila.

A Merchant Urging Payment of Account.

Warren St., New York, May 3, '82.
Sir: I must solicit your prompt attention to the enclosed account,
which has* already been due over two months. On the 10th I have a
heavy obligation to meet, which will require all the funds I can pro-
cure; and, as you have not remitted me any cash for some time past,
I trust you will comply with my request, and forward a draft for the
whole or a considerable part of the balance due me. Please reply by
return mail, and let me know whether I may depend upon you.
Your obedient servant,

Jjlmbs Parsons.
To Henry P. Jones, Brooklyn,

A Letter of Introduction.

New Orleans, June 3d, *8i.
Dear Sir: The present will be handed you by Mr. Smith, partner
of Mr. Stillwell, who was himself an associate of the house of Cross
& Black, Memphis. Mr. Smith intending to visit your city on business
of his house, we take the liberty of recommending him to you, and of
begging you to render him all the services in your power, and to
furnish him oil thu information of which he may have need, or which
may appear likely to you to insure the success of his trip. Should
Mr. Smith have need of ;my money for his expenses, you will be good
enough to let him have what he may ask for, and charge the same to
our account.

^ery respectfully,

Yours, etc.,

Lord & Taylcr.

To Julius Sichel, Esq., Wall Street, N. V.

From a Lady to Another, an Invalid.

Spruce St., Philadelphia, May 1, 1S83.
My Dear Miss Hartman: I am truly grieved to hear of your
continued indisposition, but trust that you may speedily enjoy the
return of your wonted health and energy. There is much consolation
in the fact that your spirits are good, and that the illness does not
affect any vital part. Considering which, I have every confidence
that, with God's blessing, the careful attentions of your friends will
soon make your complete recovery a matter of certain and cordial
congratulation. With kindest wishes and sympathy, I am, dear Mis*
Hartman,

Yours ever sincerely,

Amanda Merrill*
To Miss Ella Hartman, Columbus, Ohio.

An Invitation to a Picnic Party.

Newark, June 15th, 1883.
My dear Sir : We are endeavoring to get up a small excursion to
visit High Bridge on the iSth of this month. Will you do us the favor
of making one of our number? Mrs. Shaw and my family desire
their compliments, and request me to mention that they have taken
upon themselves the task of providing the "creature comforts" for
that occasion, and trust that their exertions will meet with unanimous
approval. Should you have no previous engagement for that day,
and feel disposed to join our party, a carriage will be at your door by
seven o'clock on Wednesday morning. And believe me to be,
My dear Sir,

Yours most sincerely,

Charles Shaw
P. 5.— The favor of an early answer will oblige.
To Stephen Wainwright, Esq., Yonkers, N. K

^2=

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

.- .- .- ■■■ .-

SYNONYMS

«-*§-^-

Antonyms.

Containing over Twenty Thousand Words of both Similar and Contrary Meaning.

OTHING can be more
embarrassing than that
deplorable poverty of
speech which makes a
man iterate and reiter-
ate his one word, when
but a slight knowledge
of Synonyms would permit him
to express his ideas in an ele-
gant and faultless manner.

Every one has felt the neces-
sity, in writing or speaking, of
having at command a ready
vocabulary from which to select
words that will clearly and forci-
bly convey the intended meaning
and at the same time save the
inelegance of frequent repetitions.

In fact, some writers have made the number
of Synonyms in a language the test of its civil-
ization and fitness for literature. Thus the
ancient Greek fairly teems with words having a
like signification, so that every delicate shade of
meaning might be clearly and forcibly put;
the same may be said of Latin and of Hebrew.
On the other hand, while the English language

contains about forty thousand words, Latham
and other scholars have decided that the vocab-
ulary of the English peasant does not contain
more than five or six hundred words. Conse-
quently it seems clear that a knowledge of
words is the most direct possible test of culture
and civilization.

The rhetorical fault known as tautology is
best overcome by an acquaintance with Syno-
nyms. On the other hand a knowledge of An-
tonyms stands next in importance to Synonyms,
for one of the strongest figures of speech is
"Antithesis," or the putting of matters in start-
ling contrast and opposition — a method known
of old as one of the most effective weapons in
the armory of the rhetorician. The Dictionary
of Antonyms following will be found one of the
most complete ever published. The student
will, upon finding the antonym he wishes, turn
to its peculiar synonyms, and thus find the very-
word for which he may be seeking. To illustrate
the use and necessity of synonyms to the writer
and speaker we append a sentence which clearly
shows the value of a dictionary of this char-
acter.

4^=

—Jt,

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Example.

He was a man of acute perception, acute
judgment, acute intellect and acute observation.

The Same Sentence Improved.

{acute }
keen > perception,
quick j

{shrewd 1 ( bright 1

piercing >judgment,< sharp > intellect and
discerning J (subtle J

( intelligent *|
< penetrating V observation.
( clear-sighted J

On the other hand there are cases when the
reiteration of the same word gives strength and
consistency to a sentence ; when the same word
used again and again comes at last to be like
the blows of a hammer, riveting attention to the
subject.

Of this character is Webster's celebrated sen-
tence in his speech on "American Institutions."

Webster's Celebrated Sentence.

" Our Government can stand trial, it can stand
assault, it can stand adversity, it can stand per-
secution ; it can stand everything but the weak-
ness of our owrtstrength, it can stand everything
but disorganization, disunion and nullification."

Abandon, v. i. Leave, quit, forsake,
drop, relinquish, evacuate, give over, cast off.
2. Surrender, cede, resign, waive, vacate.
Anto., keep, hold, retain.

Abandoned, adj. i. Deserted, forsaken.

2. Depraved, corrupt, profligate, shameless,
incorrigible. Anto., I. Kept, cared for. a.
Virtuous, holy.

Abase, v. I, Reduce, lower, a. Degrade,
humble, disgrace. Anto., i. Increase, raise,
a. Honor, praise.

Abash, v. Shame, confuse, humiliate.
Anto.y embolden, reassure.

Abate, v. 1. Lessen, reduce, diminish.
a. Moderate, allay. 3. Suppress, remove,
terminate. Anto., 1. Augment. 2. Infuriate,

3. Empower, permit.

Abbreviate, v. Curtail, shorten. Ante,
enlarge, lengthen.

Abduct, v. Kidnap. Anto. t rescue.

Abet. v. Aid, assist, help. a. Favor,
sanction. 3. Instigate, incite. Anto., 1. Re-
sist, a. Oppose. 3. Forbid.

Abhor, v. Hate, loathe, detest. Anto.,
love, admire.

Abide, v. Sojourn, live, dwell. Anto.,
depart, leave.

Ability, n. 1. Power, force, might. 2.
Competency. 3. Capacity, genius, turn.
Anto. t Inability. 1. Feebleness, a. Insuffi-
ciency. 3. Incapability.

Abject, adj. Base, vile, mean, low.
Anto., lofty, good, noble.

Able. adj. 1. Clever, accomplished, tal-
ented. 2. Qualified. 3. Gifted, strong, mighty.
Anto., 1. Stupid, a. Unfit. 3. Weak, feeble.

Abolish, v. 1. Repeal, revoke, annul,
cancel. 2. Overthrow. Anto., 1. Enforce,
hold. 2. Establish.

Abominable, adj. 1. Hateful, odious.
2. Loathsome, nauseous. 3. Vile, wretched.
Anto., 1. Lovable. 2. Pleasant. 3. Happy,
good.

Abridge, v. Contract, compress. Anto.,
expand. See Abbreviate.

Abrupt, adj. 1. Broken, rugged. 2.
Steep. 3. Sudden, unexpected. 4. Short,
curt. Anto., 1. Smooth. 2. Level. 3. Slow.

4. Long, courteous.

Absolute, adj. 1. Real, positive, a.
Arbitrary, despotic. 3. Independent. Anto.,
1. Shadowy. 2. Limited. 3. Dependent.

Abstinence. «. Temperance, fast. Anto.,
feast, plenty, orgies.

Abstruse, adj. Profound, recondite, hid-
den. Anto., simple, clear.

Absurd, adj. Silly, foolish, laughable.
Anto., wise, solemn.

Abundance. n. Plenty, profuseness,
richness. Anto., famine, want, poverty.

Abuse, v. 1. Pervert, misuse. 2. Harm,
injure. 3. Revile, reproach, malign. Anto.,
1. Use. a. Protect. 3. Praise.

Accept, v. Receive, take. Anto., refuse,
reject.

Acceptable. adj\ Pleasing, welcome.
Anto., displeasing.

Accidental, adj. Casual. Anto., pre-
concerted.

Accommodate, v. 1. Oblige, serve, assist.
a. Fit, suit, adapt. 3. Reconcile, adjust.
Anto., 1. Disoblige, impede, a. Spoil. 3.
Embitter.

Accomplish, v. Complete, perform,
execute. Anto., fail.

Accomplished, adj. 1. Educated, ex-
perienced, practiced, adroit, talented, a.
Polished, refined, polite. Anto., 1. Ignorant,
awkward. 2. Boorish, ill-bred.

Account, n. Narrative, recital, history.
Anto., rebuttal, negation.

Accrue, v. Result, issue, ensue. Anto.,
stop, delay, bar.

Accumulate, v. 1. Collect, gather, a.
Store, garner, hoard. 3. Increase, grow.
Anto., 1. Dissipate, scatter, a. Spend. 3.
Lessen, diminish.

Accurate, adj. Correct, exact, precise.
Anto., wrong, loose, erroneous.

Accuse, v. Charge, criminate, arraign.
Anto., exonerate.

Accustom, v. Habituate, familiarize,
addict. Anto., unused, undrilled.

Achieve, v. See Accomplish.

Acknowledge, v. Admit, concede, avow.
Anto., deny.

Acquaint, v. Tell, inform, notify. Anto.,
deceive.

Acquire, v. Get, gain, secure, win, ob-
tain. Ante., lose.

Acquit, v. Clear, absolve, exonerate.
Anto., convict, indict.

Act. v. I. Work, move, execute. 2. Be-
have, demean. 3. Operate. 4. Do, perform.
e,. Personate, play, enact. Anto., 1. Idle,
loaf. 2. Misbehave. 3. To be inert. 4. Re-
fuse. 5. Verify.

Act* n. 1. Deed, performance. 2. Statute,
law. 3. Part of a play.

Active, adj. 1. Brisk, alert, nimble,
smart, a. Busy, diligent, enterprising. 3.
Powerful, drastic. Anto., 1. Lazy. a. Lack-
ing energy. 3. Weak.

Actually, adv. Really, truly, verily.
Anto. t falsely, deceptively.

Acute, adj. 1. Keen, shrewd, sharp,
discerning, knowing, quick, smart, bright,
intelligent, ingenious, subtle, penetrating,
piercing, clear-sighted, sharp-witted, long,
headed. 2 Severe, violent, intense, exquis-
ite, pungent. Anto., 1. Dull. a. Stupid.

Add. v. 1. Join, annex, append, tag. a.
Sum, cast up. Anto., 1. Disconnect, separate.
2. Subtract, take away.

Address, n. 1. Appeal, petition, en-
treaty. 2. Speech, discourse, oration. 3.
Skill, art, tact. 4. Superscription, direction.
5. Manner. Anto., 3. Clumsiness, awkward-
ness.

Adhere, v. Cling, cleave, cohere. Anto.,
loosen.

Adjacent, adj. Near, bordering, con-
tiguous. Anto., far, asunder.

Adjust, v. Arrange, trim, regulate, adapt,
accommodate. Anto., disarrange, disorder,
confuse.

Admirable, adj. Excellent, fine, praise-
worthy. Anto., blamable, execrable.

Admire, v. Wonder, like, esteem, love.
Anto., hate, despise, dislike.

Admit, v. 1. Grant, concede, confess.
2. Let in. Anto., 1. Deny. 2. Keep out, ex-
clude.

Admonish, v. Advise, warn, reprove.
Anto., recommend.

Adulation, n. Flattery. Anto., blame,
scolding.

Advancement. «. Preferment, progres-
sion. Anto., displacement, retrogression,
receding.

Adventure, n. 1. Stake, risk, chance.
2, Accident, danger, event. Anto., 1. Cer-
tainty. 2. Quiet, safety.

Adversity, n. Trouble, misfortune, sor-
row, distress. Anto., prosperity, wealth, joy.

Advertise, v. Announce, publish, pro-
claim. Anto., conceal.

Advice, «. 1. Counsel, caution. 2. In-
formation.

Affable, adj. Civil, sociable, easy. Anto.,
surly, discourteous.

Affection. «. Partiality, fondness. Anto.,
dislike.

Afflict, v. Trouble, annoy, torment,
harass. Anto., please.

Affront, v. Insult, abuse, condemn. Anto.,
respect.

Agent, n. Factor, substitute. Anto.,
principal.

Aggregate, n. Total, whole, lump, sum,
mass. Anto., part.

Agile, adj. See Active.

Agitation, n. 1. Excitement, commo-
tion, tumult. 2. Debate, discussion. Anto.,
tranquility.

f 7=^

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Agree, v. I. Concur, acquiesce, unite. 2.
Engage, contract. ^«/*>., I, Differ, disagree,
a. it c fuse.
Aid. v. Assist, help. Anto., resist.
Alarm. K, Fright, dismay, apprehension,
Anto., confidence, courage.
Alert, adj. See Active.
Ailment. «. Food, sustinence, nourish-
moot*

Allay, v. Soften, lessen, quiet, ease.
Aula., excite.
Alleviate, v. See Allay.
Alliance, n. League, confederacy, union.
Anto. t disunion, discord.

Allowance. .«. i. Salary, wages, pay.
a. Permission. Anto., 2. Prohibition.
Allure, v. Tempt, decoy, Anto., repel.
Amass, v. See Accumulate.
Amatory, adj. Tender, amorous, erotic.
Anto., hateful.

Amazement, «. Wonder, astonishment.
Anto., anticipation.

Ambiguous, adj. Doubtful, dubious.
Anto., clear.

Amicable, adj. Kind, friendly, pleasant.
Anto., hostile.

Ample, adj. 1. Spacious. 2. Plentiful,
abundant. Anto., 1. Confined, narrow. 2.
Scarce.

Amuse, v. Divert, entertain. Anto.,
weary, tire.

Analogy, v. Similarity. Anto., diver-
sity, difference.

Ancestors, n. Forefathers. Anto., pos-
terity.

Ancient, ad/. Old antique. Anto., modern.
Anecdote. ». Tale, story.
Anger. n. Resentment, wrath, ire, fury,
rage, choler. Anto., peacefulness, amiability,
calm,

Anguish, n. Pain, distress, agony. Anto.,
bliss.

Animal, n. Creature, beast, brute. Anto.,
things inanimate.

Animate, v. Inspire, enliven, cheer, in-
cite, urge. Anto., depress.

Animation. «. Life, spirit, vivacity.
Anto.. apathy.

Animosity, w. Enmity, hostility, malig-
nancy. Anto., Irking, friendliness.

Annex, v. Attach, append, join. Anto.,
detach, separate.
Announce, v. See Advertise.
Annoy, v. Disturb, molest, trouble.
Anto., convenience, please, accommodate.

Annul, v. Rescind, abolish. Auto., af-
firm.

Answer. ». Reply, rejoinder. Anto.,
question.

Anterior, adj. Prior, before, previous.
Auto., posterior, subsequent.

Anticipate, v. Foresee, forestall, pre-
vent. Anto., surprise.

Antipathy. ». Aversion, dislike, hatred.
See Animosity.

Antique, adj. Old, ancient, obsolete.
Anto., modem, new, fresh.

Anxiety. «. Care, solicitude, worry.
Anto., certainty, repose.

Any. adj. pron. I. Anyone. 2. Some.
Anto., none.
Apartment. ». Lodging, room, chamber.
Apathy. ». Coldness, torpor, unconcern.
Anto., animation, which see.
Ape. v. Imitate.

Apologize, v. Excuse, exculpate. Ante.
in .ult, justify.

Appal, .-. Scare, shock, frighten. Anto..
embolden, encourage. See Alarm.

Apparel. n. Dress, clothing, attire.
Anto., nudity.

Apparent, adj. Visible, plain, obvious,
evident. Anto., concealed, >mnhrn0lli wkjtM
see.

Apparition. «. An appearance, ghost,
spirit, phantom.

Appear, v. 1. Emerge, come into view.
a. Seem, look. Anto., disappear.

Appearance, n. 1. Coming, arriv.il. 2.
Air, figure. », Scmblcncc. Anto., 1, Depart-
im . \. Unlikeuess.

Appease, v. Calm, pacify. Anto., In-
flam*.

Appellation. «; Name, title.

Applaud, v. Cheer, praise, extol. Anto.,
hiss, blame, belittle.

Application, n. Industry, persistency.
Anto., idleness, fickleness.

Apply, v. Use, appropriate, devote.
Auto., misapply.

Appoint, -v. 1. Fix, establish. 2. Name,
constitute. Anto., 1. Change,

Appraise, v. Value, estimate, rate.

Appreciate, v. Estimate, value, appraise.

Apprehend, v. 1. Catch, capture, arrest.

2. Understand, comprehend. 3. Fear, dread,
alarm. Auto., 1. Escape. 2. Misunderstand.

3, Embolden.

Apprise, v. See Admonish.

Approach, v. Approximate, come near.
Anto., depart.

Approbation. n. Approval, sanction,
consent. Auto., disapproval.

Approximate, v. See Approach.

Apt. adj. 1. Fit, meet, suitable, qualified.
2. Ready, quick, prompt. Anto., \ . Inn:. 2,
Slow.

Arbitrary, adj. Irresponsible, tyrannous.
Anto., normal, regular, constitutional.

Arbitrator. «, Judge, umpire, referee.

Archives. «. Records, chronicles.

.Ardent, adj. Zealous, fervid, hot, in-
tense. Anto., calm, cool.

Arduous, adj. Difficult, trying, labori-
ous. Anto., easy, facile.

Argue, v. 1. Evince, prove. 2. Reason,
discuss, debate. Anto., disprove.

Argument, n. Reason, proof, discussion,
dispute. Anto., folly, mistake.

Arise, v. Mount, ascend, get up. 2. Be-
gin, originate. Anto., descend7go down.

Aristocratic, adj. Haughty t proud, ar-
rogant. Anto., democratic, plebeian.

A this. «, Weapons.

Army. n. Force, troops. Anto. t mob.

Arraign, v. See Accuse. Anto., acquit.

Arrange. :■. 1. Distribute, rank, classify.
2. Plan, devise, organize. Anto., disarrange.

Arrogance. «, Pride, haughtiness, su-
perciliousness. Anto. ; humility.

Artful, adj. 1. Skilful. 2. Subtle, shrewd,
crafty. Anto., simple, unaffected.

Artifice. «. Cunning, trick, stratagem,
Anto. t honesty, simplicity.

Artist* n. 1. Designer. 2. Painter,
sketcher. 3. Sculptor, modeller, Anto.,
dauber.

Assay, n. Test, examination, chemical
analysis of metals.

Association, n. Society, guild, combin-
ation. Anto., separation.

Attic, adj. Classic, elegant, pure. Anto.,
stupid, modern, unclassicai.

Attitude, n. Posture, phase, situation.

Attorney. n. Lawyer, counsellor, agent.
Anto., client.

Attract, v. Allure, fascinate, captivate.
Anto., repel.

Attraction. ». Charm, fascination.
Anto., repulsion.

Audacity. n. Daring, hardihood, pre-
sumption, insolence. Auto., timidity, meek-
ness.

Augment, v. Increase, enlarge, mag-
nify. Anto.y decrease, diminish.

Author, n. Writer, composer, maker.
Authority, n. Liberty f permit, order,
warrant. Anto., prohibition.

Avarice, n. CJ IpkUty, covet-

ousness. Anto., liberality, prodigality.

Avow. v. Affirm, confess, declare. Anto.,
deny.

Awake, adj. Watchful, vigilant Anto.,
sleepy, drowsy.

V v • . n. Dread.

Awkward. adj. Unskilful, unhandy,
boorish, rough. Anto., accomplished, subtle,
graceful.

Bubble, v. Prate, chatter. Anto., to be

Baffle, v. Circumvent, foil. Anio., suc-
cor, aid, nbct.
Baggage. «. Luggage.

Balance, v. Equalize, counteract, poise.
Anto., preponderate.

Band. «. 1. Company, crew, gang. 2.
Chain, fetter, shackle. 3. Fillet, bandage. 4.
Orchestra, company of musicians. Anto., in-
dividual, one.

Bunifth. v. Exile, send away, exclude.
Anto., recall.

Banter, v. Rally, twit, taunt.

Bare. adj. Unclothed, naked. Anio.,
c'ad.

Bargain, n. Agreement, contract, sale.

Barter, v. Exchange, sell, commute.
Anto., retain.

Base. a dj. See Abject.

Bear. -v. 1. Uphold. 2. Undergo, suffer.
3. Generate, bring forth.

Beastly, adj. Brutal, sensual, bestial.
Anto., humane, polite.

Beat. v. 1. Knock, hit, strike. 2. Defeat,
conquer, subdue.

Beau. ». 1. Admirer, suitor. 2. Fop,
dandy. Anto., betle.

Beauty. ». Comeliness, grace, symmetry.
Anto., ugliness.

Becoming, adj. Appropriate, seemly,
fit. Anto., unsuitable.

Beg. v. Beseech, solicit, entreat Anto.,
grant.

Beguile, v. Amuse, divert, delude.

Behavior. ». Conduct, bearing, deport-
ment Anto., misbehavior.

Behold, inter/. See, look.

Believe, v. Credit, assume, deem. Anto.,
doubt.

Beloved, adj. Dear, darling. Anto,,
hated.

Below, prep. Under, beneath, Anto.,
over*, above.

Benefaction, n. Gift, gratuity.

Bequeath, v. Leave, devise, will. Anto.,
inherit.

Bereave, v. Deprive, take away, strip.
Anto., enrich.

Beseech, v. See Beg.

Botow. v. Confer, give, grant Anto.,
withhold.

Hetler. v. Improve, amend, correct
Anto., confuse, deteriorate.

Bill. n. 1. Reckoning, statement, account.
2. Draft 3. Beak. 4. Pickaxe.

Blame, n. Censure, reproof, reproach,
Anto., praise.

Blemish, n. Stain, spot, speck, flaw.
A>:to., immaculate.

Blind, adj. 1. Sightless. 2. Heedless.
Anto., far-sighted.

Bloody, adj. Sanguinary, gory.

Boast, v. Brag, vaunt, glory.

Boldness, n. 1. Courage, braverv, valor.
2. Effrontery, impudence. Anto., I. Coward-
ice. 2. Bsshfalneoa, mod*

llnmhnstic. adj. Inflated, pompous,
grandiloquent. Anto., cor

Border, n. Verge, brim, edge, frontier.
Anto., middle, interior.

Bore. n. 1. Nuisance, a prosy talker, a.
Hole, calibre.

Boundless, adj. Unlimited, immeasura-
ble, infinite. Anto.. Limited,

Bountiful, adj. Liberal, generous, boun-
teous. Anto., niggardly, miserable.

Bravery, w. See Boldness.

Breeding, n. Nurture, training, manners.
Ant^., impoliteness.

Brief, adj. Short, concise. Anto., pro-
tracted.

Bright, adj. Shining, radiant Anto.,
dull.

Brilliancy, n. Luster, radiance. Anto.,
dullness.

Brittle, ad/. Fragile, frail, crumbling.
Anto., tough.

Broil, m. Quarrel, brawl, fight, affray.
Anto., quiet, peace.

Hrtital. adj. Cnicl. unfeeling, savage,
ferocious. Anto., humane.

Bud. v. Sprout, shoot, germinate.

Buffoon. *. Harlequin, fool, idiot Anto.,

Build, r. Raise, erect Anto., destroy,
pull down.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

"71

Bulk. n. Size, magnitude, body, gross.
Anto., tenuity.

Burial, n. Interment, sepulture. Anto.,
resurrection.

Burst, v. Explode, break open.

Business, n. Calling, employment, voca-
tion. Auto., leisure.

Bustle, n. Stir, tumult, fuss. Anto.,
quiet.

Butt. k. i. Mark, object, target. 2. Cask.

Buxom, adj. Healthy, brisk, cheerful,
lively. Anto., spiritless.

Buy. v. Purchase, cheapen, bargain for.
Anto., sell.

Cabal. n, 1. Clique, set, league. 2. Plot,
intrigue, conspiracy.

Cajole, v. Coax, flatter, wheedle. Anto.,
compel.

Calamity, n. Mishap, misfortune, disas-
ter. Anto., good fortune, luck.

Calculate, v. Reckon, count, compute,
rate, estimate.

Call, v. 1. Cry, shout. 2. Invite, bid,
summon. Anto., I, Whisper. 2. Order away,
send.

Calling. n. See Business.

Callous, adj. Hard, unfeeling, dead.
Anto., sensitive, nervous.

Calm. adj. 1. Composed, collected. 2.
Quiet, tranquil, placid. Anto., 1- Stormy. 2.
Agitated.

Candid, adj. Open, honest, sincere.
Anto., deceitful, treacherous.

Capacity. «. 1. Volume, amplitude. 2.
Ability, competency, faculty, talent. 3. Char-
acter, office. Anto. ,2. Incapacity, incompeten-
cy, stupidity, inability.

Caprice, n. Whim, freak, fancy, vagary.
Anto,, settled purpose, conviction.

Captious, adj. Peevish, petulant, fretful,
cross. Anto., good-humored, facile, easy.

Captivate, v. Fascinate, charm, enchant.
Anto., disgust, displease.

Careful, adj. 1, Heedful, attentive. 2.
Watchful, cautious, circumspect, Anto.,
heedless, careless, rash.

Caress, n. Kiss, embrace. Anto., buffet,
spurn.

Carousal. ». Feast, banquet, orgie.
Anto., fast.

Cash. n. Money, coin, specie.

Casualty, n. Accident, mischance, con-
tinge ncy.

Cause. z». Produce, create, occasion.

Cause. «. Reason, motive, inducement,
incitement. Anto., effect.

Cavity. ». Aperture, opening, hollow.

Cautious, adj. Prudent, careful, watch-
ful. See Careful. Anto., rash, headlong,
heedless.

Celebrate, v. r. Commemorate, keep,
observe, honor, solemnize. 2. Praise, extol,
glorify. Anto., 1. Forget, ignore. 2. Execrate!

Censure, v. Blame, approve, chide, scold,
berate. Anto. t praise, honor, congratulate,
aj) prove.

Certain, adj. 1. Sure, assured, confident.
2. Infallible, unfailing. 3. Plain, positive,
absolute, indubitable. Anto., uncertain. 1.
Dubious, doubtful. 2. Fallacious. 3. Dark,
disputed, challenged.

Chance. ». 1, Accident, fortune, fortuity,
casualty. 2. Hazard, risk, peril, jeopardy.
Anto.,1. Design. 2. Safety, certainty.security.

Change, v. Alter, vary, turn.

Character. «. Repute, reputation, stand-
ing.

, Charm, n. Grace, attraction. Anto., re-
pulsion.

Chastity. ». Purity, modesty, virtue,
continence. Anto., impurity, lewdness, in-
continence.

Chattels. «.,//. Goods, effects, personal
property. Anto., real estate.

Chatter, v. See Babble.

Cheat. v. Deceive, trick, defraud,
swindle.

Cheer, -v. 1. Applaud. 2. Comfort, con-
sole, gladden, encourage. Anto., 1. Hiss. 2.
Distress.

Cheerful, adj. Lively, merry, sprightly,
gay. Anto., sad, weary, downcast, mournful.

Cherish, v. I. Nourish, nurse, nurture.
2. Encourage. 3. Harbor, protect, love.
Anto., 1. Starve, famish. 2. Dishearten. 3.
Expose, detest.

Chief. «. Leader, commander. Anto.,
subordinate, subaltern.

Chiefly, adv. Principally, mainly, mostly,
eminently. Anto., secondarily, subsequently.

Childhood, h. Minority, infancy. Anto.,
majority, manhood.

Childish, adj. 1. Young, juvenile, in-
fantile. 2. Weak, trifling, silly. Anto., 1.
Manful, experienced. 2. Strong, earnest,
wise, sapient.

Choice, n. Selection, election, option,
preference.

Choke, v. 1, Suffocate, strangle, throttle.
2. Stop, block, obstruct. Anto., 1. Breathe,
animate. 2. Assist, help.

Choose, v. Prefer, pick, select, elect.

Circulate.. v. Propagate, disseminate,
diffuse, spread. Anto., confine, stop, bound,
retard.

Circumspect, adj. Judicious, discreet,
prudent, cautious, wary. Anto., imprudent,
rash, foolish.

Circumstance, n. Incident, accident.

Cite. v. 1. Quote, adduce. 2. Summon.
Anto., 2. Discharge, release.

Civil, adj. 1. Civic, municipal. 2. Ur-
bane, obliging, courteous, polite, refined.
Anto., 1. Rural, countrified. 2. Rude, boor,
ish, impolite.

Civility, n. 1. Courtesy, politeness,
suavity. 2. Benefit, favor, kindness. Anto.,

1. Discourtesy, asperity. 2. Unkindness, in-
civility.

Civilization, n. Culture, cultivation, re-
finement. Anto., barbarism, savagery, ignor-
ance.

Clad, v., p. p. Dressed, clothed, attired.
Anto., naked, bare.

Clandestine, adj. Concealed, hidden,
sly, private. Anto., open, prominent, con-
spicuous, advertised.

Clasp, v. Grasp, clutch, gripe. Anto.,
loosen, open, unclasp.

Clean, adj. Unsoiled, spotless, pure, im-
maculate. Anto., impure, dirty, filthy, soiled,
nasty.

Clear, adj. 1. Transparent, bright, limpid.

2. Fair, cloudless, serene. 3. Plain, lucid,
perspicuous. 4. Patent, obvious, visible, evi-
dent. Anto., 1. Opaque, dark. 2. Gloomy.

3. Ambiguous, dubious. 4. Occult, hidden,
obscure.

Clear, -v. Acquit, exonerate. A nto., con-
vict.

Clever, adj. I. Skillful, apt, smart, quick,
able. 2. Kind. Anto,, stupid, clumsy, awk-
ward, rgnorant.

Climb, v. Ascend, clamber, scramble.
Anto., descend, go down, fall.

Cling, v. Adhere, stick. Anto., loosen.

Close, v, 1. Shut. 2. End, finish. Anto.,
1. Open. 2. Begin, commence.

Clothes. «. Raiment, dress, attire, garb,
costume, habiliments. Anto., nudity.

Cloy. v. Surfeit, sate, satiate, glut. Anto.,
famish.

Clumsy, adj. See Awkward.

Coarse, adj. 1. Gross, vulgar. 2. Rude,
uncivil, gruff. Anto., I, Nice, polite. 2. Re-
fined.

Coax, v Flatter, wheedle, cajole. Anto.,
command, compel, force.

Cogent, adj. Forcible, powerful, potent,
convincing. Anto., weak.

Cold. adj. 1. Cool, frigid, wintry. 2. Un-
feeling, stoical. Anto., u Warm, tropical,
fervid, hot. 2. Sensitive.

Cold. ». Catarrh, cough.

Collect, v. 1. Gather. 2. Accumulate,
amass. Anto., scatter, disperse.

Collection, n. 1. Crowd, gathering. 2.
Accumulation, store, aggregation. 3. Con-
tribution.

Color, n. 1. Shade, tinge, tint, hue. 2.
Pigment, paint.

Combination, n. 1. Union, conjunction,
2. Alliance. 3. Mixture. Anto., disunion,
disconnection.

Come. v. 1. Approach. 2. Arrive. Anto.,

1. Go. 2. Depart.

Comely, adj. Handsome, pretty, sym-
metrical. Anto , ugly, homely, dispropor-
tionate.

Comfert. v. Solace, cheer, console.
Anto., discomfort, disease.

Comical, adj. Droll, funny, humorous,
ludicrous. Anto., solemn, serious.

Commanding, adj. Imperative, authori-
tative.

Commence, v. Begin, originate. Anto.,
end, finish.

Commend, v. 1. Intrust, commit. 2.
Praise, extol, laud, eulogize. Anto., 1. Take
from, withdraw. 2. Blame, censure, disap-
prove.

Comment, n. I. Remark, observation.

2. Note, explanation.

Commercial, adj. Trading, mercantile.
Commission, v. 1. Empower, author-
ize. 2. Depute, delegate.

Commodious, adj. Fit, suitable, con-
venient. Anto., unfit, inconvenient.

Commodities. «., //, Wares, goods,
merchandise, produce.

Common, adj. 1. General. 2. Usual,
habitual, customary, 3. Trite, stale. 4. Or-
dinary, low. Anto., 1. Occasional, exceptional.
2. Unusual. 3. Fresh. 4. Peculiar, extraor-
dinary.

Communication. «. Conference, con-
versation, letter.

Community, n. I. Society, public, peo-
ple. 2. Association, brotherhood.

Companion. «. 1. Mate, comrade. 2.
Partaker, sharer.

Company, n. 1. Assembly, group, gather-
ing. 2. Party. 3. Visitors. 4. Fellowship,
society. 5. Corporation, firm. Anto,, indi-
vidual, personality.

Compassion, n. Pity, tenderness, clem-
ency. Anto , severity, harshness, cruelty.

Compatible, adj. Consistent, consonant.
Anto., incompatible, inconsistent.

Compel, v. Force, coerce, drive. Anto..
cajole, coax, lead.

Compendium. ». Compend, abridg-
ment. Anto., discourse, enlargement, aug-
mentation.

Compensation, n. Reward, recompense,
satisfaction. Anto., loss, punishment, correc-
tion.

Competent, adj. I. Able, qualified. 2.
Adequate, fit. Anto., I. Incompetent, feeble.
2. Inadequate.

Competition, n. Rivalry, contest, emu-
lation. Anto., monopoly, combination.

Complain, v. Murmur, grumble, lament.
Anto., rejoice, jubilate.

Compliment. ;/. Praise, commendation,
encomium. Ante,, insult, blame, detraction.
Comply, v. Confirm, yield, submit. Anto.,
disobey, rebel.

Compound, adj. Composite, complex.
Anto., simple, uniform, plain.

Compound, v. Mix, combine, intermin-
gle. Anto., simplify, analyze, separate.

Comprehend, v. 1. Comprise, include,

embrace. 2. Grasp, see, understand, perceive.

Anto., 1. Exclude. 2. Mistake, misapprehend.

Comprise, v. Include, contain, embody,

comprehend. Anto., exclude.

Compulsion. «. Constraint, coercion.
Anto., freedom, liberty.

Compunction. «. Remorse, regret, sor>
row, penitence. Anto., joy, gratulation, glad-
ness, buoyancy.

Compute, v. Reckon, calculate, estimate,
count.

Conceal, v. 1. Hide, secrete, cover, screen.
2. Disguise, dissemble. Anto., 1. Reveal, un-
cover, display.

Concede, v. 1. Yield, surrender. 2.
Grant, admit Anto., 1. Rebel, repel. 2.
Denv.

Conceit, n. Vanity, egotism. Ante.,
humility, meekness.

Concert, n. 1. Concord, harmony, 2.
Musical entertainment. Anto., 1. Discord.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Concise, adj. Short, brief, curt, laconic,
terse. Auto., verbose, discursive, lengthy.

Conclude. >. i. Decide, determine, a.
End, finish, terminate. Anto., I. Differ, dis-
agree, a. Begin, commence.

Concur, v. Agree, coincide, join. Anto.,
disagree.

Concussion, n. Clash, shock.

Condemu, v. Blame, censure, reprove,
disapprove. Anto., acquit, exonerate, excul-
pate, clear, justify.

Conduct, n. i. Management, a. Behavior,
deportment, demeanor.

Confess, v. i. Admit, grant, concede, a.
Acknowledge, avow. Anto., deny, traverse.

Confidence, n. i. Faith, trust, belief.^ at
Assurance, courage. Auto., i. Distrust, in-
credulity, a. Timidity.

Conflict, n. Contest, struggle, fight,
battle.

Confonnd. v. Amaze, perplex, bewilder,
stupefy, dumbfound.

Confusion, n. i. Jumble, disarray, dis-
order. 2. Tumult, commotion. 3. Shame,
abashment. Auto., 1. Order, array. 2. Quiet.
3. Pride, hauteur, self-possession.

Congenial, adj. Suited, adapted, agree-
able. Anto., unstated, uncongenial.

Conjecture, n. Guess, supposition, sur-
mise. Ant.)., demonstration, proof.

Conjugal, adj. Matrimonial, nuptial,
bridal, connubial. Anto.. celibate.

Connoisseur, n. Critic, judge. Anto.,
Ignoramus.

Connubial, adj. See Conjugal.

Conquer, v. Overcome, vanquish, sub-
slue, checkmate, master, subject, crush. Anto.,
fail, yield, give up, surrender.

Consanguinity, n. Kindred, relation-
ship.

Consideration, n. 1. Cause, reason,
ground, motive. 3. Attention, deliberation.
Anto., 2. Inattention.

Consistent, adj. Accordant, compatible.
Anto., inconsistent, discordant.

Conspicuous, adj. 1. Prominent, emi-
nent. 3. Visible, apparent. Ante, 1. Un-
known, lowly. 3. Obscure, hidden.

Constrain, v. 1. Compel, coerce, force,
s. Curb, restrain. Anto., 1. Cajole, coax. 2.
Loosen, liberate.

Construct, v* 1. Fabricate, erect, build,
raise, a. Make, form, frame, institute. Anto.,

1. Overturn, a. Destroy.

Consume, v. Devour, expend, waste,
destroy. Anto., build up, save, Keep.

Contagious, adj. 1. Catching, infectious.
a. Poisonous, deadly, pestilential. Anto.,

2. Healthy, wholesome.
Contaminate. v. Defile, sully, pollute.

Anto., clean, whiten, clear.

Contempt. ». Scorn, disregard, disdain.
Anto., regard, liking, admiration.

Contemptible, adj. Mean, base, despica-
ble, abject. Anto., lofty, noble, honorable.

Contentment. n. Ease, satisfaction.
Anto., discontent, sorrow, melancholy.

Contest, n. See Conflict.

Contingent, adj. Uncertain, conditional.
Anto., sure, certain, fixed.

Continual, adj. Endless, unceasing,
perpetual, eternal. Anto., intermittent,
broken.

Contract, n. Bargain, compact, agree-
ment, stipulation.

Contrary, adj. 1. Opposite, counter, ad-
verse, a. Conflicting, repugnant. 3. Per-
verse, stubborn, obstinate. Anto.,i. Similar.
a. Unanimous. 3. Agreeable.

Control, v. Direct, regulate, manage,
govern.

Convenient, adj. Suitable, appropriate,
useful. Anto., unsuitable, wrong.

Conversation. n. Talk, dialogue, collo-
quy. Anto. , silence.

Convertible. adj. Interchangeable.
Anto., unchangeable, immovable.

Conveyance, n. t. Transfer, alienation,
deed. 3. Carriage.

Convict, r. Condemn, find guilty. Anto.,
acquit, exculpate, exonerate.

Convince, v. Satisfy, persuade. Anto.,
dissuade.

Convivial, adj. Jovial, jolly, festive.

Anto., gloomy, sad, thoughtful.

Cool. adj. 1. Not warm. 2. Collected,
calm, dispassionate. Anto., 1. Warm. 2.
Excited, enthused.

Copy. v. 1. Transcribe. 2. Imitate. Anto.,
originate.

Cordial* adj. Sincere, warm, hearty,
heartfelt, ardent. Anto., heartless, cold, de-
ceitful.

Correct, adj. Ryght, true, accurate, fault-
less. Anto., wrong, erroneous, faulty.

Correspondent, adj. Answerable, suit-
able. Anto., unsuitable, unfit.

Cost. n. Expense, charge, price.

Counsel* n. 1. Counsellor, attorney, ad-
vocate, barrister, lawyer. 3. Opinion, advice,
admonition, recommendation.

Counterfeit, adj. 1. Forged, spurious.

2. Sham, feigned, simulated. Anto., 1. Gen-
uine, real. 2. Sincere, actual.

Couple, n. Pair, brace.

Courage, n. Bravery, spirit, valor, hero-
ism, fearlessness. Anto., cowardice, timidity,
fear.

Courtesy, n. Civility, urbanity, polite-
ness. Anto., rudeness, boorishness.

Covenant, n. See Contract.

Covert, adj. Secret, disguised, hidden,
concealed. Anto., open, displayed, shown.

Covetousness. n. Stinginess, avarice,

f>arsimony, penunousness. Anto., generosity,
iberality.

Cowardice* n. Fear, timidity, poltroon-
ery, pusillanimity. Anto., courage, bravery,
valor.

Coy. adj. Shy, bashful, reserved, demure,
modest. Anto., bold, brazen, shameless.

Crack, n. 1. Crevice, chink, cranny,
opening, breach, fissure, a. Explosion, re-
port.

Crafty, adj. Shrewd, cunning, artful,
astute, subtle, tricky. Anto., simple, artless,
ingenuous.

Cravat, n. Necktie, neck-cloth, necker-
chief.

Crave, v. 1. Beg, beseech, solicit, en-
treat, implore. 2. Desire. Anto., 1. Give, of-
fer, confer. 3. Disdain.

Crazy, adj. I* Insane, mad, lunatic. 2.
Ricketty, tottering. Anto., 1. Sane. 2. Strong,
stalwart.

Create, v. 1. Cause, produce, originate.

3. Make, constitute. Anto., destroy.
Credit, n. 1. Trust, belief, faith, confi-
dence. 2. Esteem, reputableness, regard. 3.
Honor, merit. Anto., discredit, incredulity.

Creditable* adj. Reputable, honorable.
Anto., dishonorable, shameful.

Credulous, adj. Unsuspecting, super-
stitious, gullible. Anto., knowing, disbeliev-
ing, doubtful.

Creed, n. Belief, doctrines, dogmas.
Anto., skepticism, heterodoxy.

Crestfallen. adj. Discouraged, dis-
heartened, depressed, dejected. Anto., en-
couraged, emboldened, determined.

Crisis, n. 1. Height, acme. 2. Emer-
gency, exigency, strait, pinch*

Criterion, n. Measure, test, standard.

Croak, v. Murmur, grumble, complain.
Anto., rejoice, congratulate.

Crooked, adj. 1. Bent, curved, awry,
distorted. 2. Dishonest, knavish, unfair, un-
scrupulous. Anto., i. Straight. 2. Honest,
fair, honorable.

Cross, adj. Captious, peevish, petulant,
fretful, snappish. Anto., agreeable, good-
humored.

Cruel, adj. Pitiless, unmerciful, Inhuman,
barbarous, brutal, savage. Anto., Wind, piti-
ful, merciful, human.

Cube. n. Die, a regular solid with six
equal square sides.

Cultivation, n. I. Culture, civilisation,
refinement, a. Tillage. Anto., desolation,
desert.

Cure. *>. 1. Rcmrdv, restorative, correc-
tive. 2. Healing, restoration. Anto., 1.
Poison, a. Relapse.

Curious. oJf. 1. Prying, inquisitive, a.
Rare, unique, queer. Anto.,\. Uninterested,
careless, a. Common, ordinary, usual.

Cnrrent. adj. 1. Present, existing, a.
Common, general, rife. Anto., 1. Past. a.
Rare, unique, singular.

Curse, n. Imprecation, execration, male-
diction. Anto., blessing, benison.

Cursory, adj. Superficial, hasty, careless,
desultory. Anto., thorough, careful, exact.

Curtail* v. Retrench, reduce, shorten,
abridge, decrease. Anto., increase, augment,
lengthen.

Custody, n. Care, keeping, watch, pro-
tection.

Custom, m. 1. Usage, practice, habit. 2.
Tax, impost, duty, tribute.

Cynical, adj. Morose, carping, sarcastic,
snarling, satirical. Anto., agreeable, jovial,
companionable.

Dally, adj. Diurnal, quotidian. Anto.,
irregular, disordered.

Dainty, adj. 1. Nice, delicate, savory,
delicious. 2. Squeamish, fastidious. 3. Ele-
gant, fine. Anto., 1. Nasty, tasteless, bitter.

2. Careless, slovenly. 3. Coarse.
Dalliance, n. Fondling, caressing, en-
dearment.

Damage, v. Mar, harm, hurt, impair.
Injure. Anto., help, strengthen, defend.

Dampness, n. Moisture, humidity, damp.
Anto., dryness, aridity.

Damsel, n. Lass, miss, maid, maiden,
girl. Anto., lad, boy, youth, young man.

Danger, n. Risk, venture, hazard, peril,
jeopardy. Anto., safety, security.

Daring, adj. Courage, btavery. valor,
Intrepidity. Anto., cowardice, fear, timidity.

Dark. adj. 1. Cloudy, ray I ess, murky,
shady, unlltuminated. 2. Gloomv, dismal. 3.
Wicked, foul, atrocious, 4. Obscure, mys-
tical, mysterious. Anto., bright, light. 3.
Honest, fair. 4. Open, intelligible.

Date. n. Time, period, age, era, epoch.

Dead. adj. 1. Inanimate, lifeless, breath-
less, defunct. 2. Dull, frigid, obtuse, callous.

3. Useless, unprofitable. Anto., 1. Live,
breathing. 2. Attentive, active, sharp. 3.
Useful.

Deadly, adj. I. Deleterious, destructive,
noxious, fatal, mortal. 2. Rancorous, im-
placable. Anto., wholesome, healthy.
Dear. adj. 1. Beloved, darling, precious.
Anto., 1.
"ow,

3. Costly, high-priced, expensive. Anto.
Hated, despised, loathed. 2. Cheap, 1
common.

Debase* v. See Abase.

Debate, v. Discuss, canvass, argue, dis-
pute, contest.

Deceitful, adj. Deceptive, illusive, de-
lusive, fallacious. Anto., truthful, platr,
open, honest, correct.

Deceive. v. Delude, over-reach, fool,
trick, cheat, gull, dupe.

Decide, v. Determine, conclude. Anto.,
differ, disagree.

Declaration, n. Assertion, averment,
avowal, affirmation, asseveration. Anto., de-
nial, negative.

Decorate, v. Deck, adorn, ornament,
embellish, beautify. Anto., spoil, spot.

Decorum, n. "Propriety, decency. Anto.,
impropriety, misbehavior.

Decoy, v. Tempt, allure, entice, inveigle,
•educe. Anto., repel, warn, ad\ isc.

Decrease, r. Diminish, lessen. Anto.,
Increase, augment, replenish.

Decree, m. Order, mandate, nat, edict.

Deduct. Separate, subtract, take

twav. Ante, add. increase, augment.

Drfnme. r. Asperse, calumniate, slan-
tWr.vOtfy. Anto., praise, glorify, celebrate,
defend.

Defeat, r. I. Beat, conquer, overcome,
rout. a. Balk, disappoint, baffle, foil, frus-

Defect, n. 1. Flaw, blemish, imperfec-
tion, a. Fault, failing. Anto., perfection,
improvement, heautv.

Defend . :•. 1 . G* srd , shield , protect. 3.
Uphold, maintain, vindicate. Anto., I. Ka-
ft. Asperse, slander, defame.

Defer, r. Adjourn, delay, postpone
Anto., push, force, expedite.

-te

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Deference. n. Regard, respect, rever-
ence, homage. Anto., disrespect, irreverence,
contumely.

Definite, adj. Certain, determined, exact,
precise. Anto., uncertain, indefinite, vague.
Defraud, v. Cheat, gull, over-reach.
Defy. v. Brave, dare, disregard, despise.
Anto. t submit, humiliate, concede.

Deity. n. Divinity, Godhead, God. Anto.,
Devil.

Dejected, adj. Depressed, disheartened,
despondent. Anto., joyous, mercurial, glad.
Delay, -v. Linger, stop, procrastinate.
Anto.t hasten, expedite.

Delectable, adj. Pleasant, agreeable, de-
lightful. Anto.t abominable, despicable,
nasty.

Delegate. n. Commissioner, represen-
tative, deputy.

Delicious, adj. Delicate, palatable, lus-
cious. Ante, bitter, nauseous.

Delightful, adj. Charming, enchanting,
ravishing. Anto.t displeasing.

Delinquent. «. Offender, wrong-doer,
culprit, criminal.

Delirium, n. Wandering, hallucination,
derangement.
Delude, v. See Deceive.
Demand, v. Require, claim, exact. Anto.t
give, offer, relinquish.

Demolish, v. Destroy, overthrow, level,
ruin. Anto.t build, construct, raise.

Demonstrate. v. Show, establish,
prove.

Demonstration. «. Proof, manifesta-
tion.

Demoralize, -v. Corrupt, deprave, vitiate.
Anto^ reform, rescue.

Denote, v. Imply, signify, indicate,
mark, designate.

Deny. v. i. Contradict, gainsay. 2. Dis-
own, disavow, abjure. 3, Withhold. Anto.t
avow, admit, concede.

Depart, v. 1. Go, start, leave, set out.
3. Vanish, disappear. Auto., I. Come, re-
turn. 3. Emerge, appear.

Dependence. n. Reliance, trust, confi-
dence. Anto.t independence.

Depict, v. 1. Describe. 2. Delineate,
portray, pencil, paint.

Deplore, v. Lament, mourn, bewail,
bemoan. Anto., rejoice, congratulate, cele-
brate.

Deportment. «. Demeanor, behavior,
carriage, conduct.

Deprecate, v. Regret, Anto., desire,
commend.

Depreciate, v. 1. Underrate, undervalue,
lessen the price of. 2. Censure, degrade, tra-
duce, malign. Anto., 1. Overrate. 2. Praise,
vindicate.

Depress, v. 1. Lower, drop, sink. 2.
Deject, dispirit, chill. 3. Debase, humiliate.
Anto., 1. Elevate, raise. 2. Encourage, x.
Exalt. ^ *

Derange, v. Confuse, displace, unsettle,
disorder. Anto., arrange.

Descend, v. 1. Fall, drop, sink, go down.
3. Dismount. Anto., ascena.

Design. «. 1. Sketch, outline, plan,
draught. 2. Intent, aim, purpose, object,
scheme.

Designate, v. 1. Name, call, style, de-
nominate. 2. Denote, indicate, show, specify.
3. Appoint.

Desire, -v. 1. Ask, request. 2. Wish,
want, fancy, covet, crave.

Desolation. «. 1. Gloom, sadness,
wretchedness, misery. 2. Ruin, destruction.
Anta., joy, pleasure, happiness.

Despair. ». Desperation, despondency,
hopelessness. Anto. t hope, cheerfulness.

Despicable, adj. Mean, pitiful, con-
temptible, abject. Anto., elevated, generous,
praiseworthy.

Despotic, adj. Absolute, arbitrary, im-
perious, tyrannical. Anto., free, democratic,
constitutional.

Destiny, n. 1. Fate, necessity. 2. Lot,
doom, fortune, fate.

Destroy, v. 1. Consume, waste, devour,
desolate, a. Demolish, overthrow, subvert.

3. Annihilate, extirpate, eradicate, kill. Anto.,
create, build, call together, construct.

Detach, v. Separate, sever, disjoin.
Anto.t join.

Detain, v. Restrain, confine, delay, re-
tain. Anto., hasten, expedite, send away.
Detect, v. Descry, discover, expose.

Determine, v. 1. Settle^ end, decide,
conclude. 2. Lead, influence, induce. 3. As-
certain, verify. Anto., 1. Begin, commence,
unsettle. 2. Follow. 3. Falsify, negative.

Detraction. ». Censure, slander, calumny,
defamation. Anto., praise, commendation.

Develop, v. Untold, open, evolve, grow.
Anto., close, end, wither, wilt, droop.

DeviL n. 1. Satan, Belial, Lucifer, arch-
enemy, the tempter, the adversary, the prince
of darkness. 2. Demon. Anto., God, Deity.

Devoid, adj. Empty, destitute, vacant,
void. Anto., full, complete, overflowing.

Dexterous* ad/. Adroit, skillful, handy,
apt, clever. Anto., awkward, unskillful,
boorish, rough.

Diction. «. Expression, phraseology,
language, style.

Dictionary. n. I. Lexicon, glossary,
vocabulary. 2. Encyclopaedia.

Die. v. Expire, decease, wither, perish.
Anto., live, breathe, flourish, grow.

Different, adj. I. Various, manifold,
unlike, diverse. 2. Separate, distinct. Anto. t
similar, alike, homogeneous.

Difficult, adj. Arduous, hard, herculean.
Anto. f easy, facile.

Digest, n. Compend, abstract, brief, epi-
tome.

Dilemma, n. Strait, predicament, quan-
dary.

Diligence. «. Activity, industry, perse-
verance, assiduity. Anto., idleness, laziness,
lassitude, languor.

Diminish, v. See Decrease,

Direction, n. 1. Order. 2. Address, su-
perscription. 3. Course, bearing.

Disaffection, n. Breach, disagreement,
dissatisfaction, estrangement, alienation.

Disagree, v. 1. Quarrel, wrangle, bicker.
3. Dissent, differ, vary. Anto., 1. Conciliate,
pacify. 2. Agree, equate.

Disappear, v. Vanish, pass, fade, dis-
solve. Anto. t appear, emerge, come into
view.

Disapproval, n. Disapprobation, dis-
like, displeasure. Anto. t approbation, liking,
pleasure.

Disarrange. v. Unsettle, derange.
Anto.. order, marshal, fix.

Disbelief, n. Incredulity, distrust, doubt,
skepticism, infidelity. Anto., faith, belief,

trust- .. ,. j.

Discomfort, v. Annoy, trouble, disturb,

molest. Ant:, comfort, ease, quiet, pacify,

calm.

Discontent, n. Uneasiness, disquietude,
dissatisfaction. Anto., comfort, ease, quiet,
peace, contentment.

Discourtesy, n. Incivility, impoliteness,
rudeness. Anto., courtesy, breeding, good
manners, behavior.

Discredit. ». 1. Distrust. 2. Disrepute,
obloquy. Anto., I. Credit. 2. Reputation,
standing.

Discuss, v. Canvass, sift, argue, ventilate,
debate.

Disease, n. Ailment, complaint, illness,
sickness, malady. Anto., health.

Disgrace, v. Degrade, debase, sully,
stain, dishonor. Anto., exonerate, exculpate,
clear, release, justify, vindicate.

Dishonest, adj. Unfair, false, knavish,
fraudulent. Anto., honest, reputable, right,
proper, trusty, sincere, candid.

Dislike. «. Aversion, antipathy, repug-
nance, disgust. Anto., 1 liking, admiration,
love, regard.

Dismiss, v. Discharge, discard, turn off.
Anto., receive, take back.

Disoblige, v. Discommode, offend, dis-
please. Anto., oblige, favor.

Dispassionate, adj. Sober, calm, tem-
perate, composed, imperturbable. Anto., pas*
sionate, stormy, disturbed.

Display, v. 1. Exhibit, show. 3. Un-
fold, open, spread. Anto., hide, conceal,
cover, close.

Displease, v. 1. Dissatisfv, offend, dis-
gust. 2. Anger, irritate, affront. Anto.,
please, comfort, ease, quiet.

Disregard, v. Overlook, slight, neglect,
contemn, Anto., regard, favor, notice, watch,
oversee.
Dissembler, n. Feigner, hypocrite.
Dissipate, v. 1. Lavish, squander,
waste. 2. Dispel, scatter. Anto., 1. Save,
economize. 2. Gather.
Dissolute, adj. See Abandoned.
Distant, adj. 1. Remote, far. 2. Re-
served, coy, shy, cold. Anto., t. Near, close.
2. Bold, shameless, impudent.

Distress, n. 1. Suffering, pain, anguish,
agony. 2. Adversity, trouble. 3. Want, in-
digence, poverty. Anto., x. Pleasure, ease,
contentment. 2. Happiness. 3. Wealth, af-
fluence. .

Distrust, n. Mistrust, suspicion, dis-
credit, disbelief. Anto.t trust, confidence, re-
liance. ,„

Diversity, n. 1. Variation, unlikeness,
difference. 2. Variety. Anto., sameness,
likeness, homogeneity.

Docile, aay. Apt, tractable, teachable.
Anto., intractable, savage, untamable.

Doleful, adj. 1. Melancholy, woeful,
sad, sorrowful. 2. Dolorous, gloomy. Anto.,
joyous, bright, happy.

Domestic, adj. Homely, tame. Anto.,
exoteric, extraneous, foreign, wild.

Doubt. ». 1. Suspense, irresolution, un-
certainty. 2. Suspicion, mistrust. # Anto.,
1. Foreknowledge, resolution, certainty. 3.
Confidence.
Drag. z>. Draw, pull, haul, tug.
Dread, w. Fear, awe, apprehension.
Anto., courage, boldness, valor.

Dreadful, adj. Awful, frightful, fearful,
direful, horrible, terrible.

Droll, adj. I. Odd, queer. 3. Comic,
funny, farcical. Anto., 1. Usual, ordinary.
3. Solemn, funereal.

Droop, v. 1. Decline, fail, languish. 3.
Fade, wilt, wither. Anto., 1. Rise, succeed.
3. Bloom, blossom, grow, wax.

Dull. adj. i. Stupid, shallow. 3. Inert,
sluggish. 3. Blunt, obtuse. 4. Gloomy. Anto.,
1. Knowing, deep. 3. Active. 3. Sharp,
shrewd. 4, Bright.

Dunce, n. Simpleton, fool, ninny, idiot,
dolt, oaf, dullard. Anto., sage.

Eager, adj. 1. Zealous, ardent, Irapetuout.

2. Impatient, longing, yearning. Anto., 1.
Lukewarm. 3. Patient.

Earn. v. 1. Gain, obtain, get, acquire,
win. 2. Merit, deserve. Anto., squander.

Easy. adj. Light, not difficult. 2. Quiet,
comfortable. 3. Unconstrained. Anto., 1.
Difficult. 2. Uneasy. 3. Confined.

Eccentric, adj. Odd, peculiar, erratic,
anomalous, aberrant. Anto., usual, ordinary,
commonplace.

Ecstacy. ». 1. Delight, rapture, trans,
port. 2. Enthusiasm. Anto., despair, sorrow,
torture. ..... . ..

Educate, v. Train, discipline, instruct,
school, teach. Anto., ignore.

Efface, v. Cancel, blot, erase, expunge,
obliterate. Anto.. rewrite, strengthen.

Effective, adj. 1. Active, effectual. 3.
Sufficient, cogent, energetic, forcible, potent.
Anto., ineffectual, idle, slow, weak.

Effectual, adj. See Effective.

Egotistical, adj. Conceited, self-impor-
tant, selfish. Anto., humble, lowly, gener.
ous. _ .

Elevate, v. 1. Exalt, promote. 2. Raise,
lift 3. Improve, refine, ennoble. 4. Animate,
cHeer, elate. Anto., depress, lower, vulgarize,
deaden, sadden. _

Embarrass, v. 1. Disconcert, confuse,
confound. 2. Distress, hamper, clog.

3. Perplex. Anto., assist, help, explain.
Embolden, v. Inspirit, reassure, animate

encourage. Anto., abash, confuse.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

■¥

Emergency, n. Strait, difficulty, exi-
gency, necessity, crisis.

Eminent. adj. Kxalted, remarkable,
prominent, conspicuous, distinguished. Anto.,
obscure, lowly, meek, humble.

Emotion. «. Keeling, excitement, agita-
tion, passion. Anto., calm, quiet, ease.-

Employment, n. Engagement, occu.
nation, pursuit, avocation, business. Auto.,
idleness, leisure.

Encourage. Set Embolden.

Endless, adj. 1. Unlimited, boundless,
illimitable, infinite. 2. Eternal. Anto., lim-
ited, ephemeral, 2. Finite, mortal.

Energetic, adj. Active, forcible, strong,
vigorous, powerful. Anto., feeble, weak, en-
ervated.

Enervate, v. Weaken, enfeeble, break,
debilitate, paralyze. Anto., invigorate, nerve,
strengthen.

Engagement. ». 1. Employment. 2.
Encounter, battle. 3. Promise, pledge, assur-
ance, contract.

Engross, v. Occupy, absorb, engage,
monopolize, forestall. Auto., vacate, empty*

Enhance, v. 1. Raise, heighten, swell,
advance. 2. Augment, increase. Anto.,
lower, recede, reduce.

Enjoyment, n. Gratification, delight,
pleasure, happiness. Anto., sorrow, sadness,
grief.

Enlarge. See Augment.

Enmity, n. Animosity, aversion, hostil-
ity, hatred, malevolence. Anto., friendship,
kindliness, love, admiration.

Ennoble, v. See Elevate.

Ennni. n. Listlessncss. irksomeness,
tedium, languor, lassitude. Anto., liveliness,
vigor, enjoyment, buoyancy.

Enterprise, n. 1. Attempt, undertaking,
endeavor, venture. 2. Energy.

Entertain. v. Divert, amuse, please.
Anto., sadden, make gloomy.

Enthusiasm. ». Earnestness, devotion,
teal, ardor, Anto., frivolity, ennui, luke-
warmness.

Entice, v. See Allure*

Entreat, v. Petition, ask, beseech, im-
plore, pray, supplicate.

Enumerate. v. Number, count, reckon,
numerate.

Ephemeral, adj. Short-lived, transitory,
living hut a day. Anto., eternal, endless.

Kpieure. n. Gourmand, sybarite, sensu-
alist, voluptuary. Anto., ascetic, stoic.

Epithet. «. Name, designation, appel*
latiou.

Equable. adj. Even, regular, steady,
equal, uniform. Anto., eccentric, unequal,
rugged.

Equestrian. *. 1. Rider, horseman. 2.
Chevalier, chaSMUr, knight, cavalier. Auto.,
pedestrian, infantry, footman.

Equitable, adj. 1. Fair, reasonable,
justifiable, right. 2. Just, honest, impartial.
Anto., unjust, unreasonable, wrong, dis-

Equivocate. v
quibble, prevaricat. .

Kiror. n. 1. Oversight, mistake, blunder.
3. Tra nsgression, fault, offence, sin.

Erudition. ,,. Learning, knowledge,
lore, science, scholarship. Anto., ignorance.

EtOhew. v. Avoid, shun. Anto., seek.

Espouse, v. I. Marry, wed. 2. llctroth.
Anto., divorce.

EstahlUh. v. 1. Organize, found, instt-
tute. fix, plant, settle. 2. Prove. 3. Confirm,
ratify. Anto., i. Overthrow, destroy, unsettle.
J. Disprove. 3, Deny, refuse.

Esteem. //. 1. Honor, respect, reverence.
2. Valuation, opinion. Anto., contempt.

Btern il. Set Endlrxx.

Ev;wii>u. n. Quibble, shift, subterfuge,
touivocation,

Evening. n . Dusk, twilight, eve, even,
nightfall, Anto., morning, dawn, aurora.

Event. ». 1, Occurrence, Incident, acd*

d' int, .-. t oil' In ion, result, cooaequa.

B*er« adj. 1. Evermore, always, sve,
perpetually, eternally. 2. At any time. Anto.,
never.

Lie, shuffle, dodge,

Evident, adj. Apparent, obvious, clear,
palpable, manifest. Ante, obscure, hidden.

Exalt, v. 1. Glorify, bless, praise, extol,
magnify. 2. Raise, erect, elevate. 3. Dignify,
ennoble. Anto., 1. Execrate. 2. Lower. 3.
Abase.

Exasperate, v. Irritate, vex, offend, pro-
voke, incense, anger, enrage. Anto., soothe,
mollify, pacify, please.

Excellent, adj. 1. Choice, prime, ster-
ling, matchless, superior. 2. Good, virtuous,
worthy. Anto., bad, low. 2. Villainous,
worthless.

Excel, v. Surpass, beat, outdo, exceed.
Anto., fail, fall behind.

Excerpt. «. Citation, extract, quotation.

Exculpate, v. Excuse, justify, pardon,
clear, exonerate. Anto., convict, indict, ar-
raign, blame.

Excursion, n. Ramble, jaunt, trip, tour,
journey.

Excuse, n. 1. Plea, justification, apology.
2. Guise, color, pretext, pretence.

Execute. See Accomplish.

Exegesis, n. 1. Kxegetics, explanation,
exposition, interpretation.

Exercise. v. Practice, pursue. -2. Drill,
train, discipline. 3. Exert, use, apply. Anto.,
rust, decay, degenerate, become sluggish,

Exhale. v. Breathe, evaporate, emit.
Anto., inhale, inspire.

Exhilarate, -v. Animate, gladden, cheer,
elate, inspirit. Anto., depress, discourage,
deject, dampen, chill.

Exigency. See Emergency .

Exonerate. See Acquit and Exculpate.

Expectation, n. Prospect, anticipation,
confidence, hope, trust, reliance. Anto., sud-
denness, abruptness, fear, dismay.

Expedite, v. Quicken, hurry, hasten,
accelerate, speed. Anto., delay, retard, clog,
bar.

Expense, n. Outlay, charge, expenditure,
cost.

Experience, n. I. Knowledge, wisdom.
2. Practice. Anto., 1. Ignorance. 2. Inexper-
ience.

Experiment, v. Proof, test, trial, ex-
amination, assay.

Explain, v. Expound, Illustrate, unfold,
interpret, elucidate. Auto., confuse, muddle,
darken.

Expound. See Explain.

Expression, n. r. Phrase, term, utter-
ance, declaration. 2. Look, appearance, as-
pect.

Extend, v. I. Expand, augment, dilate,
enlarge, protract, prolong,. 2. Yield, offer.
Anto., 1, Abridge, shorten, lessen. 2. Take,
receive.

Extraordinary, adj. Uncommon, sig
nal, rare, unusual, remarkable. Anto., com-
mon, usual, customar\ .

Extravagant. Adj. t. Wasteful, lavish,

prodigal. 2. V
reasonable, inordinate, preposterous. Anto.

profuse, prodigal. 2. Wild, absurd. 3. Un-

1. Stingy, miserable, close. 2. Probable,
credible. 3. Common, ordinarv, customary.

Extricate, v. Relieve, elear, disentan-
gle. Anto., involve, entangle.

Exuberate. ,nij. Full, copiou s , liberal,
lavish. Anto., empty, vacant, scarce.

Fable, n. 1. Talc, novel, romance, myth.
2. Falsehood] fiction, fabrication, lie. Anto.,
history. 2. Truth, verity, fact.

Facetious, adj. Sportive, waggish, }o-
COSS, [ocular. Anto., serious, gloomy, sat-
urnine.

Fail. v. 1. Miss, misenrrv. 2. Omit, neg-
lect. 3. Decay, wane, decline. 4. Rrcak.
Anto., accomplish, succeed* 2. Perform. 3.
Grow, strengthen. 4. Mend.

Faithful, adj. 1. Constant, loyal, true.
1. Reliable, truthful. 3. ClOSe, stru l. Auto.,
faithless, deceitful.

Faithless, adj. Perfidious, treacherous,
fai-e. Anto., faithful.

False, adf. t. Untrw. 2. Deceptive,
fallacious, spurious, countrrfnt. 3. Incor-
I, True. s. Ileal, genuine, act-
ual. 3. Correct.

Family, n. 1. Class, race, lineage, tribe.
2. Household. 3. Order. Anto., individual.
Fascinate, v. Charm, catch, captivate,
bewitch, a n am or. Anto., alarm, dismay, dis-
enchant, intimidate.

Fast. n. I. Abstinence, fasting. Anto.,

•orge.
Fate. n. 1. Fatality, destiny, lot, doom.
Anto., chance.

Feast, m. 1. Festival, holiday, a. Enter-
tainment, banquet, carousal. Anto., fast,
abstinence.

Feeble, adj. 1. Weak. a. Languid,
sickly, frail, debilitated. Anto., strong, ener-
getic, stalwart.

Feeling, n. 1. Affectation, sensibility,
emotion. 2. Sensation, touch. Anto., cal-
lousness, hard-hcartedness.

Feminine. adj. \. Delicate, soft,
we-manly. 2. Effeminate. Anto., 1. Coarse,
hard. 2. Masculine.

Fervor, n. i. Eagerness, ardor, seal, a.
W.tmth. Anto., laziness, apathy.

Festival, n. See lea \t.

I . oilal. adj. Feodal, military (tenure.)
Anto., allodial, democratic.

Fickle, adj. Changeable, unstable, vari-
able , 1 apricious, inconstant. Anto., faithful,
nit, immutable.

final, adj. 1. Conclusive, decisive, a.
Ultimate, la t. Anto., opening, beginning.

Fitie. adj. 1. Nice, refined. 2. Little,
small, minute. 3. Excellent. 4. Handsome,
beautiful, elegant. 5. Delicate. 6. Light.
Anto., coarse, large, mean, ugly.

Finish, v. 1. Conclude, end, terminate.
2. I'ertorm, accomplish, complete, t. Per-
fect. Anto., 1. Begin, open. 2 an 03. De-
stroy, tear down.

Firmness, n. 1. Strength, stability, a.
Solidity, hardness. Auto., 1. Weakness. 2.
is, penetrability.

Flag. h. Standard, colors, ensign, ban-
ner.

Flashy, adj. Gay, airy, jauntv, showy,
tawdry, ostentatious, Haunting. Anto., som-
bre, solemn.

Flattery, n. 1. Adulation, fawning, ser-
vilitv, sycophancy, obsequiousness. 2. Com*
plum nt. Anto., blame, objection, disap-
proval, detraction.

Flavor/ n. 1. Taste, smack, savor, a.
Smell, odor, fragrance. Anto., taste lessness.

Flaw. n. 1. I racture, crack, a. Speck,
spot, fault. Imperfection, defect, bkmuh.
Anto.,\. \> hole, solid. 2. Perfect, immacu-
late, clear.

Flimsy, adj. 1. Thin, slight, a. Trivial,
feeble, weak, frivolous, shallow. Anto., 1.
Strong, stalwart. 2. Worthy, good, earnest,
deep.

Fluctuate, v. 1. Waver, vacillate, a.
Oscillate.

Fluency, n. Flo%\ , glibness, volubility.
Anto., silence, taciturnity.

Koih1iic*>h. n. 1. Liking, partiality, a.
Love, tenderness. Anto., hate, dislike.

Food. w. Victual-., viands, fare, subsist-
ence, aliment, nutriment.

Fool. Set Dunce.

Foppish, adj Dandified, coxcombical,
dandyish. Anto., slovenly, untidy.

Forcible, adj. 1. Vigorous, a. Strong,

fiotent, cogent, powerful. 3. Violent. Anto.,
eeble, art ak, puny.

Forego, r. Resign, yield, surrender, re-
linquish, abandon. Anto., lake, receive, do
mand.

Foresight. a. Prudence, precaution,
anticipation, forecast, prescience.
imprudence, rashness.

> M •'thitiight. m. See Forcxignt.

Forgive. Excuse, al*s<

acquit Anto., avenge, charge, indict, impli-
cate, n<

Formirinhle. adj. Dreadful, tremen-
dona, terrible, shocking. Anto., small, ri-
diculous, puny.

Forsake. r. Abandon, quit, desert, re-
nounce, forswear. Anto. cleave.

For»w*»nr. t\ i. Renounce, forsake, de-
sert. 2. Recant, abjure. Ante, subscribe.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Fortitude. «. Resolution, firmness, en-
durance. Anto., weakness.

Fortune. «. 1. Chance, luck, fortuity.
2. Property, estate, riches, wealth. 3. Des-
tiny, lot. late, doom. Anto., 2. Poverty.

Fragile. adj. Weak, feeble, frail, frag-
iblc. Anto., strong.

Fragrance. «. Aroma, perfume, balmt-
ncss, incense. Anto., stench, effluvia.

F ra i 1 . adj. See Fragile.

Frank, adj. Open, sincere, artless, can-
did. Auto., artful.

Fraud. «. Cheat, deception, collusion,
guile. Anto., honesty.

Freak. «. Fancy, humor, crotchet, va-
gary, whim, caprice. Anto., purpose, res-
olution.

Free. adj. 1. Unrestrained, unobstruct-
ed, a. Gratuitous, willing. 3. Frank, sin-
cere, artless. 4. Generous, liberal. Anto.,
i. Slavish. 2. Costly. 3. Artful. 4. Stingy.

Free. v. I. Clear, rid. 2. Release, lib-
crate, emancipate. Anto., bind, enslave.

Freeze* v. I. Congeal. 2. Chill, be-
numb. Anto., melt.

Fretful, adj. Captious, waspish, splen-
etic, snappish, petulant. Anto. t equable,
good-humored.

Frivolous, adj. See Flimsy.

Frugality. n. Carefulness, economy,
thrift. Anlo. % extravagance, wastefulness.

Fruitful, adj. 1. Fecund, prolific, pro-
ductive. 2. Plenteous. Anto., sterile, fruit-
less, unproductive.

Fruitless, adj. Barren, sterile, unpro-
ductive. 2. Futile, useless. Anto., fruitful.

Frustrate, v. Balk, baffle, defeat, foil,
disappoint* Anto., expedite.

Fully, adj. Wholly, entirely, completely.
Anto., partly.

Furniture, n. I. Effects, goods, mov-
ables, chattels. 2. Apparatus. 3. Decorations,
ornaments.

Futile, adj. 1. Useless, fruitless, vain,
idle. 2. Frivolous, trifling. Anto., 1. Fruit-
ful. 2. Earnest.

Gage. n. 1. Challenge. 2. Pawn, secur-
ity, pledge.

Gain. n. Advantage, benefit, profit,
emolument. Anto., loss.

Gain. v. Get,secure,w!n, earn, achieve,
obtain, procure. Anto., lose.

Gang. n. Band, party, set, company,
coterie. Anto., individual.

Garb. «. Dress, habit, attire, apparel.
Anto., nudity, nakedness.

Garble, v. Falsify, misquote, mutilate.
Anto. t restore, verifv.

Garrulity, n. Babble, talkativeness, lo-
quacity. Anto.f taciturnity.

Gathering, n. Meeting, company, as-
sembly, concourse. 2. Earning, acquisition.
3. Abscess.

Gaudy, adj. See Flashy.

Gawky, adj. See Awkward.

Generous, adj. Liberal bountiful, mag-
nificent, noble. Anto.t l. Stingy. 2. Mean.

Gentle. adj. I. Bland, lenient, kind,
mild, humane. 2. Docile, tame, quiet, tract-
able. Affto. t rough.

Genuine, atfj. 1. True, authentic, un-
alloyed. 2. Unaffected, sincere. Anto., false.

Giddiness, n. Dizziness, vertigo.

Giddy, adj. 1. Dizzy. 2. Fickle, unsta-
ble 3. Flighty, careless, heedless. Anto,,
sedate, balanced.

Gift. n. 1. Endowment, talent, faculty,
genius. 2. Present, donation, offering, grat-
u ty, contribution, subscription, douceur.

Gigantic. adj. Huge, v^st, colossal.
Anto., small, mean, little.

Gingerly, adv. Dainty, careful, cau-
tious, fastidious. Anto., rash, careless.

Girdle. n. Band, cincture, belt, cestus,
zone.

Glad. adj. 1. Pleased, gratified, rejoiced.
2. Cheerful, joyous. 3. Gratifying. Anto.,
sad, sombre.

Gloomy, adj. j. Dull, obscure, dismal,
dusky, lowering. 2. Depressed, dejected,
sad. Anto., bright, joyful.

Go. v, 1. Move, advance, proceed. 3.
Depart. 3. Extend. 4. Fare. 5. Lend, con-
tribute. Anto. t come.

Go. inter/. Avaunt, begone.

God. «. Lord, Creator, Almighty, Omni-
potence, Providence, Jehovah.

Good Nature. «. Kindness, amiability,
benevolence, benignity. Anto., malevolence,
rudeness.

Goods. «., //. 1, Wares, merchandise.
2. Chattels, furniture.

Grandeur, n. Greatness, sublimity. 2.
Dignity, st ...e, magnincenr -. majesty. Anto.,
humility.

Grant, v. 1. Concede, admit. 2. Give,
bestow, vouchsafe. 3. Transfer, convey,
Anto., take.

Grateful. adj. I- Obliged, beholden,
thankful. 2. Palatable, cordial, delicious,
refreshing. 3. Pleasaia, agreeable, delightful.
Anto., ungrateful.

Gratify, v. Indu.y^humorjdelight.sat-
isfv, please. Anto., displease.

Great, adj. 1. Bulky, big, large, huge,
vast. 2. Noted, distinguished, eminent, ex-
alted, illustrious. 3. Noble, magnanimous.
4. Numerous. Anto., small.

Greedy, adj. Gluttonous, rapacious, in-
satiate, ravenous, voracious. Anto., gener-
ous, unselfish.

Grief, n. Distress, sorrow, regret, afflic-
tion, tribulation, woe, anguish, Anto., joy.

Gruff, adj. Blunt, harsh, rough, rude,
churlish. Auto., polite.

Grumble, v. Croak, murmur, complain,
growl. Anto., rejoice.

Guard. 7. Protect, watch, shelter, shield,
defend. Anto., attack, harass.

Guarded, adj. Caieful, watchful, cau-
tious, wary. Auto., unguarded.

Guidance. ft. Lead, conduct, direction,
government. Anto., following.

Guile. «. Artifice, duplicity, deceit, sub-
tlety, cunning, craft, fraud. Auto., honesty j
simplicity.

Guiltless, adj. Innocent, blameless, spot-
less, pure, immaculate. Anto., guilty.

Guilty, adj. Culpable, sinful, criminal,
Anto., guiltless.

Gyrate, f . Whirl, rotate, revolve.

Hail. v. Greet, welcome, salute.

Hale. adj. Sound, strong, healthy, hardy,
hearty, robust. Anto., feeble.

Handsome* adj. 1. Comely, fair, pretty,
beautiful. 2. Ample, plentiful. 3. Generous,
magnanimous, noble. Anto., ugly.

Happiness, n. Enjoyment, bliss, beat-
itude, felicity. Anto., sorrow.

Harass, v. 1. Worry, vex, plague, tease,
trouble, distress. 2. Fag, exhaust, jade.
Anto., please, comfort, protect.

Hard. ad;'. 1. Compact, solid, impene-
trable. 2, Knotty, difficult. 3. Arduous,
laborious. 4. Unfavorable. 5. Callous, cruel.
Anto., soft. .

Hasten, t>. Accelerate, dispatch, speed,
quicken, expedite. Anto., hinder, delay.

Hate. v. Detest, abominate, loathe, ab-
hor. Anto., love.

Hate. n. Enmity, antipathy, hostility,
detestation, hatred. Anto., love.

Haughty, adj. Lofty, proud supercil-
ious, arrogant. Anto., modest.

Head-strong, adj. Unruly.doggcd, stub-
born, obstinate. Anto., reasonable*", judicious.

Heal. v. I. Remedy, cure, restore. 2.
Settle, reconcile. Anto., i. Hurt, wound. 2.
Unsettle, disrupt.

Healthy, adj. Well, sound, hale, vigor-
ous. Anto., sickly.

Hearken, v. Attend, listen, hear.

Hearty, adj. See Hale.

Heart-broken, adj. Desolate, wretched,
disconsolate, inconsolable. Anto., joyous,
happy.

Heartless, adj. Unkind, cruel, coU, piti-
less. Anto., cordial, kind.

Heavenly, adj. 1. Angelic, divine, god-
like. 2. Celestial. Anto., Mundane.

Heedless, adj. Careless, thoughtless, inat-
tentive, negligent. Anto., careful.

Heighten, p. 1. Raise, elevate, exalt. 3.
Increase, enhance. 3. Intensify. Anto.,
lower, decrease.

Hell. «. Hades, purgatory, Gehenna.
Anto.t heaven.

Helpful, adj. Useful, bencfc.nt, con-
venient. Anto., helpless.

Helpless, adj. Weak, feeble, infir n, power-
less, impotent, imbecile. Anto., strong, help
ful.

Herculean, adj. See Strong, Difficult.

Heroic, adj. 1. Bold, valiant, brave, cour-
ageous, noble, dauntless. 2. Epic. Anto.,

1. Cowardly.

Hesitation, n. Doubt, suspense, uncer-
tainty, vacillation. Anto., determination.

Hideous, adj. Dreadful, frightful, horrible,
appalling, ghastly. Anto., beautiful.

Highwayman, n. Robber, bandit, bri-
gand, road-agent, marauder.

Hinder, v. Stop, impede, retard, check,
thwart. Anto., hasten.

Hint. «. Allusion, suggestion, intimation,
insinuation.

Holiday, n. Festival, anniversary, cele-
bration. Anto., fast-day.

Holy. adj. 1. Good, pious, religious, de-
vout, pure, saintly, godly. *. Hallowed,
sacred. Anto., wicked, bad.

Home. w. Abode, domicile, residence,
dwelling.

Homely, ad/. 1. Plain, coarse, uncomely.

2. Domestic, homelike, 3. Ugly. Anto.,
beautiful, handsome.

Honest, adj. 1. Equitable, right, proper,
honorable. 2. True, faithful, just, upright,
trustworthy. 3. Candid, sincere. Anto., dis-
honest, inequitable.

Honor, n. Credit, esteem. 2. Respect,
homage. 3. Distinction, dignity. 4. Integ-
rity, nobility, probity. Anto., dishonor.

Honor, v. Dignify, exalt. 2. Observe,
celebrate. 3. Respect, reverence, venerate.
Anto., abase.

Hope. v. Believe, trust, desire, expect.
Anto., despair.

Hostile, adj. 1. Adverse, opposite, con-
trary, repugnant. 2. Unfriendly. Anto.,
amicable, friendly.

Hostility. n. See Hate.

Hot, adj. 1. Fiery'- a - Pungent, biting,
acrid. 3. Glowing, ardent, fervid. 4. Pas-
sionate, irascible, impetuous. Anto. t cold,
cool.

Hue. h. Tint, tinge, shade, color.

Huge. adj. See Gigantic.

Humane, m. Kind, charitable, benevo-
lent, gentle, tender. Anto., cruel.

Humility, n. Modesty, meekness, lowli-
ness, humbleness. Anto., grandeur.

Humorous, adj. Funny, witty, jocular,
jocose, facetious. Anto., serious.

Hurry, v. See Hasten.

Hurry, n. 1. Haste, dispatch, promp*'-
tude, celerity. 2. Bustle, flutter, precipita-
tion. Anto", hinder, delay.

Hypocrisy, n. 1. Deceit, dissimulation,
imposture. 2. Cant, pharisaism, sanctimo-
niousness. Anto., openness, truth, candor.

Hypocrite, n. 1. Cheat, pretender, im-
postor, dissembler. 2. Pharisee, canter.

Hypothesis. «. Theory, supposition.

Ideal, adj. Fancied, unreal, shadowy, im-
aginary. Anto., real.

idleness, n. Inactivity, inertness, lazl*
ness, sloth. Anto., labor.

Ignorance, n. Darkness, blindness,
nescience, illiteracy. Anto., knowledge.

Ill-bred. adj. Uncourtly, uncouth, un-
polished, impolite, rude. Anto., polite.

Illustrious, adj. 1. Bright, glorious. 2.
Famous, celebrated, eminent, renowned.
Anto.. 1. Dim. 2. Unknown, infamous.

Immoderate, a. Unreasonable, extrava-
gant, inordinate, excessive. Anto., moder-
ate.

Imperious, adj. See Despotic.

Impetuous, adj. Hasty, precipitate, pas-
sionate, violent, vehement, furious. Anto.,
calm.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Moment, weight, con*
consequence. Ante,

Importance, n

cern, signiiicance.
frivolity.

Impression, n. i. Stamp, impress. a.
Idea, notion. 3. Effect, sensation, in*
flue nee.

Improve, v. 1. Mend. a. Progress. 3.
Rise, increase. Ante, deteriorate, lessen.

Imprudent, adj. Incautious, indiscreet,
injudicious, careless, rash. Ante, cautious.
Impure, adj. I. Unclean, dirty, foui, filthy.
a. Coarse, gross, immodest, indecent, ob-
scene, vulgar, lewd, Anto., pure.

Inability, n. 1. Incompetency, inca-
pacity, inefficiency, impotence. 2. Disabil •
Sty. disqualification. Anto., ability.

Inaccurate, adj. Inexact, incorrect, erro-
neous. Anto., accurate.

Inapt, adj. Unfit, unsuitable, inappropri-
ate, inapposite. Anto., suitable, meet.
Incapacity. n. See Inability.
Incompatible, adj. Unadapted, incon-
gruous, inconsistent, unsuitable. Anto. %
compatible.

Incompetent, adj. 1. Unable, incapable.
a. Disqualified, incapacitated, unfit. 3. In-
sufficient. Anto., able, fit, sufficient.

Inconsistent, adj. 1. Contrary. See In-
compatible.

Incontinence, n. Unchasttty, wanton-
ness, lechery, lewdness, lasciviousness. Anto.,
chastity.

Inconvertible, adj. Unchangeable, un-
alterable, not convertible. Anto., change-
able.

Incorrect, adj. 1. Faulty, a. Inaccurate,
inexact, erroneous, false, untrue. Anto.,
correct.

Indefinite, adj. Undefined, indistinct,
unsettled, doubtful, uncertain, loose. Anto.,
definite.

Independence. ». Liberty, freedom,
self-direction. Ante, dependence.

Individual, n. Being, person, character.
Anto., band, community.

Ineffectual, adj. 1. Feeble, weak, power*
less. a. Inoperative, unavailing, useless,
abortive. Anto., effectual.

Inequitable, adj. Unfair, unjust, dis-
honorable. Anto., equitable.

Inexperience. «. Ignorance, greenness,
rawness. Anto., experience.

Ingenuous, adj. Honest, frank, candid,
trtlcss, guileless. Anto., crafty.

Inharmony. n. Discord, harshness, dis-
sonance, discordance. Anto., concert.

Innocent, adj. 1. Harmless, innocuous, a.
Clean, guiltless, spotless, immaculate. Anto.,
Guilty.
Insanity, n. See Lunacy.
Inspire, v. t. Inhale, a. Infuse, instil.
3. Cheer, animate, Inspirit. Anto., 1. Respire.
3. Discourage.

Instruction, n. 1. Direction, mandate.
a. Discipline, teaching, training, education.
3. Counsel, precept.

Insult, n. Affront, indignity, offence,
outrage. Anto., apology, favor.

Integrity. n. Honesty, honor, rectitude,
probity, virtue, a. Completeness, entirety,
Anto., dishonesty.

Intellect, n. Mind, sense, brains, reason,
understanding. Anto., body.

Intemperance, h. Excess, dissipation.
Anto., temperance.

Intense, adj. 1. Extreme, excessive, a.
Severe, close, strained. 3. Ardent, earnest.
Anto., flight, frivolous.

Intercede, v. Mediate, plead, arbitrate,
interpose. Anto., »l. unand, require.

Intermission. », Pause, rest, suspen-
sion, stop, interruption. Anto., continuation.
Intermit, v. Subside, abate, cease. Anto.,
continue, persist.

Interpose, v. 1. Remark, a. Mediate,
arbitrate, intercede.

Interpret, v. Construe, reader, a. De-
fine, explain, elucidate, decipher.

Interrogate, v. Ask, examine, question,
catechize. Anto., answer.

Interval, u. Season, term ^pace, spell,
period. Anto., continuation.

Intervening, adj. Interjacent, interme-
diate, interposed.

Intimidate, v. Daunt, frighten, alarm,
scare, terrify. Anto., embolden, encourage.

Intoxication, n. Drunkenness, inebriety,
inebriation. Anto., temperance, sobriety.

Intrepid, adj. Brave, daring, valorous,
bold, dauntless. Anto., cowardly.

Intrinsic, adj. 1. True, genuine, essential,
real. a. Inherent, inborn, native. Anto. 1.
Counterfeit, a. Alien, foreign.

Introductory, adj. Preliminary, prefa-
tory.

Intrude, v. 1. Obtrude, a. Trespass,
infringe, encroach. Anto., eject, expel, pro-
trude.

Intrust, v. Consign, deliver, commit,
confide. Anto., distrust.

Invade, v. 1. Assault, attack, assail, a.
Infringe. Anto., repel.

Invalid, adj. 1. Weak. a. Null, void.
Anto., valid.

Invalid, n. Valetudinarian, sick person.

Invective, n. 1. Abuse, contumely, a.
Satire, sarcasm, lampoon. Anto., panegyric.

Invent, z: 1. Devise, a. Fabricate. 3/Im*
agine, originate, concoct. Anto., copy, fol-
low.

Invest, v. 1. Put at interest, a. Array,
clothe, dress.

Investigation, n. Scrutiny, examination,
inquisition, inquiry.

Invigorate, v. Animate, fortify, strength-
en. Anto., weaken.

Invincible, adj. Unconquerable, a. In-
surmountable, insuperable. Anto., vincible.

Invite, v. 1. Bid, summon, ask, request.
2. Attract, entice allure. Anto., reject,
delay, provoke.

Involve, v. Include, embrace, a. En-
tangle, implicate. 3. Entwine, interweave.
Anto., simplify, analyze.

Irksome, adj. Wean*, tiresome, tedious,
wearisome. Anto., pleasant.

Irony, n. Banter, mockery, raillery, ridi-
cule. Anto., praise.

Irrational, adj. 1. Brutish, a. Unwise,
silly, unreasonable, absurd. Anto., rational.

Irrefragable, adj. L'ndeniaMc, irrefut-
able, indubitable, incontestable. Anto.,
dubious.

Irritate, -v. Fret, nettle, incense, pro-
voke, exasperate. Anto., soothe.

Irruption, n. Inroad, foray, raid, in •
cursion.

Issue, n. 1. Offspring, children, prog-
eny, a. Conclusion, outcome, result. 3.
Outlet, exit. Anto., return, inlet.

Itinerant, adj. Wandering, nomadic, rov-
ing, travelling. Anto., homely, settled.

Jade. v. Fatigue, weary, tire, fag, ex-
haust. Anto., invigorate.

Jealousy, n. Suspicion, apprehension.
Anto., confidence.

Jest. «. Quip, crank, joke, sally, witti-
cism.

Jocose, adj. Droll, witty, comical, spor-
tive, facetious. Anto., sajfjoua,

Jocund, adj. Joyful, blithe, jolly, gay,
buxom. Anto., sad, gloom v.

Join. v. 1. Combine, unite, couple, a.
Annex, add, attach. Anto., separate.

Joke. n. See Jest.

Jollity, n. Merriment, gayety, fun, frolic,
hilarity.

Journey, n. Excursion, trip, expedition,
travel, tour.

Joy, n. Happiness, bliss, a. Delight,
gladness, glee, ccstacy, transport. Anto.,
sorrow.

Joyous, adj. Glad, happy, gleeful, joyful,
jolly. Anto.,s:u\.

Judgment, n. 1. Opinion, decision, esti-
mate, a. Sense, discernment, sagacity, wis-
dom.

Just. adj. 1, Exact, correct, true. 3.
Merited, deserved. 3. Equitfthle. 4. Honest,
fair, upright. Anto., Unjust, unfair, fraud-
ulent.

Justice, n. 1. Right, fairness, equity, s.
Judge. Anto., iniu^t.c.

Justify, v. Warrant, defend, exculpate,
vindicate. Anto., criminate.

Justness, n. 1. Fairness, right, equity.
2. Accuracy, propriety. Anto., 1. Criminality.
2. Impropriety.

Juvenile, adj. Childish, puerile, young,
youthful. Anto., manly.

Keen. adj. 1. Shrewd, sagacious, astute.

2. Earnest, zealous. 3. Severe, poignant,
caustic. 4. Sharp. Anto., dull.

Keep. v. 1. Retain. 2. Fulfil, observe.

3. Support, maintain. 4. Preserve, con-
tinue. 5. Celebrate. Anto., dispense, dis-
tribute.

Kind. adj. Good, clement, humane, gentle,
sympathetic, tender, affectionate. Ante,
cruel, unkind.

Kingly, adj. Royal, august, imperial, re-
gal. Anto., plebeian.

Knowledge, n. 1. Learning, lore,
scholarship, erudition, a. Notice. 3. Per-
ception, judgment. Anto., ignorance.

Labor, n. 1. Toil, work, effort, drud-

fery. a. Child-birth, parturition. Ant:
dlencss.

Lack. «. Need, deficiency, scarcity, in-
suflficiencv. Anto., plenty.

Lament, v. Mourn, grieve, weep. Anto.,
rejoice.

Lanclnate. v. Sever, mangle, tear, lacer-
ate. Anto., heal, join.

Land. u. Soil, ground, earth, real prop-
erty.

Landscape, n. Prospect, view, rural
scene.

Language, n. Speech, expression, ver-
nacular, dialect, tongue.

Languish, r. 1. Faint, wither, fade,
droop, a. Look tender. Anto., invigorate,
strengthen.

Larceny, n. Theft, pilfering, thievery,
stealing.

Large, adj. 1. Bulky, big, great, a. Broad,
extensive 3. Full, abundant. Anto., small.

Lascivious, a. Loose, unchaste, lustful,
lewd, lecherous. Anto., cha: u. pure.

Last. adj. 1. Latent. 2. Ultimate, final.
3. Hindmost. 4. Extreme. Auto., first.

Last. adv. The Ian time

Last. v. Remain, continue, endure. Anto.,
perish, dissolve.

Latent, adj. Secret, unseen, veiled, con-
cealed. Anto., patent.

Laugh. «. Laughter, cachinnation, roar,
guffaw. Auto., sign.

Lnughnble. adj. Droll, ridiculous, farci-
cal, comical. Auto., solemn.

Lavish, adj Extravagant, wasteful, pro-
fuse. Anto., niggardly.

Lavish. I-. Dissipate, waste, squander.

Law. n. 1. Rule, regulation, statute, enact-
ment, ordinance. 2. Formula. 3. Code. 4.
Jurisprudence. Auto., lawlessness.

Lawful, adj Legal, legitimate, constitu-
tional. Auto., unlawful.

Lawyer, u. Attorney, counsellor, advo-
cate, counsel. .

Laxy. adj. Idle, dronish, sluggish, inac-
tive, slothful Auto.j active, mmblc

Lead. u. Direction, guidance, leader-
ship. Anto., following.

League. *. Combination, alliance, con-
federacy, union. Ante, disunion, separa-
tion- -.

Lean. r. Incline, a. Bear, recline, rest.

3- Tend. , .

Leave, u. Allowance, permission, license,
libertv. Auto., prohibition.

Lecture, u. Lesson, discourse, prelec-
tion. , ,

Legacy, u. Gift, bequest, devise.

Legal, adj. See Lenrfnl.

Legible, adj. Fair, readable, plain. Ante,
Illegible.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Leisure, n. Spare time. Anto. % occupa-
tion

Lengthen, v. I. Extend, protract, pro-
long, continue. a. Stretch, elongate. Anto.,
shorten.

Leniency, n. Tenderness, mercy, mild-
ness, clemency. Anto., cruelty.

Letter. n. Note, epistle, a. Alphabets
cal character. .

Levity. n. Frivolity, giddiness, flighti-
ness. Anto., sobriety.

Liberality. n. I. Bownty, generosity,
beneficence, charity, a. Toleration, candor.
Ante., closeness, meanness.

Liberate, v. Discharge, emancipate, re-
lease. Anto.. arrest.

Lie. ». Fib, untruth, falsehood. Anto.,
truth.

Lie. v. I. Falsify. 2. Recline. 3. Rest,
remain. Anto., I. Verify.

Life. n. 1. Vitality. a. Existence. 3.
Memoir, biography. Anto., death.

Light, n. I. Daylight, sunrise. 3. Illum-
ination. 3. Instruction. 4. Window, Anto.,
darkness.

Light, adj. 1. Buoyant. 2. Easy. 3. Por-
ous. 4. Unburdened. 5. Trifling, small. 6.
Flimsy, 7 Airy, gay. Anto., heavy.

Like. adj. Resembling, same, similar.
Anto., unlike.

Like, v. Choose, prefer, list, elect. Anto.,
dislike.

Liking, n. Choice, preference, par-
tiality. Anto., impartiality.

Limited, adj. Confined, bounded, restrain-
ed, defined, restricted, circumscribed. Anto.,
unlimited.

Lineage, n. Race, house, family, ances-
try, line.

Link. v. Conjoin, tie, bind, connect,
unite. Anto., loosen.

Liquidation, n. Adjustment, discharge,
settlement, payment.

Little, adj. 1. Small, diminutive, minute,
tiny. 2. Scanty, inconsiderable. Anto.,
noble, large.

Live. adj. 1. Existing, alive, living, a.
Alert, enterprising. Anto., dead.

Live. v. 1. Exist. 2. Endure, con-
tinue. 3. Abide, dwell, reside. 4. Subsist.
Anto., die.

Lively, adj. 1. Agile, quick, nimble. 2.
Sprightly, blithe, joyous. 3. Vigorous, pi-
quant, strong-. 4. Vivid. Anto., slow, slug-
gish, languid.

Loathsome, adj. Offensive, disgusting,
appalling, revolting. Anto., delectable, pleas-
ant.

Lofty. 1. High. a. Dignified, sublime.
3. Haughty, proud, arrogant. Anto., humble,
modest.

Lonely, adj. 1. Companion less, lone,
solitary, a. Secluded, lonesome, isolated.
Anto., crowded.

Loosen, v. 1. Relax, a. Loose, release.
Anto., tighten, tie, bind.

Lordly, adj. Dignified, majestic, lofty*
a. Proud, haughty. Anto., meek, lowly*
humble.

Lose. v. x. Miss, forfeit. 2. Waste, squan-
der. Anto., 1. Find. 2. Gain, earn.

Loss. ». Deprivation, privation, for-
feiture, waste, damage, detriment, destruction.
Anto.,%2.\T\, profit.
Love. v. Like. Anto., hate.
Love. n. Affection, attachment, fond-
ness, liking. Anto., hate.

Low. adj. 1. Depressed. 2. Mean, ab-
ject, disreputable. 3. Cheap. Anto., 1. High.
2. Proud, worthy. 3. Dear.

Loyal, adj. Faithful, true. Anto., dis-
loyal, traitorous.

Lucid, adj. 1. Clear, transparent, pel-
lucid, distinct, plain, bright, shining. Anto.,
ambiguous, opaque, sombre.
Lnck. ». Chance, hap, fortune, fate.
Lunacy, n. Derangement, madness, in-
sanity, craziness. Anto., sanity.

Luxuriate, v. 1. Revel, wanton, a. Flour-
ish. Anto., 1. Chasten, a- Wither.

Maceration, n. Soaking, softening,
stt £ping. Anto., drying.

Machination, n. Plot, stratagem, in-
trigue, conspiracy. Anto., artlessness.

Mad. adj. 1. Crazy, delirious, insane.
a. Enraged, frantic, violent. Anto., 1. Sane.
a. Pacified.

Magic, n. Enchantment, sorcery, necro-
mancy.

Magnanimous, adj. See Noble, Lofty.

Magnificence, n. Grandeur, splendor,

eclat. Anto., squalor, poverty.

Main. adj. Principal, 1c

Anto., subordinate, secondary.

Main. adj. Principal, leading, chief.

Majority, n. 1. Manhood, full age. a.
Greater number. Anto., minority.

Malefactor, n. Culprit, criminal, felon,
convict.

Malice, n. Spite, rancor, hate, venom,
malignity. Anto., love, benevolence, benig-
nity.

Mammoth, adj. SeeLarge.

Manly, adj. Manful, brave, stout, strong,
bold, noble, heroic. Anto., effeminate.

Manifest, adj. Clear, apparent, patient,
obvious, plain, glaring. Anto., hidden, ob-
scure, occult.

Manners, n. Breeding, behavior, de-

Sortment, habits, morals. Anto., misbe*
avior, vulgarism.

Marry, v. Espouse, wed, take for hus-
band or wife. Anto., divorce.

Mask. v. Disguise, shroud, screen, veil,
hide, cliak. Anto., display.

Matchless, adj. Excellent, inimitable, un-
rivaled, peerless, incomparable. Anto., com-
mon, ordinary.

Matrimony. n. Wedlock, marriage,
nuptial state. Anto., spinsterhood, bachelor-
hood.

Mean. v. 1. Purpose, intend, design, a.
Denote, imply, signify.

Mean. adj. 1. Average, middle, medium.
a. Miserly, stingy, base, surly, jjrumbling,
poor, petty, wretched. Anto., 1. Extreme, a.
Noble, lofty.

Meek. adj. Modest, humble, mild, gentle,
submissive. Anto., bold.

Meekness, n. Modesty, humility, gentle-
ness, mildness, submissive ness. Anto.,
boldness, hardihood.

Melancholy. «. Depression, gloom, sad-
ness, dejection, despondency. Anto., joy,
buoyancy.

Memory. «. 1. Remembrance, recol-
lection, a. Reputation, renown, fame. Anto.,
forgetful ness, oblivion.

Mental, adj. Ideal, rational, intellect-
ual, metaphysical. Anto., physical.

Mercy, n. Mildness, compassion, clem-
ency, lenity. Anto., harshness, implaca-
bility.

Meritorious, adj. Good, worthy, deserv-
ing, excellent. AnCo., unworthy.

Merry, adj. Gay, gleeful, mirthful,
joyful, hilarious. Ant*., sad, sorrowful.

Mighty, adj. 1. Able, strong, puissant.
a. Effective, forcible. 3. Immense, vast,
stupendous. Anto., feeble, small.

Mind. «. 1. Reason, intellect, under-
standing, a. Inclination, desire.

Minority. ». 1. Nonage, infancy, pupil-
age, childhood, a. Smaller number. Anto.,
majority.

Misadventure, n. Misfortune, mishap,
reverse, mischance. Anto., adventure.

Mischief. ». 1. Trouble, a. Detriment,
harm, hurt, evil, injury. Anto., benefit, ad-
vantage, utility.

Miserable, adj. 1. Depressed, unhappy,
affected, forlorn. 2. Abject, mean, value-
less. Anto., happy, lucky, lofty.

Moderate, adj. 1. Mild, judicious, rea-
sonable, a. Frugal, sparing. Anto., im-
moderate, extravagrant.

Modern, adj. Late, new, novel, recent.
Anto., ancient, old.

Modest, adj. 1. Humble, unpretend<
1

a. Moderate. 3. Chaste, pure. Anto.,

ng.
bold, lofty, immodest.

Morality. n. 1. Goodness, virtue, a.
Ethics, morals. Anto., immorality.

Morbid, adj. Unsound, sickly, unhealthy,
vitiated. Anto., sound, healthy.

Mornlag. «. Daybreak, dawn, forenoon.
Anto.. evening.

Mortal, adj. Deadly, fatal, a. Human,
Anto., immortal.

Mortal. ». Human, man. Anto., immor-
tal.

Mundane, adj. Worldly, earthly, ter-
restrial. Anto., heavenly.

Murmur, n. 1. Whisper, muttering, a.
complaint. Anto. 1. Shout. 2. Commen-
dation.

Muse. v. Think, contemplate, reflect,
ponder, meditate, brood.

Music, m. Harmony, symphony, melody,
science of harmonics.

Mutual, adj. Interchanged, reciprocal,
correlative. Anto , sole, solitary.

Mystify, v. Puzzle, perplex, baffle, be-
wilder, pose. Anto., clear, explain.

Naked, adj. 1. Nude, bare, undressed,
a. Defenceless, unprotected. 3. Sheer, sim-
ple. Anto., clad, covered.

Natural. 1. Regular normal. 2. Native,
original, characteristic. Anto., unnatural.

Near. adj. Close nigh, adjacent a.
Familiar, aliicd, intimate. 3. Impending,
imminent. Anto. , far.

Nerve, v. Biace, fortify, strengthen,
invigorate. Anto., weaken.

Never, adv. Net ever. Anto., ever, always.

New. adj. Fresh, novel, a. Modern,
recent. Anto., old, ancient.

Nice. adj. 1. Precise, exact, critical, a.
Subtle, fine. 3 Delicate, dainty, delicious.
Anto., 1. Careless, a. Coarse 3. Unpleasant.

Niggardly, adj. Mean, mercenary, stingy,
miserly, illiberal, avaricious. Anto., gener-
ous, open.

Nimble, adj. Quick, agile, alert, spright-
ly. Anto., slow, lazy.

Noble, adj. 1. Dignified. worthy, superior,
exalted, a. Grand, magnificent. Anto., ig-
noble.

Noise, n. Sound, din, clatter, uproar,
clamor. Anto., silence.

Nominate, a Name, propose, designate.

Note. «. 1. Minute, memorandum. 2. Com-
ment, remark. 3. Celebrity, renown. 4. Bill,
promissory note.

Note. v. 1. Record, a. Notice, observe,
heed. 3. Denote, designate.

Noted, adj. See liluttrious.

Notion, n. See Idea.

Notorious, adj. \. Conspicuous, a. Open,
obvious, well-known. Anto., unknown.

Novel, adj. See New.

Novel. ». Tale, story, romance, fiction.

Noxious, adj. Harmful, hurtful, dele-
terious, baleful, deadly. Anto., wholesome.

Number, n. 1. Numeral, figure, digit.
2. Multitude, many.

Nuptials. ». Wedding, marriage. Anto.,
divorce.

Nurture. «. Discipline, training, breed-
ing, schooling, education.

Nutriment. «. Food, diet, provision,
sustenance, nutrition, nourishment. Anto.,
poison.

Nutritious, adj. Sustaining.

Nourishing:, adj. Wholesome, strengthen-
ing. Anto., noxious.

Obdurate, adj. Obstinate, stubborn, cal-
lous, unfeeling. Anto., flexible.

Object. w.TEnd, purpose, aim, design, a.
Mark. Anto., subject.

Oblige. 1. Please, favor, accommodate,
serve. 2. Obligate. 3. Compel, coerce. Anto.,
disoblige.

Oblivion. «. Forgetfulness, amnesty.
Anto., remembrance.

Obscure, adj. Dark, dim, vague, indis-
tinct, a. Humble, unknown. Anto., 1. Light,
plain, clear, a. Noted.

*fe

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Obscure, v. Cloud, darken, shade, eclipse.
Auto. , clear, illuminate.

Ob#eqoiMi n. Funeral rites, exequies.

Obsolete, adj. Disused, antiquated,
neglected. Ante, new, fashionable.

Obvious, adj. liain, clear, manifest,
visible, apparent. Anto., hidden.

Occasional, adj. Casual, irregular, inci-
dental. Auto., regular.

Occupation, n. i. Calling, business,
pursuit, profession. 2. Use, possession. Anto. t

1. Idleness. 2. Forfeiture.

Occupy, v. Hold, possess, use. Anto.,
vacate.

Occurrence, n. Adventure, incident, con-
tingency.

Odor. ». Scent, perfume, fragrance.

Offend, v. Displease, annoy, vex. Anto.,
please.

Offence, n. Crime, indignity, injury, in
suit, misdeed, transgression, trespass, out-
rage. Anto,, favor, obligation.

Offensive, adj. Abusive, impertinent, in-
jurious, insulting, insolent, obnoxious, oppro-
brious, rude, scurrilous. Anto., pleasant.

Offering, n. 1. Oblation, presentation,
gift. 2. Sacrifice.

Office, n. 1. Charge, trust, duty, service.

2. Situation, berth, station.

Officious, adj. Active, busy, forward, in-
trusive, obtrusive. Anto., modest.

Offspring, n. Children, issue, descend-
ants, posterity. Anto., ancestry.

Only. adj. Alone, adv. Barely, merely,
simply, singly, solely.

Opaque, adj. I. Dark, obscure. 2. Not
transparent, impervious to light. Anto.,
transparent.

Open. a. 1. Unclosed, extended. 2. Clear,

Lublic. 3. Fair, candid, unreserved. 4.
liberal. 5. Unsettled. Anto., closed.

Opening. w. Aperture, cavity, hole, fissure.
Anto., solid.

Operation. n. Action, agency, surgical
act, process.

Opinion, n. Notion, view, judgment,
belief. 2. Estimate.

Opinionated, adj. Conceited, egotistical,
obstinate. Anto., modest.

Opponent. ». Adversary, antagonist,
enemy, foe. Anto., friend, ally.

Opposite, adj. Adverse, contrary, inimi-
cal, repugnant. Anto., alike, congenial.

Opprobrious, adj. Abusive, insulting, in-
solent, offensive, scurrilous. Anto., eulogis-
tic.

Opprobrium, n. Disgrace, ignominy,
infamy. Anto., eminence.

Option, n. Choice, election.

Oration. ». Address, speech, discourse,
harangue.

Ordain, v. Appoint, order, prescribe,
invest.

Order, n. 1. Class, degree, fraternity,
method, rank, series, succession. 2. Com-
mand, injunction, mandate, precept. Anto.,
disorder.

Orderly, adj. 1. Methodical, systematic,
regular, quiet, a. n. Soldier. Anto., irregu-
lar.

Ordinary, adj. 1. Usual, common, habit-
ual. 2. Homely, plain, ugly. 3. Inferior,
vulgar. Anto., extraordinary.

Origin, n. 1. Cause, occasion. -a. Spring,
beginning, source. Anto., end.

Original, adj. First, primary, primitive,
pristinei Anto., copied,

Ornament, v. Adorn, embellish, beauti-
fy, decorate. Anto., spoil, wreck, destroy.

Ornate, adj. Adorned, bedecked, decorat-

d, embellished, garnished. Anto., unadorn-
ed.

Ostensible, adj. Colorable, feasible, pro.
fessed, plausible, specious, apparent, de-
clared, manifest. Anto., real.

Ostentation. n. Show, display, flourish,
pomposity. Anto., plainness.

Outlive, v. Srr Sm

Outrage, v. Abuse, maltreat, offend, in-
sult, shock. Anto., honor, praise.

Outrage. ». Affront, offence, abuse, in-
dignity, insult. Anto., favor, obligation.

Outvrarc!. adj. Extraneous^ exterior, ex-
ternal, extrinsic, outer. Anto., inward.

OvoL adj. Egg-shaped, elliptical.

Overbearing, adj. Haughty, arrogant,
lordly, imperious, domineering, dictatorial.
Anto., gentle.

Overcome, v. Conquer, subdue, sur-
mount, vanquish. Anto., burrender.

Overflow, v. 1. Mow, deluge, inundate.
2. Overrun, overspread.

Oversight. «. 1. Blunder, mistake, er-
ror, inadvertency. 2. Management, super-
vision, control. Anto., correction.

Overthrow, v. 1. Defeat, overcome,
conquer, vanquish, a. Upset, overturn, sub-
vert. 3. Ruin, molest. Anto., surrender, yield.

Overwhelm, v. 1. Overflow. 2. Defeat,
conquer, vanquish, subdue.

Owner. ». Holder, possessor, proprietor.

Pacify, v. 1. Appease, conciliate. 2.
Calm, still, compose, tranquilize, quiet, quell.
Anto., excite.

Pain. «. 1. Ache, distress, suffering,
pang, anguish, agony. 2. Penalty. 3. Un-
easiness, sorrow, grief, woe. Anto., pleasure.

Paint, v. 1. Depict, delineate, portray,
pencil, sketch. 2. Color. 3. Represent.

Pair. n. Brace, couple. Anto., single.

Pale. adj. 1. Colorless, wan, whitish,
ashy, pallid. 2. Dim, sombre. Anto., florid.

Palliate, v. Cover, extenuate, gloss,
varnish. Anto., accuse, charge.

Palpable, adj. Obvious, evident, mani-
fest, plain, glaring. 2. Tangible. Anto., occult.

Palpitate, v. Pulsate, throb, flutter, go
pit-a-pat. Anto., QuSgL

Paltry, adj. 1. Little, small, unimportant,
petty, miserable, trivial. 2. Abject, base,
mean, pitiful, contemptible. Anto., worthy,
great, noble.

Panegyric, n. Encomium, praise, eulogy.
Anto., condemnation.

Pang. n. See Pain.

Parasite. «. Flatterer, sycophant, han-
ger-on.

Pardon, n. Grace, forgiveness, remis-
sion, absolution, mercy, amnesty. Anto., im-
placability.

Parentage, n. Birth, lineage, pedigree,
stock.

Parody, n. Burlesque, travesty, carica-
ture.

Parsimonious, adj. Close, mean, stin-
gy, miserly, penurious, covetous, sordid.
Anto., generous.

Partial, adj. 1. Incomplete, imperfect.
2. Unfair, warped, biased, prejudiced, un-
just. Anto., complt r< .

Part. n. 1. Piece, portion, fraction. 2.
Element, ingredient. 3. Lot. 4. Charge,
function.

Particle. n. Grain, jot, tittle, iota, bit,
atom, molecule. Anto., mass.

Particular, adj. Appropriate, circum-
stantial, distinct, exact, exclusive, nice, pecu-
liar, punctual, specific. Anto., careless, in-
appropriate.

Particularly, adv. Chiefly, distinctly,
especially, specifically, principally. Anto.,
generally.

Partisan, n. Supporter, adherent, fol-
lower, disciple, champion, votary. Anto., op-
ponent.

Partly, adv. In part. Anto., wholly.

Partner. ». 1. Colleague, associate
sharer, participator, partaker. 2. Member of
a firm.

Passion, n. 1. Ardor, emotion, fervor,
seal. 2. Love, affection, fondness, attach-
ment, devotion. 3. Anger, wrath, f
Pathos. Anto., quietude, placidity, languor.

Passive, adj. Calm, patient, n
submissive, unresisting. Anto., rebclli

Patent, adj. Open, plain, apparent, ob-
vious. Anto., latent.

Pnthetir. a dj. Touching, affecting,
mnvinv, tender, melting, plaintive. Anto.,

Pntlenec. n. Resignation, endurance,
fortitude, sufferance. Anto., impatience.

Patient, adj. Composed, calm, enduring,
. n. An invalid. Anto., fretful.

l'utrician. n. Nobleman, aristocrat.
Anto., plebeian.

Patronize, v. Aid, favor, support, help,
befriend. Anto., abuse, condemn.

Pause, v. 1. Stop cease, desist, delay,
rest, stay. 2. Waver, hesitate. Anto., con-
tinue.

Pay. n. Compensation, reward, requital,
wages, salary, hire.

Peaceable, adj. Calm, gentle, pacific,
mild, quiet, serene, tranquil, undisturbed.
Anto., turbulent.

Peaceful, adj. 1. Still, quiet, undisturb-
ed, calm, placid, tranquil, serene. 2. Mild,
friendly. Auto., disturbed.

Peculiar, adj. Particular, singular, spe-
cial, characteristic, rare, exceptional.

Peevish, adj. Captious, cross, fretful,
irritable, petulant. Anto., patient.

Penalty, n. Chastisement, fine, forfeiture,
mulct, punishment. Anto., reward.

Penetrating, adj. Discerning, intclli-

§ent, sagacious, acute, keen, shrewd. Anto.,
ull.

Penitence, n. Compunction, remorse,
contrition, repentance. Anto., impenitence.

Penniless, adj. Poor, destitute needy,
indigent, reduced, pinched, distressed. Anto.,
rich, moneyed.

Penurious, adj. Beggarly, miserly, nig-
gardly, parsimonious, sparing'. Anto., gener-
ous.

Penary, n. Indigence, need, poverty,
want. Anto., affluence.

lVreeive. v. 1. Notice, see, discover,
discern. 2. Feel. 3. Understand, know.
Anto., miss.

Perception, n. Conception, sensation,
Idea, notion, sentiment.

Peremptory, adj. Absolute, arbitrary,
despotic, dogmatical, positive. Anto., vacil-
lating.

Perfect. adj. 1. Finished, complete,
elaborate. 2. Blameless, pure, holy. Anto.,
imperfect.

Perfidious, adj. Faithless, treacherous.
Anto., faithful.

Perforate, v. Bore, pierce, penetrate.
Anto.^plug, fill.

Perform, r. Accomplish, achieve, ef-
fect, execute, fulfil, produce. Anto., fail.

Perfume, «. Aroma, fragrance, balmi*
ness, incense. Anto., stench.

Peril, n. Venture, risk, danger, hazard,
jeopardy. Anto., safety.

Period, n. Circuit,' date, age, epoch, era.

Perjure, v. Sr* Forr&tar.

IVrmanent. adj. Fixed, abiding, last-
ing, stable, enduring, steadfast, immutable.
Anto., unstable.

Permit, v. Allow, suffer, consent, ad-
mit, tolerate, yield. Anto., refuse.

Pernicious, adj. Destructive, hurtful,
mischievous, noisome, noxious. Anto.,
healthful.

lVrprtunl. adj. Continuous, constant,
incessant, unceasing, uninterrupted. Anto.,
transient.

Perplex, r. 1. Puzzle, embarrass, be-
wilder, confound. 2. Involve, entangle, com-
plicate. Anto., explain.

Persevere. 7. Continue, in«i«t, persist,
prosecute, pursue. Anto., unstable.

Perspicuity, n. Transparency, clear-
ness, transluccncy. Anto., obscurit\ .

Persuade. 7." 1. Convince. 2. Infucnce,
induce, lead, incite, impel. Anto., dissuade.

Pertinent, adj. Apposite, appropriate.
Anto., improper.

Perverse, adj. Cross, crooked, forward,
stubborn, untractablc. Antou, yielding.

Pestilential, adj. Contagious, epidem-
ical, infectious, mischievous. Anto., whole-
some.

IVHtlon. n. Application, appeal, prayer,
suit, entreaty, supplication.

Picture. ». Eftigy, likeness, representa-
tion.

Pious, adj. Religion*, devout, holy,
saintly, godly. Anto., impious.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

ik-

Pique. ». Offence, resentment, umbrage,
grudge. Anto., pleasure, friendliness.

Pique, v. i. Urge, spur, incite, instigate.
2 Displease, offend, irritate, nettle, exasper-
ate. Anto., please.

Pitiless. adj. Unmerciful, relentless,
ruthless, cruel, unfeeling, inexorable. Anio.,
merciful.

Pity. n. Sympathy, corrpassion, fellow-
feeling. Anio., cruelty.

Place, i. «. Ground, post, position, seat,
site, situation, space. 2. adj. Dispose, lay
order, put, set. Anto., 2. Displace.

Placid, adj. See Peaceful.

Plague, v. Tease, vex, trouble, fret,
bother. Anio., please.

Pleasant, adj. 1. Agreeable, pleasing,
delightful. 2. Witty, sportive, amusing. 3.
Cheerful, lively, vivacious. Ante, disagree-
able.

Please, v. Delight, gratify, humor, sat-
isfy. Anto., displease.

Pleasure. «. 1. Comfort, enjoyment,
gratification, joy. 2. Luxury, voluptuous-
ness. 3. Choice, will, preference, Anto.,
pain.

Plebeian, adj. Mean, base, vulgar, ig-
noble. Anto., patrician.

Pledge, n. Deposit, earnest, hostage,
security, pawn.

Plentiful, adj. Abundant, ample, copi-
ous, exuberant, plenteous. Anto., scarcity.

Pliable, adj. 1. Limber, flexible, supple,
lithe. 2. Compliant, tractable. Anto., inflex-
ible.

Pliant, adj. Bending, flexible, pliable,
lithe | limber, supple, yielding. Anto., stiff.

Plight, v. Case, condition, predicament,
situation, state.

Plot. v. Scheme, concoct, project, devise,
brew, hatch.

Pluck. «. Resolution, courage, spirit,
mettle, nerve, fortitude. Anto., cowardice.

Polished, adj. 1. Refined, accomplished,
polite, cultivated, elegant. 2. Burnished. 3.
Attic, classic. Anto., rough, coarse.

Polite, adj. Refined, accomplished, gen-
teel, courteous, courtly, polished, urbane.
Anto., impolite.

Politeness. n. Affability, civility, cour-
teousness, courtesy, good manners. Anto.,
impoliteness.

Politic, adj. Artful, civil, cunning, pru-
dent. Anto., impolitic.

Pollute, n. Contaminate, corrupt, defile,
infect, vitiate. Anto., purify.

Pomp. «. Display, parade, skow, pa-
geantry, state, ostentation.

Pompous, adj. Dignified, lofty, magis-
terial, magnificent, stately, showy, ostenta-
tious. Anto., modest.

Ponder, v. Consider, muse, reflect,
think.

Portion. «. Division, dower, fortune,
part, quantity, share. Anto., whole.

Position, n. Place, post, situation, sta-
tion.

Positive, adj. Certain, confident, dog-
matical, real. Anto., doubtful.

Possess, v. Have, hold, occupy. Anto.,
dispossess, distrain.

Posterior, adj. 1. Hind, rear, back. 2.
Following, succeeding, subsequent, ensuing.
Anto., anterior.

Postpone, v. Adjourn, defer, delay, pro-
crastinate. Anto., expedite.

Posture. «. Action, attitude, gesture,
position.

Potent, adj. Strong, influential, cogent,
powerful, mighty, puissant. Anto., weak.

Poverty, n. Indigence, need, penurv,
want. Auto., wealth.

Powerful, adj. Mighty, influential, po-
tent, strong, vigorous. Anto., weak.

Practicable, adj. Feasible, possible,
practical. Anto., impracticable.

Practice, n. Custom, habit, manner, use.
Anto., prodigy.

Praise. «, 1, Worship, homage. 2. Ap-
proval, commendation, laudation, applause,
encomium. 3. Eulogy, panegyric. Anto.,
blame.

Praise, v. 1. Exalt, glorify. 2. Approve,
applaud, commend. 3. Eulogize, extol. Ante.,
Censure.

Prayer. «. Entreaty, petition, suit, re-
quest, supplication. Anto., anathema.

Precarious, adj. Doubtful, equivocal,
dubious, uncertain. Anto., certain.

Precedence, n. Pre-eminence, prefer-
ence, priority. Anto., subsequence

Precedent. 1 . n. Example. 2. Adj.
Former, antecedent. Anto., 2. Subsequent.

Preceding, adj. Antecedent, anterior,
foregoing, former, previous, prior. Anto.,
following.

Precept, n. Doctrine, law, rule, injunc-
tion, mandate, maxim, principle.

Precious, adj. Costly, uncommon, val-
uable. Anto., common.

Precise, adj. 1. Accurate, correct, exact.
2. Nice. 3. Stiff, strict. Anto., not exact.

Preclude, v. Hinder, obviate, prevent.
Anto., assist.

Preconcerted, adj. Premeditated, pre-
determined, considered beforehand. Anto.,
unconsidered.

Precursor, n. Forerunner, harbinger,
messenger. Anto., follower, disciple

Predicament. «. 1. Condition, plight,
situation. 2. Class, state.

Predict, v. Foretell, prophesy, prognos-
ticate.

Predominate, adj. Overruling, supreme,
prevalent, prevailing.

Preface. ». Introduction, prelude, proem.
Anto., conclusion, peroration.

Prefer, v. Advance, choose, forward,
encourage, promote. 2. Offer, present.

Preference. «. Choice, precedence,
priority.

Preferment. «. Advancement, prefer*
encc, promotion. Anto., abasement.

Prejudice. «. 1. Bias, detriment, disad-
vantage, hurt, injury. 2. Prepossession. Anto.,
justice.

Preliminary, adj. 1. Antecedent, intro-
ductory, preparatory, previous. 2. A first
step.

Prepare, v. Equip, make ready, fit,
qualify, Anto., retard.

Preponderate, v. ». Outweigh, over-
balance. 2. Prevail.

Proficiency, n. Advancement, progress,
improvement. Anto., deficiency.

Profit. «. Advantage, benefit, emolument,
gain. Anto., loss.

Profligate, adj. Set Abandoned.

Profuse, adj. Extravagant, lavish, prod-
igal. Anto., niggardly.

Progeny, n. Issue, offspring, race.

Progress. «, Advancement, gradation ,
motion, proficiency. Anto., retrogression.

Project, n. Design, plan, scheme.

Prolific, adj. Fertile, fruitful, produc-
tive. Anto., barren, sterile.

Prolix, adj. Diffuse, long, tedious. Anio.,
brief, laconic.

Prolong, v. Belay, extend, postpone,
procrastinate, protract, retard. Anto., shorten.

Prominent, adj. Conspicuous, protuber-
ant, eminent, projecting. Anto., unnotice-
able.

Promiscuous, adj. Mingled^ indiscrim-
inate, common, confused. Anto., select.

Promise. ». Word, assurance, engage-
ment, pledge.

Promote, v. Advance, encourage, for-
ward, prefer. Anto., discourage.

Prompt, adj. 1. Early, punctual, timely.
2. Apt, rcadv, quick. Anto., unready, dilatory.

Pronounce, v. Affirm, articulate, declare,
speak, utter.

Proof. «.* 1. Argument. 2. Demonstra-
tion, evidence, testimony.

Propagate, v. Circulate, diffuse, dis-
seminate, increase, multiply. Anto., diminish,
prune.

Propensity. «. Inclination, proneness,
bias, tendency.

Proper, adj. 1. Fitting, appropriate,
suitable, becoming, seemly, right. 2. Partic-
ular, specific, not common. Anto., wrong.

Propitiate, v. Appease, reconcile, atone,
conciliate. Anto., provoke.

Propitious, adj. 1. Auspicious, favor-
able. 2. Kind, merciful. Anto., unfavorable.

Proportion, n. Form, rate, relation,
ratio, size, symmetry.

Proportionate, adj. Adequate, equal,
commensurate. Anto., unequal.

Propose, v. Bid, intend, offer, purpose,
tender.

Prosecute, v. 1. Arraign, accuse. 2.
Continue, pursue. Anto., exculpate, pardon.

Prospect, n. Landscape, survey, view.

Prospective, adj. Foreseeing, forward,
future.

Prosperity, n. Welfare, success, thrift,
luck, happiness. Anto., loss, poverty.

Prosperous, adj. Flourishing, fortunate,
lucky, successful. Anto., unsuccessful.

Protect. v. Cherish, defend, foster,
guard, patronize, shelter, shield. Anto.,
abandon.

Protract, v. Defer, delay, postpone,
prolong, retard. Anto., contract.

Protracted, adj. Continued, extended,
prolonged, drawn out. Anto., shortened.

Proud, adj. Arrogant, assuming, con-
ceited, haughty, vain. Anto., unassuming.

Proverb, n. Adage, aphorism, maxim,
apothegm, by-word, saw, saying.

Provide, v. Furnish, prepare, procure,
supply.

Provident, adj. Careful, economical,
cautious, frugal, far-sighted, prudent. Anto.,
prodigal.

Provisions. «. Subsistence; food, vict-
uals, viands, bread, provender.

Proviso, k. Condition, stipulation.

Provoke, v. 1. Irritate, anger, offend,
affront, enrage, exasperate, infuriate. 2.
Awaken, arouse, excite, stimulate, inflame.
Anto., propitiate.

Proxy. «. Deputy, representative, agent,
substitute.

Prudence, n. Carefulness, discretion,
forethought, judgment, wisdom. Anto., in-
discretion.

Prudish, adj. Coy, demure, reserved,
over-modest. Anto., brazen, immodest.

Publish, v. 1. Announce, declare, pro-
claim, herald, advertise. 2. Issue, emit.
Anto., suppress.

Puerile, adj. Boyish, childish, juvenile.
Anto., manly.

Pull. v. Drag, draw, gather, hale, haul,
pluck, lug. Anto., push.

Pulsation. », Beat, beating, throb, throb-
bing.

Pulverize, v. Bruise, grind, comminute,
triturate.

Punctual, adj. See Promft.

Punish, v. Correct, discipline, chastise,
castigate, whip, scourge. Anto., reward.

Pure. adj. 1. Clear, clean, unsullied, un-
defined, spotless, untarnished, immaculate. 2.
True, innocent, sinless. 3. Chaste, modest. 4.
Unmixed, genuine. Anto., impure.

Purpose. ». Object, aim, intent, end,
design.

Pursue, v. Chase, continue, follow, pros-
ecute, persist. Anto., escape.

Puzzle, -v. See Perplex.

Puzzle, n. 1. Mystery, riddle, enigma.
2. Embarrassment, perplexity, nonplus.

Quack. ». Impostor, pretender, humbug,
charlatan. Anto., savant.

Quail, v. Shrink, blanch, quake, cower,
tremble. Anto., brave.

Qualified, adj. Adapted, competent,
fitted, Anto., incompetent.

Qualify, v. Adapt, equip, furnish, fit,
modify, prepare, temper.

Quality, n. Rank, property, distinction,
accomplishment, attribute.

Quandary, v.. Puzzle, difficulty, per-
plexity, strait, nonplus, dilemma.

Quarrel. n. Disagreement, wrangle,
squabble, contention, dissension, strife, alter-
cation, brawl. Anto., agreement.

Queer, adj. Odd, singular, droll, strange,
whimsical, unique, quaint. Anto., usual, or-
dinary, customary.

•ife

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Query, n. Inquiry, question, interroga-
tory. Ante., answer.

Question, n. See Query.

Question, v. 1. Ask, enquire, examine,
Interrogate, catechize. 2. Doubt, dispute,
controvert. Auto., reply.

Questionable, adj. Doubtful, suspici-
ous. Auto., authentic.

Quick. adj. 1. Brisk, active, prompt,
agile. 2. Rapid, swift. 3. Clever, sharp,
shrewd, acute, keen, discerning. Anto., dull,
slow.

Quiet, adj. Still, renting, dormant, mo-
tionless, quiescent. Anto., turbulent.

Quit. v. 1. Leave, withdraw, vacate. 2.
Resign, abandon, forsake. 3. Clear, acquit,
absolve.

Quiver, v. Shake, tremble, shudder,
shiver, quake.

Quota, n. Share, portion, allotment,
contingent, proportion.

Quotation, n. Extract, excerpt, selection,
citation.

Quote, v. Adduce, cite. Anto., originate.

Babble, n* Mob, rout, herd.
Race. n. Breed, course, family, genera-
tion, lineage, progress. Anto.. mongrel.

Radiance, n. Brightness, brilliancy, lus-
tre, splendor, effulgence. Anto., gloom.

Radical, adj. 1. Entire, complete, thor-
ough, perfect. 2. Fundamental, original,
organic. 3. Simple, primitive, underived.
Anto., superficial.

Rage. n. Anger, choler, fury, violence.
Anto.. calm.

Raise. v. Advance, collect, elevate,
heighten, erect, exalt, propagate. Anto.,
lower.

Rally, v. 1. Banter, deride, mock, ridi-
cule, a. Collect. Anto., 1. Praise. 3. Scatter.
Random, adj. Casual, chance, fortui-
tous. Anto., chosen, destined.
Rank. n. Class, degree, position.
Ransom. ». Free, redeem, manumit.
Anto., imprison.

Rapacious, adj. Greedy, ravenous, vo-
racious. Anto., generous.

Rapidity, n. Agility, celerity, fleetness,
speed, swiftness, velocity. Ante, sloth.

Rapt. adj. Charmed, delighted, enrapt-
ured, fascinated, entranced, transported, rav-
ished. Anto., dejected.

Rapture, n. Ecstacy, transport. Anto.,
dejection.

Rare. adf. 1. Excellent, incomparable,
a. Raw. 3. Thin. 4. Scarce, singular, uncom-
mon. Anto., 1,4. Common. 3. Dense.

Rash. adj. Impulsive, hasty, heedless,
headlong, reckless, precipitate. Anto., cal-
culating.

Rate. n. Assessment, degree, proportion,
price, quota, ratio, value.

Rational, adj. 1. Sane. 3. Sensible, wise,
intelligent. 3. Reasonable. Anto., irrational.
Ravenous, adj. Greedy, rapacious, vo«
racious. Anto., generous.

Refer, v. 1. Allude, suggest, hint, inti-
mate. 3. Appeal. 3. Bear, Dring.

Refined, adj. 1. Accomplished, cultur-
ed, polite, polished, elegant, courtly. 3. Puri-
fied. 3. Pure, chaste, classic, exquisite, Attic.
Anto., coarse.

Reflect, v. Consider, censure, muse, pon-
der, reproach, think.

Reform, v. Amend, better, correct, im-
prove, rectify. Anto., injure, mar.

Refractory, adj. Contumacious, per.
verse, ungovernable, unruly. Anto., obe-
dient.
Refrain, v. Abstain, forbear, spare.
Refresh, v. Cool, renew, invigorate,
revive. Anto., tire.

Refute, v. Disprove, oppugn. Anto.,
accept.

Regale, v. Entertain, feast, gratify, re-
fresh.

Regard, n. 1. Concern, esteem, respect,
liking, affection, a. Relation, reference. 3.
Consideration, heed. Ante, contempt.

Regardless, adj. Heedless, indifferent,
negligent, unconcerned, unobservant. Anto.,
Observant.

Region, n. 1. District, clime, territory.
3. Portion, part.

Regre t . v. Complain, grieve, lament, re •
pent. Anto., rejoice.

Regulate, v. Adjust, direct, rule, dis-
pose, govern, plan. Anto., disorder.

Reiterate, v. Repeat again, quote, re-
cite. Anto., retract.

Rehearse, v. 1. Recapitulate. 2. Recite,
repeat.

Reject, v. Refuse, repel, decline. 2.
Discard. Anto., accept.

Rejoice, v. Triumph, exult, glory. Anto.,
lament.

Rejoinder. ». Answer, reply, replica-
tion, response.

Relevant, adj. Apposite, fit, pertinent,
proper, suitable to the purpose. Anto., ir-
relevant.

Reliance, n. Confidence, dependence,
repose, trust. Anto., suspicion.

Relieve, v. Aid, alleviate, assist, help,
mitigate, succor. Anto., injure, despoil.

Religious, adj. Devout, holy, pious. An-
to., profane.

Reluctant, adj. Disinclined, unwilling,
indisposed, loth, averse. Anto., willing.

Remain, v. Abide, await, continue, so-
journ, stay, tarry. Anto., depart.

Remainder, n. Remnant, residue, rest.

Remains. «. Leavings, relics, manes.

Remark, n. Annotation, observation,
note, comment.

Reminiscence, n. Remembrance, recol-
lection, memoir.

Remiss, adj. 1. Careless, negligent, in-
attentive. 2. Slow, slack, dilatory. Anto.,
careful.

Remit, v. 1. Abate, relax. 2. Absolve,
forgive, liberate, pardon. 3. Transmit.

Remorse, n. Compunction, sorrow,
penitence, conviction. Anto., callousness.

Renegade, n. 1. Turncoat, apostate.

Renew, v. Refresh, renovate, revive.
Anto., wear out.

Renounce, v. Abandon, abdicate, fore-
go, quit, relinquish, resign. Anto., keep.

Renovate, v. Restore, renew, revive,
resuscitate.

Renown, n. Celebrity, fame, reputation,
distinction. Anto., infamy.

Renunciation, n. 1. Abandonment,
surrender. 2. Abnegation, rejection, repu-
diation.

Repair, v. Recover, restore, retrieve.
Anto., destroy.

Reparation, n. Anv.nds, restoration,
restitution. Anto., injury.

Repartee, n. Reply, retort.

Repeal, v. Abolish, abrogate, annul,
cancel, destroy, revoke. Anto., reenact.

Repel, v. Repulse, drive back. 2. With-
stand, resist, confront, oppose, check. Anto.,
attract.

Repetition, adj. Recital, tautology.

Replenish, v. Fill, refill, supply. Anto.,
empty.

Repose, n. Ease, quiet, rest, sleep. Anto. %
disquiet.

Reprehensible, adj. Blamable, censur-
able, culpable, rcprovable. iin/o., commend-
able.

Reproach, v. Blame, condemn, censure,
reprove, upbraid. Anto., commend.

Reproof, v. Blame, censure, reprehen-
sion. Anto., praise.

Reprove, v* Chide, rebuke, reprimand.
Anto., praise.

Repugnance, n. Antipathy, aversion,
dislike, hatred. Anto., liking.

Repugnant, adj. Adverse, contrary,
li itw ■, inimical, opposite, distasteful. Anto.,
similar, homogeneous.

Repulsion, n. Power of repelling, resist-
ance. Anto., attraction.

Reputation, n. Character, renown, cred-
it, fame, honor, repute. Anto., notoriety.

Request, v. Ask, beg, beseech, demand,
entreat, implore, solicit. Anto., grant.

Requisite. adj. Essential, expedient,
necessary. Anto., unnecessary.

Requite, v. 1. Compensate, reward, re-
ciprocate. 2. Avenge.

Research, n. Examination, enquiry, in-
vestigation, careful scrutiny.

Resemblance. 11. Likeness, similarity.
Anto., unlikencss.

Reservation, n. Reserve, retention.
Anto., donation.

Reside, v. Abide, inhabit, sojourn,
dwell, live. Anto., alienate.

Residence, n. Abode, domicile, dwell-
ing.

Residue. *. Remainder, remnant.

Resign, v. Abdicate, forego, give up,
relinquish, renounce. Anto., retain.

Resignation, n. Acquiescence, endur-
ance, patience, submission. Anto., rebellion,

Resist, v. Confront, oppose, withstand,
repel. Anto., assist, submit.

Resolute, adj. Courageous, determined,
fixed, steady. Anto., irresolute.

Resolution, n. 1. Intention, resolve, a.
Firmness, constancy, decision. Anto., a.
Irresolution, weakness, vacillation.

Resort, v. Frequent, haunt.

Resource. n. Expedient, means, resort.

Respect, n. l. Esteem, regard, rever-
ence, veneration. 2. Favor, good will. j.
Reference. Anto., irreverence.

Respect, v. Honor, esteem, regard,
venerate. Anto., dishonor, disgrace.

Respectful, adj. Civil, dutiful, obedient.
Anto., uncivil.

Respite, n. 1. Interval. 2. Reprieve,
suspension, delay. Anto., continuation.

Response, n. Answer, reply, replication,
rejoinder. Anto., question.

Responsible, adj. Accountable, amen-
able, answerable. Anto., irresponsible.

Rest. at. l. Cessation, ease, intermis-
sion, quiet, repose, stop, pause. 2. Remain-
der, others. Anto., 1. Motion, unrest.

Restless, adj. Unsettled, unquiet, roving.
Anto., quirt.

Restore, v. I. Heal, cure. 2. Give up,
repay, return, render, replace. Anto., 2. Keep.

Restoration, n. Amends, reparation,
restitution. Anto., retention.

Restrain, v. Coerce, constrain, limit,
repress, restrict, curb. Anto., liberate.

Restrict, v. Bound, restrain, limit, con-
fine. Anto., free.

Result, n. Consequence, effect, event.
Issue.

Resurrection, n. Rising again.

Retain, v. Detain, hold, reserve, keep.
Anto., yield.

Retaliation, n. Reprisal, repayment.
Anto., pardon.

Retard, v. Hinder, obstruct, delay,
check, impede. Anto., hasten.

Retire, v. Recede, retreat, secede, witk-
draw. ^Wo.,comc forward, approach.

Retract, r. Abjure, recall, recant, re-
voke. Anto., reiterate.

Retrenchment. *. Diminution, reduc-
tion, curtailment. Anto., increase.

Retrieve. V, Regain, recover. Anfo.,\n*t.

Retrogression, n. Rctrogradation, go-
ingbackward. Anto., progression.

Retrospect, n. Review, re -survey. Anto.,
forecast. ,

Reveal, v. Discover disclose, divulge,
communicate, impart, publish. Anto., con-
ceal.

Revenge, n. Requital, retaliation. Anto.,
bfsivejMMi

Revenue, n. Income, receipts. Anto.,
expenditure.

Revere, v. Honor, venerate, adore, rev-
erence. Anto., execrate.

Reverse, r. Change, subvert, overturn,
Anto., establish.

Review v. Notice, revise, survey, recon-
nect.

Revision, n. Review, reconsideration,
■

Revive, v. 1. Refresh, quicken, rouse,
chrrr. animate. 2. Revivify.

Revoke, r. Abolish, abrogate, annul,
cancel, repeal, retract. Anto., reiterate.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

*fr

Reward. n. Compensation, recompense,
remuneration, requital, satisfaction. Anto.,
punishment.

Riches, n. Fortune, wealth, affluence,
opulence. Ante, poverty.

Ridicule, n. Mockery, derision, sneer,
sarcasm, raillery, satire. Anto., sympathy.

Ridiculous, adj. Absurd, preposterous,
droll, ludicrous. Anto., solemn, funereal.

Right, adj. True, straight, just, proper,
Anto., wrong.

Right. ». Privilege, claim, immunity.
Anto., disadvantage.

Righteous, adj. Good, honest, virtuous,
upright, just, devout, religious, pious, holy,
saintly. Anto., bad.

Rigid* adj. i. Strict, stern, severe, harsh,
rigorous. 2. Stiff , unpliant, inflexible. Anto.,
pliable.

Rigorous, adj. 1. Rigid, severe, harsh,
austere. 2. Precise, accurate, exact. Anto.,
lax.

Ripe. adj. 1. Mature. 2. Finished, con-
summate. 3. Ready, fit, prepared. Anto.,
green, raw, immature.

Ripeness, n. Maturity, perfection,
growth. Anto., immaturity.

Rise. n. Increase, ascent, origin. Anto.,
subsidence.

Rite. n. Ceremony, form, observance.

Rivalry. ». Contention, emulation, com-
petition. Anto., friendliness.

Road. n. Course, path, way, route.

Roam* v. Ramble, range, wander, rove,
stroll.

Robust, adj. Athletic, stout, strong,
brawny, stalwart, hale, mighty, powerful.
Anto., weak.

Romance, n. Tale, story, novel, fiction.
Anto., history.

Room. n. Apartment, chamber, space.

Room. v. Lodge.

Rough, adj. 1. Coarse, 'rude, blunt, un-
gentle, churlish. 2. Uneven. 3. Unpol-
ished. Anto., smooth.

Round, adj. Globular, circular. Anto.,
cubical.

Round, n. 1. Circuit, tour, step. 2.
Globe, orb, sphere. Anto., 2. Cube.

Roundness, n. Rotundness, rotundity,
circularity, sphericity.

Route. n. Road, way, course, path.

Rude. adj. See Hough.

Rudeness, n. 1. Roughness. 2. Gruff-
ness, coarseness, incivility, churlishness. 3.
Inelegance. Anto., politeness, urbanity.

Rugged. adj. 1. Uneven, irregular,
rough. 2. Harsh. 3. Robust, vigorous.
Anto. j smooth.

Ruinous, adj. Baneful, noxious, des-
tructive, calamitous. Anto., helpful.

Rule. n. 1. Law, government, com-
mand. 2. Maxim, method, precept. 3.
Guide, regulation. Anto., lawlessness.

Rule. v. 1, Govern, control. 2. Mark.
Anto., rebel.

Rumor. «. Talk, gossip, report, news,
bruit.

Rupture. «. 1. Altercation, quarrel,
feud. 2. Hernia. 3. Fracture, breach.

Rural, adj. Country, pastoral, rustic.
Anto., urbane.

Ruse. k. Artifice, fraud, trick, wile.

Rustic, n. Clown, peasant, swain, boor,
lout, bumpkin.

Rustic, adj. 1. Uncouth,unpolished,aivk-
wark, rude. 2. Country, rural. Anto.,
urban.

Ruthless, adj. Cruel, pitiless, merciless,
relentless, savage, inhuman. Anto., pitiful.

Sacred, adj. Divine, devoted, holy.
Anto., profane.

Sad. adj. 1. Depressed, sorrowful, cheer-
less, disconsolate. 2. Dismal, gloomy,
mournful. Anto., joyous.

Safe, adj. 1. Guarded, protected. 2.
Sound, secure. 3. Reliable. Anto.. dangerous.

Sagacity. «. Acuteness, discernment,
penetration. Anto., dulness.

Sailor. 1*. Mariner, seaman. Anto.,
landsman.

Salary, n. Hire, pay, stipend, wages.

Sanction. ». 1. Countenance, support.
2. Ratification, confirmation. Anto., rejec-
tion, prohibition.

Sane. adj. Sober, lucid, sound. Anto.,
crazy.

Sapient, adj. Sagacious, wise, discern-
ing. Anto., foolish.

Sarcasm, n. Irony, ridicule, sati^p.

Satiate, v. 1. Cloy, glut. 2. Satisfy,
gratify. Anto., hunger, starve.

Satisfaction, n. 1. Atonement. 2. Con-
tent. 3. Remuneration, reward. Anto., dis-
satisfaction.

Satisfy, v. Gratify, please. 2. Glut,
satiate, cloy. Anto., displease.

Saving, adj. Thrifty, economical, fru-
gal, sparing. Anto., prodigal.

Saying. ». 1. Remark, observation,
statement. 2. Maxim, proverb, aphorism,
adage, saw.

Scandal, n. Discredit, disgrace, infamy,
reproach, detraction. Anto., praise.

Scarce, adj. Singular, rare, uncommon.
Anto., common.

Scarcity. n. Want, lack, deficiency,
dearth. Anto., abundance.

Search, v. Examine, investigate, en-
quire, pursue, scrutinize, seek.

Secede, v. Recede, retire, withdraw.
Anto., return.

Seclusion, n. Loneliness, retirement,
privacy, solitude.

Secondary, adj. Inferior, subordinate,
second. Anto., primary.

Secret, adj. Clandestine, covered, hid-
den, concealed, latent, mysterious. Anto.,
open.

Secular, adj. Temporal, worldly. Anio.,
religious.

Secure, v. 1. Be certain, guard, make
sure. 2. Guarantee. Anto., lose.

Sedate, adj. Calm, composed, quiet,
still, serene, unruffled. Anto., lively.

Seduce, v. Allure, attract, decoy, Anto.,
repel.

See. v. Behold, eye, look, observe, per-
ceive, view.

Seek. v. 1. Search for, ask for. 2. Strive,
try, endeavor. Anto., lose.

Sell. v. Vend, barter, dispose of. Anto.,
buy.

Senile, adj. Aged, old, infirm. Anto.,
juvenile.

Sensation, n. Perception, sentiment,
feeling.

Sense. «. Feeling, judgment, import,
meaning, reason.

Sensibility, n. Delicacy, feeling, sus-
ceptibility.

Sensitive, adj. 1. Impressible, easily af-
fected. 2. Perceptive. Anto., callous.

Sentence. «. Decision, judgment, period,
phrase, proposition.

Sentiment, n. Feeling, notion, opinion,
sensation. Anto., insensibility.

Sentimental, adj. Romantic. Anto.,

prosaic.

Separate, v.
disunite, isolate.
join.

1. Disjoin, divide, detach,

2. Cleave, sever. Anto.,

Serious, adj. 1. Weighty, momentous.
2. Sober, grave, solemn, earnest. Anto., jo-
cose.

Servile, adj. Fawning, mean, slavish.
Anto., free.

Settle, v. Adjust, arrange, determine,
establish, regulate, fix. Anto., unsettle.

Settled, adj. Conclusive, confirmed, de-
cisive, definitive, established. Anto., unset-
tled.

Sever, v. Detach, disjoin, divide, separ-
ate. Anto., join.

Several, adj. Different, distinct, diverse,
sundry, various.

Severe, adj. Austere, cruel, harsh, rigid,
rigorous, rough, sharp, strict, unyielding,
stern. Anto., mild.

Severity. n. I. Austerity, rigor, stern-
ness. 2. Keenness, causticity. 3. Violence,
Anto., mildness.

Shake, v. Agitate, quake, quiver, shiver,
shudder, totter, tremble. Auto., steady.

Shallow, adj. 1. Shoal. 2. Frivolous,
flimsy, trivial. 3. Superficial, ignorant. Anto.,
deep.

Shame. ». Disgrace, dishonor, ignominy,
reproach . Anto. , honor.

Shameless, adj. Immodest, impudent,
indecent, indelicate. Anto., modest.

Shape, v. Fashion, form, mould.

Share, v. Apportion, distribute, divide,
partake, participate.

Share, n. Dividend, part. Anto., whole.

Sharpness. n. Acrimony, acuteness,
penetration, shrewdness, sagacity. Anto.,
dulness.

Shelter, n. Asylum, refuge, retreat.

Shelter, v. Cover, defend, harbor, lodge,
protect, screen. Anto., cast forth.

Shine, v. Gleam, glare, glisten, glitter,
Anto., darken.

Shining, adj. I, Brilliant, glittering,
radiant, sparkling. 2. Bright, splendid, re-
splendent. Anto., dark, dim.

Shock, v. 1. Affright, terrify. 3. Appal,
disturb, dismay. 3. Offend, disgust. Anto.,
encourage, inspirit.

Shocking, adj. Dreadful, disgusting,
terrible. Anto., pleasant.

Short, adj. 1. Defective, scanty, want-
ing. 2. Brief, concise, compendious, laconic,
succinct, summary. Anto., long.

Shorten, v. 1. Abridge, abbreviate, re-
trench. 2. Diminish. Anto., extend.

Show. n. 1. Display, parade, pomp. 2.
Exhibition, representation, sight, spectacle.

Show. v. Display, exhibit, parade. Anto.,
hide, cover.

Showy, adj. Gay, gorgeous, gaudy,
flaunting, garisn. 2. Pompous, ostentatious,
magnificent. Anto., simple, plain.

Shrewd, adj. Acute, keen, penetrating,
artful, sly, sagacious. Anto., dull.

Shudder, v. Shrink, shake, quake,
quiver.

Shun, v. Avoid, elude, evade, eschew.
Anto., seek.

Sickly, adj. Diseased, ill, indisposed,
morbid, sick, unwell. Anto., healthy.

Sign. x. 1. Mark, note, symptom, prog-
nostic, presage, signal. 2. Omen, token, sym-
bol.

Signify, v. 1. Betoken, declare, express,
intimate, testify, utter. 2. Denote, imply.

Significant, adj. 1. Indicative, ex'pres-
sive, betokening. 2. Momentous. Anto.,
common, usual.

Silence, n. Stilness, taciturnity, mute-
ness, oblivion. Anto., sound, noise.

Silence, v. Still, stop, appease.

Silent, adj. 1. Dumb, mute, speechless.
a. Still, quiet. Anto., noisy.

Silly, adj. Absurd, foolish, simple, stupid,
weak, dull. Anto., sedate.

Similarity, n. Likeness, resemblance,
similitude. Anto., unlikencss.

Simile, n. Comparison, similitude.

Simple, adj. I. Elementary, single, not
complex. 2. Open, artless, sincere. 3. Plain.
4. Silly. Anto., complex, artful.

Simplicity. «. Artlessness, plainness,
singleness. 2. Folly. Anto., artfulness.

Simply, adv. I. Merely, only, solely. 2.
Artlessly.

Since, conj. As, because, for, insomuch
as.

Sincere, adj. 1. Frank, honest, plain,

?;enuine. 2. True, upright, incorrupt. Anto.,
alse.

Sinewy, adj. See Robust.

Single, adj. 1. Unmarried. 2. Alone,
solitary. 3. Particular, individual. Anto.,
married, double, several.

Singular, adj. 1. Odd, strange, uncom-
mon, rare. 2. Peculiar, exceptional. Anto.,
customary, usual.

Situation, n. 1. Case, plight, predica-
ment, condition, 2. Locality, place, position,
site.

Skilful, adj. Clever, skilled, knowing,
intelligent, ready, adroit, quick. Anto., un-
skilful.

^i*r

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

"7[

Slander, v. Asperse, blacken, defame,
traduce, libel. Auto., praise.

Slavery, n. Bondage, captivity, scrvi-
tiidc, drudgery. Auto., freedom.

Slender, adj. I, Fragile, slight. a. Slim,
thin. 3. Limited. Auto., thick.

Slight, adj. i. Cursory, desultory, super-
ficial, a. SJim, weak. Anto., i. careful. 2.
solid.

Slight, v. Neglect, scorn. Anto., notice,
commend.

Slow. adj. i. Deliberate. 2. Heavy,
dull, stupid. 3. Sluggish. Anto., quick.

Small, adj. 1. Little, diminutive, stunted,
tiny. 2. Minute, microscopic. 3. Narrow,
illiberal. Anto., large, great.

Smell, n. Fragrance, odor, perfume,
scent, stench.

Smooth, adj. 1. Bland, mild, easy. 2.
Even, level. Anto., rough.

Smother, v. 1. Stifle, suffocate. 2. Sup-
press.

Snarling, adj. Cynical, snappish, wasp-
Sober, adj. 1. Abstemious, abstinent,
temperate, moderate. 2. Grave. Anto., in
temperate, gay.

Sobriety. ». 1. Abstinence, temperance.
2. Coolness, soberness, gravity. Anto., in-
temperance, intoxication.

Social, v. Companionable, conversable,
familiar, sociable, convivial. Anto., unsocial.

Society, adj. 1. Company, association,
fellowship, corporation. 2. The public.

Soft. adj. I. Compliant, ductile flexible,
tractable, pliant, yielding. 2. Mild, docile,
gentle. Anto., hard.

Soiled, adj. Stained, spotted, tarnished,
defiled, polluted. Anto., clean, pure.

Solicit, v. 1. Ask, request. 2. Beg, en.
treat, implore. 3. Beseech, supplicate. Anto.,
give.

Solicitation. «. 1. Importunity, entreaty.
2. Invitation. Anto., offering.

Solicitude, n. Anxiety, carefulness, trou-
ble. Anto., carelessness.

Solid, adj. Firm, hard, stable, substan-
tial. Anto., unstable.

Solitary, adj. 1. Alone, retired, sole. 2.
Desolate, deserted, remote. 3. Lonely, only.
Anto., crowded.

Sombre, adj. 1. Dark, shadv, dusky,
sunless. 2. Sad, doleful, mournful'. Anto..
gay, bright.

Soothe, v. 1. Allay, lessen, mitigate,
ease. a. Quiet, compose, pacify, appease.
Anto., irritate. .• —rw

Sorrow. «. j. Grief, affliction, trouble,
sadness. 2. Regret. Auto., Joy,

Sort. n. 1. Kind, species. 2. Order,
rank. 3, Manner.

Sound, adj. 1. Heartv, healthy, sane. 2.
intirc, perfect, unhurt. Anto., ill. 1

Sound, (i. 1. Tone, noise, report. 2.
Strait. Anlo. f silence.

Sour. adj. Acid, acrimonious, acctose.
acetous, sharp, tart. Auto., sweet.

Source. «. Cause, fountain, origin, rea-
son, spring. °

Spacious, adj. Ample, capacious. Anto..
•mul, '

Sparkle, v. 1. Twinkle, glitter, glisten,
scintillate, corruscate. 2. Bubble, effervesce!
Anto., darken.

Speak. v. Articulate, converse, dis-
course, pronounce, say, talk, tell, utter. Anto.,
silence.

Speaking, n. 1. Elocution.dcclamation.
oratory, a. Discourse, talk.

Species. tt . Class, kind, sort, race.

Specific, adj. Particular, special, definite.
Anto., indefinite.

Specimen. ». Model, pattern, sample,
example. ' '

Specious, adj. Colorable, feasible, ostens.
lolj, plausible, showv. Anto., real, genuine.

Spectator, n. Bcholdcr.'bystandcr, ob-
server. * '

Speculation. ». Conjecture, scheme,
theory.

Speech. ». 1. Talk. a. Language, dia-
lect. 3. Address, discourse, harangue, ora-
tion.

Speechless, adj. Dumb, mute, silent

Spend, v. Dissipate, exhaust, lay out.
expend, squander, waste, consume. Anto.,
save.

Sphere. n. Circle, globe, orb. Anto.,
cube.

Spill, v. Pour, shed, waste. Anto., nil,
gather.

Spirit, n. \. Ardor, breath, courage,
temper. 3. Ghost, soul. Auto., mortal.

Spirited, adj. Active, animated, ardent,
lively, vivacious. Anto., stupid.

Spiritless, adj. I. Dull, cold, apathetic,
feeble, soulless. 2. Dejected, downcast, x.
Stupid, heavy, prosy, insipid. Anto., spirited.

Spirits, n. Animation, courage, life, vi-
vacity. Anto., dullness.

Spiritual, adj. Ecclesiastical, Imma-
terial, incorporeal, unearthly, heavenly.
Anto., worldly, terrestrial.

Spite, n. Grudge, malice, malignity,
malevolence, pique, rancor. Anto., forgive-
ness.

Spite, v. Anger, vex, thwart. Anlo. x
pardon, please.

Splendid, adj. 1. Showy, sumptuous,
gorgeous, magnificent, superb, a. Beaming,
radiant, glowing, effulgent, brilliant. 3. No-
ble, heroic. 4. Glorious, eminent. Anto.,
mean, dull, low.

Splendor. ». Brightness, brilliancy, lus-
tre, magnificence, pomp, pageantry. Anto.,
dullness, poverty.

Splenetic, adj. 1. Fretful, peevish. 3,
Gloomy, morose, sullen. Anto., amicable.

Sport, n. 1. Amusement, game, pastime,
play. 2. Diversion, recreation. Anto., work.

Spotless, adj. 1. Blameless, faultless,
stainless. 2. Unblemished, unspotted. 3.
Innocent. Anto., stained.

Spread, v. 1. Circulate, disseminate,
distribute, scatter. 2. Disperse, dispense. 3.
Propagate, diffuse. Anto., collect.

Spring* v. 1. Emanate, flow, proceed,
issue. 2. Arise, start, leap.

Sprinkle, v. Bedew, scatter, besprinkle.

Sprout, v. Bud, germinate, shoot out.

Squander. :■. Expend, spend, lose, lavish,
dissipate, waste. Anto., cArn, husband.

Stability. ». Firmness, steadiness, fixed-
ness. Anto., instability, unstableness, incon-
stancy, fickleness.

Stain, v. I. Foul, soil, sully, tarnish,
blot, spot. 2. Color, tinge. Anto., clean.

Stain. n. 1. Color, discolor. 2. Dye,
tinge. 3. Flaw, speck, spot, blemish, blot.

Stale, adj. 1. Old, faded. 2. Common,
trite. 3. Vapid, flat, musty, insipid. Anto.,
new, fresh.

Stammer, v. Falter, hesitate, stutter.

Stamp, n. Print, mark, impression.

Standard, n. Criterion, rule, test.

Standard, adj. 1. Legal, usual, ap-
proved. 2. Banner. Anto., unusual.

.state, n. Condition, position, situation,
predicament, plight.

Station, n. Post, place, position, situ-
ation.

Stay. v. 1. Prop, support, a. Abide,
continue, remain. 3. Delay, hinder, stop. 4.
Support.

Steadfast, adj. Firm, constant, resolute.
Anto., shaky.

Steal, v. 1. Pilfer, purloin, poach, em-
bezzle. 2. Win, grain, allure. Anto., lose.

Stench, n. Bad smell, stink. Anto.,
frurraaoe, perfume.

Sterling, adj. Real, genuine, true, pure.
Anto., false, counterfeit.

Sterility, «. Barrenness, unfruitfulness,
ar litv. Anto., fnntfulncss.

Stern, adj. Austere, rigid, rigorous, sc-
not. Anfo.,mi)i\.

Sticking, adj. Adherent, adhesive, ten-
acious.

Stil!. n. 1. Allay, appease, assuage, a.
Calm, lull, quiet, silence, pacify. Anto., en-
rage, move, disturb.

stimulate, v. Animate, excite, inci'c,
IIOQNi knulle, fire. Anto,, dtfM

Stingy. ,1.7, Close, mean, miserlv, nig-
gardly, penurious, sordid. Anto.. get

Stork, n. 1. Accumulation, fund, hoard,
provisions, store, 4upply. 2. Cattle.

Stole, n. Follower of Zeno. Anto., epi-
curean.

Stoop, v. Bend, condescend, submit.
Anto., straighten.

Stop. n. Cessation, intermission, rest.
Anto., continuance.

Stop. v. Check, hinder, impede. Antc.zld.

Stormy, adj. 1. Gusty, squally, tem-
pestuous, boisterous. 2. Rough, passionate.
Anto., calm.

Story, n. Anecdote, incident, memoir,
tale.

Stout, adj. See Strong, Robust.

Strait, adj. 1. Close, narrow. 2. Strict.
Anto., wide, loose.

Strange. Adj. Curious, eccentric, odd. lin-
gular, surprising, wonderful, foreign, unusu-
al. Anto., usual.

Stratagem, n. Device, artifice, ruse,
dodge, trick. Anto., simplicity.

Strength, n. 1. Authority. 2. Force,
might, power, potency. Anto., weakness.

Strenuously, adv. Ardently, realously,
earnestly, vigorously. Anto., weakly, feebly.

Strict, adj. Accurate, exact, nice, par-
ticular, precise, rigorous, scvere,stern. Anto.,
lenient.

Stricture, n. Animadversion, censure,
contraction, criticism. Anto., commendation,

Strife, n. Contention, contest, dissension,
discord. Anto., peace.

Strong, adj. 1. Efficient, powerful, po-
tent, rnightv. 2. Athletic, stalwart, robust,
stout. 3. Forcible, cogent. 4. Tough, tena-
cious. Anto., feeble, weak.

Structure, n. t. Make, construction,
textare. 2. Building, pile, edifice.

Stubborn, adj. Wilful, obstinate, mulish,
perverse, obdurate, cantankerous, Anto.,
docile.

Stupid, adj. 1. Sleepy, drowsy, torpid.
2. Flat, heavv, insipid, humdrum. 3. Dull,
obtuse, foolish, witless, daft. Anto., shrewd.

Style, n. Manner, mode, phraseology,
diction.

Style, v. Characterize, designate, de-
nominate, entitle, name.

Subdue, t. 1. Defeat, conquer, van*
quish, overwhelm. 2. Subject, control. Anto.,
submit.

Subject, adj. Exposed, liable, subser-
vient. ^w*V.,shicUled, secured.

Subject. «. Object, matter, material.

Subject, v. Subdue, subjugate.

Sublime adj. Elevated, exalted, grand,
great, lofty, majestic, high. Anto., mean,
low, base.

Submissive, adj. Compliant, obedient,
humble, yielding. Anto., rebellious.

Submission, n. 1. Compliance, obedi-
ence, meekness, humility, a. Forbearance,
endurance. Anto., revolt.

Subordinate. ». Inferior, dependent.
Anto., superior;

Suborn, r. Forswear, perjure. Anto.,

verify.

Subsequent, ad/. 1. After, following.
rior. consequent. Anto., preceding.

Subservient, adj. 1. Inferior, subordin-
ate. 2. Subject, Anto., superior.

Subside, v. 1. Abate, sink. 2. Intermit.
Anto., rise.

Subsistence. *. See Sustenance.

Substantial, adj. 1. Responsible. 2.
Solid, stout, strong. Anto,, unstable.

Substantiate, r. Ptot*. establish, cor
ite, verify. Anto., dispro\ e.

>.ibMitiitc. ;. Change, exchange. Anto.,

subterfuge. *. 1. Evasion, shift. 2.
Quirk, trick.

subtile, adj. 1. Fine, delicate, nice. a.
Thin, rare, ethereal. Anto., coarse, rough.

Subtle mdf, 1 Keen, sagacious, pro»
found. 2. Artful, sly, astute, crafty. Anto.,
1. Dull. 2. Open.

subtract, v. Deduct, withdraw. Anto.,
add.

Subvert, r. 1. Invert, reverse, a. Over-
turn, overthrow. Anto., maintain, build.

Successful, adj. Fortunate, lucky, pros-
perous. Anto., unsuccessful.

sin-cession, n. Order, scries. Anto.,
disorder.

«e ^

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Succinct, oc^'. Brief, concise, terse, com-
pact. Auto., verbose.

Succor, v. Aid, help, assist, relieve.
Auto., injure, harry, mar.

Sudden, adj. Hasty, unanticipated, un-
expected, unlooked-for. Anto., slow.

Suffor. v. i. Allow, permit, tolerate. 2.
Endure, bear.

S-.iifjcate. v. Choke, smother, stifle.

Sufficient, adj. 1. Adequate, enough.
2. Competent. Auto., want.

Suffrage. n. 1. Aid, voice. 2. Vote.

S.i^rgest. v. Allude, hint, insinuate, in-
timate.

< Suggestion, «. Hint, allusion, intima-
tion, insinuation.

Suitable, adj. 1. Agreeable, becoming.
2. Apt, (it, expedient. Anto., unfit.

Suitor, n. 1, Lover, wooer. 2. Peti-
tioner.

Summary. «. Abstract, compendium,
digest, synopsis, epitome.

Summon, v. Bid, call, cite, invite. Anto.,
send.

Sundry, adj. 1. Different, diverse. 2.
Several, various. Anto., single.

Superficial, adj. Flimsy, shallow, slight.
Anto., thorough.

Supersede, v. 1. Supplant, displace.
2. Annul t suspend.

Supplicate, v. Ask, beg, beseech, en-
treat, implore, solicit. Anto., command.

Support. v. Assist, cherish, defend, en-
dure, encourage, favor, forward, maintain,
nurture, patronize, 'protect, prop, sustain,
stay, second, uphold. Anto., destroy, injure.

Suppose, v. Consider, imagine, appre-
hend, presume, think, believe.

Supreme, adj. Paramount, first, prin-
cipal, chief, highest, greatest. Anto., sec-
ondary.

Sure. adj. Certain, confident, infallible.
Anto., uncertain.

Surface, n. Outside, superficies. Anto.,
interior.

Surly, adj. Morose, touchy, cross, fret-
ful, peevish, cynical, rude. Anto., amiable.

Surmise, v. Believe, conjecture, pre-
sume, suppose, suspect, think. Anto., coubt.

Surmour/t. v. Conquer, overcome, rise
above, subdue, vanquish. Anto., yield.

Surpass, v. Excel, exceed, outdo, out-
strip. Anto., fall short.

Surprise, n. Admiration, amazement, as-
tonishment, wonder. Anto., habit, use.

Surrender, v. Cede, deliver, give up,
.resign, yield. Anto., taket

Surround, v. Beset, encircle, encompass,
environ, enclose, invest.

Survey, n. Prospect, retrospect, review.

Suspense, n. Doubt, in determination,
hesitation. Anto., certainty.

Suspicion. «. Distrust, jealousy. Anto.
trust.

Sustain, v. See Support.

Sustenance. «. Living, maintenance,
livelihood, subsistence, support.

Swarm, n. Crowd, throng, multitude,
concourse. Anto., few.

Sweetheart, n. Admirer, beau, lover,
wooer. 2. Flame, lady-love.

Sweetness. ». 1. Beauty, loveliness. 2.
Agreeableness. 3. Mildness, gentleness,
amiability. Anto. % bitterness, sourness.

Swiftness, w. 1. Celerity, rapiditv, fleet-
ness, speed, velocity. Anto., slowness.

Swiftly, adv. Speedily, post-haste, quick-
ly, apace. Auto., slowly.

Sycophant. ». Toady, fawner, parasite.

Symbol. «. Token, sign, figure, emblem.

Symmotry. «. Harmony, proportion.
Aito., mharmony.

Sympathy. ». 1. Pity, kindness, com-
passion, condolence, commiseration, fellow-
feeling. 2. Harmony, affinitv, correlation. 3.
Agreement. Anto., apathy, mercilessness,
cruelty.

Symptom. ». Indication, mark, note.
Sign, token.

Synopsis. n. See Summary.

System. «. Method 'order, scheme. Anto.,
confusion.

Systematize. Arrange, order, regulate,
methodize. Anto., disarrange.

Table. ». 1. Board. 2. Repast, food,
fare. ^. List, index, catalogue.

Tacit, adj. Implied, silent, inferred, un-
derstood. Anto., spoken, expressed.

Taciturnity. ;/. Reserve, reticence, close-
ness. Anto., loquacity.

Tact. «. Adroitness, skill, quickness,
judgment. Anto., awkwardness, gaucherie.

'Talent. ». Ability, capability, faculty,
endowment, gift.

Talk. n. Chat, -ommunication, confer-
ence, colloquy, conversation, dialogue, dis-
course. Anto., silence. ■

Talk. v. Chat, converse, discourse, speak,
state, tell. Anto., silence.

Talkativeness. ». Loquacity, garrulity.
Anto., taciturnity.

Tally, v. Accord, agree, match, com-
port, harmonize.

Tantalize, v. 1. Aggravate, irritate, pro-
voke, tease, torment. 2. Taunt. Anto., p*lcase,
harmonize, gladden.

Taste, n. 1. Discernment, judgment, per-
ception. 2. Flavor, relish, savor.

Tattler. ». Gossip, prattler, babbler,
gadabout.

Taunt, v. Deride, mock, ridicule, jeer,
flout. Anto., praise, commend.

Tax. ». 1, Assessment, custom, duty, toll,
rate. 2. Contribution, tribute.

Teacher. ». See Schoolmaster,

Tedious, adj. Dilatory, slow, tiresome,
tardy, wearisome. Anto., prompt-

Tell. v. Acquaint, communicate, dis-
close, impart, inform, mention, make known,
report, reveal, talk. Anto., listen.

Temerity, n. Heedlessness, rashness,
precipitancy. Anto., caution.

Temper, n. Disposition, temperament.

2. Humor, mood. 3. Frame.
Temperate, adj. Abstinent, abstemious,

moderate, sober. Anto., immoderate.

Tempest, n. 1. Storm, gale, squall, hur-
ricane, tornado. 2. Tumult, disturbance.
Anto., calm.

Tempt, v. 1. Allure, entice, induce, de-
coy, seduce, inveigle. 2. Incline, provoke.

3. Test, try, prove.

Temporal, adj. 1. Secular, worldly. 2.
Sublunary. Anto., spiritual, eternal.

Temporary, adj. 1. Transient, transi-
tory. 2. Fleeting. Anto., permanent.

Tendency, n. \. Inclination, propensity,
pronencss. 2. Drift, scope. 3. Aim. Anto. t
disinclination.

Tender, adj. 1. Kind, compassionate,
miid, lenient, sympathetic, 2. Delicate, soft.
3. Womanly, effeminate. 4. Feeble, infantile.
<. Pathetic. 6. Sensitive. Anto., tough, cal-
lous, brutal.

Tenderness. ». Affection, benignity,
fondness, humanity. Anto., roughness.

Tenet, n. Doctrine, dogma, opinion,
position, principle.

Term. n. 1. Boundary, limit. 2. Condi-
tion, stipulation. 3. Expression, word.

Terminate, v. Complete, finish, end,
close. Anto., commence, begin.

Terrible, adj. Dreadful, fearful, fright-
ful, terrific, horrible, shocking. Anto., de-
lightful.

Territory. ». Country, domain, land.

Terror, n. Alarm apprehension, conster-
nation, dread, fear, fright. Anto., confidence.

Tnrse. adj. Compact, concise, pithy,
sententious. Anto., verbose.

Test. n. Criterion, experiment, trial, ex-
perience, proof, standard.

Testify. v. Declare, prove, signify, wit-
ness, affirm.

Testimony, n. Evidence, proof.

Text. «. Verse, passage, sentence, para-
graph. 2. Topic, subject, theme. 3. Body.

Thankful, adj. Grateful. AHto.,iin-
grnteful.

Theory, n. Speculation. Anto,, practice.

Therefore, adv. Accordingly, hence, so,
th^n, consequently, thence, wherefore.

Thick, adj. Dense, close. Anto.,\k\r\ %

Think, v. Cogitate, conceive, consider,
contemplate, deliberate, imagine, opine, med-
itate, ponder, surmise.

Thirsty, adj. 1. Dry, parched, a. Eager,
longing, craving, greedy.

Though, conj. Although, while.

Thought. n. Cogitation, conception,
conceit, contemplation, deliberation, fancy,
idea, imagination, meditation, notion, re-
jection, supposition.

Thoughtful. adj. Anxious, attentive,
careful, circumspect, considerate, contem-
plative, deliberate, discreet, reflective, solici-
tous, wary. Anto., thoughtless.

Thoughtless, adj. Careless, gay, incon-
siderate, foolish, hasty, indiscreet, unrefiec-
tive. Anto., thoughtful.

Thrive, v. 1. Succeed, prosper, 2. Im-
prove, flourish, grow, advance. Anto., decay.

Throng, n. Multitude, crowd, horde,
host.

Through, prep. By, with.

Throw, v. Cast, fling, hurl, toss. Anto.,
catch.

Thwart, v. I. Balk, defeat, oppose, ob-
struct, frustrate, 2. Cross, traverse. Anto.,
aid.

Time. n. Age, date, duration, epoch, era,
period, season.

Timely, adj. Prompt, punctual, oppor-
tune, seasonable. Anto., untimely.

Timidity, n. 1. Bashfulness, coyness,
diffidence, sheepishness. 2. Timorousness,
cowardice, pusillanimity. Anto., audacity.

Tiny, adj. Small, little, puny, diminutive.
Anto., great, large.

Tirea, adj. Fatigued, harassed, jaded,
wearied. Anto., buoyant, eager.

Tiresome, adj. Tedious, wearisome.
Anto., interesting.

Title. «. 1. Name, appellation, designa-
tion, cognomen. 2. Right. 3. Inscription.

Toast. », r. Toasted bread. 2. Tltdge,
health. 3. Sentiment.

Token. n. Indication, mark, note, sign,
symptom.

Tolerate, v. Admit, allow, suffer, per-
mit. Anto., prohibit, decline.

Tolerance, n. Toleration, sufferance,
endurance. Anto., intolerance.

Too. adv. 1. Over, more than enough.
2, Also, besides.

Torment, v. 1. Tease, plague, provoke,
worry, harass, tantalize. 2. Distress, agon-
ize, torture, rack. Anto., appease.

Torture. See Torment.

Tortuous, adj. Tormenting, twisting,
winding. Anto., easy, straight.

Total. adj. Complete, entire, whole,
gross. Anto., part.

Touch. «. Contact, proof, test, feeling.

Touching, adj. Tender, moving, pa-
thetic, melting, affecting. Anto., ridiculous,
prosy.

Tough, adj. 1. Cohesive, tenacious. *,
Hardy, strong, firm. 3. Stubborn, obdurate,
refractory. Anto., tender, brittle.

Tour. m. Circuit, excursion, ramble, jaunt,
round, trip.

Toy. n. Bubble, trifle, bagatelle. 2, Play-
thing, trinket, gimcrack.

Trace, v, 1. Deduce, derive. 2. Sketch,
follow.

Trace, n. Mark, track, vestige, footstep.

Trade, ft. Avocation, business, calling,
dealing, employment, occupation, traffic.

Traduce, -v. I* Calumniate, vilify, de-
fame, decry, degrade, depreciate, detract,
disparage. " 2. Censure, condemn. Anto.,
eulogize.

Tranquility, n. Calmness, quiet, re-
pose, peace, placidity, sereneity. Anto.,
turmoil, tumult. .

Transact, v. Conduct, negotiate, man-
age.

Transcend, v. Pass, excel, exceed, sur-
pass, out*do.

Transient, v. Fleeting, short, moment-
ary. Anto., permanent.

Transparent, adj. Clear, peliucid, per-
vious, translucent, transpicuous. Anto.,
opaque.

Transpire, v. 1. Occur, happen. 2.
Come out, be disclosed. 3. Exhale, evaporate,

Transport, n. 1. Carriage, conveyance,
transport at i on . 2 . Ecstacy, rapture. 3.
Rage. Anto., depression, melancholy.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

"Tfl

Traveller. ». Tourist, passenger, itiner-
ant, voyager, pilgrim.

Treacherous, adj. Faithless, perfidious,
insidious, false. Anto., faithful.

Treachery. n. Treason, perfidy, disloy.
alty, pcrfidiousness. Anto., loyalty.

Treasonable, adj. Traitorous, treach-
erous. Anto., loyal.
Treat, v. Entertain, negotiate, feast.
Tremendous. adj. Dreadful, terrible,
horrible, frightful, alarming, awful, appal-
ling. Anto., small, mean.

Trepidation. n. Agitation, emotion,
tremor, trembling. Anto., calm.

Trespass, v. I. Offend, transgress, sin.
a. Intrude, infringe, encroach.

Trial, n. i. Attempt, effort, endeavor, ex-
periment, examination, proof, test. a. Temp-
tation.

Tribunal, n. i. Court, bar, judicatory.
a. Bench.

Trick, st. Artifice, cheat, deception,
fraud, finesse, imposture, sleight, stratagem.

Trifling, adj. Futile, frivolous, incon-
siderable, light, petty, unimportant. Anto.,
important.

Trim. v. I. Lop, clip, shear. a. Ar-
range, adjust. 3. Deck, decorate, adorn,
;arnish, ornament, embellish. Anto., 1.
ncrease, add. a. Disarrange.

Trip. st. Excursion, jaunt, tour, ramble.

Triumphant, adj. Victorious, success-
ful, conquering. Anto., subdued.

Troth, n. 1. Faith, fidelity, belief, a.
Truth. Anto., falsehood, lie.

Trouble, n. Adversity, affliction, anx-
iety, distress, sorrow, vexation. Anto., hap-
ptMMi

Trouble, v. Disturb, grieve.

Troublesome, adj. Annoying, disturb-
ing, harassing, importunate, irksome, per-
plexing, teasing. Anto., pleasant.

True. adj. Honest, plain, upright, sin-
cere. Anto., treacherous.

Truce, n. 1. Cessation, intermission, a.
Armistice. Anto., continuance.

Trust, n. Belief, credit, confidence, faith,
hope. Anto., suspicion.

Trustee. n. Agent, depositary, fiduciary.

Truth, n. Faitnfalncss, fidelity, honesty,
veracity. Anto., falsehood.

Try. v. Attempt, endeavor, essay, test,
examine.

Tug. v. Hale, haul, pluck, pull.

Tuition, n. Schooling, instruction, teach-
ing, education. Anto., ignorance.

Tumble, v. Drop, fall, rumple, sink,
turn over. Anto., rise.

Tune. ». 1. Air, strain, melody, a. Con-
cord, harmony.

Turbid, adj. Roily, unsettled, thick,
muddy, foul. Anto., clear.

Turbulent* adj. Mutinous, riotous, se-
ditious, tumultuous, violent. Anto,, quiet.

Turmoil, n. Disturbance, uproar, com-
motion, tumult. Anto., peace.

Turn. n. Bent, cast, gyration, meander.
Anto., disinclination.

Turn. v. Bend, circulate, contort, dis-
tort, gyrate^ revolve, twist, wind, wheel, whirl.
Anto., straighten, still, quiet.

Turncoat, n. See Renegade.

Turpitude, n. Wickedness, baseness,
depravity, vileness. Anto., goodness.

Tutor. 11. Instructor, governess, gover-
nante.

Twaddle, n. Stuff, nonsense, tattle, gos-
sip, balderdash, moonshine. Anto., sense.

Twilight. ». Dusk. Anto., daylight.

Twine, n. Encircle, embrace, entwine,
Anto.. untwine.

Twinge, v. Pinch, pull, twitch, tweak.

Twinge, n. Pang, grip, twitch, spasm.

Twit. v. Taunt, blame, reproach. Anto.,
commend.

Type. n. 1. Printing character, a. Kind,
form, sort. 3. Exemplar, original, model. 4.
Mark, symbol, sign, token, emblem.

Tyro. n. Beginner, learner, novice. Anto.,
licentiate.

Ugliness. ». Homeliness, plainness, a
Hidcousness, {rightfulness. Anto., beauty.

Ugly, adj. 1. Plain, homely, ordinary,
unsightly. a. Horrid, hideous, shocking.
Anto.. pretty.

Ultimate, adj. Final, last, eventual, ex-
treme. Anto., first.

Umpire, n. Judge, referee, arbitrator,
arbiter.

Unacceptable, adj. Unwelcome, dis-
pleasing, unpalatable. Anto., acceptable.

Unadorned, adj. Undecorated, untar-
nished, not embellished, not bedecked. Anto.,
ornate.

Unbecoming, adj. Improper, unsuita-
ble, indecorous, unseemly. Anto., becoming.

Unbelief, n. Disbelief, infidelity, skep-
ticism, incredulity, distrust. Anto., "belief.

Unblemished, adj. Pure, clean, spot-
less, sinless, guileless, immaculate. Anto.,
blemished.

Unbounded, adj. Boundless, illimitable,
infinite, interminable, unlimited. Anto., lim-
ited.

Unceasingly, adv. Always, constantly,
continually, ever, perpetually. Anto., inter-
mittently.

Uncertain, adj. Doubtful, precarious,
dubious, equivocal. Anto., certain.

Unchangeable, adj. Immutable, un-
alterable. Anto., fickle.

Uncivil, n. Impolite, ungracious, un-
courteous, rude. Anto. , polite.

Uncommon, adj. Choice, unfrequent,
rare , scarce , singular , unique. Anto. , usual.

Uncongenial, adj. 1. Unsuited, disa-
greeable, a. Dissimilar. Anto., congenial.

Unconcerned, adj. Cool, unaffected, in-
different, careless, apathetic nonchalant.
Anto., concernea, excited, vexed.

Uncover, v. 1. Discover, reveal, dis-
close, a. Strip, lay bare. Anto., conceal.

Undaunted, adj. Fearless, brave, bold,
manful, resolute, intrepid. Anto., weak.

Undeniable, adj. Evident, obvious f In-
disputable, incontrovertible, irrefragiblc,
Anto., disputable.

Under, prep. Below, beneath. Inferior,
lower, subjacent, subject.

Understanding, n. x. Mind, intellect,
reason, sense, a. Notion, idea, judgment,
knowledge. 3. Agreement.

Undetermined, adj. Doubtful, fluctu-
ating, hesitating, irresolute, unsteady, vacil-
lating, wavering. Anto., resolute.

Unfaithful, adj. False, treacherous,
faithless, recreant, perfidious, dishonest, dis-
loyal. Anto.. faithful.

Unfit, adj. 1. Inapt, inappropriate, un-
suitable, a. Incapable, unqualified. Ante,
competent, convenient.

Unfold, v. Develop, display, open, di-
vulge, expand, reveal, unravel. Anto., hide.

Unguarded, adj. 1. Thoughtless, care-
less, a. Undefended, naked, unprotected.
Anto., guarded.

Ungrateful, adj. Unplcasing, thankless.
Anto., thankful.

Unhandy, adj. 1. Inconvenient, a. Clum-
sy, bungling, awkward, maladroit. Anto.,
skilful. **

Unhappy, adj. 1. Afflicted, distressed,
wretched, miseranle. a. Disastrous, hard,
severe. Anto., happy.

Unhealthy, adj. Diseased, sickly, infirm,
invalid. Anto., healthy.

Uniform, adj. 1. Begnlar, unvarying,
alike, undeviating. a. Consonant. Anto., ir-
regular.

Unkind, adj. Harsh, unamiablc, un-
fricndlv,- cruel . Anto., kind.

Unimportant, adj. Inconsidrrable, Im-
material, insignificant, trifling, petty, trivial.
Anto., weighty.

Unison, n. Accordance, agreement, con-
cord, harmony, melody. Anto., discord.

Unlawful, adj. Illegal, unlicensed, illicit.
Anto., legal, lawful.

Unlearned, adj. Ignorant, illiterate, un-
educated, unlettered. Anto., learned.

Unlike, adj. Different, dissimilar, dis-
tinct. Anto., similar.

Unlimited, adj. Boundless, illimitable,
Infinite, unbounded. Anto., limited.

Unmerciful, adj. Callous, cruel, hard-
hearted, merciless, severe. Anto., merciful.

Unquestionable, adj. Indisputable, un-
deniable, certain, obvious, incontestable, in-
dubitable, irrefragiblc. Anto., questionable.
Unravel, v. Develop, disentangle, extri-
cate, unfold. Anto.. tangle.

Unreal, adj. Shadowy, imaginary. In*
substantial, visionary, ghostly, spectral.

Unrelenting, adj. Unpitying, relentless,
rigorous, inexorable, harsh, cruel, merciless.
Anto., tender.

Unruly, adj. Ungovernable, mutinous,
seditious, insubordinate, turbulent. Ante,
obedient.

Unseen. adj. Invisible, undiscovered,
hidden. Anto., visible.

Unsettled, adj. 1. Vacillating, uncer-
tain, unsteady, wavering, restless, a. Turbid.
3. Undetermined. Anto., resolute.

Unspeakable, adj. Unutterable, inex-
pressible, ineffable.

Unskilful, adj. Ignorant, wanting art
or knowledge. Anto., skilful.

Unsocial, adj. Unsociable, unkind. An*
to., sociable.

Unstable, adj. 1. Fickle, inconstant, mut-
able, vacillating, a. Fluctuating.

Untimely, adj. Premature, inopportune,
unseasonable. Anto., timely.

Unsuccessful, adj. Unfortunate, un-
lucky. Anto., successful.

Untwine, v. Untwist, unwind.

Unwearied, adj. Indefatigable, restless,
fresh. Anto., tired.

Unwilling, adj. Reluctant, loath, indis-
posed, disinclined. Anto., willing.

Upbraid, v. Blame, censure, reprove,
condemn, stigmatize, taunt.

Upright, adj. 1. Erect, a. Honest, bold.
Anto., prone.

Uproar. 11. Commotion, hubbub, disturb-
ance, clamor, tumult. Anto., calm.

Urbanity. St. Civility, courtesy, polite-
ness, suavity. Anto., incivility.

Urge. v. 1. Instigate, incite, stimulate,
spur. a. Solicit, entreat. 3. Impel, push,
drive. Anto., hinder.

Urgent, adj. Importunate, pressing, co-
gent. Anto., unimportant.

Usage, n. 1. Habit, practice, custom.
2. Treatment.

Use. v. l. Employ, a. Consume, exhaust,
expend. 3. Exercise,' practice. 4. Accustom,
inure. Anto., abuse.

Useful, adj. Helpful, serviceable, good,
convenient, profitable. Anto., futile.

Usually, adz: Regularly, ordinarily, gen-
erally, habitually. Anto., seldom.

Useless, adj. Fruitless, ineffectual, vain.

Utility, n. "Use, service, usefulness, avail,
benefit, profit. Ante, wortnlessness.

Utterly, adv. Wholly, completely, fully,
totally. Anto., partly.

Uttermost, adj. ' 1. Utmost, greatest, a.
Extreme, farthest. Anto., nearest, next.

Unusual, adj. Rare, uncommon.

Unwelcome, adj. 1. Unacceptable, a.
Displeasing. Anto., welcome.

Vacant, adj. t. Emntv, unfilled, Void.
a. Thoughtless. Anto., filled.

Vacancy, n. 1. Chasm, a. Empti nes s,
vacuity. Anto., fulness, plethora.

Vacate. :. 1. Make empty, void, annul,
a. Leave. Anto., occupv.

Vague, adj. Indefinite, uncertain, dim,
doubtful, obscure. Anto., definite.

Vain. adj. 1. Inflated, concrited, over-
weening, ostentatious, a. Useless, fruitless.
Anto., modest.

Valediction, a. Taking leave, farewell.
Anto., welcome.

Valid, adj. Sound, lust, logical, sum-
cicnt, grave. Anto,, invalid.

Valuable, adj. Costlv, precious, worthy,
estimable. Anto., worthless.

VrtMie. n. Account, appreciation, esti-
mation, price, rate, worth.

Value, r. Appraise, assess, calculate,
appreciate, compute, esteem, estimate, regard,
respect.

Vanity, n. Arrogance, conceit, pnde,
haughtiness. Anto., modesty, humility.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS.

Vanquish, v. Beat, overcome, quell,
conquer f subdue, confuse, defeat, subjugate.
Anto., yield.

Vapid, adj. i. Insipid, flat, spiritless. 2.
Dull, tame, prosy. Anto., spirited.

Variable, adj. Changeable, capricious,
fickle, unsteady, versatile, wavering. Anto.,
unchangeable.

Variance. ». Discord, strife, discussion.
Anto., unison.

Variation. «. 1. Difference, deviation,
diversity. 2. Change, mutation. Anto. , per-
manence.

Variety, n. 1. Difference, diversity. 2.
Multiplicity. Anto., simplicity.

Various, adj. 1. Different, several, sun*
dry, many. 2. Diversified. Anto., simple.

Veer, v. Turn, shift, change course.

Vegetate, v. Spring, grow, shoot, ger-
minate.

Vehement, adj. 1. Passionate, violent,
furious. 2. Earnest, fervid. 3. Forcible,
strong. Anto., gentle.

Velocity. «. Speed, rapidity, swiftness,
fieetness. Anto., sloth.

Venerate, v. Honor, respect, revere,
adore. Anto., despise.

Veracity, n. Candor, truthfulness, hon-
esty, ingenuousness. Anto., mendacity.

Verbal, adj. 1. Literal. 2. Unwritten,
oral, spoken, parole. Anto., written.

Verbose, adj. Diffuse, wordy, windy,
prolix. Anto., succinct, terse, concise.

Vestige, n. Mark, trace, track, footstep.

Vexation, n. 1 . Annoyance, trouble, tor ■
ment. 2. Displeasure. Anto., pleasure.

Vice. n. wickedness, crime, sin, moral
ill. Anto., virtue.

Vicinity. «. 1. Neighborhood. 2. Prox-
imity, nearness.

View. n. 1. Scene, vista, prospect. 2.
Picture, sketch. 3. Sight, inspection. 4.
Opinion.

Vigilant, adj. Watchful, circumspect.
Anto., heedless.

Vigorous, adj. 1. Strong, energetic. 2.
Healthy, sound. 3. Racy, pointed. Anto.,
weak.

Violent, adj. 1. Fierce, hot. 2. Vehe-
ment, boisterouSj furious, impetuous, turbu-
lent 3. Sharp, intense. Anto., gentle.

Vile. adj. 1. Wicked, knavish. 2. Low,
base, mean, foul. Anto., noble lofty.

Vindicate. v. Clear, defend, protect,
justify. Anto., implicate, criminate.

Virtue, n. 1. Goodness, integrity, worth.
2. Power, efficacy. Anto., vice.

Virtuous, adj. 1. Pure, chaste. 2. Good,
righteous, exemplary. Anto., bad.

Visible, adj. 1. Patent, apparent, evi-
dent, obvious. 2. Perceptible. Anto., unseen.

Visionary, adj. Enthusiastic, fantastic,
fanatical, imaginary. Anto., cautious,
sensible.

Visitation, n. 1. Affliction, trouble, dis-
pensation. 2. Inspection.

Vital, adj. Necessary, essential, indis-
pensable. Anto., unnecessary.

Vitiate, v. Contaminate, pollute, defile,
infect, sophisticate, taint. Anto., cleanse.

Vivid, adj. Active, bright, clear, lively,
lucid, quick, sprightly, striking, Anto., dull.

Volatility. «. Fhghtiness, giddiness, lev-
*ty, lightness, liveliness. Anto., steadiness.

Voluptuous, adj. Sensual, epicurean,
luxurious. Anto., stoical, harsh.

Voluptuary. «. Epicure, sensualist.
Anto., ascetic.

Vouch, v. 1. Attest, warrant, avouch.
2. Back, support. Anto., deny.

Vulgarity, v. Coarseness, grossness,
meanness, rudeness, vileness. Anto.. refine-
ment.

Wag. «. Humorist, joker, jester, wit.
Anto., dullard, butt.

Wages. n.,pl. Pay, salary, hire, com-
pensation, stipend, earnings.

Wakeful, adj. Sleepless, vigilant, watch,
ful, wary, Anto., drowsy.

Walk. «. Carriage, gait, path*

Walk. v. Perambulate.

Wander, v. 1. Stray, swerve, digress,
deviate. 2. Stroll, ramble, roam. Anto., run.

Want. n. 1. Need. 2. Poverty, indigence.
3. Lack, dearth, scarcity. Anto., plenty.

Wares, n. Commodities, goods, mer-
chandise.

Wariness, n. Care, caution, circumspec-
tion, forethought, prudence. Anto., heed-
lessness.

Warlike, adj. 1. Hostile, inimical. 2.
Military, bellicose. Anto., peaceful.

Warm. adj. \. Genial, pleasant, sunny.
2. Not cold. 3. Fervent. 4. Excited. Anto ,
cool.

Warmth, n. 1. Glow. 2. Zeal, vehe-
mence, ardor, fervor. Anto., coolness.

Warning, n. 1. Monition, admonition.
2. Notice. 3. Caution.

Wary. adj. Vigilant, cautious, discreet,
guarded. Anto., heedless.

Waste, n. 1. Loss, consumption. 2.
Refuse. 3. Pillage, ruin, destruction, devas-
tation. Anto., replenishment, frugality.

Wasteful, adj. 1. Destructive. 2, Pro-
fuse, lavish, extravagant. Anto., frugal.

Watchful, adj. Vigilant, careful, wary,
circumspect, alert. Anto., careless.

Wave. n. Ripple, undulation, swell,
surge, billow, breaker.

Waver, v. 1. Fluctuate, vacillate. 2.
Flicker, wave. Anto., steadfast.

Way. n. 1. Path, route, course, road. 2.
Mode, method.

Wayward, adj. Forward, perverse, ob-
stinate, willful, headstrong, stubborn. Anto.,
docile.

Weak. adj. 1. Feeble, languid, weakly.
2, Frail, sickly. Anto., strong.

Weaken, v. Debilitate, unnerve, enfee-
ble. 2. Lower, reduce. Anto., invigorate.

Weakness, n. Debility, effeminacy. An*
to. y 1 strength.

Wealth. n. Abundance, fortune, afflu-
ence, riches, opulence. Anto., poverty.

Weariness. n. Exhaustion, languor,
lassitude, fatigue. Anto., buoyancy, vigor.

Weary, adj. Annoy, fatigue, harass,
jade, subdue, tire, vex. Anto., fresh, un-
wearied.

Wedding. «. Bridal, espousal, mar-
riage, nuptials. Anto., divorce.

Wedlock, n. Marriage, matrimony.

Wee. adj. Small, little, diminutive, pigmy,
tiny. Anto., large.

Weight, n. 1. Gravity, ponderosity. 2.
Burden, load. 3. Influence, importance. An~
to., lightness.

Weighty, adj. Momentous, important.
Anto., unimportant, light, trifling.

Welcome, adj. 1. Pleasing, acceptable,
agreeable, gratifying. 2. Admitted with
pleasure. Anto., unwelcome.

Welfare, n. Weal, well-being, success,
prosperity. Anto., failure, poverty.

Wnet. v. 1. Stimulate, quicken, excite,
arouse, kindle. 2. Sharpen. Anto., dull.

Whimsical, adj. Capricious, fantastic,
fanciful. Anto., commonplace.

Whiten, v. Bleach, fade, blanch. Anto.,
blacken.

Whole, adj. All, sum, total. Anto.,parU

Wicked, adj, 1. Bad, ill, evil, iniquitous.
2. Sinful, vicious, impious. Anto., virtuous.

Willingly, adj. Spontaneously, volun*
tarily, readily. Anto., unwillingly.

Wily. adj. Crafty, artful, sly, cunning,
insidious, subtle, snaky. Anto., ingenuous.

Win. v. 1. Gain, get, obtain, acquire,
earn, achieve. 2. Gain over. Anto., lose.

Wince, v. Shrink, flinch, startle.

Winding, adj. Meandering, serpentine,
flexuous, sinuous. Anto., straight.

Windy, adj. Breezy, stormy, gusty, tem-
pestuous, blustering. Anto., calm.

Wisdom, n. 1. Sagacity, sense, judg-
ment. 2. Learning, knowledge. 3. Reason-
ableness. Anto., ignorance.

Wise. adj. 1. Sage, sensible, judicious.
2. Erudite. 3. Sly, subtle, knowing. Anto. %
ignorant.

Wit. n. Burlesque, contrivance, humor,
irony, ingenuity, stratagem. Anto., dulness.

With. prep. By, through.

Withdraw, v. 1. Recant, disavow. 2.
Remove. 3. Disengage, wean, go back, re-
cede, retire, retreat, retrograde, take back.
Anto., 1. Endorse, come forward.

Withhold, v. 1. Retain. 2. Restrain.
Anto., release.

Withstand, v. Oppose, thwart, resist.

Witness. «. Deponent, evidence, tcsti-
111 °"y*

Wonder, n. 1. Marvel, prodigy, miracle.
2. Surprise, amazement. 3. Curiosity. Anto.,
commonplace.

Wonderful, adj. Admirable, astonish-
ing, curious, marvellous, strange, surprising.
Anto., usual, customary.

Wood. «. 1. Copse, grove, forest. 2.
Timber.

Word. n. Expression, promise, term.

Worker. ». 1. Performer. 2. Operative t
labortr, workman, artificer. Anto., idler.

Worship, n. Adore, honor, revere. Anto.,
execrate.

Worth, n. Desert, excellence, merit,
price, rate, value. Anto., worth less n ess.

Worthless, adj. Valueless, degraded.
Anto., valuable.

Worthy, adj. 1. Good, excellent, estim-
able, virtuous. 2. Deserving. Anto., un-
worthy.

Wretched, adj. 1. Poor, bad, vile, piti-
ful. 2. Calamitous. 3. Forlorn, unhappy,
miserable. Anto., happy.

Written, adj. Penned, inscribed, tran-
scribed. Anto., verbal.

Writer, n. \. Author. 2. Scribe, clerk,
secretary, amanuensis. 3. Penman.

Wrong, v. Maltreat, injure, abuse, op-
press. Anto., right.

Wrong, adj. Untrue, faulty, not fit, un-
suitable, unjust. Anto., right.

Wrong. n. Inj ustice, error, inj ury,
Anto., right, justice.

Wrongly, adv. Erroneously.

Wrought, v. Done, performed, effected.

Wry. adj. Crooked, askew, distorted,
twisted* Anto., straight.

Xeres. ». Sherry.

Xiphoid, adj. Swordlike, ensiform.

Xylography, a. Wood-engraving.

Yearly, adj. Annually, per annum.

Yeoman, n. Farmer, freeholder, com*
moner. Anto., gentleman.

Yet. conj. or adv. But, however, never-
theless, notwithstanding, still, hitherto, fur.
ther, besides.

Yield, v. Allow, cede, communicate,
comply, conform, concede, give, produce,
permit, resign, surrender. Anto., take.

Yield, n. Crop, product.

Yielding, adj. Compliant, submissive,
facile, unresisting, accommodating. Anto.,
stubborn.

Yoke. n. 1. Link, chain, tie, bond. 3.
Servitude, dependence, bondage, subjection,
thraldom.

Yoke. v. Associate, join, link, couple,
conjoin. Anto., sever.

Youth, n. 1. Lad, boy, stripling, a.
Young men, young women. 3. Juniority,
minority, juvenility, adolescence. Anto., age.

Zany. adj. Clown, buffoon, harlequin,
Punch, fool.

Zeal. n. Earnestness, fervor, cordiality,
ardor, passion.

Zealot, «. Enthusiast, bigot, fanatic,
visionary.

Zealous, adj. Earnest, fervid, glowing,
burning, passionate. Anto., lukewarm.

Zenith, ». Top, apex, summit, pinnacle,
climax. Anto., nadir.

Zephyr. ». 1. Breeze, a. West wind.
Anto., calm.

Zero. n. Cipher, naught, nothing.

Zest. n. Flavor, taste, savor, relish.

Zone. *. 1. Girdle, belt a* Clime, r«.
gioa.

»£,

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

A Self-Instructors

IN THE

^German Language.

BY THE NEW SYSTEM OF OBJECT-TEACHING, THE SIMPLEST METHOD KNOWN.

bTUDENTS will readily con-
cede that of all foreign lan-
guages the one which best
deserves their attention is
the German. The influence
of the Teuton stock on
American civilization and
commerce is all-important, and as
each year continues to bring thou-
sands of German immigrants to our
shores, it will be more and more
felt. A practical illustration of
this fact is shown in the cry for
1 German in the public schools" which
is heard in the leading cities of the
country at the present day. Eventu-
ally a knowledge of the language will
become so essential in the spheres of commer-
cial and professional life that the business or
professional man who cannot conduct conversa-
tion and correspondence in German will find
himself at a decided disadvantage compared
with him who has acquired the language. Those
who wish to do so will find in the following sys-
tem of self-tuition a means of grounding them-
selves so thoroughly in the principles of the lan-
guage that, with its lessons well learned, they
will have no difficulty in convening and corre-
sponding intelligibly with Germans whom they
may meet in the way of business or social con-
verse. And, having accomplished so much, all
that will be needed to gain a mastery of the

**%

language is careful reading of the standard
works of German literature, which in time will
bring fluency of both written and spoken expres-
sion.

THE ALPHABET.

The German alphabet consists of the following twenty-six
letters :

- *

X <

PRONUNCIATION.

■ *

H <

a <

91 a

as a in part.

SB b

bay

as in English.

tsay

as c in cape if before a, o t * or a consonant,

when final.

7)b

day

as in English.

i as a in Fame when long.

Q (

»y

t as / in /'/■//when short.

as in English.

H S|

E»

like A in horse.

i at

as 1 in sit.

vi\

Vol

kah

us_y in jr ear.

1. e 1

•1

SD?m

N
O

■ as in English*

P
Q

nay
koo

» r

err

S4(

as / In sit.

St t

tav

as in I-.ngHsh.

U u

as 00 in pool.

SO »

fow

w*f\nftei.

SB 10

vay

as fin vary.

3E \

Iks

as jr in box.

ypsllon

as y in system.

tsct

as ts in 'sits.

VOWELS.

The simple vowels are a, «, t, 0, u. Their sounds are gives abore.

COMPOUND TOWELS.

6, <r, pronounced like a in isjpa,

t, a, pronounced like tu in the French word//*, or mi In touch.

u, ui, pronounced like <•<•*, or the a in the French word nr. The ac

curate sound of this, as well as of the t, can only be learned from

a German, as there are no similar sounds In ]
an, an, is pronounced like ovr in now,
tu, ru. Is like oy ln/iy.

? ■»

—

£*•

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

CONSONANTS. 1

ENGLISH.

GERMAN.

PRONUNCIATION

■

The g, g, has never the soft sound as in genius, but is either hard as

the morning

bet STRorgen

dair morgen

in gave, or has the guttural sound of d), which letter is sounded like the

a day

ctn lag

ine tahg

ch in the Scotch word loch. In the pronouncing column, the g and ch

the midday

berHHittag

dair mittah^

will he printed in italics whenever they should have the guttural sound.

the night

tie Madjt

dee nacht

Sch is pronounced like sh in ship.

the moon
the sun

ber ilBonb
bie Sonne

dair mond
dee sonnai

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.

a star

ein ©tern

ine shtairn

Masculine. Feminine. Neuter.

the light

bag Oidjt

das licht

* bet tie bttS, is the German Article.

a year

ein 3af)t

ine yahr

dair dee das

THE HUMAN BODY

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.

The arm

ber Hrm

dair arm

Masculine.

Feminine.

the beard

ber SBart

dair bart

Nom. ein Sater, a father.

Nora, tine Stabt, a town.

the blood

bad Slut

das bloot

Gen. eineS 33ater«, of a father.

Gen. einer Stabt, of a town.

the bosom

ber Sufen

dair boosen

Dat. einem SBater, to a father.

Dat. einer <Stabt, to a town.

the breast (chest)

bte Stuff

dee broost

Ace. einen SSater, a father.

Ace. cine Ztait, a town.

the eye

bag Huge

das owgay

Neuter.

the ear

bag Dbjr

das ore

Nom. ein ©djtff, a ship.

a chin

ein ftinn

ine kin

Gen. etneS <3d?iff*8, of a ship.

the eyebrows

bie Hugenbrauen

ctee owgenbrowea

Dat. einem ©djiffe, to a ship.

the elbows

ber Qlbogen

dair elbogen

Ace. ein Sdjiff, a ship.

the fist

biejauft

dee fowst

COMBINATION OF ARTICLE AND NOUN.

a finger
the flesh

ein ginger
bag gleifd)

ine fing-er
das flyshe

DECLENSIONS.

the foot

ber Xuj

dair fooss

The German language has three genders: Masculine, bet; Feminine,

the hair

bag §aar

das har

bte; Neuter, bag; which form the definite Article.

the hand

bie ©anb

dee hahnd

The definite article is declined as well as the substantive, and

the right hand

bie rea)te $anb

dee rechtay hahnd

examples are here given :

the left hand

bie linfe Jjanb

dee linkay hahnd

Masculine.

the heart

bag £erj

das hairz

Singular. Plural.

the hip

bie Suite

dee hiftay

Nom. bet2Kann, the man.

bie SBanner, the men.

a knee

ein flnie

ine knee (A pronoun? d)

Gen. be3 SOZanneS, of the man.

ber Winner, of the men.

the lip

bie Sippe

dee lippay

Dat. bem 3Kanne, to the man.

ben SDIannern, to the men.

the neck

ber 9!acfen

dairnaheken

Ace. ben 2tfann, the man.

bie SIRanner/ the men.

the nose

bie SRafe

dee nahzay.

Feminine.

a mouth

etn ffli'unb

ine moond

Nom. bie §rau, the woman.

bie o*rauen, the women.

THE FAMILY.

Gen. bet grew, of the woman.

bergrauen, of the v*oro*«.

The father

ber Bater

dair fahter

Dat. bet %tn\x, to the woman.

ben grauen, to the women.

the grandfather

ber ©rojjpater

dair grossfahter

Ace. bie %xwk, the woman.

bie gtauen, the women.

the stepfather

ber Stieffater

dair shteeffahter

Neuter.

the fatherland

bag Saterianb

das fabterland

Nom. ba8 $fetb, the horse. *

bie SBferbe, the horses.

the mother

bie aflutter

dee mootter

Gen. be« IgferbeS, of the horse.

ber SBferbe, of the horses.

a brother

ein SBruber

ine brooder

Dat. bent $ferbe, to the horse.

ben ^ferben, to the horses.

the sister

bie Sojireftet

dee shwester

Ace. baS 93ferb, the horse.

bie SBferbe, the horses.

the uncle

ber Ontel

dnir onkel

EXERCISES IN THE ARTICLE AND NOUN.

the aunt

bie Xante

dee tahntay
dair neffay

the nephew

bet SReffe

THE EARTH.

a niece

elne Widjte

ineay nic^tay

ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

the girl (maiden)

bag2R5bdjen

das maidiAen

The earth bte Gtbe dee airdai

the man

ber STJann

dair mahnn

a fire ein %euex ine foyer

the young man

ber junge 2Rann

dair yoongay mahnn

the water bo3 2Baffet das vasser

the old man

ber alte SJJann

dair altay mahnn

the rainwater ba8 Secjemraffet das ragenvasser

the wife (woman)

hie. Ecib

das vybe

the stream ber Sttom dairshtrome

a bride

eine Sraut

ineay browt

the sea bte ©ee dee say

the widow

bie SBittwe

dee vitvay

the weather ba8 SDSettet das vetter

the widower

ber SBittner

dair vitver

the summer weather baS ©ommerreettet das summervetter

the guest

ber fflafl

dair gahst

the winter weather ba8 SEBinterroettet das vintervetter

the neighbor

ber 9!ad)bat

dair narAbar

the wind bet 23tnb dair vinnd

the friend

berjjreunb

dair froint

the rain bet 9?egen dair ragen

the storm bet ©tutm dairshtoorm

FOOD.

the hail bet §oge! dair hahgel

The beer

tag SSfet

das beer

the frost ber gtoft dair frust

the glass

ba8 (Slag

das glahs

the summer bet Sommet dair summer

the flask (bottle)

bie glafdie

dee flash ay

the winter ber SBtntet dair vinter

the bread

bag SBtob

das brote

the snow bet ©$nee dair shnay

fresh bread

frifdjeg Srob

frishes brote

the ice bad Ct« das ice

the butter

bie Sutter

dee bootter

the thunder ber Donnet dair duuner

fresh butter

frtfaie Sutter

frishay bootter

T-.

=*£i

THE GERMAN

LANGUAGE.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN.

PRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN.

rRONVNCIATION.

the cheese

tet *afe

dair caysay

the postmaster

ter Skfimeifiet

dair postmicctcr

the honey

tet &onig

dair honi^

to ride

reiten

ritcn

the milk

t« mi:-.

dec milch

the riding-master

ter Sittmeifiet

dair rittmiceter

the buttermilk

tie Suttermtld;

dee boottermilcA

the school

tte Sd'ule

dee shoolay

the oil

bat Cel

das eel

the schoolmaster

ter Sdjulmeifitt

dair shoolmicetcr

the fish

tet gif*

dair fish

the smith

ter Sdjmiet

dair shmit

the flesh (meat)

tat gletft

das Jlyshe

the smithy

tte Cebmiete

dee shmeeday

the wine

tet ffieln

dair vine

the nailsmith

ter '.laaelfaV .b

dair nahgelshmit

old wine

alter 2Bein

alter vine

the goldsmith

ter ©citftfcmltb

dair goldshmit

the punch

tee tpunfa)

dair poonch

the coppersmith

tet ftucferfebmieb

dair koopfershroit

the ruin

tet 9!um

dair room

the weaver

ter ESebet

dair vayber

the water

tag SSaffet

das vasser

the king

ber ficnig

dr.ir kecnig

the salt

tat Sal)

das saltx

the prince

ter $rtn|

dair prints

the pepper

tet 35feffer

dair pfeffer

the baron

tet ZJarcit

dair bahrone

the salad

tet Ealat

dair salaht

the officer

ter Cfficiet

dair offeetseer

the soup

tie Sucre

dee sooppay

the soldier

t it Z tit at

dair soldaht

the beefsteak

tat Seefileaf

das beefsteak

the pope

tet JJabft

dair pahbst

the pudding

tet putting

dair poodding

the archbishop

ter Chtjtifdjrf

dair airtsbishof

the coffee

tetgaffee

dair kaffay

the bishop

tet *if*ef

lair bishofe

the tea

tet Ibee

dair tay

the chocolate

tie Gbololate

dee chocolahday

CLOTHING.

the lemonade

tie Simonate

dee limonahday

The jacket

tie fjatfe

• tee yackay

TOWN AND COUNTRY.

the shoe
the hat

tet 2i ub
tet $ut

iair shoe
dair hoot

The honse

taS $au8

das house

the brush

_ tteSJirfle

dee becurstay

the garden

tet Patten

dair garten

the hairbrush

tie £aaiburfle

dee harbeeurstay

the land

tal Sanb

das lahnd

the frock (coat)

tet graet

dair frak

the market

tetSKattt

dair markt

the wool

tie SoIIe

dee vollay

the street

tie ettaie

dee strahssay

the cravat

tie Grarattt

dee cravahtte

the church

tie fltrcbe

dee keerchay

the purse

tte Eerie

dee becrsay

the mail

tie$cft

dee pust

the cap

tie Sacpe

dec kappay

the bank

tleSBanl

dee bank

the ring

tet King

dair ring

the theater

tat Ibcater

das tayahter

the hospital

tat Scfpitat

das hospitahl

BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, ETC.

the coffee-house

bat Kaffcebaut

das kaffayhouse

The hound (dog)

tet 4}unt

dair hoond

the palace

tet !Pala(t

dair palast

the cat

tie Sage

dee kahtsay

the harbor

tet £afen

dair hahfen

the rat

tie Katie

dee rattay

the field

tat gelt

das feld

the mouse

tie !Ka»t

dee mouse

the dale (valley)

tat Stbat

das tahl

the swine (pig)

tat edSrcetn

das shvine

the wood (forest)

tet Bait

dair vald

the hare

tet i>aie

dair hahzay

the bush

tet SBuf$

dair boosh

the roe

tat Hcb

das ray

the heath

tie ftalte

dee hiday

the ox

tetC*fe

dair ocksay

the hill

tet ijuget

dair hecugel

the cow

tie Sub

dee koo

the mill

tie Siubte

dee meeullay

the calf

bat ftalb

das kalb

the corn

tat iletn

das korn

the sheep

tat Etfaaf

das shahf

the straw

tat Strob

das shtro

the lamb
the fox

tat Samra
tet J>u*t

das lam
dair f ooka

TRADES AND PROFESSION'S.

the wolf

bet Belt

dair volf

The baker

tet ajftcTet

dair becker

the bear

ter ¥ar

dair baer

the bookbinder

tet 9?ud)binber

dair bookbinder

the elephant

tet Qierbant

dair elcfahnt

the book

tat S? lid)

das hooch

the camel

tat Sameel

das cahmail

the doctor

tet Tcttot

dair iloktor

the swan

ter Stbiran

dair shvan

the hat

tet i>ut

dair hoot

the falcon

tergalle

dair falkay

the hatter

tet ftulmaitei

dair hootmafAer

the goose

tie <?anl

dee gahn*

the shoe .

tet Sajub

dair shoe

the stork

tet etcra)

dair shtorr k

the shoemaker

tet S<fcubma$ei

dair shoemaker

the snipe

tie e*nep)e

dee shncpfay

the razor

tat 9Ia(itme(let

das rasccrmesser

the raven

tet Sate

dair rahbay

a barber

ein SJaiblet

inc bifboog

the lark

tie Srr*e

dee lairalar

the glass

tat (Slat

das giahs

the crow

tte fctibt

dee krayay

the glazier

tet ffllifet

dair glaiscr

the nightingale

tie Sad-naaH

dec na< Atigal

the natl

tet SRaget

dair nahgcl

the cuckoo

tet Suiuif

dair kookook

the saddle

tet Eattel

dair sattct

the swallow

tic etbirjlbe

dee shvalbay

the saddler

tet eattlet

dair saltier

the finch

tet glnte

dair finkay

the mill

tit SKuble

dec meeullay

the sparrow

bet eperling

dair spairling

the miller

tet STOuttet

dair meeullcr

the fish

tet gli*

dair fish

the master

tet SKei|let

dair miccter

the carp

tet Saufe

dair carpf ay

dancing

tanjen

tanzen

the herring

tet faring

dair hairing

the dancing-master

tet lanjmtipet

dair tnnztnlcetcr

the ecl

tet flat

dair ahl

the post

tie Vojl

dec pust

the frog

tet gte(d)

dair fruah

£_ .

«- w

-^—

■

i**

. y

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN.

PRONUNCIATION.

the worm

bet 2Burm dair voorm

winter

SBtnter

vinter

the spider

tie Spinne dee shpinnay

January

Januar

yanooar

the oyster

bit Outlet dee ouster

February

gebruat

febrooar

the crab

bet fltebd dair kreps

March

STCarj

mayrts

the flea

bet glo$ dair flo

April

Hptil

apreet

the fly

ble gtiege dee fleegay

May

SKat

the bee

bie 85iene dee beenay

June

3»i<i

yoonee

the wasp

bie SBefpe dee vespay

July

Suit

yoolee

the snail

bie ©d)necfe dee shneckay

August
September

Hugufl
September

owgoost
September

MINERALS AND METALS.

October

The gold

bad (Sotb das gult

November

SRooembet

november

the silver

bad Stlbet das silber

December

Xejember

daytsember

the copper

bad ffupfet das koopfer

the days of the week

bie SSoa)entage

dee vo<r/tentahgay

the iron

bad Gifen das eisen

Sunday

Sonntag

WOBB&M0

the tin

bad 3> nn das tsin

Monday

SRontag

monetae

the steel

bad Stahl das shtahl

Tuesday

Dtenftag

deensta^"

the zinc

bad 3tnf das tsink

Wednesday

3Ritttcoa>

mittvocA

the bronze

bie SBtonje dee bronsay

Thursday

!£onnetftag

donnersta^

the diamond

bet liamant dair deeamahnt

Friday

Sreitag

freitah^"

the pearl

bie ¥etle dee pairlay

Saturday

t Samftag
I Sonnabenb

sahmstah^
sunnahbend

the coral
the marble

bie ftotalle dee corallay
bad uTZatmot das marmor

The holiday
Christmas

ber {Jfeiertag

SBeitinadjten

dair fireta^
YinarAten

the gypsum

berfflopd dair gyps

Easter

DfietK

ohstern

the clay
the chalk
the coal

bet Sepnt dair lame
bet flair dair calk
bie R o$ le dee coalay

Whitsuntide
the morning
* noon

fPfinglten
bet Sffiorgen
SHtttag

pflngsten

dair morgen

mitta^

dair narAmitta^

dair abend

the earth
the sand

bie Ctbe dee airday
berSanb dairsahnd

the afternoon
the evening
the night

ber SRad)mtttag
bet Stbenb

the stone

ber Stein dairstine

bie 9Jad)t

dee nar/;t

SHIPS AND SHIPPING.

midnight

SDiittetnacbt

mitternarAt

The ship

bad Sd)iff das shift

THE HOME.

the boat

bad Soot das boat

the ship-of-the-Ilne

bad 2inienfa)i|f das leenyenshiff

The bell

bie ©lode

dee gluckay

the flsherboat

bad Sifajer&oot das flsherboat

the knocker

bet Stopfer

dair klupfer

the anchor

bet Stnfet dair anker

to open

bffnen

oeffnen

the deck

bad Ted das deck

the servant

bie 9Ragb

dee ma^d

the flag

bie Jlagge dee flaggay

the staircase

bie Xreppe

dee treppay

the mast

bet 2Raft dair mast

the room

bad 3immer

das tsimmer

the foremast

bet SBotbermajt dair fordermast

the drawing-room

bad ¥u v Stmmer

das pootstsimmer

the sail

bad Seget das saygel

the sitting-room

bad SBobnjtmmet

das vohntsimmer

the strand

betSttanb dairshtrand

the dining-room

bad QSjtmmet

das esstsimmer

the rudder

bad Subei das rooder

the sleeping-room

bad Sajlafjimraei

das shlahftsimmer

the net

bad 5Re v das netz

the kitchen

bie flu*e

dee keeurZiay

the lading (freight)

bie Sabung dee lahdung

the cellar

bet ReUet

dair keller

the freight

bie Jtacit dee tncit

the window

bad genflet

das fenster

the coast

bie Jtufte dee kistay

the stove

bet Ofea

dair oh fen

the cliff

bie fllippe dee klippay

the chimney

bet flarain

dair kameen

the downs

bie Dunen dee deeunen

the looking-glass

ber Spiegel

dair shpeegel

the ground

bet Orunb dair groond

the table

bet Ztfdj

dair tish

the storm

bet Sturm dair shtoorm

the chair

ber Stub; t

dair shtool

the fleet

bie Jiotte dee flottay

the arm-chair

ber Hrmftubl

dair arm shtool

the frigate

bie Stegatte dee fregattay

the carpet

the chest of drawers

bet Seppid)
bie flommobe

dair teppicA
dee ommohday

TIME AND SEASONS.

the sofa

bad Sop v a

das sofa

The century

bad 3abt$unbett das yarhoondert

the candlestick

ber Seud)tet

dair loytAter

the year

bad 3ab> das yar

the candle

bad Sid)t

das lirAt

the month

bet SRonat dair mortat

the lamp

bie £ampe

dee lam pay

the week

bie 25od)e dee vocv&ay

the wick

ber Sod)t

dair dor At

the day

bet Sag dair ta^

the oil

bad Del

das eel

the hour

bie Stunbe dee shtoonday

to light

anjunben

antsinden

half-an-hour

erne baibe Stunbe Inay halbay shtoonday

the bed

bad Sett

das bet

the minute

bie Minute dee minoohtay

thj counterpane

bie Settberfe

dee betdeckay

the second

bie Sefunbe dee secoonday

the sheets

bie iBetttudjet

dee betteeiAer

the seasons

bie Jalitedsetten dee yarestsiten

the pillow

bad ffopfltffen

das kupfkissen

spring

Stuping freeling

the basin

bad aBafajbeien

das vashbecken

summer

Scmnter summer

the soap

bie Seife

dee sifay

— _*

autumn

ftetbft hairbst

the towe*

bad §anbtua}

das handtootrA

■

—• — »
1

«r

«4

R .. -.

— -1

If.

\ ■

THE GERMAN

LANGUAGE.

■ NGLISH.

GERMAN.

PRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN.

PR OHVX CIATIO K.

warm water

trarmeS SBaflet

varmes vasser

the petticoat

bet Untrue*

dair oonterruck

cold water

falttS JBaRet

kaltes vaster

the stays

bat esjnurletb

der shneerlipc

hot water

vttfcet iffiaffei

hyses vasser

the veil

bet edjletet

dair shlire

to wash

irafAen

vashen

the powder

bat SBnbet

das pooder

the comb

1 1 r Jfamm

dair kamm

the soap

Me getfe

dee sifay

to comb

fammen

kemmen

the tooth-powder

bat 3abntulrn

das tsahnpoolfer

FRUITS, TREES AND

FLOWERS.

TRAVEL.

The apple

bet Hpfttl

dair apfel

The voyage

Me Strife

dee rizay

the apple-tree

bet aipfdbaum

dair apfclbowm

the traveller

bet Wetfente

dair rizendsy

the pear

bie Sitne

dee becrnay

the road

bte Saitbfhafct

dee lahnd&htrahsay

the pear* tree

bet SBunbaum

dair beernbowm

the railroad

bte Ciimbabn

dee isenbahn

the plum

tie ?>flaume

dee pflowmay

the station

bte etaticn

dee stahtzione

the plum-tree

bet ipflaumeniaunt

dair pflowmenbowm

the train

betS«8

dair tsoo/

the cherry

bie flirfAe

dee keershay

the engine

bie 2Raf*t»e

dee mash ten ay

the chestnut

bie flafianie

dee kastanyay

the carriage

bte Rutfdte

dee kootshay

the peach

bet sphrficb.

dair pfeersirA

the wagon

bet SSaaen

dair vahgen

the apricot

bie Mpttccfe

dee apreecohsay

the departure

bie rlbtcife

dee abrizay

the orange

bie Slpfelfine

dee apfelseenay

the arrival

bte Slnfunft

dee ankoonft

the lemon

bte Citrone

dee tsitronay

the pass-port

bet t-afc

dair pass

the grape

bie SBelntiatlSe

dee vinetrowbay

the inn (hotel)

bet (Safibof

dair ga&thof

the nut

bie Wufe

dee nooss

the landlord

bet JT-ittb

dair vetrt

the walnut

bie ffiaUnud

dee vallnooss

the waiter

bet fletlnet

dair k finer

the currant

bie 3o6anni8beete

dee yohanisbairay

the bill

bie 9ied>nunoi

dee ree/moong

the gooseberry

bie ©tadjelbeete

dee shtat/jelbairay

the interpreter

bet Xcltnetfciet

dair dulltnctsher

the raspberry

bie Qimbeere

dee himbairay

the luggage

bat C'rrad

das geptek

the blackberry

bie iBtcmbeetc

dee brombairay

the trunk

bet Reflet

dair cuff er

the strawberry

bie Qtbbeete

dee airdbairay

the carpetbag

bet Stiff tad

dair rizaysack

the oak
the beech

bie (Sicbe
bte SPucte

dee ir/jay
dee boor/ray

AT THE WRITING-DESK.

the poplar

bie SPapptl

deepappei

The paper

bat Racier

das papeer

the lime

bie Binbe

dee linday

the writing-paper

bat £*ittbpaptet

das shrihepapeer

the ash

bie <Sfd>e

dee eshay

the writing

bie Bchiiit

dee shrift

the fir

bie lanne

dee tannay

the sheet

bet iBcaen

dair bogeo

the willow

bie SBetbe

dee viday

the pen

bie g-etet

dee fayder

the rose

bie Wcfe

dee rosay

the steel-pen

kte etoblfetet

dec stahlfaydcr

the pink

bie 3!elfe

dee nelkay

the penknife

bat gtbetmeflet

das fay derm esse*

the tulip

bie Xulpe

dee toolpay

the inkstand

bat lintentafj

das tinttnfass

the lily

bit Stile

dee leeleay

the ink

bte Xinte

dee tintay

the violet

bat Beildjeit

das nlerAen

the pencil

ket Sletfitft

dair blystift

the lilac

bet glleber

dair feeder

the scissors

bie Bcbeett

dec shayray

the lily of the valley

bat SD!aibIumd)en

das mybleumchen

the date

bet Tatura

der dahtoom

THE TOILET.

the direction
the mail

bie abttfle
bte T>pft

dee ahdressay
dec pust

The clothes

bie JHelbet

dee klider

the seal

bat 4?eH*aft

das pctshaft

•

the coat

bet Mod

dair ruck

the sealing-wax

bet Eteatnad

dair seegcllac

the trowsers

bie $ofen

dee hozen

the wafer

bte Cblate

dee oblahtay

the pocket

bie aafebe

dee tashay

the ruler

bat SMntal

das lecnayabj

the buttons

bte flnopfe

dee knoepfay

the letter

bet SJtief

dair brcef

the dressing-gown

bet Sdjlattp*

dair shlahfruck

the note

bat Strict

das bilyet

the slippers
the drawers

bie iPantoffetit
bie Unterbofen

dee pantuffeln
dee oonterhosen

LANDS AND PEOPLES.

the stockings

bie 2 trumpfe

dee streeumpfay

The country

bat f!anb

das lahnd

das f ahtcrlahnd

the shirt

bat JJemb

das hemt

the native land

bat SSatrrlanb

the braces

bie ftofenttigei

dee hosentrayger

the state

bet etaat

dair shtaht

the waistcoat

bie SBefie

dee vestay

the empire

bat »ei*

das ririe

the boot

bet Sltctel

dair shteefel

the kingdom

bat Jtbntatttcb

das kn \\\gnetm

the boot-jack

bet ettefelfnedjt

dair shtecfelknefAt

Europe

Oureva

otropa

the cap

tie OJJufce

dee mitsay

the European

bet Gntcpaet

dair oiropayer

the gloves

bie $anbfd)ube

dee bandshooay

America

amenta

amayricah

the handkerchief

bat lafdjentudj

daS I.I.Oii'nMi n h

Ike American

bet amettfanet

dair amayrikahncr

the watch

bie Ubt

dee i >i t

A-i.i

afien

axicn

the umbrella

bet Me aenfdjltm.

dair raygensheerm

Africa

Bfttfa

afrika

the purse

bte Scrfe

dee hrersay

the East Indies

rrtintten

oj^tindicn

the brush

bte (Bfirfie

dee birstay

the West Indies

BrfMMM

vestindien

the comb

bet Ramra

dair kamm

the United States

tie rminijten eiaaten

dee verint/ten it ah tea

the apron

bte e*fltje '

dee shecurtsay

Brazil

*rafilten

brahr.ee. lien

the fan

bet gadjet

dair facta

Englfhil

Gnalanb

englahnd

the dress

bat ftletb

das klite

the Englishman

bet Onglantet

dair Kngiendcr

■

•

-. *

J*.

THE GERMAls

LANGUAGE.

ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN.

PRONUNCIATION.

Ireland 3rlanb eerlahnd

rich

rela)

ricAe

the Irishman bet 3r[anber der eerlender

cold

fait

kalt

Scotland ed)ott[anb shutlahnd

warm

natnt

varm

the Scotchman bet Sdjotle dair shuttay

long

lang

lahng

France grantreia) frankricAe

high

bod)

hoarA

the Frenchman bet Jranjofe dair frantsosay

full

foil

Germany Xeutfd)Ianb doylshlahnd

cool

tubl

keel

the German bet Deutfdje daii doytshay

near

nabe

nan

Holland £oQanb hullahnd

hard

bar!

hart

the Dutchman bet ^olianbet dair hullender

light

Ietdjt

lycAt

Austria Deftetteid) eceterricAe

wild

Btlb

villd

the Austrian bet Deftetteidjer dair ecetcrric/ier

fat

feu

fet

Prussia ipreufjen proyssen

fine

feln

fine

the Prussian bet $teu$e dair proyssay

mild

mllb

milld

Russia SRufslanb rbossland

deep

tlef

teef

the Russian bet 9iuffe dair roossay

fresh

frlf*

frish

Sweden ©cbneben shvayden

ripe

teif

rife

the Swede bet ©d)»ebe dair shvayday

unripe

nntetf

oonrife

Denmark Xanemart danemark

bitter

the Dane bet Xdne dair daynay

small

. fdjmal

shmahl

Switzerland bie ©cbrceitj dee shvyts

wide

Belt

vite

the Swiss bet 3d)roei§er dair shvytser

open

often

uffen

Italy 3'alien eetalyen

loud

Iaut

lout

the Italian bet ^toltenet dair ectaleeayner

right

tecbt

recAt

Spain Spanifn shpanyen

wise

Btlfe

visay

the Spaniard bet Spanter dair shpaneeyare

blind

bltnb

blinnd

Greece (gtierbenlanb greetAenlahnd

unwell

untrcb,!

oonvole

the Greek bet (SrteAje deir greecAay

hot

6«16

hice

Turkey bie Stuttel dee teerki

thick

bid

dick

the Turk bet Jutfe dair teerkay

neat

nett

net

the Jew bet 3"be ' dair yooday

thin

bunn

din

the Persian bet 3Ptrfier dair perzier

broad

bteit

brite

THE ADJECTIVE.

round
false

falfs)

roond
fahlsh

The German adjective is placed before the substantive.

sour

faun

sour

With the definite article it takes the termination in e; with the in-

hollow

bobl

hole

sharf

fl«A

kline

engay

needrig

schcen

hibsch

hesslicA

shlecAt

definite article or without the article, it takes the termination of its

gender ; as :

Der gute SJater, the good father; guter Slater, good father; ein gutet

Satet, a good father.
Die gute Sffiuttet, the good mother ; gute SKutter, good mother ; tine gute

Wuttit, a good mother.
• D«« gute Stint, the good child ; gute« fttnb, good child ; ein gute8 Uinb,

a good child.

sharp

flat

small

narrow

low

beautiful

handsome

ugly

bad

fa)arf
Pad)
tletn
enge

niettlg

fd)6n

bubfd)

bafilta)

fd)Ied)t

COMPARISON OF ADJECTTVES.

easy

Ietdjt

leieAt

The comparative of a German adjective is formed by adding et to

heavy

fdjoei

shvair

the positive, the superlative by adding fie; as:

soft

Beta)

vycAe
vahr

Rletn, little — [[finer, smaller — fleinfie, smallest.

true

ltOyt

Welti, riqh — reldjet, richer — teltbfle, richest.

short

furj

koorts

The *' than" following the comparative is translated by „aI8".

far

Belt

vite

Sr i(l tleinet al§ id); he is smaller than I.
VOCABULARY OF ADJECTIVES.

sweet

hollow
blunt

fuB

bob!

ftumpf

seess
hole

shtoompf

White n>et& vice

delicious

leftlia)

ksstlifA

red tot, rote

disagreeable

unangenebm

oonahngenaym

blue blau blou

honest

ebtltd)

ayrlifA

brown braun brown

polite

bofltd)

hsnirA

gray gtau grou

obliging

gefattig

gefell^f

green gtin green

kind

gutig

geeti^

yellow gelb gelb

prudent

Hug

kloo^

orange orange orahn^e

stupid

butnm

doomm

Purple Umpire poorpoor

ridiculous

lacbetlid)

lecAerlicA

violet Diolett veeolet

reasonable

eernunftig

ferninfti^

old alt ahlt

happy

gludlid)

glicklicA

young Jung yoong

unhappy

unglutflia)

oonglickUVA

new neu noi

glad

frob

fro

great 8 io(i gross

satisfied

juftleben

tsoofreeden

good gut goot

active

tbattg

taitif

[fs w

-^ 1

sr*

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN.

rRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN.

PRONUNCIATION.

proud

grot

shtults

a million

etne 2Hifiicn

inay milleeone

rude

grope

one thousand eight ein taufenb ao>t bunbert

ine towsend arAt hoon-

bold

(u v n

keen

hundred and fifty-

neununtfunfjtg

dert noyn oond nnf-

strong

flat.

shtark

nine.

Uig

weak
attentive

fd)ma$
aufmcrtjaa

shvach
owfmerksahm

THE ORTONAL NUMBERS.

clever

gefebtett

geshickt

the first

ber erfte

dalr ayrstsy

sick

frant

krahnk

the second

ber (nette

dair uviuy

pale

Ha|

blahss

the third

ber brtlte

dair drittay

healthy

«-tut.b

gezoond

the fourth

ber Bierte

dair feertay

poor

arm

the fifth

ber funfte

dair finftay

empty

Iter

lair

the sixth

ber fed)8fte

dair sextag

light

bell

hell

the seventh

ber ficbente

dair seebentay

dark

bunfet

doonkel

the eighth

ber acbte

dair ar/uay

dry

tro-fen

trocken

the ninth

bet neunte

dair noyntay

wet

naf)

nahss

the tenth

ber jebnte

dair tsanetay

dirty

fdjmuttg

shmootsi^

the eleventh

ber elfte

dair elftay

cheap

Mill/

the twelfth

ber jrcolfte

dair tsvelfUy

clean

rein

rine

the thirteenth

ber breijebnte

dair drytsanetEy

tired

mube

meeday

the fourteenth

bet Bierjebnte

dair feertsanetay

angry

bofe

bossay

the fifteenth

ber funfjebnte

dair finfuanetay

merry

lufltg

loosti^

the sixteenth

ber fetbsiebnte

dair sc<-*tsanetay

CARDINAL NUMBERS.

the seventeenth
the eighteenth

ber fiebenjebnte
ber aettjebnte

dair secbentsanctay
dair arAtsanetay

One

tin, etnS

Ine, ines

the nineteenth

ter neunjebnte

dair noyntsanetay

two

greet

tsvi

the twentieth

ber jrcanjigfte

dair tsvanzi^stay

three

tret

dri

the twenty-first

bet einunbjtBaniigfle

dair ineoondtsvantsig-

four

Bier

feer

stay

five

ffinf

flat

twenty -second

ber itBetunbjn-anitjiie

dair tsvioondtsvantsi/"-

six

f.*«

sex

stay

seven

fiebeu

seeben

the twenty-third

ber breiuxtjiranjtgfte

dair drioonduvants!/-

eight

M|l

■dt

stay

nine

neun

noyn

the thirtieth

ber breifi.gfte

dair drysi/stay

ten

je»n

tsane

the thirty -first

ber elnuubbreiblgfte

dair ineoonddrysijfltay

eleven

elf

the thirty-second

ber •n-etunbbrclbtgfte

dair tsvioonddrysij*stay

twelve

jmaif

tsvelf

the fortieth

ber Blerjigfle

dair fecrtsi^stay

thirteen

breljebn

drytsane

the fiftieth

ber funfjigfte

dair finttsijs.ay

fourteen

«lerje y n

feertsane

the sixtieth

ber fecbe-jlgfie

dair sechfi /stay

fifteen

funfjebn

finftsane

the seventieth

ber ftebenjlgfle

daii seebentsi^sur

sixteen

fee,«je y n

scxtsane

the eightieth

ber oebtjigfte

daii arAtsi/stay

seventeen

Peben'e y a

seebentsane

the ninetieth

ber neuniigfte

dair noyntsi/slay

eighteen

«d)tje v n

a<7/ttsane

the one hundredth

ber bunbertfle

dair hoonderstay

nineteen

neun>e v n

noyntsane

the one hundred and bet buntertunterfle

dair hoondcrtoondayr-

twenty

lisanitg

tsvantzi^

first

stay

twenty-one

ttnunb>n>anjlg

Incoondtsvantz!/

the two hundredth

ter )ireibuntertfte

dairuvihoondertstay

twenty* two

jroelunbiroanjlg

zvloondtsvantzi^

the three hundredth

ber brelbuntertfte

dairdrihoondenstay

twenty-threo

breiunb)nan)ig

dryoondtsvantzy

the one thousandth

ber laufentfte

dair towsendsuy

thirty

bretfilg

drysi^

forty

Bierjlg

tceruig

COLLECTIVE NUMBERS.

fifty

fftnfjtg

tataig

A pair

ein 9aar

Ine pahr

sixty

fe-v«ji9

MCklz\g

a dozen

ein XuBenb

ine doolaend

seventy

(lebenjig

secbenzi^"

a score

jteanilg

Uvanlslf

eighty

oebtjlg

ac/ilzijr

firstly

crftenS

ayrstens

ninety

neunjtg

noyntzl^

secondly

jtreilen*

tsvitens

one hundred

bunbert

hoondcrt

thirdly

britlenl

driltens

one hundred and

one bunbert unb etnJ

hoondert oond incs

the first time

bae erfte JRal

das ayrslay msi

one hundred and two bunbert unfe jn>el

hoondert oond tsvl

the second time

baft ltBeite SRal

das tsvitay mal

two hundred

jroei bunbert

tsvl hoondcrt

once

einnal

inemal

three hundred

brel bunbert

dry hoondert

twice

•n-eimat

tsvimal

four hundred

bier buntert

feer hoondert

thrice

breimal

drymal

five hundred

funf bunbert

tinf hoondert

single

etnfad)

lncfar*

six hundred

fed)< bunbert

sex hoondert

double

tcrrelt

duppclt

seven hundred

(ieben bunbert

seeben hoondert

threefold

brelfaeb

dryfaol

eight hundred

<i*t bunbert

a<7/t hoondert

fourfold

Blerfaet

fecriact

nine hundred

neun bunbert

Royn hoondcrt

one sort

clnerlcl

inerlye

one thousand

taufenb

towsend

two sorts

iwelerlet

Uvierlye

two thousand

|met taufenb

tsvl towsend

three sorts

treietlei

drierlyej

three thousand

brel taufenb

dry towsend

four sorts

ftetetlel

fcererlyej

ten thousand

jebn taufenb

tsane towsend

ten sorts

jebnetlet

tsancrlye

■55

.:•

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

8 9

PRONOUNS.

mine

mein

SDu

thine

Detn

his

fetn

fl«

her

tbt

Bit

ours

unfet

3&*

yours

Suet

fl«

theirs

*»

Mefet

who, which

neither

jenet

who

Ber

fold)et

each, every one

jeber

jetnanb

nobody

ntemanb

thou

she

you

they

this

that

such

somebody

The polite form of address in German is to use the pronoun Sic, in-
stead of Du, in the second person singular. In that sense <Sie is writ-
ten with a capital letter.

THE YERB.

Before studying the regular verbs the student must learn by
heart the auxiliary verbs, whose conjugations are as follows:
AUXILIARY VERBS.

jjal'cn — to have.

INFINITIVE.

baben, to have

gebabt hah'iz, to have had.

(aben Berben, to be about to have.

Present,
Perfect.
Future.
Participles:

Present.
Perfect.

INDICATIVE.

babent, having.
ge(abt, had.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

id) (abt,

lu baft,
er (at,
Bit (aben,
36t babt,
fte baben,

td) batte,
!Eu battefi,
er batte,
Bit batten,
3bt battel,
fie batten,

I have
thou hast
he has
we have
you have
they have

Present.

id) b>bc,

lu babeft,
er babe,
nit baben,
3bt babet,
fie baben,

I had
thou hadst
he had
we had
you had
they had

Imperfect.

ich batte,
In battefi,
er b. atte,
Bir batten,
3vt battel,
fte batten,

I may have
thou mayst have
he may have
we may have
you may have
they may have

I might have
thou mightest have
he might have
we might have
you might have
they might have

I have had.

td) babe gebabt
CDu baft gebabt
er bat gebabt
Bit baben gebabt
3bt babt gebabt
fie baben gebabt

I had had.

id) (atte gebabt
Hu battefi gebabt
er batte gebabt
Btr batten gebabt
3bt battel gebabt
fie batten gebabt

I shall have.
id) Berbe baben
Du Birfi baben
er Birb baben
Btr Berben baben
3*r Berbet baben
fte Berben baben

Perfect.

Pluperfect.

First Future.

I may have had.

id) babe gebabt
Du babeft gebabt
er babe gebabt
Bit baben gebabt
3br babet gebabt
fte baben gebabt

I might have had.

id) batte gebabt
CDu battefi gebabt
er batte gebabt
Btr batten gebabt
3br battel gebabt
fte batten gebabt

If I shall have,
id) Berbe baben
Du Berbefl baben
er Berbe baben
Bit Berben baben
3bt Berbet baben
fie tuerten, baben

INDICATIVE.

Second Future.

I shall have had.
id) Berbe gebabt baben
lu Birfi gebabt baben
er Birb gebabt baben
Bir Berben gebabt baben
3br Berbet gebabt baben
fie wetben gebabt baben

FIRST CONDITIONAL.

I should have.
id) rcurbe baben
Du Bftrbeft baben
er Biirbe baben
Btr Btirben baben
3bt Burbet baben
fie Btirben baben

SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I shall have had.
id) Berbe gebabt baben
la Berbefl gebabt baben
er Berbe gebabt baben
Btr Berben gebabt baben
3br Berbet gebabt baben
fie Berben gebabt baben

SECOND CONDITIONAL.

I should have had.
id) Biirte gebebt baben
3>u Burbefi gebabt baben
er Blirfee gebabt baben
Btr Burben gebabt baben
3br Bitrtet gebabt baben
fie Btirben gebabt baben

babe er,

IMPERATIVE.

have I baben Bir,

let him have fjabt (3Sr),

baben fte,

let us have

have ye

let them have

Sein — to be.

INFINITIVE.

Present. fein, to be.
Perfect. geBefen fetn, to have been.
Future. fein Berben, to be about to be.
Participles: Present, fetenb, being.
Perfect. geBefen, been.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present.

td) Sin, I am id) fei I may be

5)ubijt, thou art SDu fetft, thoumayestbe

er ift, he is er fei, he is

Bit ftnb, we are Bir feien, we may be

3bt feib, you are 3v* feiet, you may be

fte fmb, they are fte feien, they may be

Imperfect.

id) Bat, I was id) Bare, I might be

®u Barft, thou wert CDu Bareft, thou mightest be

er Bat, he was «t Bare, he might be

Bit Baren, we were Bir Bdren, we might be

3bt Batet, you were 35* Batet, you might be

fie Baren, they were fte Baren, they might be

Perfect.

I may have been,
td) fei geBefen
CDu feift geBefen
et fei geBefen
Bit feien geBefen
3bt feiet geBefen
fte feien geBefen

I have been.
•' 4) bin geBefen
Su Sifi geBefen
et Ifi geBefen
Bit ftnb geBefen
3(r feib geBefen
fie ftnb geBefen

I had been.
td) Bar geBefen
CDu Barft geBefen
er Bar geBefen
Bir Baren geBefen
3br Baret geroefen
fie Baren geBefen

I shall be.
id) »etbe fetn
CDu Bitft fein
et Bitb fein
Bit Berben fein
3bt Berbet fein
fie aetben fein

Pluperfect.

First Future.

I might have been.
td) Bate geBefen
CDu Bareft geBefen
er Bare geBefen
Bir Baren geBefen
3br Baret geBefen
fte Baren geBefen

If I shall be.
id) Berbe fein
CDu Berbefl fein
et Berbe fein
Bir Berben fein
3bt aetbet fein
fie Berben fein

-V ... Em

m =>

•»

go THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

Second Future.

Bit reetben Betben Bit Betben reetben

I shall have been.

If I shall have been.

3yt reetbel Betben

36t Betbet Betben

1* rente gereefen fern

id) Betbe gereefen fein

fie Betben reetben

fie setten Betbca

Da reltft gereefen fein

Du Betbeft geBtfen fein

Second Future.

tt reitb gereefen (tin

et Betbe gereefen fein

I shall have become. If I shall have become.

Bit reetben gereefen fein
3yt reetbet gereefen f'in
fit reetben gereefen fein

Bit reetben gereefen fein
3,t Betbet gereefen fein
fie reetben gereefen fein

id) Bttbe gereotben fein
Da reitfl gereotben fein
et reitb gereotben fein

14 reetbe geBotben fell
Da reetteft gereetbtn fela
et Bttbe geBotben fein

FIRST CONDITIONAL. SECOND CONDITIONAL.

Bit Betben gereotben fein

Btt Betben gereotben feta

I should be.

I should have been.

3yt reetbet geBotben (tin

3vt Betbet gereotten fela

14 Bfitbe fein

td) Biitbe geBefen fein

fie Betben geBotben fein

fie reetben geBotben feta

lu reatbeft fein

Da reatbeft geBefen fein

FIRST CONDITIONAL. SECOND CONDITIONAL.

et Bitbe fein

et reatbe geBefen fein

I should become. I should have become.

Bit Batben fein
3bjr reutbet fein
fie reuiten fein

Bit Batben gereefen fein
3vt reatbet geBefen fein
fie Batben gereefen fein

td) reutbe reetben
Da reatbeft reetben
et reatbe reetben

14 Butbe geBotben fela
Da Batbefl gereotten fetn
et reatbe gereotten fela

IMPERATIVE.

Btt Batben Betben

Bit Butben gttrnten feta

fet be

feien Bit let us be

3 v t reatbet Betben

3bt reuttet gereotten feta

fei et let him be.

fetb 3bt be ye

fie Batben reetben

fie Batten gereotten feta

leten fie let them be

IMPERATIVE.

SBetben— to become.

Bttbe (Dn; become thou

Betben Bit let us become

INFINITIVE.

Betbe et let him become

reetbet 3*t become ye
reetben fte let them become

Present. Betben, to become.

Perfect, geBotben, geBotben fein, to have become.

SKcgen— to may, to like.

Future. Betben reetben, to be about to become.

Participles: Present. Betbenb, becoming.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present.

Perfect. geBotben, become.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.

I may.

Present.

Id) ntag

14 m6ge

14 Betbe I become

id) reetbe I may become

Da magfi

Da mogeft
ctmege

Bit megea
3bt meget

Tu Bitft thou becomest
et Bith he becomes
Bit Betben we become

Dareetbeft thou mayest become
et rcetbe he may become
Bit Betben we may become

Bit mogen
3yt m6gt

3yt Betbet you become

3yt Betbet you may become

fie mogen

fie Betben they become

fie reetben they may become

Imperfect. 14) mo4)te

14 mttie

Perfect. in) babe gemo4)t

14 babe aemcd>t

Imperfect.

Pluperfect. 14) baile gemod)t

14 bine gemo4t

14 Butbe I became

td) Batbe I might become

ist Future. 14) Betbe mogen

14 reetbe rccjen

Da Batbefl thou becamest

Da Batbefl thou mightest become

ad Future. 14 Betbe gemo4)t$a&en

14 Betbe gtmo4t bcita

(t Batbe he became

et reatbe he might become

First Conditional. 14 Butbe mrgen.

Bit Bntben we became

Bit Batben we might become

Second Conditional. 14 Butbc gemo4t boben.

3yt Bntbet you became

3yt reatbet you might become

fie Batben they became

fie Batben they might become

SBellen— to be willing.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.

Perfect.

Present.

I have become.

I may have become.

I am willing.

I may be willing.

14 bin geBotben

td) fet geBotben

14 BID

14 BoOc

Da bifi geBotben

Da feifl gereotben

Dn Btnfl

Du itctlefl

(t 1ft geBotben

et fei geBotben

ctretS

eiBolIe

Bit finb gereotben

Bit feien gereotben

Bit Botlen

Bit reoflcn

3vt feib gereotben

3vt feiet gereotben

3btBoUet

3»t recllet

fie finb gereotben

fie feien gereotben

fie ircHen

fie BoUca

Pluperfect.

Imperfect. 14 tooDte

14 BoOte

I had become.

I might have become.

Perfect. 14 babe geBoBt

14 babe gereoSt

14 reat gereetben

td) redte gereotben

Pluperfect. 14 baite gtBellt

14 yalle gereoDt

Da reatft gereotben

Da Bated gereetben

1st Future. 14 reetbe ret- lien

14 reetbe BoHtm

et reat geBotben

et Bate gereotben

ad Future. 14 reette gtreotlt $aoen

14 Betbe geBoUt ya*tJ

Bit Baten gereotben

Bit Boten gereotben

First Conditional. 14 Butbe Bollen.

3v' reatet gereotben

3bt reSvet gereotben

Second Conditional. 14 Batbe gcBcOl babfu.

fie reoten gereotben fie reaten gereotben

Eellen— to be obliged: I shall, I ought.

First Future.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.

I shall become.

If I shall become.

Present.

16) Betbe Betben

14) reetbe reetben

I shall. I shall.

Da Bitfl reetben

Dn reetteft reeiben

14 foO 14 f»I<

et reitb Betben

et Betbe reetben

Da foUfl D« feneff

-"» i

-- ■

THE GERMAIs

LANGUAGE. 9 I

cr foil

erfotte

Saffen— to let.

trit fotten

Bit foOen

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCnVT.

3*' foDet

3Bt iottet

Present.

fie foUen

I let.

I may be let.

Imperfect, td) foUie tc^ fotlte

ttBIaffe

UBIaffe

Perfect. id; B<>oe gefoUt

id) babe gefottt

Xu Iaffefl

Pluperfect, id) ^atte gefoDt

id) batte gefoUt

er lafit

' er Hit

«« Future, icf) Berbe f ouen

id) Berbe fotten

Bir laffen

ad Future, td) Berbe gefoEt BaBen

id) merbe gefoUt Baben

36r Iaffet

3*» lofld

fie laffen

/VW/ Conditional. id) Bilrbe foDen.

Second Conditional, id) Burbe gefoflt baben.

Imperfect, id) lief)
Perfect. id) Babe gelaffen

id) Itefie

td) Bate gelaffen

Jtonnen— to be able.

Pluperfect, id) Batte gelaffen
ist Future, id) Bette laffen

id) Batte gelaffen
id) Berbe laffen

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present.

ad Future, id) Berbe gelaffen Baten

id) Berbe gelaffen BaBen

I am able, I can. I mav be able.

First Conditional. id) Burbe laffen.

1* fann

id) fSnne

Second Conditional, id) Butte gelaffen b, aben.

I« fannft

Xu fonneft

IMPERATIVE.

ec faun

er tonne

lafi Xu

laffen Bit

»it fonnen

Bir fonnen

lafet

Iaffet 3bt

3Br fonnet

3br fonnet

laffen Re

fie fonnen

Imperfect. id) tonnte

id) tonnte

THE REGULAR VERB.

Perfect. id) Babe gefonnt

id) b,abt gefonnt

The rule for the formation of the regular verb is very simple. It

Pluperfect, id) tiatie gefonnt

id) Batte gefonnt

.runs : The present tense is formed by dropping the n of the infinitive ;

1st Future, id) Berbe fonnen

id) nerbe fonnen .

file imperfect by dropping the final e of the present and adding te ; the

21/ Future. Id) Berbe gefonnt Baben

id) Berbe gefonnt Ittet

past participle by dropping the final e of the imperfect and prefixing

J^/Vse Conditional. id) Burbe fonnen.

ge. For example: Infinitive, leben, to live; present, id) lebe, I live;

Second Conditional, id) Burbe gefonnt baben.

imperfect, id) lebte, I lived; past participle, gelebt, lived.
Active Voice.

Xurfen— to be allowed, to dare.

SeBen— to live.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present.

INFINITIVE.

I am allowed. I mav be allowed.

Present, leben, to live. .

Perfect, gelebt Baben, to have lived.

id) barf

id; burfe

Future. leBen Berben, to be about to live.

Xu barf ft

Xu bfirfeft

Participles: Present, febenb, living.

er barf

er burfe

Perfect, gelebt, lived.

Bit burfen

Bir burfen

3br burfet

3B.r burfet

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present.

fie burfen fie burfen

id) tebe I live td) lebe I may live

Imperfect, id) burfte

idi burfte

Xu lebft thou livest

In leBeft thou mayest live

Perfect. Id) Babe geburft

id) Babe geburft

et lebt he lives

er leBe he may live

Pluperfect, id) Batte geburft

id) Batte geburft

Bir leben we live

Bir leben we may live

«/ Future, id) Berbe burfen

id) Berbe burfen

3B* lebt you live

3B* Iebet you may live

id Future, id) Berbe geburft B>6en

id) Berbe geburft baben

fie IeBen they live

fie leben they may live

/Yrjr Conditional. id) Burbe burfen.

Imperfect.

Second Conditional, id) Butte geburft f)aben.

id) lebte I lived

id) lebte I might live

SMuffen— to be obliged.

Xu lebteft thou livedst
er lebte he lived

Xu lebteft thou mightest live
er lebte he might live

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present.

Bir Iebten we lived

Bir Iebten we might live

3B* leBtet you lived

3B» lebtet you might live

I am obliged, I must.

I may be obliged.

fte Iebten they lived

fit Iebten they might live

id) mug

id) muffe

Xu muftt

Xu miffeft

Perfect.

er mufj

er muffe

I have lived.

I may have lived.

Bir muffen

id) BaBe gelebt

id) babe gelebt

3btniufjt

3Br miiffet

Xu Baft gelebt

Xu BaBeft gelebt

fie muffen

er Bat gelebt

er hate gelebt

Imperfect, id) muflte
Perfect. id) babe gemufjt
Pluperfect, id) batte gemufjt

id) mufite

id) babe gemufit

id) Batte gemufit

Bit Baben gelebt
3Br babt gelebt
fie Baben gelebt

Btr Baben gelebt
3Br babet gelebt
fie BaBen gelebt

1st Future, td) Betbe muffen

id) Berbe muffen

Pluperfect.

ad Future, td) Berbe gemufit $aBen

id) Berbe gemufit Baien

I had lived.

I might have lived.

jrtfetf Conditional. id) Burbe muffen.

td) Batte gelebt

id) batte gelebt

Second Conditional, id) Butte gemufit baben.

Xu Batteft gelebt

"* e

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

et batte gtiebt
tsit fatten gelebt
3br battet gelebt
fie fallen gelebt

I shall live.
14 netbe leben
In nitft leben
ct trirb leben
lrir netben leben
3btnetbet leben
fit netben leben

I shall have lived.

14 Bribe gelebt baben
53u nttjt gelebt baben
et nlrb gelebt baben
nit rcerben gelebt baben
3bt netbet gelebt baben
fie netben gel'bt baben

FIRST CONDITIONAL.

I should live.
Id) nutbe Iebcn
Iii routbeft leben
et luutte leben
nit nutben leben
3btnutbet leben
(ie nutben leben

First Future.

et batte gelebt
nit batten gelebt
3bt battel gelebt
fie batten gelebt

If I shall live.
t* netbe leben
Xu netbeft leben
et netbe leben
nit nerten leben
3bt netbet leben
fie netben leben

Second Future.

If I shall have lived.
tdi netbe gelebt baben
In netbeft gelebt baben
ct netbe gelebt boben
nit netben gelebt baben
3b» netbet gelebt baben
fie netben gelebt baben

SECOND CONDITIONAL.

I should have lived,
id) nutbe gelebt baben
!Eu nurbeft gelebt baben
et nutbe gelebt baben
nit nutben gelebt baben
3bt rcutbet gelebt b«ben
fie nutben gelebt baben

lebe (Du)
tebe et

To eat

to drink

to dream
to wash
to comb
to go
to speak
to laugh
to think
to learn
to bathe
to break
to bite
to cost
to hear
to help
to give
to make
to do
to ride
to say

to S< I1<1

to seek

to breakfast

to dine

to sup

to arrive

to depart

to meet

to be tired

to be sleepy

to excuse

to understand

IMPERATIVE.

live (thou)
let him live

leben nit
lebet (3bt)
leben fie

let us live
live (ye)
let them live

VOCABULARY OF VKKHS.

effen

ttinfen

ttaumen

naldjen

lamina

geben

fptedjen

Iadjen

benfen

letnen

baben

bted)en

belfien

foftea

biren

b«if«

geben

madjen

t|SI

tettcn

fiva

fenben

fuc^en

fru^flutfea

fveiffn

ju Slbeab effen

anfommca

a&rclfen

trtffen

mute fela

fdjMfrtg Uin

fittf*ultiflcn

vrrflctjrn

trinken

troy men

vashen

kemmen

gayen

shprerAen

lac/; en

denken

lairnea

bahden

brecAen

bisen

custen

haeren

helfen

gayben

macAen

toon

riten

sahgen

■enden

soocAen

frceshticken

shpeyzen

tsoo ahbend essen

ankummen

abrizen

treffen

meeude teyn

shlayfri^scyn

entshooldigcn

fairshUycn

to believe

to know

to write

to read

to pronounce

to translate

to recollect

to forget

to promise

to expect

to converse

to express

to explain

to tell

to call

to weep

to recommend

to receive

to send

to buy

to pay

to order

to furnish

to sell

to reply

Yes

Indeed

truly

certainly

surely

only

some

nothing

much

quite

very

thus

how

not

but

enough

scarcely

all

almost

here

there

where

out

then

now

soon

till

seldom

since

ever

never

oft

already

to-day

yesterday

late

why?

because

gtanben

glowben

niflen

vusen

fd)teibra

shriben

lefen

layzen

ouSfptefben

owsshpreceen

fib<tfe,e*

eebcrsetscn

fid) ettnnets

sick chnnern

»etgeffen

fairgessen

eetfpterben

fainhpreolea

ctnatten

airvarten

untetbalten

oonterhalten

aulbtuden

owsdrickea

ctflaten

airklnyren

fagen

saagen

tnfen

roofen

nelnen

▼inen

empfebUn

empfaylen

empfangen

fdMdea

shickeo

faufen

kowfen

b()ablen

betiahlen

iefteHen

beshtellen

liefets

lcefem

vettaufes

fairkowfea

tntnotten

antvorteo

ADVLKBS.

yah

jarcobl

yahvole

in bet Ibnt

in dair tabt

ntbtlid)

vaarlirA

genii

geviss

fiSetltt;

•icAerlie*

nut

noor

etna*

etvas

nl4tl

nirAts

Btel

feel

ganjlte,

gents

febt

■are

•0

oH»

also

nle

Tee

netn

nine

■MM

nir*t

nut

noor

genug

genoo/

lanm

kowm

ganj

gants

beinaV

bynahe

blrt

beer

•0

bmt«

herine

(etaal

herowt

tenn

den

!<»'

yetst

balb

bald

ill

bis

(((ten

eelten

ftH

cite

tmiiR

Immer

mil

nee

oft

uft

schone

beute

hoytay

genets

nstern

ft*t

■hpate

natnm?

varoomr"

neil

vile

-■

-r-

9 , -

.#—

—+

«l

THE GERMAN

LANGUAGE.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

rcenn vcn

I say it is not.

34) fage eS ifl nid)t. Ich saagay es ist nicAt

perhaps

»teu"eld)t feellyeAt

It is not so.
It is not true.

(58 ift nid)t fo. Es ist tiicht so.
QS ifl nidjt rea v t. Es ist nirAt var.

PREPOSITIONS.

I say nothing.

3d) fage nid)t8. LA saagay nirAts.

Above

Jbet eeuber

He is not here.

St ifl nld)t yiet. Air ist nicAt heer.

about

urn oom

I have it not.

3d) §abe e8 n>4)'„ ich haabay es nicAt.

after

nad) nock

He has it not.

IS* ,at e8 nl4)t. Air hat es nirAt.

against

gegen gaygen

We have it not.

SBir baben e8 nid)t. Veer haaben es nicAt.

before

Dot fore

You have it not.

3bt babt e« nid)t. Eer haabt es nicht.

vcn fun

He said no.

Qx fagte nein. Air saa^tay nine.

over

Abet eeuber

Has he said no?

£at et nein gefagt ? Hat air nine gesaa^t?

since

feit site

Has he said nothing?

£at et nid)t8 gefagt ? Hat air nirAts gesaa^t?

for

far feeur

I have not heard it.

3d) t)abe e8 nid)t gebort. LA haabay es nicAt ge-

from

son fun

hoert.

in in

You are quite wrong.

©ie baben tutdjaul Un= See haaben doorrfouse

near

nab> nahay

red)t. oonrecAt.

under

unlet oonter

auf owf

with

mil mit

PHRASES OF INTERROGATION.

CONJUNCTIONS.

Who?

SEer ? Vair?

And

unb oont

Who was it?

SSet mat e8 ? Vair var es ?

but

abet ahber

What is it?

SBaStft e8? Vas ist es?

also

aud) . oucA

Who is it?

SBet ifl e8 ? Vait ist es ?

even

fogar sogar

Did you say it?

©agten ©ie e8 ? Saajten seees?

obet oder

What are you doing?

2Ba8 tbun ©ie ? Vas toon see?

nor

nod) nuch

What is he doing?

8Ba« t$ut et ? Vas toot air?

yet

bod) duck

Tell me.

©agen ©ie mit* Saagen see meer.

because

Beit vile

Will you tell me?

SBoflen ©ie mit fagen ? Vollen see meer saa-

that

lab das

gen?

therefore

babet dahair

How are you?
How is he?
What for?

SEte geb.t'« ? Vee gates?
Eie gebt'S Ibm ? Vee gates eem?
SBefut ? Vofeer?

Why?

Why do you ask?

SBarum ? Varoom?

9Sarum ftagten ©ie ? Varoom fraagen see?

Jfl

«|f CONVER

Why shall I go?

SEatum foil id) geb.en ? Varoom sull ifAgayen?

What do you say?
Do you hear?

2Ba8 fagen ©ie ? Vas saagen see?
§cren ©ie ? Hrerdnsee?

PHRASES OF AFFIRMATION.

I don't speak to you.

3d) fpred)e mtl 3$nen Ich shprecAay mit eenen

nicbt. nicAt.

ENGLISH.

It is true.

GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

G8 ifl n>a$t. Es ist var.

Do you understand?

SBerfteben Ste t Fershtayen see?

It is so,

I believe it.

I think so,

I say yes,

I say it is.

I am certain,

I am certain of it.

(S3 i{i fo. Es ist so.

3d) glaube e8. Ich glowbay es.

3d) bente eS. Ich denkay es.

Listen 1
Come here.
What is that?
Answer.

£6renEiel Hoir.nsee!
Slcmmen ©ie bierber. Kummen see heerhsir.
5E-aS ifl ba8 ? Vas ist das?
SInttootten ©ie. Antvorten see.

3d) fage fa. Ich sahgay yah.

3d) fage eS ifl. Ich sahgay es ist,

3d) bin getsifj. Ich bin gayviss.

3d) bin beffen genif. Ich bin dessen gayviss.

Why don't you an. SEBarum antrcorten ©ie Varoom antvorten see

swer? ntdjt ? nicAt?
What do you mean by fflaS metnen ©ie bamit ? Vas minen see damit?

You are right.

Sic baben SRcdit. See haaben recht.

that?

You are quite right.
I know it.

©ie $aben ganj Wed)t. See haaben gantzreo&t.
3d) meif! eS. Ich vice es.

You speak German,

suppose?

I 3d) oetmutbe ©ie f»re= IcA fermootay see
d)en 3)eutfd). shpret-Aen doytsh.

I know it well.

I know him.

I know it positively.

3d) toeifj c§ genou. Ich vice es genow.
3d) lenne Ibn. Ich kenne een.
3d) toeijj e8 fid)et. Ich vice es sicAer.

Very little, sir.

Do you know Mr. H.

I know him by sight.

©ebr toenig, mein §ett. Sair vani^, mine hair.
' ffenncn ©ie §crrn jj. ? Kennen see hairn ha?
3d) lenne ibn ton an: LA kennay een fun an-

fe§en. sane.
3d) fenne ibn bel SRas IcA kennay een by nah-

men. men.

I promise it.

I promise it to you.

3d) Derf»red)e eS. Ich vershprerAay es.
3d) eerftred)e e« 3 v nen. I ch vershprecAay es

I know him by name.

I give it.

eenen.
3d) gebe e8. Ich gaybay es.

I know him well.

(St ifl mit toofcl befannt. Air ist meer vole bay-

Irnnt

I give it to you.
I will give it to you.
You are wrong.
He is wrong,
I believe him.

Very well.

3d) gebe e8 3&nen. Ich gaybay es eenen.

34) toilt eS 3§nen geben. LA villes eenen gayben.

Eie baben llnted)t. See haaben oonrefAt.

Qt I;at Unted)t. Air hat oonrerAt.

3d) glaube ibm. Ich glowbay eem.
J ©ebr mobL Sare vole.
1 ©e$r gut. Sare goot.

What do you call that? SBte nennen ©ie ba8 ? Vee nennen see das ?
What is that in Ger- SBie v elfst ba8 auf Vee histe das owf

man? ■Xeutfd) ? doytsh?
What does that mean? SBaS $eifit baS ? Vas histe das?
Why do ydu speak? Sarum fcted)en Sit ? Varoom shprefAen see?
Why are you silent? Saturn fdjweigen ©ie ? Varoom shvigen see?

Why did you go?

SBatum gingen 6ie ? Varoom gingen see?

PHRASES OF NEGATION.

Is it ready ?

3fl e8 fettig ? Ist es f airt^?

No.

SRein. Nine.

Have you heard?

ijaben ©ie geb&it ? Haaben see grhoert?

I say no.

3d) fage nein. Ich saagay nine.

Do you hear?

ftoten ©ie ? Hosren see?

- a

-. -" e

\ <5_

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

"7f

Where U she?
Where are you ?
Where are you going?
Where do you come

from?
Where were you?
What?

What is that?
What o'clock Is it?
What have you?
What do you say?
What do you want?
What will you do?

GERMAN.

SBo tft fie ?

SBo finti Sie ?

23o gcben Sie bin ?

SBo toramen Sie f)tx ?

IBo troren Sie ?

Wait

SBae 1ft ta8 ?

iffiic sic! Ubr 1ft el ?

BaS baben Ste ?

23al fagen Ste ?

SffiaS molten Ste ?

SEJa8 tooUen Sie tbun ?

PRONUNCIATION.

Voistsee?

Vo sind see?

Vo gayen see hin?

Vo kummen see hair?

Vo varen see?
Vas?

Vas ist das?
Veefeel oor ist es?
Vas haaben see?
Vas saagen see?
Vas vullen see?
Vas vullen see toon?

PHRASES OF COMMAND.

Come away I
Come here I
Go there I
Come backl
Go on !
Sit downt
Stand still !
Wait !

Wait for me !
Wait a little I
Make haste 1
Be quick 1
Follow me I
Tell, him !
Call him!
Speak 1
Eat I
Drink I
Hear!
Hear me 1
Look at me!
Begin !
Continue!
Stop!
Tell me !
Tell it to him !
Speak to him!
Be quiet!
Go!

Go to him!
Go to bed I
Fetch it!
Bring it!
Bring it to me!
Let it be !

ftommen Sie fort!
ftommen Sie bicrfier.

ffleben Sie tonbiii!
ftommen (Sie jutuef I
Welii'ii Sie unmet!
Sejjen Sie fid) !
Steben Sie ittlll
!E>arten Sie!
SBarten Sie auf ml4!

Kummen see fort!
Kummen see heerhair!
Gayen see dort-hin !
Kummen see tsoorick!
Gayen see viter!
Setsen see sickf
Shtayen see shtill!
Varten see !
Varten see owf mickl

SBarten Sie ein loentg I Varten see ine vaynigt

Smarten Ste fdjnell!
iBeeilen Ste fid)!
Jolgen Ste mitl
Sagen Ste ttim!
StufenSteibnl
Sorcdjen Ste!
(Sffen Ste!
Irtnten Sie!
i&oren Stel
jjoren Sie mid;!
Seben Ste mid) an!
gangen Ste an!
ga y ren Sie fort!
Salt!

Sagen Sie rairl
Sagen Sie e* tbm!
Sprcdjen Ste mtt t$ml
Eelen Sie rubig!
(Wolu'ii Sie!
<9«ytn Sie ill ihm!
©eb>n Ste ju iBette!
Stolen Steel!
iBrlngen Sie (II
IBrtngen Sie e« mir!
CaffenSieelfetn!

Mac/ten see shnel !
Bay-ilen see sick/
Fulgen see meer!
Saagen see cem !
Roofcn see een 1
Shprcc/ien see!
Essen see!
Trinken see !
Haren see!
Hoeren see mick!
Sayen see mick an!
Fangen sec an !
Faaren see fort !
Halt!

Saagen see meer!
Saagen see es eem !
Shprec/icn see mit cem !
Syen see rooi^/
Gayen see !
Gayen see tsoo cem !
Gayen see tsoo bettay !
Holen see es !
Bringcn seees!
Bringcn see es meer!
Lassen see es sine !

EVEBY-DAY UTTERANCES.

Saagen see meer.
Gceti^st — gayf ell i^st.
Haaben see dee geetay.
Yah, mine hair.
Yah, madam.
Nine, mine hair.
Nine, madam.
Nine, mine froyline.

Tell me! Sagen Sie mir.

If you please. fflutigft— gefaulgft.

Have the goodness. Qaben Sie tie Bute.

Yes, sir. 3a, metn fterr.

Yes, madam. 3a, SDjabam.

No, sir. ffleln, mein fterr.

No, madam. 9!etn, SRabam.

No, miss. Jtetn, metn gtauieln.

Do you speak German Spre4en Ste Deutfd) Shpre<rAcn see doyuh

or French ? obel granjiflf* ? odcr frantscesish ?

I do not speak Ger. 34 fpre4en(4t Iletitfd). LA shprerAe nurAt

man. doytsh.

I understand it, but do 3d) petftebe el, aber Id) LA fcrshtayayes, aaber

not speak It. fpte*e el ntdft. ick shprerAc es nirAt.

I speak English. 3d) fpte4e OngIlfo>. Uk shprerAc cnglish.

I speak French a little. 34 fprete ein usemg If* shprct-Ac ine vayni^
Sranjififd). franUaetish.

ENGLISH.

Do you understand?
Can you understand?
Speak slower.

You speak too fast.

Give me some bread.

GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

SJerfteben Ste ? Fershtayen see?

ftonnen Ste perfteben ? Kanncn see ferstayen!
Spird>en Stelangfamet. ShprcfAen see lang.

samer.
Sie fpred>en ju idjnell. See shprerAen tsoo

shnell.
©eben Ste mir Stob. Gayben see meer brote.
Give me something to ©eben Ste mil Gtiral Gayben see meer etvas

eat. iu effen. tsoo essen.

Something to drink. Gtiral ju tttnfen. Etvas tsoo trinken.

Bring me some coffee. iBrlngen Ste mtr Jtaffee. Bringcn see meer kaaf •

fay.
3d) bante 3$»en.
©uten SKotgen.
©uten lag.
HBte gebt'S ?
SBie befinben Sie fid) ?
2ebr toobl.

I thank you.
Good morning.
Good day.
How do you do?
How are you?
Very well.'
I am very well.

Pretty well.

Tolerably.

How is your father?

How is your mother?

I am not well.

I am unwell.

She is ill.

He is very ill.

She has a cold.

I have a toothache.

I must go.

It is time to go.

Farewell.

Good-by.

I wish you

morning.
Good evening
Good night.

Ick daankay eenen.

Gooten morgen.

Gooten taa^.

Vee gates?

Vee bayfinden see ski?

Sair vole.
34 befinbe mid) febr Ick bayftnday mick fair

Botl. vole.

3tem!ia> mobL TseemlirA vole.

So jtemltd). So tsccmlirA.

SBIe befinbet fid) 3$r Vee bayfindet tick eer

ajerr SJater ? hair faatcr?

SBie befinbet ft* 3bre VeebayfrndetsarAeeray

grau SKutter ?
34 bin ni4t moyL
34 bin untrobl.
Sie ift fianf.
Or ift feb> Itanf.
Sie bat fid) erlaltet.
34 babe jjabnioeb.
34 muS ge v en.
SI tfl Sett ju ge,en.
Seben Sie mobl.

■Mm.

frow mootter?
Ick bin nickt vole.
Ick bin oonvole.
See ist krank.
Air ist sair krank.
See hat sick airkeltet.
Ick haabay tsahnvay.
Ick mooss gayen.
Es ist tsite tsoo gayen.
Layben sec vole.
Adyce.

good 3d) irunfAe 3bnen einen Ick vinshay eenen inen
guten HRorgen. gooten morgen.

Outen Hbcnt. Gooten ahbend.

©ate Ka4t. Gootay nacAt.

I wish you goodnight. 3d) munf4e 3v"«n flute Ic* vinshay eenen goo-
Sa4t. tay na* At.

at OTelne Qmpfeblungen Minay empfayloongen
ben 3brigrn. den eeri^cn.

A MORNING i III..

Es klupft.
Es ist hair ah.
Es 1st frow bay.
ju Ick froyay micA see tsoo
saven. ■

My compliments
home.

There is a knock.

It is Mr. A.

It is Mrs. B.

I am glad to see you.

Pray be seated.
What news is there?
Good news.
Do you believe It?

dt tlopft.
08 Ift $rrr 91.
S« ift grau ».
34 freue mt4 Sie

feben.
Sitte fe«en Sie ft*.
2Ba« gtbt's fteue« ?
(Sule3!a4rt4ten.
Olauben Sie (( ?

Bittay setsen see tick,
Vas geepts noyes?
Gootay narArif Atcn.
Glowbcn see es?

I don't believe a word 3d) glaube tein SBort LA glowbay kine vort

of it. baton.

I think so. 34 bente (glaube) fo.

I think not. 34 bcntc nl4t.

Who told you? SBer bat e« 3bnen gc-

fagt?
It is true. Si Ift nabr.

I doubt it. 34 bejmelfte el.

Have you heard from £aben Sie son ^aufe Haaben see fun how

home? geb.6rt? say gayhorrt?

The postman brought Tet Brlefttiget bra4te Dair brcef trayger

me a letter to-day. mtr beute etnen SStief. brarAtay meer hoytay

inen breef.
Sad news. S4Ie4te SEa4rt4ten. ShlccAtay na<-AricAten.

daafun. [so,

LA denkay (glowbay)
LA denkay nirAt.
Vair hat ei

Mfjytl
Es 1st var.
LA baytsviflay es.

4*=

^=^r

,-v

v - -

_.. y

]

THE GERMAN

LANGUAGE. 95

ENGLISH.

GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

Will you dine with us

> SBotlen Sie mtt un8 Vullen see mit oons
fpeifen? shpisen?

I shall soon be thirty. 3d) metbe Balb bteifjtg Ich vairday bald drysi/
fein. sine.

No, thank you.

9iein, id) banfe 36nen. Nine, i^Adaanke eenen.

He looks older. Or fiebt alter au8. Air scet elter owse.

I cannot stay.

3$ tann nldjt 6let6en. Ich kann nkAt blyben.

She is younger. Sie ift j linger. See ist yingcr.

You are in a great ©ie fmb in gtofcer Gtle. See sind in grosserilay.

She cannot be so Eie tann nid)t fo jung SeekannnitAtsoyoong

hurry.

young. fein. sine.

I have a great deal tc

3d) $abe Diet ju t6un. \ch haabay feel tsoo

He must be older. Qt tnufj fitter fein. Air moos elter sine.

do.

toon.

I did not think you 3$ glaubte nldjt bafc Ich glowptay nicAt das

PLEASURE AND REGRET.

were so old. Sie fo alt feien. see so alt syen.
He is at least sixty. Or ift rcenigftcnS fed)8* Air ist vani^stens serA-

What!

SBaS ! Vas !

jig. tsig.

Is it possible !

3fi e8 moglid) ! Ist es m<eg\icit

How old is your SBie alt ift 36. r Batet ? Vee alt ist eer fahter?

Can it be!

San.i (i fein ! Kan es sine !

father?

How can it be possi

SEie tann e8 moglid) fein 1 Vee kan es mce^lirA

He is nearly eighty. Or ift 6etna6e ad)tjtg. Air ist bynahay acAtsi^-.

ble!

sine I

Is he so old? 3fterfoalt? Ist air so alt?

Who would have be-

SBet miirbe fco3 geglaul't Vair veerday das ge-

A great age. Gin § o6e« alter. Ine hohes alter.

lieved it !

fatten ! glowpt haaben !

He begins to grow old. 6t fangt an alt ju tret* Air fengt an alt tsoo

Indeed!

SBhffid)! VeerklirA/

ben. vairden.

It is impossible !

03 ifl unmogttdj! Es ist oonmcegiich t

How old isyoursistcr? SBie alt ift 36." Sd)»e< Vee alt ist eeray shves-

That cannot be !

03 tann nid)t fetn ! Es kan nicAt sine !

fier? ter?

I am astonished at it !

3d) rounbete mid) bat* lei voonderay mi ch
ii6er! daareeber.

She is fifteen. Sie ift funfjebn. See ist finftsain.

You surprise me !

Sie ubetrafd)en raid) ! See ecberrashen mlc/t.

A MORNING CHAT.

It it incredible !
I am very sorry.
What a pity !

03 ifi unglauBltd) 1 Es ist oonglowblicA /

An early morning. 6in ftu6er SlHotgen. Ine freer morgen.

63 tBut mit fe^r tetb. Es toot meer sair lite.
SBie fdjate ! Veeshahday!

It is a fine morning. 68 ifl ein fdjbnet SKots Es ist ine shcener mor-
gan, gen.
What o'clock is it? aBa8 ift bie U v t ? Vas ist dee oor?

It is a great pity.
It is a sad thing.

03 ifi (ef^r fdjabe. Es ist sair shahday.

S3 ifi cine traurtge Es ist inay trowrigay

Sadje. s;irA;iy.

It is nearly eight. 68 ift BcinaBe ad)t UBt. Es ist bynahay acAt

It is a great misfortune. (J3 ifl ein gro&eS Uns Es ist ine grosses oon-
glud 1 ! glick.

Light the fire. 3 ul, t"' ®' e Ba8 gcuer Tsinden see das foyer

an. an.
I am going to get up. 3°) TOiH auffteBen. IcA vill owfshtayen.

I am glad of it.

3d) freue mid) batuBet. \ch froyay mirA dar-

eeber.
63 ifi mit lieB. Es ist meer leeb.

I am glad.

Get me some hot SSrtngen Sie mit etn>a8 Bringen see meer etras

It gives me pleasure.

63 m«d)t mit 23«rgnu = Es macAtmeerfergnee-
gen. gen.

water. BeifjeS SBaffer. hises vasser.
Some dinking-water. 6troa8 Sttintoaffet. Etvas trinkvasser.
Make haste. 2Wad)en Sie fdjnell. MaxrAen see shnell.

It gives me great joy.

63 madjt mit gtofje Es marAt meer grossay
greube. froyday.

There is no towel. 63 Ift [ein $anbtud) ba. Es ist kdne haandtoorA

d^h.
Bring me some soap. IBringen Sie mlr Selfe. Bringen see meer sif ay.
I want to wash myself. 3d) ttunfd)e mid) ju IcA vinshay micA tsoo
IvafcBen. vashen.

I am happy.
How happy I am !
I wish you joy.

3d) bin gtueftldj. Xch bin gleeklicA.
SBie glficflid) id) Bin ! Vee gleeklicA ich bin !
3d) BiunfcBe 3 Men \ch vinshay eenen

I congratulate you.

@[ud\ glick.
3d) gratultre 3$nen. Ich gratooleeray
eenen.

How have you slept? SBie BaBen Sie gefdjla: Vee haaben see ge-

fen ? shlaafen/
Did you sleep well? $aBen Sie gut gefd)la= Haaben see goot ge-

ANGER AND BLAME.

fen? shlaafen?

I am angry.

3d) Bin argetlid). I<rA bin air^erlirA.

Very well, thank you. SeBr gut, id) banfe 3§ '- Sair goot, icA dankay

He is angry.

6t ifi argerlid). Air ist airgerliirA.

ren. eenen.

Don't be angry.

Seien Sie md)t argets Syen see nicAt airger-
lia). Mch.

Not very well. 9?id)t feB. r gut. NicAt sair goot.

I could not sleep. 3$ lonnte nid)t feMafen. Ich kuntay nicht shlaa-

You are wrong.

©ie Ba6en Unredjt. See haaben oonrerAt.

fen.

You are right.

Sie 6a6en SHedjt. See haaben rerAt.

I was so tired from 3<B u>ar fo mube »on bet IcA var so meeday fun

Why don't you do it?

2Barum ibun Sie e8 Varoom toon see es
nidjt? nicAt?

travelling. Weife. dair risay.

Be quiet!

Seien Sie tuBig I Syen see roo\g!

AT THE BREAKFAST TABLE.

What a shame!

2Beld)e Sdjanbe! VelcAay shanday!

Breakfast is ready. <X>aS gtu v ftucf ift fettig. Das freeshtick ist fair-

How could you do it?

SBie fonnten Sie e8 Vee kunten see es toon?
tBun?

Come to breakfast. Sommen Eie jum JruBs Kummen see tsoom

I am ashamed of you

3d)fd)amemid)36,tet! Ich sham ay roicA
eerer !

fturf. freeshtick.
Letus breakfast. Saffen Sie un8 ftuB.s Lassen see oons free-

You are very much to ©ie finb fe$r ju tabeln. See sind sair tsoo taa-

ftuifen. shticken.

blame.

deln.

Does the water boil? flocbt ba8 iBaffer? KucAt das vasser?

Be patient!

(Sebulben Sie Sid) ! Gaydoolden see sick!

Is the tea made ? 3ft bet Zbet fettig ? Ist dair tay f alrtio?

I will improve.

3d) merbe mid) Beffetn. Ich vairday mi<rA bes-
sern.
AGE.

Give me a cup of tea. (SeBen Sie mit eine Gayben see meer inay

Staffe IB". tassay tay.
A cup of coffee. 6ine laffe ilaffee. Inay tassay kaffay.

How old are you?

SBie alt finb Sie ? Vee alt sind see ?

A roll. 6ln SIRil4;itob. Ine milcAbrote.

I am twenty years old

3dj Bin jmanjig 3a$re Ich bin tsvaantsif yah-
alt. ray alt.

Do you drink tea or Irinten Sie Z$et obet Trinken see tay oder
coffee? Saffee? kaffay?

1»

"* &

9 m.

-- :

■

•

fi '

96 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH.

GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

Will you take an egg? SBcHtn Ete etn (Si effen? Vullen see ine eye ei-

Change the plates.

XBecMeln Eu bte ZeUet. Veckscln see dee teller.

sen?

I want a spoon.

34 munfdjc etnen Soffe'. If A vinshay incn locffel.

These eggs are hard. Tiefe (Sfer fint tjart. Dcesay eyer sint hart.

Are you hungry?

Binb Eie bungru " Sind see hoongri^/

Give me the salt. Gkbcn Etc mtt taG Gayben see meer das

Not very.

Kid)t febt. NicAt sair.

Ealj. salts.

I am hungry.

34 oin bungttg. Id bin hoongri^f

Pass me the butter. !Reta)cu Sic mtt tic RyfAcn see meer dee

You do not eat.

Bte cften ntdt. See essen nifAt.

Slitter. bootter.

I am very thirsty.

3d) bin febt tutf.ig. IfA bin sair doorsti/.

Bring some more but- Srtngcn Eie mil etnas' Bringen see meer etvas

I am dying of thirst.

34 fi'tbe cot Turn. Id stairbay for doorst.

tcr. mcl)t Sutter. " mair bootter.

Take a glass of wine

SHebmen Etc cin (Slaf Naymen see ine glaas

Give me a spoon. (Seben Ete mit tinen Gayben see meer inen

STSein. vine.

Soffel. 1.1 it. 1.

Give me something to ©cben Sie mit etmaS Gayben see meer etvas

Is the coffee strong 3ft bet ffaftee flatf ges 1st dair kaffay shtaark

drink.

ju ttinfen. tsoo trinken.

enough? nug ? gaynoo^7

I want some beer.

3d) tcunfdje Sttr. Id vinshay beer.

We want more cups. SBtt btau4en mefct Znfs Veer browcAen mair

fen. tassen.

Take some more su. SHebmen Sic nod; etmaS Naymen see nucA etvas

TALK AT THE TEA TABLE.

gar. 3nder. tsoocker.
Cold meat. ftalteS Slelfd). Kaaltes flyshe.

Tea is quite ready.

Set Zbee tfl ganj fettig. Dair tay 1st gants fair.

The table-cloth. ICaS Stifdjrud). Das tishtoo<-A.

«V-

The sugar-basin, Tie 3wd'erbud)fe. Dee tsookerbiksay.

They are waiting for 2Kan roartet auf Zxt. Man vaartet owf see.

Chocolate. Gbofolate. Chocolahday.

you.

A knife. (Sin SHefter. Ine messer.

I am coming.

3d) fommc. If A kummay.

A fork. (Stne (Sabcl. Inay gahbel.

Bring a saucer.

Sringcn Eie etne Unleti Bringen see inay oon-

The knife Is blunt. D08 SKeffer ifl ftuntpf. Das messer istshtoompf.

fafte. tertassay.

We have done break- BBtt finb mil bem Jtubs Veer sind mit dame

Pour out the tea.

6d)enfen Ete ben 2bee Shenken see dane tay

fast. fiucf fettig. freeshtick fairti^.

etn. ine.

You can take away Eie Bnnen bie Eocbcn See kcennen dee sa-

The tea is very strong. Xcr Xbet ifl febr ftarf. Dair tay ist sairshtark.

the things. fottnebmen. c/ien fortnaymen.

It is very weak.

(St ifi febt f citoad). Air ist sair shvacA.

A slice of bread and Gin Stutftfeen Gutter; Ine shtickrAen bootter-

DINNER.

butter.

btob. brote.

Have you ordered din- $oben Ble bn8 (Sffen be« Haaben see das essen

Hand the plate.

(Seben Eie mtt ben Zeis Gayben see meer dane

ncr? (tent ? baystellt?

let. teller.

I will order dinner. 34 rcetbe baS 3)lnet IcA vairday das deenay

Will you take some ©unf$en 6le Jht$en ? Vinshen see koocAen?

befletten. bayshtcllen.

cake?

Show me the bill of 3etgen Eie mit tie Tsigen see meer dee

A small piece.

Sin Etudd)en. Ine shtickrAen.

fare. Epctfefarte. shpisaykartay.

Make more toast.

Siiflen Ete mebt Stob. Rcesten see malrbrotc.

Waiter. Setlnct. Kclner.

Make haste.

SKadSen Bie fdmetl. MarAcn see shnell.

What soup will you 8Ba« fur Buppe Buns Vas feer sooppay vln-

This is good tea.

I)ie« Ifl gutet 2 v ee. Dees 1st gooter tay.

have? • fdjen Eie ? shen see?

The tea-tray.

let ^tafentittellei. Dair praysenteerteller.

Rice-soup. fRetSfuppe. Ricesooppay.

A set of tea-things.

l!a« Ibeefenstee. Das taysalrveece.

Have you any roast $aben Bit Sinters Haaben see rinder-

Have you finished?

Stnb Eie fettig ? Sind see fairti^f

beef? braten ? braaten?

Take another cup.

Rebmtn Eie nod) elne Nuymcn see nucA inay

We have very fine fish. Bit baben fetjt guten Veer haaben sairgo'o-

Zafte. tassay.

glftb. ten fish.

Brown bread.

EditrarjfS Btob. Shvaartses hrote.

Trout. goteOen. Forellen.

White bread.

83etfte« DJtob. Vices brote.

Fried pike. fflebratene fteeSte. Gebraalcnay hcfAtay.

Stale bread.

Kile » Ste t. Altes brote.

Roast mutton. $aramelbraten. Hammelbraaten.

New bread.

gttfd)e« Stot. Frishes brote.

What wine will you iBJa« furSEBetnmunfCien Vas feer vine vinshen

have? Ble ? see?

BED TI M r.

Let us see. Soften Sic fe$en. Lassen see sayen.
Here Is the wine list. $iet ifi bie SBetntarie. Heer 1st dee vinekar.

It Is late.

What o'clock is it?

0* tfl fpit. Es ist shpate.
SBa! ifl bte Ubr ? Vas 1st dee oorf

tay.
What time will you Um nieldje 3*ft »unf4en Oom vclcAay tslte vin-
dine ? Eie ju tpeifen ? shen see tsooshpisen?

It is still early.
Are you tired?

04 (ft nod) (rub. Es 1st nuf A free.
Bint Bie mite ? Sind see meeday?

We shall dine at six ZBir nietben um fcdbS Veer vairden oom sex

Not at .ill.

Oat nidjt. Gar nif At.

o'clock. Ubr fpelfen. oor shpisen.

Not much.

Hldft febt. NifAt sair.

Be punctual. Eelen Ete punttlld). Syen see pinktllcA.

It Is only ten.

Si ifl etft jebn. Es ist turst tsane.

Help yourself. Sebtenen Bie (14). Baydeenen see sicA.

It Is time to go to bed. ISA tfl 3«tt ju Sett ju Es islsite tsoobetttsoo

It U excellent (S« i(l »oirteffU4. Es 1st foretrefflicA.

geben. g*T* a -

I like German cook- Tie beutfdje Knelt go Dee doytshay kcecAay

It U a fine evening.

0« Ifl tin fd)onet Hbent. Es ist ine shotner ah-

er y- fini mtt. gefellt meer.

bend.

I do not like foreign Tie au*lantlf4e Jtuebe Dee owslendishay kee-

It is moonlight.

0* Ifl aSontf*eln. Es is mohndshlne.

cookery. fa)metft mit nia>t. rAay shmcckt meer

Is my room ready?

3fl mein Jlmmet fettig? Ist mine ttimmcr fair-

nicAt.

tigr

Do you take pepper? Jletmen Bte qSfeffet I Naymen see pfeffer?

Sheets.

Tie Safen. Dee laaken.

No, thank you. Wetn, ie> tante. Nine, i<-A dankay.

A blanket.

Sine noOene Seltbetfe. Inay vullcnay b«tt-

Ves, If you please. 3a, id) bitte. Yah, It- A bittty.

deckay.

Give me th, mustard. (Seben Ble mit ben Gayben tee meer dane

Good -night.

9ute S«4I. Gootay nat-At.

Bcnf. icnf.
*

Are you sleepy?

Blnb Bit 14iaftlg ? Sind see shlayfrl/'

\e,

# - w

-» ■ 6

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

"71

THE HOUR OP THE DAT.

ENGLISH.

What o'clock is It?
My watch has stopped,
It does not go.
I forgot to wind it up.

My watch is too fast.

It is too slow.

It is five minutes too

slow.
It goes right.
One o'clock.
Five minutes past two.

A quarter past three.
Half-past four.
A quarter to five.
Just six o'clock.
Twenty minutes to

seven.
It has just struck

eight.
Noon.
Midnight.

SBaS (ft bie U v t ?
SKclne Uf)t fte§t.
Sie ger>t nt4)t.
3$ tergal fie auf}U=

jteben.
SKeine Ut> ge$t oor.
Sie gett nad;.
Sieiftfunf2Rimiten ju

fpat.
Sie ge$t ri4)ttg.
din ll$r.
gunf SDHnuten nad) jaei.

Qtn Siertet auf sift.
§ali funf.

Dtei tiertet auf funf.
(Setate fe4)8 U$r.
ijBanjtg Sffiinuten sot

fieten.
08 fjat eben a4)t gef4)Ias

gen.
SRittag.
SKitternad)t.

PRONUNCIATION.

Vas ist dee oor?
Minay oor shtate.
See gayt nicAt.
Ich vairgaass see owf-

tsootseen.
Minay oor gayt fore.
See gayt nacA.
See ist finf minooten

tsoo shpate.
See gayt ricAti^.
Ine oor.
Finf minooten nacA

tsvi.
Ine feertel owf feer.
Haalb finf.
Dry feertel owf finf.
Gayraaday sex oor.
Tsvaantsi^ 1 minooten
• fore seeben.
Es hat ayben a^-Al ge-

shlaagen.
Mittaa^.
MittemacAt.

Yes, let us walk.
Where shall we go?
On the high road.

Let us take a
into the town

THE PROMENADE.

Shall we take a walk? 2BotIen Bit einen Spa* Vullen veer inen
Jietgang mad)en ? shpaatseergang ma-

cAen?
3a, Bit BoHen au8ge= Yah, veer vullen ows-

ten. gayen.

SBo Botten Bit Singe* Vo vullen veer hin-

ten ? gayen?

Huf tie GSauffee. Owf dee shossay.

There is a good deal 08 ifi bort fet>r ftaubig. Es ist dort sairshtou-

of dust. bio".

Into the fields. 8tuf bie Setter. Owf dee felder.

They are reaping. 2Ban erntet. Man airntet.

They are making hay. 08 ift §euetnte. Es ist hoyairntay.

What a pleasant scent 1 SffiaS fur ein angene$mer Vas feer ine ange-
© eru 4) ! naymer gayroocA /

walk SKadjen loir eine!)!romej MacAen veer inay
nabe in bie Stabt. prummenahday in

dee shtadt.
What street is that? SBaS ijl ba8 fir eine Vas ist das feer may

Strafce ? shtraassay?

Where does it lead to? SBo fu$tt fie ^(n ? Vo feert see hin?

Handsome shops. Sdjone 85ben. Shcenay laden.

Bad pavement. Sd)te4)te8 ipftafter. Shle<rAtes pflaster.

Are these Prussian Sink bieS preufjlfdje Sind dees proyssishay

soldiers? Sotbaten ? soldaaten?

Where is King street? SSJo ifi bie fttnigSftra&e ? Vo ist dee kcenj^straas-

say?
Straight before you. SSor 3$nen. Fore eenen.

To the left hand. Sinter §ant— linI8. Linker hand— links.

To the right hand. 8Je4)ter £anb— red)t8. Rerfter hand— rerAts.
Is the village far from 3(1 baS Serf Belt ton Ist das dorf vite fun

here ? iier ? here ?

About a mile. UngefaSr eine 5DJeite. Oongayfare inay milay.

A good hour. Otne gute Stunte. Inaygootayshtoonday.

Hardly a mile. Raum etne 2Beite. Kowm inay milay.

Half a mile. (Sine 6>Ibe SIHeite. Inay halbay milay.

PERSONAL INQUIRIES.

Do you know Mr. F.? ftennen Sie §ertn g. ? Kennen see hairn F?
I do not know any- 34) tenne SRiemanb tte* LA kennay neemaand

body of that name. fe8 31amen8. deeses nahmens.

Does he live here? SBo$nt er $let ? Vohnt air here?

ENGLISH.

He lives in this house.

Where?

On the first floor.

I know him.

Intimately.

I am very Intimate

with him.
He is my friend.
I have known him a

long time.
Where does he live?
He lives in Broad

street, No. 3.

PRONUNCIATION.

St »o$nt In ttefem

$aufe.
ffio ?

3m erflen etc*.
3*) fenne ib>.
Oenau.
34) tin mil i$m fe$r tn*

tim.
Or ift metn greunb.
3*) ^ate tbn Iange ge=

fannt.
SBo Bo$nt er ?
Or Bo^nt In ter treiten

Strafe, Kuraero tret.

When is he at home? SJBann tft er |« fiaufe ?

In the morning.
In the evening.
He lives close by.
Is it far?
Can you direct me to

his house?
I will show you where

he lives.
That is the market.
This is the street.
The square.
This is his house.
Here he lives.

£e« SDlorgenS.

Te8 Stents.

Or Betnt naS e Set.

3ft e8 Belt ?

Ronnen Sle mlr fetn

$au8 jeigen ?
34) Berte 3bnen jeigen

bo cr Botnt.
•I:a8 ifi ter SHatlt.
Xie8 1ft bie Strafe.
fEeripiaJ.
!Cie8 tft fetn $au8.
J&ier Botnt er.

Air vohnt in deesem

howsay.
Vo?

Im airsten shtuck.
Ich kennay een.
Gaynow.
Ich bin mlt eera sair

intecm.
Air ist mine froind.
LA haabay een laangay

gekant.
Vo vohnt air?
Air vohnt in dair bry-

ten shtraassay noo>

mero dry.
Van ist air tsoo how-

say?
Des morgens.
Des ahbends.
Air vohnt nahay by.
Ist es vite?
Kttnnen see meer sine

house tsigen ?
LA vairday eenen tsi-
gen vo air vohnt.
Das ist dair markt.
Dees ist dee shtraassay.
Dair plats.
Dees ist sine house.
Heer vohnt air.

THE TALK OF TRAVEL.

Are you goingto Ger- ®e$en Sle nad) Deutfd):

many? Iant ?

I intend to go to the 3d) gelenfe an ben

Rhine. iRpetn ju ge v en.

When do you think of fflann gebenfen Sle ju

going? reifen ?

How long shall you SESie Iange Berben Sie

stay? f t 4) aaf batten ?

About a month. Ungefabr einen STConat.

I set out to-morrow.

Have you made all

your preparations ?

Everything is ready.
I shall go by railway
to Dover.

The train starts ia ten

minutes.
I want a ticket for Co.

logne.
First-class.
The express train.
The ordinary train.

34) reife morgen at.
§aben Sie atte 3§*e

SSorfe$rungen gettof*

fen?
StUeS ift fertig.
34) Berte mil ber Often =

ba v n na4) iDoeer fobs

ren.
tn 3«9 S«v' tn Jft>

SKinuten at.
34) Bfinfo)e eln BtOet

na4) Roln.
Orfle Utaffe.
Eer S4)neHjug.
Xet g(B6tnlio)e 3ug.

Where is your bag. SBo ifi 3$r fflepai ?

gage?
Here it 1». ftier ifi eS.

The train Is just going CCer jjjug Birt fogteid)

to start. atge v en.

It does not go very 08 ge$t nt4)t fe$r f4)neH.

fast.
Not so fast as in En- 3»a)t fo f4)netl aI8 tn

gland. Onglanb.

Gayen see nacA doytsh-

land?
Ich gaydenkay an den

Rhine tsoo gayen.
Van gedenken see

tsoo risen ?
Vee langay vairden see

s\ck owfhalten?
Oongayf air inen moh-

nat.
Ich risay morgen ap.
Haaben see allay eeray

forkayrungen getruf-

fen?
Alles ist fairti^.
Ich vairday mit dair

isenbahn nach Dover

fahren.
D air tsoo^gayt in tsane

minooten ab.
Ich vinshay ine bilyet

nacA Kceln.
Airstay klassay.
Pair shneltsoo^.
Dair ge v ce hnl ich ay

tsoog.
Vo ist eer gepeck?

Heer 1st es.
Dair tsoog veert so*
gliche abgayen.

Es yate nicAtsairshnel.

"Sicht so shnel als In

England.

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

ENGLISH.

Here is a station.
Do we stop here?
They stop at every sta-
tion.
It is a long journey.

Yes, fom ten to twelve

hours.
Very pretty country.
Arrived at last.
The steamer.
When do you start?
With the tide.
Let us go down into

the cabin.

The tide is strong.
The sea is rough.
The wind is against us.

So much the worse.
We shall have a long
passage.

§let ifl tine Station,
ftalten roir biet an ?
ORan halt auf jefcer 3ta^

Hon an.
G3 ift tine lange SRetfe.

3a, ton je6n 618 jroblf

Stunben.
Sebt fcionc Segenb.
GntliCy angetommen.
Sa8 Xampfboot.
SBann geben Zie at ?
SDiit bet jjlutp.
fiaffen Sic unS binab in

bleRajflte geben.

Hie glutb ifl ftatf.
Die See ifl ftutmtfa).
Set 8Blnb ifl gegen un8.

Urn fo fcbllmmet.
SEBir rcerben etne lange
Ueberfabtt baben.

I feel sea-sick.

The sea

calmer.
I see land.
It is the harbor of Ost-

end.
We have arrived.

3*) f able mid) feeftanf.
getting SaS 2H«t roirb tublget,

PRONUNCIATION.

Heer is inay shtatstone.
Halten veer heer an?
Man hclt owf yaydalr

shtatsione an.
Es ist inay langay

risay.
Yah, fun tsane bis

tsvelf shtoonden.
Sair shcenay gaygend.
Endlir A angekummen.
Das dampfboat.
Van gayen see ab ?
Mit dair floot.
Lassen see oons hinab

in dee kahyeetay

gayen.
Dee floot ist shtark.
Dee say ist shteermish.
, Dair vind ist gaygen

oons.
Oom so shlimmer.
Veervairden inay lan-
gay eeberfahrt haa-

ben.
Ich feelay mteA say-

krank.
Das mair veert rooiger.

34) febe Sanb. Ich sayay lant.

08 (ft bet $ofeu Von Es ist dair haafen fun

Dftenbe. Ustenday.

©It finb angetommen. Veer sind angekum-

ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

It Is the most useful 09 Ift ble nfi»Ii*fle nnb Es ist dee nitslirAstay
and interesting Ian- inteteflonlefle Sptaeie oont intereasantestay
guageforanAmeri- bie ein Slmerilanet shpraarAay dee ine
can to learn. letnen tann. Amayrikahner lair-

nen kann.

THE WEATHER AND THE SEASONS.

Spring has come. Set gtu&llna Ift ba. Dair freeiing ist dah.

DISCUSSING THE GERMAN LANGUAGE.

Can you read German? ftbnnen Ste Seutfa) le=

fen?
Gin roenlg.
34) lefe e8 ganj jut, abet

14) fann e8 ni4>t fpte*

d)en.
Sptecien Sle Seutf4) ?

doytsh

A little.
I read it very well, but :
I cannot speak it.

Do you speak Ger-
man?

I do not understand it.

People speak so fast.

You have had but lit-
tle practice.

You have a good pro-
nunciation.

Your sister speaks it
perfectly.

It !• a difficult lan-
guage.
You will learn it soon.

Where do they speak
the best German?

In the North of Ger-
many.

I find the pronuncla*
tion easy.

It la very much like
English.

Yws, the German lan-
guage Is the mother
of the English.

34} petftepe eS nldjt.
Wan fptlcit fo f4)nelt.
Sle baben nut rcertig

Uebung gebabt.
Sle baben etne gute

WuSfpradie.
36tt S4)roeftet fptlcit

e8 gelaufig.
G8 Ift elne f4)nete Spta>

«e.
Sle metben tt balb lets

nen.
SSo fptlcit man ba8 be=

fie Seutfib ?
3n Morbbeulfdjlanb.

34) ftnbe ble Wu8fpra*e

lel*i.
(58 Ift bem (Sng(lf4)en

febr abnlia>.
3a, ble beutfetc 6pra>

tie Ift ble SKu!let bet

Cngllfd)en.

Kcennen see
laysen?

Ine vani^-.

IrA laysay es gants
goot, aber ich kann
es nicht shprec Aen.

ShprecAen see doytsh ?

Ich fershtayay es nif At.
Man shprirAt so shnel.
See haaben noor vayni^

eeboong gchaabt.
See haaben inaygootay

owsshpraacAay.
Eeray shvester shpricAt

es geloyfy.
Es 1st inay shvayray

shpraarAay.
See vairden es bald

lairnen.
Vo shprlrAt man das

bestay doytsh ?
In norddoytshland.

Ich finday dee ows-
shpraarAay lio-At.

Es ist daim englishen
sair ainlurA.

Yah, dee doytshay
shpraafAay 1st dee
mootter dair en •

glishen.

Set gtub'ing fangt gat Dairfreelingfengtgoot

an. an.

S8 ift Jiemlici gellnbe. Es ist tseemlirA gtlin-

day.
08 Ifl gra&llngSlrettet. Es ist frcelingsvetter.
Sle Bourne fangen an Dee boymay fangen an
au8iufcb[agcn. owstsooshlaagcn.

The season is very for- Sle 3abte8jelt ifl febt Dee yahrestsite ist »air

ward. BOtgetudt. forgayrickt.

It is so pleasant. 08 Ift fo angenebm. Es ist so angenaym.

The sun is so warm. Sle S onne ift f warm. Dee sunnay ist so vara.
There are some flow- 08 gtebt etnlge SJlumen. Es geebt inigay bloo-

Spring begins well.

It Is rather mild.

It is spring-feather.
The trees are begin-
ning to hud.

men.
Shnayg^crckfAen.
Toolpen.
Hccahtsih.en.
Pflicken see velrAay.
So feel eenen beleebt.

ers.
Snowdrops. Scbneeglbelcitn.

Tulips. Stulpen.

Hyacinths. ftpactnt&en.

Gather some. <Sfia4en Sle meld)e.

As many as you please. So ctel 3bnen beliebt.
The season is very Sle 3«bte8)elt Ift febt Dee yahrestsite ist aair
backward. JUtud. tsoorick.

Set Sommei tommt. Dair summer kurot.

08 Blrb warm. Es vee-t vara.

08 Ift )U rearm. Es ist tsoo vara.

08 ifl fafl beifi. Es ist fast hice.

08 Ift etn ttnnbetfo>inet Es is ine voonderehce.

lag. ner t*g.

Sle fti,e Ifl gtofc. Dee hitsay 1st gross.

SlefiHetflunerttaglicv. Dee hitsay 1st ooner-

tray^iirA.
08 Ift febt bludenb. Es ist saire drickend.

Summer is coming.
It is becoming warm.
It is too warm.
It is almost hot.
It is a splendid day.

The heat is great.
The heat is unbeara-
ble.
It is very close.

Summer Is over.

The heat is past.
The leaves arc begin-
ning to fall.

I think we shall have 3* glaube n>it roetben I<:A glowbay veer vair-
a storm. einen Sturm baben. deninenshtoormhaa*

I ben.

The clouds are gather- Sle SBolfen jle&en fid) Dec vulken tsee-ensUA

ing. jufammen. tsoosammen.

I hear thunder. 34) bote Sonnet. Ich haeray dunner.

It thunders fearfully. 08 bonnet! fdjtecTUci. Es dunnert shrecklirA.
It lightens. 08 blttt. Es blitst.

How it rains! ffiie e8 tegnet ! Vee es rayj net.

The sky begins to Set j>tmmel flirt fla) Dair himmel klairt sir*

clear. auf. owf.

The rain ceases. Set SRtgtn pott «nf. Dair raygen horrt owf.

There is a rainbow. Sa tft ein Begcnbogen. Da ist ine raygenbogen.
The sun breaks out. Sle Sonne brldjt bcto). Dee sunnay brirAt

doorrA.
Set Sommtt Ift totfti Dair summer ist foree-

bet. ber.

Sle a}t v e Iflootbel. Dee hitsay is forbya.

Sit SJlattet fangen an Dee blctttr fangen an
abjufaflen. abtsoofallcn.

Tha eTaya are sUU fine. Sle lage fmb noo> fd)bn. Dee tahgay sind nurA

shorn.
The days are closing. Sle Stage nepmen ab. Dee tahgay naymen ab.
Autumn Is Interesting Set ftetbft Ift tnteteffanl Dair hairtwt istmtercs-

on the Rhine. am Sbeln. sant am Rhine.

It la the time of the 08 Ifl tie 3elt bet TOeln. Es ist dee tsite dair

vintage. lefe. vinrlavsav.

How happy the peo- Site gtuoTIie, bte Seute Vee glicklirA dee loytay

pie are. flnb. sind.

We must soon begin SBtt mnffen balb bte Veer mlssen bald dew
fires. Oefcn belaen. acfen hitcsen.

^ p

£*

THE GERMAN

LANGUAGE. 99

ENGLISH.

GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION.

We have had a fire al

2Bit Ijaben (d)on ein Veer haabcn shone ine

It thaws. (SS tfjaut. Es tovrt.

ready.

geucr ge!)a&t. foyer gchaabt.

It is slippery. Q8 tji fdjlupfrlg. Es ist shlipfri^-.

It is soon dark.

(S8 (fl baib bunfet. Es ist bald doonkel.

The ice is thawing. 5Da8 Si8 gebt auf. Das ice gayt owf.

It is a fine night.

153 ijt eiue ftt)6ne 92ad)t. Es ist inay shcenay
na<r//t.

The streets are very He ©trafcen flnb Je6t Deeshtraassensindsalr
wet and dirty. nafj unb fcbmutytg. nass oont shmootsi/.

Is it moonlight?

3(1 e8 SKonbfdietn f Ist es mohntshine?

Christmas. STBeifjnadjten. Vynarften.

It is full moon.

(S3 ijl SSotlmonb. Es ist fulmohnt.

New Year. 9!eujab>. Noiyahr.

New moon.

Sfteumonb. Noymohnt.

New Year's day. iReujabrStag. Noiyahrsta^.

Do you think it will ©lau&en ©te ba§ eS tegs Glowben see das es

A new year. (Sin neue8 3«&'' In « noyes yahr.

rain?

nen trsirb ? ray^nen veert?

I am afraid so.

34) befftrdjte e8. Ich befeercAtay es.

RELATING TO CORRESPONDENCE.

It hails.

(S3 b>gelt. Es hahgelt.

It rains.

(S3 tejnet. Es ray^net.

Ink. Sinte. Tintay.

It is very windy.

(53 ijl iebr rctnfci j. Es ist sair vindlg.

Pens. Jrebettt. Faydern.

It is winter.

(5* ift SBtnter. Es ist vinter.

Have you any envel- £«ben Sie SouuertS ? Haaben see coovalrts?

The days are so short

Dte Stage (tub fo tut). Dee tahgay sind so
koorts.

opes?
Postage stamps. SJJofrmarfen. Postmarken.

It is very cold.

R3 tit fchr fait. Es ist sair kalt.

I want a sheet of writ- 3$ braudje einen fBogen Ich browtAay inen bo-

There is a cold wind.

(S3 gefjt etn falter SEtnt. Es gayt ine kaltervind.

ing-paper. ©djretbpapier. gen shribepapeer.

It is bad weather.

(58 t(t fd)tea)te8 iBetter. Es ist shlerftes vetter.

Blotting-paper. Cofdjpapier. Lceshpahpeer.

It is foggy.

(S3 tjt nefceiig. Es is naybeli^.

[ have a letter to write. 3d) babe einen Brief ju Ich haabay inen breef

The sky is overcast.

SDer jjlmmet t(t bebetft. Dair himmel ist be-
deckt.

fdjreiben. tsoo shryben.
A pen-knife. (Sin Sjcfeetmeffer. Ine faydermesser.

It will snow.

(58 niirb fdjneten. Es vird shnyen.

Now I will write. 3*6' nil id) fdjretben. Yetst vill ich shryben.

It freezes very hard.

(S3 fdert ftarf. Es freert shtark.

What is the day of the !£en toteoielften fjaben Den veefeelsten haaben

Can you skate?

Sfonncn Ste Sdjltttt&iuf) Kasnnen see shlitshoo
laufen ? lowfen?

month? ttir f)eute ? veerhoytay?
It is the sixteenth. (58 t(l ber (ed)8jef)nte. Es ist dair sextsanetay.

The ice does not bear

!Da8 ffii« ttagt nid)t. Das ice travel nicht.

Where is the post-of- SBo tft ble $0(1 ? Vo ist dee pust?

The ice is thick 35a8 Gi3 tft bicf genug. Das ice ist dick genoo^,

fice?

enough.

Close by. 9Jaf)e Set. Nahay by.

It is healthy weather.

<SS ift gefunbeS abetter. Es 1st gesooades vet-
ter.

Take care of the letter. 92ef)men Ete ben SJttef Naymen see den breef
tn aaju in aott.

, \

^s^

«r

■

~7i

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

->*sMf— 4§-B**J-

'A~SVT/Z^9'

pRENGH WITH0U T a Master.

Jfe.,^Ff™~-r-

A Simple System of Self-Instruction in the French Language.

MATTER of vital impor-
tance to all is the study
of the French language.
Not to mention the rich-
ness of French literature
and the vast pleasures
which arise from an in-
telligent perusal of the pages of
the great authors who have built
it up, the practical advantages to
be derived from a knowledge of
" the language of diplomacy " are
too patent to require explanation.
No one can be a perfect master of
the English language who does
not possess a certain amount of familiarity with
the French tongue, through which so many
of our strongest expressions have been filtered
after leaving the more ancient parent stock.
The traveller making the tour of the conti-
nent of Europe will find a knowledge of the
French language indispensable. In all parts of
that continent this language provides the com-
mon ground upon which men of all tongues
meet in conversation, and the traveller, having
simply made himself sufficiently familiar with
the language to ask for what he wants, will have
done much towards making his trip thoroughly
enjoyable and instructive. The following sys-
tem of self-instruction has been formulated with
a view to providing a simple yet thorough means

of studying French. The student who masters its
details with care will, within the space of a very
few days, find himself able to converse in that
language, and begin to enjoy thoroughly the
beauties of its literature.

ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION.

FRENCH

NAME.

PRONUNCIATION.

ALPHABET.

like a in the English word arm.

bay

as in English.

say

before e and /", is pronounced like s; before
a t o t u and before a consonant c sounds
like k; is soft before a, o t u In certain
instances, when a mark beneath it called
a cedilla is used, thus : c.

day

as in English.

f, 4 1 ai, ei, are pronounced like a in the
English word c are.

eff

as in English.

j»y

before e and /sounds like/.

aash

is generally silent.

like ** in the English word w.

j«

like f in the English word measure.

kah

as in English.

o t in stock; au, earn, are pron. like o in no.

p*y

like the English, but is often mute at the end
of words.

like ft,

air

like the English r in run.

(*-s

like the English s, sometimes like i.

t»r

like / in the English word tent.

eeyu

like m in the English word smite.

vay

like the English v.

ceks

as in English.

egrcc

like e in the English word w.

led

like a soft .<.

There are combinations of letters which are sometimes called
compound vowels, viz. : an, in, oh, tu, ou, which are pro-
nounced as follows :

4!f=

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

101

■*

The compound vowel an as an in the word want.
" " /« as an M " anchor,

** " on as on " " wrong.

" " u» has no correspondent in English,

•* " eu as i in the word bird.

" " ou as ou " " you.

Ch is pronounced generally as *// in the word share*

Gn like ni in the word minion.

Gu is pronounced generally likeginget*

Ph as ph in philosophy.

Qu is generally pronounced like k in king.

Th like M in Thames.

ACCENTS AND OTHER MARKS.

The French make a frequent use of certain signs called ortho-
graphic signs. They are the accents, the apostrophe, the trait cVun-
ion (hyphen), the trima (diaeresis), the cidille (cedilla), the parenthise
(parenthesis), and the different marks of punctuation.

There are three accents, the accent aigu (acute '), which is never
used except over the vowel e ; the accent grave ( * ) , which is used over
the vowels a, e, u, and the accent circonflexe (*) , which is used with any
of the vowels huty.

The apostrophe (') is used to point out the elision of a vowel at the
end of a word before another word beginning with a vowel or an h
mute, as in Vdme, the soul; Vhomme, the man, instead of la dme,
le homme.

A, e, i, are the only vowels liable to be thus cut off, and this last one
in the single word si before /'/; s'il for si it.

The trait d'union (-) is used principally to connect compound words,
as in arc-en-ciel (rainbow), or to join the pronoun to the verb, in the
interrogative conjugation.

The trema ( •• ) is the same sign as the diaresis and used for the same
purpose in French as in English.

The cidille is a little mark put under the c ($) whenever it is required
to give to that letter the articulation produced by the letter *, before
the letters a, o t u; as, Franqais , garqon, re$u.

NUMBER AND GENDER.

There are two numbers in French as in English, the singular and
the plural.

The French language has only two genders, the masculine and the
feminine. The gender of animate objects is the same as in English ;
but practice, close attention to the harmony of the language, and very
often derivation, can alone teach the gender of inanimate objects.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

These are ten in number : article, noun, adjective, pronoun,
verb, adverb, participle, conjunction, preposition, interjection.
THE ARTICLE.
There are two articles, the definite and the indefinite. The definite
article is rendered by "le" before a masculine noun, and by "la " before
a feminine noun ; as, le pire, the father ; la mire, the mother. The
plural for both genders is "les;" as, lesplres, the fathers; les mires,
the mothers.
The articles are declined as follows :
Masculine,
Singular.

Nora, le (leh) fire, the father

Gen. du (du) pire, of the father

Dat. au (o) pire, to the father

Ace. le (leh) pire, the father

Plural.

les (lay) plres, the fathers
des (day) plres, of the fathers
aux (o) plres, to the fathers
les (lay) plres, the fathers

Feminine.
Nom. la mire, the mother
Gen. de la mire, of the mother
Dat. & la mire, to the mother
Ace la mire, the mother

les mires,
des mires,
aux mires,
les mires.

the mothers
of the mothers
to the mothers
the mothers

DECLENSION

Of a word beginning with a vowel or a silent "k."

Singular.

Plural.

Nom.

Vhomme,

the man

le s^" homme s,

the men

Gen.

de Vhomme,

of the man

des*^hommes,

of the men

Dat.

d Vhomme,

to the man

aux^hommes.

to the men

Ace.

Vhomme,

the man

les*~*hommes,

the men

INDEFINITE ARTICLE.

Masculine.

Feminine.

Nom.

un jar din,

a garden

une vitte,

a town

Gen.

cVunjardin,

of a garden

cVune vitle,

of a town

Dat.

a unjardin.

to a garden

a une ville.

to a town

Ace.

un jar din,

a garden

une ville,

a town

DECLENSION OF

PROPER NAMES.

Nom.

Parts,

Paris

Louise,

Louisa

Gen.

de Paris,

of Paris

de Louise,

of Louisa

Dat.

d Paris,

to Paris

d Louise,

to Louisa

Ace.

Paris,

Paris

Louise,

Louisa

EXERCISES IN THE USE OF THE ARTICLE.

Having mastered the declensions, the student will thoroughly
familiarize himself with the use of the articles by memorizing
the following vocabulary :

THE UMIVKKSE.

ENGLISH.

FRENCH

God

Dieu

the world

le monde

the sky

leciet

the sun

le soleil

the moon -

la tune

a star

une itoiU

the air

Voir

the earth

la terre

the water

Veau

the fire

lefeu

the sea

tamer

an island

une He

a lake

un lac

a stream

unjleuve

a river

une rivitre

the animals

les animaux

the metals

les mi t aux

the gold

for

the silver

Vargent

the iron

lefer

the steel

Vacier

the copper

le cuivre

the tin

Vetain

THE HUMAN

Man

Vhomme

the body

le corps

the head

la ate

the face

le visage

the forehead

tefront

the eye

Vail

the eyes

lef~yeux

the nose

tenet

the .ears

les oret'ttes

the chin

le menton

the beard

la bar be-

the mouth

ta bouche

the lips

les llvte*

the tooth

la dent

the tongue

ta tongue

the neck

leeon

PRONUNCIATION.

Deeyu

leh maund
leh seeyel
leh sohleyl
Iah lune
une aitoahl
Pair
lah tayr
l'o

leh feuh
lah mare
une eel
ung Iahc
nng fleuhv
une reeveeare
laiz aneemo
Ial maito
l'orr
l'arjang
leh f ayr
l'asseay
leh cweevr
1'aitang

l'omm
leh cor
lah tait
leh veesaje
leh frong
Pile

laiz eeyeu
leh nay
laiz ohraill
leh mauntong
lah barb
lah boosh
iai layvr
lah dong
lah laungh
leh coo

■T

«=

\ -

103

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

EMOLISH.

FRENCH.

PRONUNCIATION.

ENGLISH.

FRENCH.

PRONUNCIATION,

the shoulders

les^ifiaults

laiz aipole

the umbrella

It Parapluit

leh paraplwee

the arm

Is bras

leh brah

the parasol

It parasol

leh parassl

the hand

la main

lah mang

the fingers

Its doigts

Jai donah

THE HOME.

the nails

ItsT^onglts

laiz aungl

The house

la maison

lah maysong

the chest

la poitrint

lah pouahtreen

the door

la ports

lah port

the heart

It carur

leh keuhr

the key

la clef

lah clay

the knee

Itgtnou

leh jenoo

the bell

la sonnet te

lah sonnet

the leg

la jamb t

lah jahmb

the staircase

Ptscalier

l'cscallysi

the foot

It pied

leh peeay

the drawing-room

la sails

lah sal

the bone*

IttT^os

laizo

the dining-room
the room

la salle-h- manger
la chamhrt

lah sal-ah-maunjal
lah shaumbr

FOOD.

the bed -room

la chamhre-ix-couchef

lahihaumbr-ah-cushal

Bread

le pain

leh pang

the window

lafenUrt

lah fennaitr

flour

lafarint

lah fareen

the wall

la parol

lah pahrouah

meat

dt la viandt

de la veeaund

the kitchen

la cuisint

laheweezeen

roast meat

du rdti

du rotce

the roof

It toil

leh touah

beef

dm baeuf

du beuhf

the cellar

la cavt

lah caav

veal

du vtau

du vo

the garden

le jar din

leh jardang

mutton

du m out on

du mootong

a table

unt tab It

une tahbl

lamb i

dt Vagntan

deh 1'anyo

a chair

unt chaist

une shayse

pork

du pore

du pork

an arm-chair

unfautcuil

ung fotayle

bacon

du lard

du lar

a looking-glass

un miroir

ung meerouahr

ham

dujambon

du jahmbons*

a clock

une horlogt

une orloje

soup

la toupt

lah soup

a trunk

un coffrt

ung cofr

rice

du ri*

duree

a boa

unt bo'Ut

une houaht

eggs

dts^-aufs

daiz euh

the bed

It lit

leh lee

salad

dt la saladt

deh lah salade

the counterpane

la couvtrturt

lah cooTalrtyure

mustard

dt la moutards

deh lah mootard

a pillow

un oreiller

un oraylyai

salt

du stl

dusel

the sheets

Its drops dt lit

lai drah deh lee

oil

4t r hulls

deh l'weel

the mattress

It matelms

leh mailah

vinegar

du vinaigrt

du veenaigr

the plate

Vassiette

l'assyet

pepper

dupoivrt

du pouahvr

a candlestick

un chandelier

ungshsundelysi

butter

du beurrt

du beuhr

the lamp

unt lampt

unelaump

cheese

dufromagt

du from ah je

a spoon

unt cutiler

une cweelyal

breakfast

It di jt-uner

leh dayjeuhnai

a fork

unt fourchettt

une foorshet

dinner

It diner

leh deenai

a knife

un couteau

ung cooto

supper

It touptr

leh soopai

a cup

unt tasst

une lass

hunger

la/aim

lah fahng

the saucer

la soucoupt

lah sooccoop

thirst

la soif

lah souaf

the tablecloth

la nappt

lah nap

water

dt ttau

deh l'o

the towel

un essuie-main

ung esswee-mang

wine

du vin

du vang

a glass

un verrt

ung vair

beer

dt la bikrs

deh lah beealr

the tea-pot

la theiere

lah taij are

milk

dulait

du lay

TRADES.

tea

gin

duthi

du tay

An occupation

un mttitr

ung maytysi

dugtnikvrs

du jenyavr

a workman

un artisan

ung arteesong

brandy

dt Vtau dt vi*

deh lo d«h vee

a baker

un boulangtr

ungboolonjal

DRESS.

a miller

un meunier

ung meuhnysi

A coat
a cloak
a waistcoat
the trowsera

un surtout
un manttau
ungiltt
la culottt

ting sy uretoo
ung maunto
ung jeelay
lah kyulot
lai bretell

a butcher
a brewer
a tailor
a shoemaker

un bouchtr
un brass tur
un tailltur
un cordonnitr

ung booshai
ung brasseuhr
ung talyeur
ung cordonyal

the braces

Its brtttllts

a smith

unforgrron

ung forjehrong

the cap

It bonnet

leh bonnay
leh shapo
leh patne
dai gang

a saddler

un se flier

ung sclyal

the hat

It chapeau

a carpenter

un menuist'er

ung menweesymt

the comb
gloves

le P eigne
des gants

a mason

a bookbinder

un matron
un relieur

ung massong
ung rellyeuhr

a ring

une bagut

une baag

THE TOWN.

a watch

unt montrt

une mongtre

The town

la villt

lahveel

the stocking

It bat

leh bah

the bridge

leponi

leh pong

the boots

Its bottts

lai bot

the tower

la tour

lah toor

the bootjack

It tirt-bottt

leh tccr-bot

the gate

la ports

lah port

the slippers

Its pantoujlts

lai pauntoofl

the street

la rut

lah ru

the shoes

let soulters

lai soolyai

the market

It ma re hi

» leh marsh sy

a shirt

unt chemist

une shemeeze

the building

It bdttment

leh hahUcmong

the necktie

la cravat t

lah cr. iv. ilit

the town-house

tkdttl dt rills

1'otel deh vcel

a pockct>handkerchic

i un mouckoir

ung mooshouah

the theatre

It thldtrt

leh tsyahtr

the clothes-brush

la brosst

lah bross

the post-office

lapostt

Uft B* vt

- *y

f m

• ^

— H

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

103

ENGLISH.

the church
the cathedral
the school
the prison
the exchange
the palace
the hotel
the inn

the public house
the coffee-room

FRENCH.

Viglise

la caihidrale

Vccole

la prison

la bourse

I e palais

Vhotel

Vauberge

le cabaret

le cafi

BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES

An animal un animal

a horse un cheval

a donkey un arte

the dog le ehien

the cat le chat

the rat /* rat

the mouse la souris

an ox un bceuf

a cow une vache

a calf un veau

a sheep une brebis

a lamb un agneau

a pig un cochon

the hare lelievre

a monkey un singe

a wolf un loup

a bear un ours

a Hon un lion

an elephant un iliphant

a tiger un tigre

a bird un oiseau

a cock un coq

a hen une poule

a chicken unpoulet

a swan un eigne

a goose une oie

a duck un canard

a lark une alouette

a nightingale un rossignol

the swallow Vhirondelle

the sparrow lemoineau

the raven le corbeau

the crow la cornet'lle

the parrot le perroquet

the eagle Paigle

a fish unpoisson

a pike un brocket

a salmon un saumon

a carp une carpe

an eel une anguille

a trout unetruite

a herring un hareng

oysters des kultres

a crab une icrevisse

a whmle une baleine

a serpent un serpent

a frog une grenouille

a worm un ver

an insect un insecte

a spider une aratgnie

a moth une teigne

a fly une tnoucke

a gnat un moucheron

a bee une abeille

the honey le miel

a wasp uneguipe

a butterfly une papillon

PRONUNCIATION.

1'aygleeze
lah cataydral
l'aycol
lah preesong
lah boorse
leh pall ay
l'otel
l'obayrje
leh cabbaray
leh caffay

, ETC.

ung aneemal
ung sheval
ung ahn
leh sheeang
leh shah
leh rah
lah sooree
ung beuh
une vash
ung vo
une brebbee
un anyo
un coshong
leh leeayvr
ung sangj
ung loo
ung oor
ung leeong
un aylayfong
ung teegr
un woiso
un cock
une pool
ung poolay
ung seen
une ouah
ungcanar
une allooet
ung rosseenyol
l'eenrongdel
leh mouano
leh corbo
lah cornayl
leh perokay
l'aygl
ung pouassong

ungbroshay

ungsomong

une carp

une ongghee

une trweet

ung harrong

daiz weetr

une aycreveece

une ballayn

ung sairpong

une grenooeel

un vair

un angsect

une arraynyax

ung taine

une moosh

ung moosherong

une abbail

leh meeyel

une gape

ung pappillyong

TREES, FRUITS, FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES.

ENGLISH.

A tree
a branch
a leaf
an apple
a pear
a plum
a cherry
a nut
a currant
a gooseberry
a strawberry
a chestnut
the oak-tree
the fir- tree
the birch
the willow
a flower
arose
a pink
a tulip
a lily
a violet
a bouquet
beans
peas
cabbage
cauliflower
carrots
asparagus
spinach
radishes
celery
a melon
cucumber

A school
the teacher
the book
the paper
a pen

an inkstand
the ink
the pencil
a letter
an envelope

FRENCH.

un arbre

une branche

unefeuille

une pomme

une poire

une prune

une cerise

une not'x

4e la groseille

de la groseille verte

une /raise

un marron

le chine

le pin

le bouleau

le saule

unejteur

une rot*

un ceil let

une tulip e

un lis

une violette

un bouquet

desfevtt

despots

des choux

des choux-Jleurs

des betteraves

des asperges

des tpinards

des radis

du cileri

un melon

des concombres

PRONUNCIATION.

ung arbr

une braungsh

une file

unepomm

une pouar

une pryun

une serreeze

une nouah

de lah grozale

deh lah grozale verte

une fraize

ung marrong

leh shane

leh pang

leh boolo

leh sole

une fleuhr

une rose

un ileyai

une tyuleep

ung lee

une veeolet

ung bookay

dai f aive

dai pouah

dai shoo

dai shoo-fleuhr

dai betrahve

daiz aspairj

daiz aipeenar

dai raddee

du selree

ung mellong

dai congcongbr

THE SCHOOL.

Vicole
le txaitre
le livre
le papier
une plume
un encrier
Vencre
It crayon
une lettre
une enveloppe

l'aycol
leh maytr
leh leevr
leh papyal
une plyume
un ongcreeal
Tongkr
leh crayong
une lettr
une o.^gvellope

TIME AND SEASONS.

The time

a minute

an hour

a quarter of an hour

half an hour

the day

the morning

noon

the afternoon

the evening

the night

a year

a month

J anuary

February

March

April

May

June

le temps

une minute

une heure

un quart-d'heure

une demie-heure

lej'our

le matin

le midi

rapris-midi

le soir

la nuit

un an

un mot's

'Janvier

Fivrier

Man

Avril

Mai

Juin

Juillet

leh tong
une meenyute
une eur
ungkar d'eur
une demi eur
leh joor
leh mattang
leh meedee
Papray meedee
leh souahr
lah nwee
un ong
ung mouah
Jongveeay
fayvreeay
marse
avreel
may
jyuang
jweelyai

^ST*

•if?

104

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

— »

August

September

October

November

December

a, week

a fortnight

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

spring

summer

autumn

winter

The country
the village
the hut
the soil
the meadow
the barn
the mill
the cattle
the hero*
the shepherd
the mountain
the hill
the dale
the wood
the forest
the road
the high* road
the railroad
a mile

the waterfall
the fisherman
the huntsman

The family
the husband
the wife
the father
the mother
the child
the son
the daughter
the brother
the sister
the uncle
the aunt
the cousin
the marriage

An American
a German
Germany
a Dutchman
Holland
a Belgian
Belgium
a Swiss
Switzerland
a Hungarian

AaiU

Septembrt

Octobrt

Novembre

Dicetnbrt

une semaine

quinsejourt

Lundi

Mardi

Mercredi

yeudi

Vtndredi

Samedi

Dimancht

le printemp*

fautomne
Vhiver

THE COUNTRY.

la cam pa gut

le village

la cabane

It sol

Upri

la grange

le moulin

le bitail

le troupeau

le berger

la montagnt

la colline

la vallie

le bois

lafortt

le ciumin

le grand -chem in

le chemin defer

une mille

la cascade

lepicheur

le chasseur

THE FAMILY.

la fa mille
le marl
la/emms
lepere
la mere
renfant
lejils
la file
Itfrkrt
la sa>ur
tonclt
la taut*
It cousin
It mariage

NATIONALITIES.

un America in
un Allemand
VAllemagnt f.
un Hollandait
la Hollandt
un Beige
la Belgiqut
un Suits*
la Suisse
un Hongrois

septaumbr

octobr

novaumbr

daysaumbr

une semmane

kanze joor

lungdee

mardee

may re re dee

jeuhdee

vondredee

s am dee

deemaunshe

leh prangtong

l'aytay

l'otonn

1'eevare

lah caumpahna

leh Teelaj

lah caban

leh sol

lah pray

leh graunj

leh moolang

leh bay tale

leh troopo

leh bayrjay

lah montaine

lah colleen

lah vail ay

leh bouah

lah forray

leh shemmang

leh grong shemmang

leh shemmang deh fare

une meet

lah cascad

leh paysheur

leh shasseuhr

lah famed
leh maree
lah f am
leh pare
lah mare
1'ongfong
leh fecss
lah feel
leh frare
lah seuhr
l'oncle
lah taunte
leh coosang
leh mareeahje

un amayrcecang
un almaung
l'almalne
ung hollaunday
lah hollaund
une belj
lah bcljeck
ung swecss
lah swecss
ung hongrwah

Hungary

an Englishman

England

an Irishman

Ireland

a Scotchman

Scotland

a Dane

Denmark

a Swede

Sweden

a Russian

Russia

a Spaniard

Spain

a Frenchman

France

an Italian

Italy

la Hongrie
un Anglais
PAngteterrt f .
un Irlandais
PIrlandt I.
un Ecossais
VEcosse I.
un Dmnois
It Danemarc
un Suldois
la Suede
un Russt
la Russu
un Espagnol
PEspagnt f.
un Francais
la Franct
un Italien
ritalie f.

THE NOUN.

lah hongrec
un aunglay
l'aungltare
un eerlaunday
1'ecrlaund
un aycossay
l'aycoss
ung danoaah
leh danroark
ung swayd wah
lah sway de
ungrusae
lah russee
un espanyol
l'espaine
ung f raungsay
lah fraungse
un eetalyang
l'eetalee

To form the plural of French nouns, add s to the singular ;
as/<>rt*, father, pires, fathers.

Nouns ending in f, x or s, in the singular, do not vary In the plural ;
&s,j!ls, son ; Jlls, sons.

Nouns ending in au or eu add x to form the plural; as, emu, water;
eaux, waters.

Nounsan ou form their plural regularly, by the addition of s.

But the following nouns in ou take x to the plural, viz.: bijou ,caillou,
ckottygenouy hibou, joujou, pou.

Nouns ending in al change this termination into aux to form the
plural ; as, cheval, horse ; ckevaux, horses.

But bal, carnaval, regal, and a few others, form their plural reg-
ularly, by the addition of s to the singular.

Nouns in ail form their plural regularly, by adding s to the singular.

The following seven nouns in ail form their plural by changing ail
into aux , viz. : bail, lease ; imail, enamel ; corail, coral ; soupirail,
air-hole ; travail, work ; vantail, leaf of the folding-door; ventail, the
part of a helmet which admits air; vitrail, glass-window.

del, heaven, has cicux in the plural. (Eil, eye, has yeu x. Aleul,
ancestor, has ateux.

THE ADJECTIVE.

The French adjectives are placed either before or after the
nouns ; as :

Itbon fire, the good father la bonne mire, the food mother

un bongarqon, a good boy une jeune file, a young girl

une table ronde, a round table dm lait chauJ, warm milk.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

Grand, great plus grand, greater

petit, small plus petit, smaller

ban, good meilleur, better

mauz'ais, bad pire, worse

petit, little moindre, less

" Than " following the comparative is'always translated by " que:
PI est plus poli que sonfrire— tic is more polite than his brother.

le plus grand, the greatest
le plus petit, the smallest
/* meilleur, the belt
lepire, the worst
le moindre, the least

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

ung

deux

deuh

trot's

trouah

♦

quatre

kahtr

cinq

sahnk

six

seece

sept

act

kuit

wheet

neuf

di*

deece

ome

ongx

1 1

douse

doore

treise

traya

qualorse

katora

quinse

kanga

seise

saya

dixsepl

dee-set

dix-kuit

deez- wheet

i»

dix-neuf

decs- neuf

vimgl

vahng

-M

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

I°5

21 vingt-un vahnt-ung
aa vtngt-deux

23 vingt- trois

24 vingt- quatre

25 vingt-cinq

26 vingt- six

27 vingt- sept

28 vingt 'knit

29 vingt -neuf

30 trente traunt
qua rant e karaunt
cinquante sahnkaunt
soixante soassaunt
soixante-dix
soixante-onxe
soixante- douxe
soi xante -treixe
soixante- quatorxe
soixante- quints
soixante- seize
soixante-dix • sept
soixante-dix -huit
soixante-dix • neuf

80 quatre-vingt katr-vahng
Si quatre-vingt -un

katr-vahnt-ung

quatre-vingt - deux

quatre - vingt -trois

quatre • vingt- quatre

quatre-vingt-cinq

86 quatre-vingt- six

87 quatre-vingt- sept

88 quatre-vtngt -huit

89 quatre -vingt- neuf
00 quatre-vingt- dix

91 quatre-vingt- onxe

92 quatre - vingt • douxe

93 quatre- vingt- treixe

94 quatre - vingt - quatorxe

95 quatre-vingt- quinxe

96 quatre - vingt - seixe

97 quatre-vingt- dix- sept

98 quatre- vingt - dix -huit

99 quatre- vingt -dix -neuf

100 ct>«/ saung

101 cent-un saunt-ung

1 10 tvrt/ <//> saung- deece

120 cent vingt saung-vahng

130 cent trente

200 deux cents

300 trois cents

400 quatre cents

500 «' wy r^n/f

600 six cents

700 «// <vn/j

800 huit cents

900 neuf cents

1,000 »»//* meet

2,000 <&■»* mi*le

3,000 /row miT/ir

10,000 dix mills

20,000 r/w^* *»///*

a million, «« mS/tom, ung niellyong

ORDINAL NUMBERS.

The first, le premier leh premyai

11 second /* second leh zeggong

■ third letroisikme leh trouazzeeame

" fourth le quatrikme leh kattreeame

" 5th lecinquikme leh sahnkeeame

* 6th le sixieme leh seeceeame

" 7th le septihme leh seetteeame

" 8th le huitieme leh wheeteeame

" 9th le neuvfome leh neuveeame

" 10th le dixieme leh deezeeame

" nth I'onzikme leh ongzceame

" 12th le douxiime leh doozeeame

" 13th le treixieme leh trayzeeame

" 14th U quatorxihme leh kattorzceame

" 15th le quinxikme leh kahngzeeame

44 16th le veixiime leh sayzeeame

H 17th le dix ■- septikme leh deessettiame

" 18th le dix -huitieme leh deez- wheeteeame

" 19th le dix-neuvikme leh deez-neuveeame

" 20th le vingtikme leh vahnteeame

M 21st // vingt-unikme leh vahnt-uneeame

M 30th le trentieme leh traunteeame

" 40th le quarantikme leh karaunteeame

M 50th /* cinquantikme leh sahnkaunteeame

** 60th le soixantihme leh souahssaunteeame

*' 70th le soixante-dixikme leh souahssaunt-deezeeame

" 80th le quatre- vingtieme lehkattr-vahnteeame

** 90th le quatre -vingt -dix* lehkattr-vahnt-deezeeamo

iime

" icoth le centieme leh saunteeame

" 1,000th lemillikme leh millecame

the last /* dernier leh dareneeay

VOCABULARY OF ADJECTIVES.

Poor pauvre pohvr

«ch ricke reesh

clever
stupid
sharp
blunt
clean
dirty-
hard
soft
strong
weak
well
111
lean
thick
fat
thin
polite
impolite
false
deep
wide
narrow
round
square
short
long
fiat
warm
cold
fresh
ripe
dry
sour
sweet
bitter
hungry
thirsty
heavy
Hght
wet

content
happy
gay
sad
useful
strange
pretty
ugly
dark
open

disagreeable
proud
arrogant
cowardly
courageous
faithless
innocent

Prudent
stupids
aigu
obtus

sals
dur

MOM

fort

faible
sain
malade
maigre
grot
gras
mine*
poli

malhonntte
faux
Profond
large
itroit
rond
earri
court
long
plat
chaud
froid
frais
miir
tee
atgre
doux
amer
affawti
aUiri
pesant
liger
humide
content
heureux
gat
triste
utile
it range
foli
laid
sombre
ouvert
disagriable
fier

arrogant
l&che
courageux
Perfide
innocent

prndong

stupeed

aygu

obtu

propr

saal

dure

moo

fore

fabl

sang

malahd

maygr

gro

gra

mangce

polee

mallonnate

profong

larj

aytrouah

rong

carray

coor

long

pla

sho

froaah

fray

mure

sec

aygr

doo

am are

affammay

altayray

pezong

layjai

uraeed

congtong

eurea

treest
uteel
aytraunj

jolee

lay

sombr

oovare

daysagrayabl

feeare

arrogong

lahsh

coorrajeu

pairfeed

fnnosong

THE PRONOUN
The personal pronouns are as follows:

7«

(jeh)

Jfma

(noo)

(tu)

thOU

vous

(voo)

you

(teh)

thee

vous

(voo)

you

(eel)

its

(eel)

they

ettt

(el)

she

tlUs

(el)

they

mot

(mouah)

nous

(noo)

tot

(touah)

thee

lui

(lwee)

him

• at.

^ t,

«j

io 6 THE FRENCH

LANGUAGE.

PO88ESSIVB PRONOUNS.

he had had

it avail eu

eel avait ew

we had had

nous avians tu

nooz aveeohngz ew

Ma«. mom (mong) my 1 „, , . ,
_. " •' 3 [ Plural: mes (may) my
r em. ma (man) my ) «-—»»—»

you had had

vous avies eu

vooz aveeayz ew

they had had

Us uvaitnt eu

eels avait ew

Mas. ton (tong) thy ■ „ .
Fern. la (tah) thy { "' (Uy) ,hy

Past Anterior.

Ma«. ton (<°ng) ( hi* . _ , . , .
Fern. ,. (sah) J her | '" <"*> h "' h "-

I had had

ftustu

Jeusew

thou hadst had

lu eus tu

tu eus ew

noire (notr) our " no$ (no) our

he had had

il eut m

eel eut ew

voire (votr) your " vol (vo) your

we had had

nous eumes eu

nooz euma ew

leur (leur) their " leurt (leur) their

you had had

vous tiUts tu

vooz cuts ew

they had had

Us turtnt tu

eelseurtew

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Future.

%ul (kee) who, which, that

I shall have

faurai

joray

ouot (couah) what, that

thou shalt have

tu auras

tu orah

ouel (kel), lequelT which? que (keh) what?

he shall have

il aura

eel orah

we shall have

nous aurons

nooz orong

THE VERB.

you shall have

vous aurts

vooz oray

they shall have

Us auront

eel* orong

Before proceeding to study the conjugations of the regular

Futurt Anttrior.

verbs, the student must ground himself thoroughly in the irreg-

I shall have had

faurai tu

Joray ew

ular verbs avoir, to have, and it re, to be, which are designated

thou shalt have had

tu auras tu

tu orah* ew

auxiliary verbs because they assist in the conjugation of the

he shall have had

il aura tu

eel orah ew

others.

we shall have had

nous aurons tu

noos orongz ew

you shall have had

vous aurts tu

vooz orayz ew

THE AUXILIARY VERB "AVOIR"— TO HAVE.

they shall have had

Us auront tu

eel* orontew

INFIHITIVS MOOD.

Conditional Present,

Present. Past.

I should have

f aurais

Joray

Avoir, to have, Avoir eu, to have had.

thou shouldst have

tu aurais

tu oray

PARTICIPLES.

he should have

il aurait

eel oray

Ajranl, having-. .*;«, had

we should have

nous aurions

nooz oreeong

Ayanl eu, having had.

you should have

vous aurit*

vooz oreeay

INDICATIVE MOOD.

they should have

Us aura ient

eels oray

. . Present,

Conditional Past.

I have jal j ay
thou hart mm at tu ah
he ha » Hm eel ah
- » h « •>*» elle a el ah

I should have had

f aurais tu

Joray* ew

thou shouldst have had tu aurais tu

tu oray* ew

he should have had

il aurait tu

eel orait ew

we have nous mvens nooz avong
you have VO us avet vooz aval
they have Us (elles) enl eeUong

we should have had
you should have had
they should have had

nous aurions tu
vous auries tu
Us aura ient eu

nooz areeonga ew
vooz oreeaya ew
eel* orait ew

Imperfect.

IMPERATIVE. MOOD.

1 nad f avals Javay

Have

ait

»y

thou hadrt tu avals tu avay
he had il avail eel avay

let us have

ajfons

•yona;

have (ye)

mjfts

«yay

we had nous avions vooz aveeong

you had vou , aviso nooz aveeay
*hey had //, avaienl eels avay

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

•

Prtstnt.

Past Definite.
1 h » d feus Jew
thouhadit tueus tu ew

That I may have

gut fait

keh Jal

that thou mayest have our tu aits

keh to at

he had ,/,«/ eelew

that he may have

gu'il ait

kcelal

w « had noirj pAmm nooz eum

that we may have

gut nous ay ens

keh nooz ayong

you had vous eitet yooz eut

that you may have

gut vous ajfts

keh vooa ayay

they had lit turenl eelt eur

that they may have

gu'il* aient

keel* al

Perfect.

fmferfect.

I have had fat en Jay ew

That I might have

gueftusst

keh Jeus*

thou hast had tu as en tu ahz ew

that thou mightesthave an* tu eusses

keh tu eus*

he has had 11 a eu eel ah ew

that he might have

gu'il t%\t

keel en

she has had elle a en el ah ew

that we might have

gut nous tusstons

keh noos eutsyong

we have had nous avons eu nooz avongz ew

that you might have

gut vous eussies

keh vooz cuwyay

you have had vous avet tu voozavayzew

that they might have

gu'Us tusstnt

keels eus*

they have had its out eu eel* ont ew

Perfttt.

Pluperfect.

That I may have had

gut fait tu

keh Jal ew

I had had favais en Javayz ew

that thou mayest have gut tn aits tu

kchtu aiaew

thou hast had tu avals en tu avayz ew

had

"*7

* ■ »

*■ »

=r*

•i

. /

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

IO7

•

that he may have had qu'ilaiteu

keel ait ew

we had been

nous eumes Hi

nooz eums ettay

that we may have had que nous ayons eu

keh nooz ayongz ew

you had been

vous eutcs iti

vooz euts ettay

that you may have had que vous ayex eu

keh vooz ayayz ew

they had been

U eurent ite

eels eurt ettay

that they may have had qu'ils aient eu

keels ait ew

Future,

Pluperfect.

I shall be

je serai

je serray

That I might have had quefeusseeu

keh jeuss ew

thoushalt be

tu seras

tu serrah

that thou mightest have que tu eusses eu

keh tu euss ew

he shall be

il sera

eel serrah

had

we shall be

nous serons

nooserrong

that he might have had qu'il eut eu

keel eut ew

you shall be

vous serez

voo serray

that we might have que nous eussions eu

keh nooz eussyongs

they shall be

ils seront

eel serong

had

Future Anterior,

that you might have que vous eussiez eu

keh vooz eussyaz ew

had

I shall have been

faurai iti

joray ettay

that they might have qu'ils eussent eu

keels eusst ew

thou shalthave been

tu auras iti

tu orahs ettay

had

he shall have been
we shall have been

il aura iti
nous aurons iti

eel orah ettay
nooz orongz ettay

THE AUXILIARY VERB "ETRE"— TO JE.

you shall have been

vous aurez iti

vooz orayz ettay

they shall have been

ils auront iti

eels oront ettay

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present.

Past;

Conditional Present

Eire (eta), to be. Avoir iti (avoahr ettay), to have been.

I should be

je serais

je serray

PARTICIPLES.

thou shouldst be

tu serais

tu serray

Etant (ettaung), being. Eti (ettay), been.

Ayantiti (ayaunt ettay) having been.

he should be
we should be
you should be

il serait
nous serions
vous seriez

eel serray
nooserreeong
voo serreeay

INDICATIVE MOOD.

they should be

Us seraient

eel serray

Present.

Conditional Past.

I am je suis

jeh swee

I should have been

faurais iti

jorays ettay

thou art tu es

tu ay

thou shouldst have

tu aurais iti

tu orays ettay

he is ilest

eel ay

been

she is tile est

el ay

he should have been

il aurait iti

eel orait ettay

we are nous sommes

noo som

we should have been

nous aurions iti

nooz oreeongz ettay

you are vous ites

vooz ait

you should have been

vous auriez iti

vooz oreeayz ettay

they are ils (elles) sont

eel song

they should have been

ils auraient iti

eels orait ettay

Imperfect.

IMPERATIVE MOOD

I was fitais

j ettay

thou wert tu itais

tu ettay

soi

sou ah

he was illtait

il ettay

let us be

soyons

swoiyong

we were nous (lions

nooz ettyong

be (ye)

soyez

swoiyay

you were vous Hiez

vooz ettyay

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

they were ils itaient

eels ettay

Present.

Past Definite.

That I may be

gueje sot's

keh jeh sou ah

I was j'efus

je fu

that thou mayestbe

que tu sot's

keh tu souah

thou wert tufus

tufu

that he may be

qu't'l soil

keel souah

he was ilfut

eel fu

that we may be

que nous soyons

keh noo swoiyong

we were nous fumes

noo fume

that you may be

que vous soyex

keh voo swoiyay

you were vous files

voo fute

that they maybe

qu'ils soient

keel souah

they were ilsfurent

eel fure

Imperfect.

Perfect.

That I might be

que je fusse

keh jeh fusse

I have been fai He

jai ettay

that thou mightest be

que tu fusses

keh tu fusse

thou hast been tu as cti

tu ah ettay

that he might be

qu' ilfut

keel fu

he has been Ha iti

eel ah ettay

that we might be

que nous fussions

keh noofussyong

she has been elleaiti

el ah ettay

that you might be

que vousfussiex

keh voo fussyay

we have been nous avons He

nooz avongz ettay

that they might be

qu'ilsfussent

keel fusse

you have been vous avez Hi

vooz avayz ettay

Perfect.

que f aie iti

they have been ils (elles) ont Hi

eels ont ettay

That I may have been

keh jai ettay

Pluperfect.

that <hou mayest have

que tu aies iti

keh tu aiz ettay

I had been j'avais He

javayz ettay

been

thou hadst been tu avais Hi

tu avayz ettay

that he may have been

qu'il ait iti

keel ait ettay

he had been il avail iti

eel avait ettay

that we may have been

que nous ayons iti

keh nooz ayongz ettay

we had been nous avions Hi

nooz avyons ettay

that you may have

que vous ayez Hi

keh vooz ayayz ettay

you had been vous aviez Hi

vooz avyayz ettay

been

they had been ils avaient He

eels avait ettay

that they may have qu'ils aient iti

keels ait ettay

Past Anterior.

been

I had been feus Hi

jeuz ettay

Pluperfect.

thou hadst been tu eus Hi

tu euz ettay

That I might have

quefeusse iti

keh jeuss ettay

he had been // eut iti

eel eutettay

been

■

■"

io8

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

that thou mightest

have been
that he might have

been
that we might have

been
that you might have

been
that they might have

been

que tu fusses iti

qu'il cut HI
que nous eussions iti
que vous eussies iti
qu'ils eussent iti

keh tu eu« ettay
keel eut ettay

keh nooz cussyongs
ettay

keh vooz eussyaze et-
tay

keels eusst ettay

REGULAR VERBS.

The Infinitives of verbs in the French language have the four fol-
lowing terminations :

er f as in parler, to speak,
/>, in in fint'r, to finish,

ot'r, as in reqevoir, to receive,
re, as in vendre, to sell.
All that precedes this infinitive termination is called the "root " of
the verb.

Verbs which only change their terminations and not their roots are
called "Regular Verbs; " those which change their roots, "Irregular
Verbs."

The verbs ending in'Wr" are all irregular, and the French language
therefore, has in reality only three regular conjugations.
The First Conjugation ends in "er."
The Second Conjugation ends in *'/>."
The Third Conjugation ends in "oir. u
The Fourth Conjugation ends in'V*."
The past participle is formed by adding to the root of the First Con-
jugation an "4," to that of the second an "/," to the fourth a "«/"
as:

Parl-er,

to speak;

parti,

spoken

Fin-ir,

to finish;

fini*

finished.

Ventre,

to sell ;

vendu,

sold.

The student may now proceed to the mastery of
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

FIRST CONJUGATION.

Present.

Parler (parlay), to speak.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Past.

Avoir parli, to have spoken.

PARTICIPLES.

Partant (parlong), speaking. Parli, spoken.

Ay ant parU t having spoken.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

SIMPLE TENSES.

Absolu.
I speak.
ye parts
tu paries
it parte
nous partons
vous partes
Us portent

Imperfect.
I spoke.

yepartais
tu parlais
it partat't
nous portions
vous parties
its partaient

jeh pari
tu pari
eel pari
noo parlong
voo parlay
eel pari

Descriptive.

jch parlay
tu parlay
eel parlay
nooparlyong
voo parly ay
eel parlay

COMPOUND TENSES.

AnUrieur.
I have spoken.
y*ai parti
tu as parti
it a parti
nous avons parti
vous aves parti
Us ont parti

Ptuperfect.
I had spoken.

y*avais parti
tu aval's parti
H avail parti
nous avions parti
vous avies parti
Us avaient parti

Past Definite.
I spoke.
yeparlai
tu par las
ilparta
nous parldmes
vous par hit es
Us par lire nt

Future.
I shall speak.
ye parlerai
tu parler as
ilpartera
nous parlerons
vous par teres
Us parleront

Present.

I should speak.
ye parler ais
tu parlerais
U parler ait
nous parlerions
vous parleries
Us parleraient

Present.

That I may speak.
Que je parte
que tu partes
qu'il parts
que nous portions
que vous parties
qu'ils portent

Imperfect.

That I might speak.
Que fe parlasse
que tu Parlasses
qu'il parldt
que nous partassions
que vous par lassies
qu'ils parlassent

Narrative.

jeh parlay
tuparla
eel pari a
noo parlahme
voo parlahte
eel pari aire

Future.

jeh parlerai
tu parler a
eel parlera
noo parlerong
voo parleray
eel parlerong

Conditional.

jeh parleray

tu parleray
eel parleray
noo parlerceong
voo parlereeay
eel parleray

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

keh jeh pari
keh tu pari
keel pari
keh nooparlyong
keh voo parlyay
keel pari

keh jeh parlaas
keh tu parlaas
keel pariah
keh noo pari assyong
keh voo parlassyay
keel parlass

Past Anterior.

I had spoken.

y*eusforli
tu eus parti
• it eut parti
nous eumes parti
vous cities parti
Us eurent parti

Future Anterior.
I shall have spoken.
y* auras' parti
tu auras parti
it aura parti
nous aurons parti
vous mures parti
Us auront parts

Past.
I should have spoken.
jTaurais parti
tu aurais parti
it aurait parli
nous aurions parti
vous auries parti
its auraient parti

Past.

That I may have spoken.
$$ue f aie parti
que tu aies parti
qu'il ait parli
que nous ay ons parli
que vous my es parli
qu'ils aient parti
Pluperfect.

That I might have spoken.
Quefeusse parli
que tn eusses parti
qufl eut parli
que nous eussions parli
que vous eussies parti
qu'ils eussent parti

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Parle (pari), speak thou parlous (parlong), let us speak

qu'il parte (keel pari), let him speak paries (parlay), speak jn

qu'ils portent (keel pari), let

them speak.

SECOND CONJUGATION.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present.
Finir (feeneer), to finish.

Past.

Avoir fini (teeuce), to have finished.

PARTICirLES.

Finissant (feeneesong), finishing. Fini, finished.

Ayantfini, havingfinished.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

SIMPLE TENSES.

Absolu.

I finish.

yefinis
tu finis

jch feenec
tu feence

COMPOUND TENSES.

Antirieur.

I have finished.
y*aifini
tn as fini

V-

•> -

•— - •'*-

- A

THE FRENCH

LANGUAGE.

109

ilfinit

eel feenee

il afini

THIRD CONJUGATION.

nous finissonz

noo feeneessong

nous avonsfini

INFINITIVE MOOD

vousfinissez

voo feeneessay

vous aviexfini

Present.

Past.

ils finissent

eel feeneess

ils ontfini

Recevoir (ressevouahr), t

Descriptive.

Imperfect.

Pluperfect.

PARTICIPLES.

I finished.

I had finished.

Recevant (ressevong)

receiving, 7?^ck (ressu), received.

Ay ant

requ t having received.

yefinissais

jeh feeneessay

y* avals fini

tufinissais

tu feeneessay

tu avaisfini

INDICATIVE MOOD.

il Jinissait

eel feeneessay

il avait fins'

Present.

nous finissions

noo feeneessyong

nous avionsfini

SIMPLE TENSES.

COMPOUND TENSES.

vousjinissiex

voo feeneessyay

vous aviexfini

Absolu.

Antirieur.

ils finissaient

eel feeneessay

Narrattve.

ils avaientfini

I receive.

I have received.

Past Definite.

Past Anterior.

ye reqois

jehressouah

y'ai requ

I finished.

I had finished.

tu reqois
il reqot't

tu ressouah
eel ressouah

tu as requ
il a requ

*Je finis

j«h feenee

y eus fini

nous recevons

noo ressevong

nous avons requ

tu finis

tu feenee

tu eusfint

vous recevez

voo ressevay

vous avex requ

ilfinit

eel feenee

il eutfini

its reqoivent

eel ressouahve

ils ont requ

nous finlmes

noo feeneem

nous eumesfini

vous finite s
ilsfinirent

voo feeneet
eel feeneer

Future.

vous exitesfini
ils eurentfini

Imperfect.
I received.

Descriptive.

Pluperfect.
I had received.

Future.

Future Anterior.

ye recevais

jeh ressevay

y'avat's requ

I shall finish.

I shall have finished.

tu recevais

tu ressevay

tu avals requ

yefinirai

jehfeeneeray

y'auraifini

il recevait
nous recevions

eel ressevay
noo ressevyong

il avait requ
nous avions requ

tufiniras

tu feeneera

tu auras fini

vous receviez

voo ressevyay

vous aviez requ

ilfinira

eelfeeneera

il aura fini

ils recevaient

eel ressevay

ils avaient requ

nousfinirons

noo feeneerong

nous auronsfini

vousfinirez

voofeeneeray

vous aurezfini

Narrative.

ilsfiniront

eel feeneerong
Conditional.

ils aurontfint

Past Definite.
I received.

Past Anterior.
I had received.

Present.

Past.

ye requs

jeh ressu

yeus requ

I should finish.

I should have finished.

tu requs

tu ressu

tu eus requ

ye finirais

jehfeeneeray

y* aura is fini

il requt

eel ressu

il eut requ

tufimrais

tu feeneeray

tu auraisfini

nous regimes

noo ressume

nous dimes requ

ilfinirait

eel feeneeray

il auraitfini

vous refutes

voo ressute

vous eutes requ

nous finirions

noo feeneereeong

nous aurhns fini

ils requrent

eel ressure

ils eurent requ

vous finiriez

voo feeneereeay

vous auriez fini

Future.

ils finiraient

eel feeneeray

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Us auraient fini

Future.
I shall receive.

Future Anterior.
I shall have received.

Present.

Past.

That I may finish.

That I may have finished.

ye recevrai
tu recevras

jeh ressvray

tu ressvrah

jFaurairequ
tu auras recti

Quejefinisse

kehjeh feeneess

Que f aie fini

il recevra

eel ressvrah

il aura requ

que tufinisses

keh tu feeneess

que tu aiesfini

nous recevrons

noo ressvrong

nous aurons requ

qu'il finisse

keel feeneess

qu'il ait fini

vous recevrez

voo ressvray

vous aurez requ

que nous finissions

keh noo feeneessee-y«r nous ayonsfini

ils recevront

eel ressvrong

ils auront requ

que vous finis siex

ong
keh voo feeneesseeay

que vous ayezfini

Conditional.

Past.

q'uil finis sent

keel feeneess

qu'ils ayentfini

Present.

I should receive.

I should have received.

Imperfect.

Pluperfect.

That I might finish.

That I might have finished.

ye recevrais
tu recevrais

jeh ressvray
tu ressvray

yaurais requ
tu aurais requ

Que je finisse

keh jeh feeneess

$htef eussefini

il recevrait

eel ressvray

ilaurait requ

que tufinisses

keh tu feeneess

que tu eussefini

nous recevrions

noo ressvreeong

nous aurions requ

qu'ilfinit

keel feenee

qu'il eutfini

vous recevrt'ex

voo ressvreeay

vous auriez requ

que nous finissions

keh noo feeneess-

que nous eussions fini

Us recevraient

eel ressvray

ils auraient requ

que vousfinissiex

yong
keh voo feeneessyay

que vous eussiezfini

Present.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Past.

qu'ils finissent

keel feeneess

qu'ils eussentfini

That I may receive.

That I may have received.

IMPERATIVE MOOD

Quej'e reqoive

keh jeh ressouahve

$$uejaie requ

Finis (feenee), finish

finissons (feeneessong), let us

que tu revives

keh tu ressouahve

que tu ales requ

finish

qu'ilreqoive

keel ressouahve

qui! ait requ

qu'il finisse (keel feeneess), finissex (feeneessay), finish y»

que nous recevions

keh noo rcssvyong

que nous ayons requ

let him finish qu'ils finissent (keel feeneess),

que vous receviez

keh voo ressvyay

que eus ay ex requ

let them finish

qu'ils reqoivent

keel ressouahve

qu'ils aient requ

THE FRENCH

LANGUAGE.

Imperfect,

Pluperfect.

Present.

Conditional.

Past.

That I might receive. That I might nave received.

I should sell.

I should have sold.

Queje requsse keh jeh ressuce
quetu requsses keh tu ressuce
qu'il recfkt keel ressu

^uejeusse requ
que tu eusses requ
qu'il exit requ

ye vendrais
tu vendrais
U vendrait

jeh vaundray
tu vaundray
eel vaundray
noo vaundrccong

y*aurais vendu
tu auraiz vendu
il amrait vendu

que nous remissions keh noo ressussyong

que nous eussions requ

nous vendrionz

nous aurions vendu

que vous recusst'ez keh voo ressussyay
qu'ils recussent keelressusse

que vous eussiex requ
qu'ils eussent requ

vons vendriez
Us vendraient

voo vaundrecay
eel vaundray

vous aurit-z vendu
Us auraient vendu

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

fieqois (ressouah), receive thou recevons (ressevong), let ui receive

Present.

Past.

recevez (ressevay), receive ye

That I may sell.

That I may have solo.

y«'i7r*Cff/"iv/(keelressouahve), qu'ils resolvent (keel rcssouahve),

Queje vende

keh jeh vaund

&uefaie vendu

let him receive

let them receive

que tu vendes
qu'il vende

keh tu vaund

keel vaund

keh noo vaundyong

que tu aies vendu

qu'il ait vendu

que nous ayons vendu

que nous vendions

que vous vendiez

keh voo vaundyay

que vous ayes vendu

FOURTH CONJUGATION.

qu'ils vendent

keel vaund

qu'ils aient vendu

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Imperfect.

Pluperfect.

Present.

Past.

That I might sell.
Queje vendisse

keh jeh vaundeess

That I might have sold
Quefeusse vendu

Vendre (vaundr), to sell. Avoir vendu, to have sold.

que tu vendissez

keh tu vaundeess

que tu eusses vendu

Participles*

qu'il vend'U

que nous vendissions

keel vaundee

keh noo vaundeess

qu'il eut vendil

oue nous eussions ven-

Vendant (vaundong), selling. Vendu (vaundu), sold.

Aymnt vendu, having sold.

que vous vendissiez

yong dm
keh voo vaundeessyay que vons euzsiez rendu

INDICATIVE MOOD.

qu'ils vendisseni

keel vaundeess

qu'ils eussent vendu

Present.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

SIMPLE TENSES.

COMPOUND TENSES.

Vends (vong), sell thou vendons (vaundong), let us sell

Absolu.

Antirieur.

vendez (vaunday), sell ye
qu'il vende (keel vaunde), qu'ils vendent (keel vaund),

I sell.

I have sold.

let him sell

let them sell

ye vends Je vong

y*ai vendu

tu vends tu vong

tu as vendu

VOCABULARY OF TKRBS.

it vend eel vong

il a vendu

nous vendons noo vaundong

nous avons vendu

To eat

manger

maunjay

vous vendez voo vaunday

vous avez vendu

to drink

voire

bouahr

Us vendent eel vaund

Us ont vendu

to be thirsty

avoir soif

avouahr souaf

Descriptive.

Imperfect.

Pluperfect.

to be hungry
to breakfast
to dine

avoir faim

dijeikner

diner

avouahr fans;

dayjeunai

decnai

I sold.

' I had sold.

to sup

souper

soopai

ye vendais Jeh vaunday

y*avais vendu

to serve

servir

sareveer

tu vendais tu vaunday

tu avals z>cndu

to carve

t rancher

traunshal

ilvendait eel vaunday

il avail vendu

to smoke

fumer

f urn si

nous vendions noo vaundyong

nous ai'ions vendu

to sneeze

iteruuer

aytairnual

vous vendien voo vaundyal

vous aviez vendu

to cough

tousser

toaMd

Us vtndaient eel vaunday

Us avaient vendu

to think

Penser

paungsal

Narrative.
Past Definite.

Past Anterior.

to reflect
to speak
to say
to repeat

Hftickir

purler

dire

rayflsysheer

pari si
deer

I sold.

I had sold.

riplter

raypaytsi

ye vendis Jeh vaundee

yens vendu

to explain

declarer

dayclarral

tu vendis tu vaundee

tu eus vendu

to be quiet

se taire

sch tare

ii vendit eel vaundee

il eut vendu

to chut

causer

cosay

nous vendlmes noo vaundcem

nous e&mes vendu

to tell

raconter

raccongtai

vous vendltes voo vaundeet

vous elites vendu

to Bjfe

demander

dcmaundal

Us vendirent eel vaundeer

Us eurent vendu

to answer

rf'pondre

raypon^dr

Future.

to reply

rtpliqmer

rayplcckal

Future

Past.

to be mistaken
to object

se tromper
objtcter

sch trompal
objectal

I shall sell.

I shall have sold.

to doubt

douter

dootal

ye vendrai Jeh vaundray

y'aural vendu

to affirm

aJSrmer

affeennal

tu vendras tu vaundrah

tu auras vendu

to prove

Prouvtr

prooval

it vendra eel vaundrah

ilaura vendu

to assure

assurer

assurai

nous vendrons noo vaundrong

nous aurons vendu

to deny

nier

nccai

vous vendres voo vaundray

vous aurez vendu

to maintain

soutenir

sooteneer

Us vendront eel vaundrong

Us auront vend*

to dispute

disputer

disputai

•

* *•

■■■ e

•

S . -

]

^ Q

£*

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

III

ENGLISH.

FRENCH.

PRONUNCIATION".

ENGLISH.

FRENCH.

PRONUNCIATION.

to consent

consentir

congsaunteer

to dress

s'habiller

s'abbeelyai

to approve

approuver

approovai

to draw

tirer

teerai

to praise

iouer

looai

to show

montrer %

mongtrai

to admire

admirer

admeerai

to present

presenter

praysauntai

to blame

bldmer

blahmai

to take

prendre

praundr

to believe

croire

crouahr

to accept

accepter

acceptai

to know

s avoir

savouahr

to refuse

refuser

reffusai

not to know

ignorer

eenyorai

to receive

recevoir

ressevouahr

to imagine

tmaginer

eemajeenai

to spoil

g&ter

gahtat

to compare

comparer

compahrai

to throw

jeter

jettai

to imitate

imiter

eemeetai

to lose

perdre

pairdr *

to forget

oublier

oobleeai

to look for

chercher

shairshai

to remember

se souvenir

seh soovenneer

to find

trouver

troovai

to wish, to will

vou/oir

voulouahr

to hide

cacker

cashai

to desire

disirer

dayseerai

to cover

couvrir

coovreer

to wish

souhaiter

sooaytai

to uncover

dicouvrir

dayeoovreer

to love

aimer

aimai

to roast

rbtir

roteer

to natter

flatter

flattai

to boil

bouillir

booeelyeer

to embrace

embrasser

aumbrassai

to ■weigh

Peser

pezai

to hope

espirer

espayrai

to build

bdtir

bahteer

to rejoice

rijouir

rayjooeer

to sow

semer

semmai

to give

donner

donnai

to pluck

cueillir

kileyeer

to thank.

remercier

remmairceeai

to plant

Planter

plauntai

to esteem

estimer

, esteemai

to reap

ntoissonner

mouahssonnat

to honor

honor er

onorai

to despise

mip riser

maypreezai

VOCABULARY OF

ADVERBS.

to hate

hair

haeer

At first

cTabord

d'abor

to offend

offenser

offongsai

previously

auparavant

oparravang

to tnsult

insulter

angsuhltai

afterwards

en suite

aunsweet

to quarrel

quereller

kerrellai

together

ensemble

aunsaumbl

to swear

jurer

jurai

at last

enfln

aunfang

to punish

Punir

puneer

where

oil

to beat

battre

batre

here

eesee

to weep

pleurer

pleuhrai

there

lah

to sigh

soupirer

sooperai

elsewhere

ailleurs

aeellyure

to regret

regretter

regrettai

above

dessus

dessu

to repent

se repentir

seh repaunteer

below

dessous

dessoo

to excuse

excuser

excusai

within

dedans

deddong *

to pardon

pardonner

pardonnai

without

dehors

dehor

to revenge

venger

vaungjai

everywhere

par tout

partoo

to joke

railler

raeelyai

nowhere

nulle part

nule par

to laugh

rire

reer

en haut

aung ho

to live

vivre

veevr

down

enbas

aung bah

to feel

sentir

saunteer

anywhere

quelque part

kelkeh par

to touch

toucher

tooshai

already

dejd,

dayjah

to taste

gouter

gootal

often

sou vent

souvong

to see

voir

vouahr

sometimes

quelquefois

kelcahfouah

to hear

entendre

auntaundr

in future

& Vavenir

ah l'avneer

to grow

croUre

crouahtr

always

toujours

toojoor

to go

alter

allai

never

jamais

jammay

to go out

sortir

sorteer

soon

bientdt

beeangto

tc return

retourner

retoornat ,

immediately

aussitot

osito

to meet

rencontrer

rauncongtrai

late

tard

tar

to follow

suivre

sweevr

early

tot

to run

courir

cooreer

at present

h present

ah praysong

to jump

tauter

sotai

quickly

vite

veet

to fall

t amber

tombai

at once

tout de suite

too deh sweet

to dance

danser

daungsai

afterwards

Puis

pwee

to play
to ascend

Jouer
monter

jooai
mongtai

yesterday
yesterday evening

hier

hier au sot'r

yare

yare o souahr

to descend
to ait down

descend re

dessaundr

to-day

aujourd*hui

ojoordwee

s*asseoir

sassouahr

to-morrow

demain

, demmang

to lie down

se coucher

seh cooshai

to-morrow morning

demain matin

demraang mattang

to rest

se reposer

seh repozai

to-morrow evening

demain soir

demmang souahr

to sleep

dormir

dormeeer

day after to-morrow

apris' demain

appray demmang

to dream

river

rayvai

enough

asset

assay

to awake

s'dveiller

sayvailyai

too much

trap

tro

1 to get up

se lever

seh lewai

little

Peu

peuh

a —

r~~

"■ a

112

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

ENGLISH.

much
very
more
less

at least

thus

nearly

about

all

altogether

only

well

better

so much the better

bad

worse

rather

without doubt

indeed

on the contrary

scarcely

perhaps

all at once

not at all

not yet

nothing

nothing at all

FRENCH.

PRONUNCIATION.

beaucoup
irks , fort
plus
mains
au mot'ns
si

presque
environ
tout

t out -d.- fait
settlement
hi en
mieux
taut -mi tux
mat
pis

p/utdt

sans doute

en tffet

au contraire

& Peine

peut-tlre

tout- d- coup

Point du tout

fas encore

rien

rien du tout

VOCABULARY OF

with, near
near

in, within

before

behind

below

over

against

far from

on the side of

opposite

round about

Instead of

In the midstof

on thisside

on the opposite side

out of

after

with

since

between

without

for

through, by

against

during

chei ) aupris

pris
dans, en
avant
derriere
sous
sur
vers
loin de
A c6U d*
vis -*.- vts
autour de
au lieu de
au milieu de
en- dec A de
au-Jeld de
hors
aprks
avec
depuis

entre—parmt
sans
Pour
par
contre
Pendant

bocoo
tray, fore
• plu

mouang

o mouang

see

pressk

aungveerong

too

toot-ah-fay

seuhlmong

beeang

meyew

tong meyew

mal

pee

pluto

song doot

aun effay

o con gt rare

ah pane

put-aitr

toot-ah-coo

pouangdu too

pazauncore

reeang

reeang du too

PREPOSITIONS.

shay, opray

pray

dong, aung

avvong

derreeare

too

vare

louang deh
ah cotay deh
veez-ah-vee
otoor deh
o leeyu deh
o millyu deh
aung-dessah de
o-dellah-deh
hor

appray
awec
deppwee
aungtr — parmee
song
poor
par
congtr
paundong

VOCABULARY OF CONJUNCTIONS.

either.. or

neither, .nor

also

but

however

yet

If not

if only

even if

0U..OU

ni..ni
aussi
ma is

ce pendant
Pourtant
si

si non
Pourvu que
ouand mime

00..00

nee.. nee

ossi

may

seppaundong

poortong

tee

see nong

poorvu keh

kaung mcym

although

that is

except that

for

because

why

and

therefore

consequently

FRENCH.

quoique
c* est -h- dire
com me
outre que
ear

parceqne
Pourquoi
et

am si
par consequent

PJIOXUKCIATION.

couak

sait-ah-deet

comm

ootrkeh

car

parsk

poorkouah

angsee

par congsaycong

CONVERSATION IN FRENCH.

HAVING by study of the foregoing made himself
familiar with the salient features of the French gram-
mar, the student will require to learn those niceties
and elegancies of expression which make the French
language the most graceful of ail spoken tongues. These can
be largely acquired by learning by heart the following vacabu-
lary of phrases, which have been collated under different heads
and thus will be the more readily memorized and more certainly
retained.

CONSTANTLY OCCURRING EXPRESSIONS.

Tell me.

If you please.

Have the goodness.

Yes, sir.

Yes, Madam.

Yes, Miss.

No, sir.

Will you tell me?

I thank you.

Do you speak English ?

French?
I do not speak French.

I understand.
I do not understand.
Do you understand?
Give me some bread.
Bring me some coffee.

Thank you.
Good morning.
How do you do?

Very well.

I am very well.

How Is your father?

Dites-moi.
S* it vous plait.
Ayes la bonti.
Out', Monsieur.
Oui % Madame.
Out, Mademoiselle.
Non, Monsieur,
Voules voux me dire ?
ye vous remercie.
Paries vous anglais ?

francais ?
ye ne parte pas /ran -

cats?
ye comprends.
ye ne comprends pas.
Comprenes- vous ?
Donnes moidm pain.
Apportes-moi du ca/d,

Merci.
Bon jour.

Comment vous portes

vous?
Tres-bien.
ye me Porte fort bien.

Comment se ports
monsieur voire pere?

Deet mouah.

Seel voo play.

Aiyai lah bongtal.

Wee, mosseeu.

Wee, madamm.

Wee, madmouazet.

Nong, mosseeu*

Voolai voo men deer.

Jeh voo remmairsee.

Parlal-voo aunglai?
fraunsai ?

Jeh nch pari pah
fraunsai.

Jeh comprong.

Jeh nch comprongpah.

Comprennai-voo.

Donnai mouah du pang.

Apportai-mouah du
caffay.

Mairsee.

Bong joor.

Comroong voo por*
tai voo?

Tray beeang.

Jeh meh port fore bee-
ang.

Comroong seh port
mosseeu voir pare?

How is your mother? Comment ss ports Commong sch port

madams voire mere? mad dam votr mare?
She Is not well. £tle ne se ports pas El nch seh port pah

She is ill.
He U very 111.
She has a cold.
I must go.
Good* by.
Farewell.

bien.
£tle est matade.
It est bien malade.
£tte est enrkumis.
fl/aut partir.
Auplaisir.
Adieu.

beeang.
EI al mallad.
Eel ai beeang mallad.
El ait aunrccmay.
Eel fo parteer.
O playzeer.
Adieu.

^^^

t*r

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.

ENGLISH.

Your servant.

I wish you a good

morning.
Good evening.
Good night.
I wish you good night.

My compliments to

your father.
I will not fail.

What!

Is it possible?

Who would have be*

lieved it I
Indeed 1

It is impossible.
That cannot be.
I am astonished at it.

It is incredible.
I am sorry for it.
It is a great pity.
It is £. oreat misfor-
tune.
I am very glad.
I am very glad of it.
It gives me great joy.

Votrt servileur,

jfe vous souhaite le
bon jour.

Bon soir.

Bonne nuit.

Je vous souhaite une
bonne nuit*

Saluez monsieur vo-
ire pere de ma part,

ye n'y manquerai pas.

SPECULATORY.

Comment I

Sera it • it possible I
Qui Vaurait crut

En viritil
Cela est impossible.
Cela ne sepeutpas.
ye' suis bien itonni.

PRONUNCIATION.

Votr sairveetur.

Jeh voo sooate leh

bong joor.
Bong souar.
Bon nwee.
Jeh voo sooate une bon

nwee.
Salluai mossieu votr

pare deh mah par.
Jeh nee naaunkrai pah.

I wish you joy.
I congratulate
on it.

you

C'est incroj/able.
yen suisf&ehi.
C'est bien dommage,
C'est un grand mal-

neur,
ye suis bien aise.
y'en suis fort aise.
y'en at bien de la

j'oie.
ye vousfdlicite.
ye vous en fat's mon

compliment.

AGE.

Commong!
Serrait-eel posseebl?
Kee loray crul

Ong vereetay.
Slah ait amposseebl.
Slah neh seh peu pah.
Jong swee beean ai-

tonnai.
Sait angcrwoyable.
Jong swee fashah
Say beeang dommaje.
Sait ung grong mal-

tear.

Jeh swee beean aze.
Jong swee fort aze.
Jon ay beeang deh

lah jouah.
Jeh voo faileeseet.
J eh vooze ong fay

mong compleemong.

How old areyou? Quel age avez-vous t Kel ahje avai voo?

I am twenty-two. faivingt-deux ans. Jay vang-deuh ong.

I shall soon be thirty, j'ai bientot trente Jay beeangto traunt

ans. ong.

He looks older. Uparait plus dgi. Eel paray pluze ahjai.

I did not think you ye ne vous croyaispas Jeh neh voo crwoyai
were so old. stage", pah see ahjai.

TO ASK QUESTIONS.

What do you say? Quedites-vous t Keh deet voo?

Do you hear me? M'entendez-vous t Mauntaundai-voo?

I don't sfleak to you. Ce n'est pas a vous Snay paz ah voo keh

queje parle, jeh pari.

Do you understand Me comprenez-vous T Men comprennay voo?

me?
Lis ten. Eeoutez. Aicootai.

Come here. Approchez—vencz ici. Aproshai — Vennaiz

eessee.
What is that? Qu'est-ceque cela t Case keh sla?

Why don'tyou answer? Bourquoi uerepondez- Poorcouah neh raipon-

vous pas t dai voo pah?

What do you mean? Que voulez-vous diret Keh voolai-voo deer?
Don't you speak Ne parlez • vous pas Neh parlai voo pah

French? francaist fraunsay?

Very little, s!r. Bienpeu, Monsieur, Beeang peuh, mossieu.

Do you know Mr. H.? Connaissez-vous M»n- Connaissai voo mos-

sieur H.t sieu H.?

I know him by sight, ye le connmis de vue. Jeh leh connay deh vu.
I know him by name, ye le connais de nom. Jeh leh connay deh

nong.
vVhat doyou call that? Comment appelet-vous Comment applai voo
cela T sla ?

What o'clock is it?
It is near eight.

Light the fire.

I am going to get up.

Ge t me s ome

water.
Make haste.

How have you slept?

Did you sleep well?

ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION.

What does that mean? Qu' est -ce que cela veut Case keh sla veuh deer?

direT
What is that goodfor? A quoicela esl-t'l bont Ah couah sla ait eel

bong?

MORNING CHAT.

Quelle keure est- UT Kel eur ait-eel?

// est pres de knit Eel ai pray deh weet

heures. eur.

Faites dufeu. Fate du feuh.

ye vais me lever. Jeh vay meh levvai.

hot AUez me chercher de Allai meh shairshai
Veatt ckaude. deh lo shode.

Ne soyez pas long- Neh swoyai pah long-

te**ps. tong.

Comment avez • vous Commont aval • voo

J: i- mi t dorm ee ?

Avez-vous bien dormi T Avai*voo beeang dor-
mee?
Very well, thank you. Tres-bt'en, je vous re- Tray beeang, jeh voo

mercie. remmairsee.

Not very well. Pas tres-bien. Pah tray beeang.

I neverwoke all night. jTai dormit tout d'un Jay dormee too dung

somme. som.

I could not sleep. ye n'ai pas pu dormir. Jeh nai pah pu dor-

meer.
I never closed my eyes, ye n'ai pas ftrmi Tail. Jeh nai pah fairmay

Hie.
I have been up this II y a une keure que jr Eel ee ah une eur keh

hour. me suis lev4. jeh meh swee levai.

You are an early riser. Vous ttes matinal. Vooz ait matteenal.

I generally rise early, ye me lev e ordinaire- Jeh meh lave ordee-
ment de bonne heure. naremong deh bon
eur.
Le dejeuner est prtt. Leh daijeunay a* pray-
Le dejeuner est •ilpritf'L.eh daijeunay ait eel

pray?
Venez dejeuner, Vennay daijeunay.

Cela est assez. Sla ait assay.

Bes pet its pains. Day pettee pang.

Do you drink tea or Prenez-vous du thiou Prennay-voo du tay oo

coffee? ducafit ducaffay?

This cream is sour. Cette crime s'est agrie. Set crame sait agree.
Will you take an egg? Veulez - vous manger Voolay • voo maunjay

un ceuft un uf?

These eggs are hard. Ces ceufs son durs. Saze euf son dure.
Pass me the butter. Passes - mot le beurre. Passay mouahlehbeur.
Is the coffee strong Le caf& est - il assez Leh caff ay ait eel assay

enough? fort f fore?

We want more cups. // nous manque desr Eel noo

tasses, tass.

Take some more sugar. Prenez encore du sucre. Prenaze

sucr.
Une rdlie.

Be la viandefroide.
La nappe.
Le sucrier,
Bu ckocolat.
Un couteau,

Ce couteau ne coupe Seh cooto neh coop pas.
Pas.
We have done break- Nous avonsftni de di- Nooz avongfeenee «eh
fast. jeuuer. daijeunay.

AT THE DINNKK-TAHLK.
Show me the bill of Montrez-moi la carte. Mongtray mouah lah

fare. carte.

What soup will you Quelle soupe vous ser- Kel soup voo sairvee-

have? virai-j'e t raije.

Breakfast Is ready.
Is breakfast ready?

Come to breakfast.
That is enough.
Some rolls.

A piece of toast.

Cold meat*

The table-cloth.

The sugar-bowl.

Chocolate.

A knife.

This knife is blunt.

maunk day
auncore du

Une rotee.

De lah veeaund frouad.

Lah nap.

Leh sucreeay.

Du shocolah.

Ung cooto.

ENGLISH.

Maccaronl soup.

Have you any roast-
beef?
Not to-day.
We have very fine fish.

What wines will you

have?
Let us see.
Here is the list.
We shall dine at six

o'clock.
Be punctual.
What shall I help you

to?
Will you take some

soup?
No, thank you.
Willingly.
Help yourself.
Do you take pepper?

Potatoes.

The mustard pot.

Give me a clean fork.

Are you hungry?
I am hungry.
You don't eat.
Are you thirsty?
I am very thirsty.
I am dying of thirst.
Take a glass of wine.

Give me something to

drink.
A cork -screw.

FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION.

De la soup* an muca- Deh lah soup o mac*

roni. aroni.

Av*z ■ vous du btxuf Avay-voo du beuf to-

roll t tee ?

Pas aujourcThui. Paz ojoordwee.

Nous avons de tris -ban Nooz avong deh tray*

poisson. bong pouahssong.

Quels vhts Monsieur Kcl vang mossieu day*

dislre-t-il t zeer-t-eel?

Voyons. Vwoiyong.

En void la lists. Ong vwoysee lah ft sat,

Nous dinerons 6 six Noo deenerons ah

heures. scece eur.

Soyez exact*. Swoyaiz exact.

<%ue vous serviraije T Keh vos sairveeraije?

Voulez-vous un feu de

soupe t
Merci bien.
Trbs-volontiers.
Servez-vous.
Mangez • vous le poivre f

Des pommes de terre.
Le ittoutardier.
Donnez-moi une four-

chette propre.
A vet - vous /aim t
y'ai/aim .
Vous ne mangez pas.
Avez-vous soif*
y'ai bien soif.
ye meurs de soif.
Prenez an verre de vin.

Donnez-moi & bot're.

Un tire-bouchon.

Voolai-vooz ung pcu

deh soup?
Mairsee beeang.
Tray volontyai.
Sairvai voo.
Maunjai voo leh pou-

ahvr.
Day pom deh tare.
Leh mootardyai.
Donnay mouah une

foorshet propr.
Avay-voo fang?
Jay fang.

Voo neh maunjay pah.
Avay voo souaf?
Jay beeang souaf.
Jemeurdeh souaf.
Prennaze ung vair de

vang.
Donnay mouah ah

bouahr.
Ung teer booshong.

TALK AT THE TKA-TABLK.

Tea Is quite ready. Le t/ti est tout prlt.

They are waiting for On vous attend*

you.
I am coming. Me void.

Pour out the tea. Verses le thi.

Bring a saucer. Apportez un* soucoupe.

Ring, If you please.
A little more milk.

What will you take?
A slice of bread and

butter.
H;nul the plate.
Will you take some

cake?
A small piece.
Make some toast.

Make haste.

This is excellent tea.

The tea-tray.

The milk jug.

A set of tea-things.

Brown bread.

White bread.

Stale bread.

New bread.

Sonnez, s'il vous plait.
Encore un peu d* /ait.

&ue prendret-vous t

Une beurrie — une tar-
tine de beurrt.

Passtz Fassiette.

Voulez • vous du gft •
teaut

Un petit moretau.

Faites encore des rd-
ties.

Deptchet-vous.

Voilii d excellent (hi.

L* cabaret.

L* pot au /ait.

Un service*

Du pain bis.

Du fain blanc.

Du pain rassis,

Du pain f rat's.

Leh tay al too pray.
Ong vooz attong.

Meh vwoysee.

Vairsay leh tay.

Apportaze une soo-
coop,

Sounay seel voo play.

Auncore ung peu deh
lay.

Keh praundray voo?

Une beurray — une tar-
teen deh beur.

Passay lassyett.

Voolay voo du gahto?

Ung pettee morso.
Fates auncore day ro-

tee.
Daypayshay voo.
Vwoyla dexcellongtay.
Leh cabbaray.
Leh potc o lay.
Ung sairvecce.
Du pang bee.
Du pang blong.
Du pang rassee.
Du pang fray.

BED-TIME.

FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION.

Itesttard. Eel al tar.

// n' est pa* tard. Eel nay pah tar.

// est encore de bonne Eel ait auncore deh

keure. bon eur.

Etes-vousfaiigut. Ait voo fateegar ?

Point du tout. Pouang du too.

Pas beaucoup. Pa bocoo.

// n'est que dix heures. Eel nay keh deeze eur.
It is time to go to bed. II est Vheur* de secou- Eel al leur deh aeh

cher. cooshay.

Ma chambre est - ell* M a shaumbr ait e

prltef prate?

Allez voir. Allay vouahr.

Un* couverture d* Une coovairture deh

lain*. lane.

Bon soir. Bongsouahr.

a good y* vous souhaite une J eh -voo sooate unebon

bonne nuit. nwee.

jTaisommeil. Jay sommail.

ENGLISH
It is late.
It is not late.
It is still early.

Are you tired?
Not at all.
Not much.
It is only ten.

Is my room ready?

Go and see.
A blanket.

Good night.
I wish you

night.
I am sleepy.

Avez-vous sommeilT Avay-voo sommail?
THE TIME OF DAT.

What o'clock is it by Quelle keure *st-il & Kel eur ait-eel a voti
your watch? voir* montr* t mauntr?

Ell* s'est arrlUe. El sait arraytai.

y'ai oublU d* la man- J ay oobleeay deh la

ter. mauntay.

Ma montr* est *n Ma mauntr ait an

avance. avaunce.

ElUavanc*. EI avaunce.

Elle est en retard. El ait ong retard.

Are you sleepy?

It has stopped.

I forgot to wind it up.

My watch is too fast.

It gains.

It is too slow.

It is a quarter of an Ell* retard* d 'un quart EI retard dung kar

hour too slow.
It goes right.
A quarter to eight.

Midnight.

Noon,

A quarter past one.

II;tlf past four.

d* keure. deur.

Elle N bien. El ra beeang.

If uil heures mains un Wheet eur mouansung

quart. kar.

Minuit. Meemvee.

Midi. Meedee.

Une heure et quart. Une eur ai kar.
guatre heures et demie. K atr cur ai demmee.
Twenty minutes to six. Six heures mains vingt. Seece eur mouang

vang.
It has just struck nine. Neuf heures vi*nntnt Ncuv eur veeyen deh

de sonner. sonnay.

Ten minutes past Sept heures dix mi- Set eur dee meenute.

seven. nutes.

Exactly three o'clock. Trois heures juste. Trouaz eur juste.

The clock is striking. Voild Vhor/oge qui Vwoylalorlojekce son.
tonne.

THE PROMENADE.

Shall we take a little Irons - nous fair* un Eerong noo fare ung
walk? petit tour T pettee BMrl

Willingly. D* tout man ea>ur. Deh too mong keur.

Where shall we go? Par oit irons-nous t Par oo eerong noo?

On the highroad. Sur la grand* rout*. Sure la graunde root.

There is a good deal II jr fait beaucoup d* Eel ec fay bocoo deh
of dust. poussier*. poossyare.

Into the fields. Dans la campagne. Dong la caumpaine.

They are reaping. On moissonne. Ong mwoysson.

They are making hay. On fauck* rkerb*. On foshe lairbe.

What a pleasant scent! Quelle odeur dt'ti- Kcl odeur daileeaee-
cieustl ycusa.

An abundant harvest. Une moisson (une re"- Une mwoyasong (une
colt*) abondante. raicolt) abaundaunte.

Let us cross this field. Trover sons ct champ. Travairsongsehshong,

Which isthewayloA. ?*w-7 est techemin pour Kel at leh shemmang
al/er d A. T pour allay ah A?

-•5=-^

«-*

<9 fh

•

\ "

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 115

ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION.

Where does this road Oil conduit cette route t Oo condwee set root?

We must soon begin // faudra que nous Eel fodrah keh nooz

lead?

fires. ayon s du feu sous peu. ayong du feu soo peu.

Which way am I to go? De quel cotifaut-it que Deh kel cotay fot eel

We have had a fire al- Nous avons dej'a fait Nooz avong dayjahfay

f aillet keh j'aeel?

ready. dufeu. du feu.

Straight before you. A 11 'e x d > o i 't devant Allay drouah devong

It is soon dark. II fait bientot nuit. Eel fay beeangtonwee.

Z'OUS. voo.

It is a fine night. 21 fait une belle nuit. Eel fait une bel nwee.

To the left. A gauche. Ah goshe.

A dark night. Une nuit obscure. Une nwee obscure.

To the right. A droite. Ahdrouate.

Is it moonlight? Fail • it ctair de tune t Fait-eel dare dehlune.

About a mile. Environ un mille. Ongveerong ung meel.

Do you think it will Croyez * vous q u'il Crwoiyai • voo keel

Hardly a mile. A peine un mille. Ah pane ung meel.

rain? pteuvet pleuv?

Let us go in. Rentrons. Rauntrong.

I am afraid so. yen aipeur. Jon ai peur.

It rains. II phut. Eel pleu.
It drizzles. // bruine. Eel brueene.

PERSONAL ENQUIRIES.

Do you know Mr. F. ? Connaissex-vous Mon- Connassay voo mos>

It pours. 21 phut it verse. Eel pleut a vairse.

sieur F.f sieu F.?

It is very windy. It fait bien du vent. Eel fay beeang du vong.

I don't know anybody Je ne connais personne Jeh neh connay pairson

It is winter. JVous voila dans Noo vwoila dong lee*

of that name. de ce nom. deh seh nong.

Phiver. vair.

I know him. ye le connais. Jeh leh connay.

It is very cold. // fait excessivement Eel faitexcesseevmong

Intimately. Inlimement. Angteememong.

froid. frouah.

I am very intimate Je suis tris-lii avec Jeh swee tray leeay

It is bad weather, 21 fait mauvais temps. Eel fay movay tong.

with him. lui, avec lwee.

Cloudy weather. Un temps gris. Ung tong gree.

He is a friend of mine. II est un de mes amis. Eel ait ung deh maze

It is foggy, 21 fait du brouillard. Eel fay du brooillar.

amee.

The sky is overcast, Le cielest pris de tous Leh seeyel ai pree deh

I have known him a Je le connais depuis Jeh leh connay depwee

cote's. too cotay. •

;

long time. longtemps. longtong.

It snows. 2lneige. Eel naje.

He is my brother-in- C'est mon beau-frire. Sai mong bo-frare.

It freezes, II gelt. Eeljale.

law.

Can you skater Savez-vous patiner. Savay voo pateenay?

■

Do you know him? Le connaissex-vous f Leh connaissay-voo.

It thaws. lldigele. Eel daijaie.

I know him very well, Je le connais parfaite- Jeh leh connay parfate-

Christmas. Noel. Noel.

ment. mong.

New Year's day, Lej'our de ran. Le joor deh long.

Where does he live? Ok demeure-t-il t Oo demmeur-t-eel?

Light the fire. Allumez lefeu. Allumay leh feu.

Close by. Icipres. \- Eessee pray.

I am looking for the je chercht les //*• Jeshairshelay pangset.

A step or two from A deux pas d'ici. Ah deu pa deessee.

tongs. cettes.

here.

Are there any coals? T-a-t-it du charbon t Ee at eel du sharbong.

Is it far? Est-celoint Ai-ce iouang.

Tell the servant to Difes a la servante Deets ah lah sairvaun

Can you direct me to Pouvex • vous m'indi- Poovayvoo mandee •

bring some. d'en a/ Sorter. don opportay.

his house? quer samaisonT kay sah maisong?

I will show you where Je vous monlrerai oil Jeh voo mauntrerai oo

GENERAL CONVERSATION.

he lives. // demeure. eel demmeur.

Cin you read French? Pouvez-vous tire le Poovay voo leer leh

THE SEASONS.

francais t f raunsay ?

You read very well. Vous lisez tres*bien. Voo leesay tray beeang.

Spring has come. Voilti. le printemps ar. Vwoila leh prangtongs

Do youspeakFrench? Partez-vous francais T Parlay voo fraunsay?

;

rivi. arreevay.

I speak it a little. Je le parte un peu. Jeh leh pari ung peu.

■

It is still cool. // fait tonjours un peu Eel fay toojoors ung

I do not understand it, je ne le comprends pas. Jeh neh leh compcong

■

frais. peu fray.

pah

The trees are begin- Les arbres commencent Laiz arbr commaunse

How long have you Depuis quand Pap' Depwee kong lappre-

ning to bud. & boutonner. ah bootonnnay.

learned? prenez voust nay voo?

The season is very for- La saison est Hen Lah saizon ai beeang

A short time only, Depuis peu de temps. Depwee peu deh tong.

ward. avancie. avaunsay.

You pronounce very Vous prononcez tris Vooz pronongsay tray

The season is very La saison est bien re- Lah saizon ai beeang

well. bien. beeang.

backward. tardee. retarday.

You have a very good Vous aver Vacoent Vooz avay lacsong tray

Summer is coming. L'iti approche. Lettay approshe.

accent. tr'es-pur. pure.

It is becoming warm. // commence & /aire Eel commaunse a fare

Do you understand? Comprenez-voust Comprenay voo?

chaud. sho.

It is no matter. Ce n*est rien. Snay reeang.

I am very warm. J'ai bien chaud. Jay beeangsho.

I am come to tell you. ye viens vous dire. Jeh veeang voo deer.

It is very warm. Ilfait tres-chaud. Eel fay tray sho.

I don't think much of ye n*en fat's pas grand Jeh nong fay pah grong

It is a fine day. C est un beau jour. Sait ung bo joor.

it. cis. cah.

The heat is unbearable. La chaleur est insup- Lah shalleur ait ang-

No sooner said than Aussitot dit, aussitot Osseeto dee, osseeto

portable. supportabl.

done. fait. fay.

.Let us go Into the Allons dans V ombre. Allong dong lombr.

I can bear It no longer, ye n*en puis plus. Jeh nong pwee plu.

shade.

She took it in bad part. £11* Pa pris en mau- El lah preez on movaze

I think we are going Je crois que nous Jeh croah keh nooz

vaise part. par.

to have a storm. aurons de Forage. orong de Iorahje.

I like being here. ye me plat's t'ci. Jeh me plaze eessee.

Summer is over. Voilnriti passi. Vwoila lettay passay.

I have been told. On m*a dit. Ong mah dee.

The leaves are begin. Lesfeuilles commenccnfLay file commaunst a

As much as I can. Autant qu*il est en mot. Otong keel ait ong

ning to fall. itomber. taumbay.

mouah.

The days are still fine. Les jours sont encore Lay joor sont auncore

So much the more. A plus forte raison. Ah plu fort raisoag.

fort beaux. fore bo.

I value it very much. y\y tie us bcaucoup. Jee teeang bocoo.

[

• "

"-J— e>

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

;F the importance to all classes of a legi-
ble, easy and rapid handwriting, we
scarcely need speak. No other one
attainment assists an equal number of
young ladies and gentlemen to positions of profit
and advancement, or affords more satisfaction
as an accomplishment ; and we believe it to be
an acquirement within the reach of all persons
having common sense and one good hand.

It has been the determination of the publish-
ers of this work to spare no pains or expense to
place before the student the very best instruction
and examples in every department of Penman-
ship. They accordingly employed Prof. D. T.
Ames, of New York, the famed pen artist, and
editor of the Penman's Art Journal, to prepare,
specially for this work, the following pages of
instruction and examples. It is their belief that
the instruction embodies the best thought of
the times, while the copies and specimens are
certainly the product of the highest order of
artistic skill.

All the copies and specimens have been photo-
engraved directly from the original pen-and-ink
copy, and therefore may be said to be actual
pen-work, and not the result of the engraver's
skill, as is generally the case with what has
heretofore been presented to the public as repro-
ductions of penmanship.

The learner will, therefore, know that the
copies before him, having once been executed
with a pen, may be exactly reproduced by the
same simple process.

If, in some instances, the forms are less rigidly
correct, or the lines less delicate than are fine
plate engravings, we are fully convinced that the
more easy, flowing and natural lines of the
actual pen-work will more than compensate for
such lack, if so it may be termed.

The publishers are confident that no equally
practical and useful exposition of teaching and
practicing the art of Penmanship has ever been
presented to the public.

4£

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

117

^P0SITI0HS.4^

1 IRST in importance to the pupil in writing is a CORRECT
Position. As in logic an error in the premises must
lead to false conclusions, so a bad position while learn-
ing to write must lead to failure. It is only when in
a correct position that the pen, even in the hand of its skillful
master, is capable of producing the smooth, graceful line, shade
and curve so essential to good writing. If such is the fact when
in a master's hand, how doubly so it is in the undisciplined and
struggling hand of the learner !

It is also important that a proper position be maintained at
the table or desk, as well as the relative positions of the pen,
hand, paper, desk and body.

Each of three posi-
tions at the desk has
more or less advo-
cates, and each, in
our opinion, is com-
mendable, according
to the circumstances
of the writer. We
give each position,
with the reasons urged
in their favor.

Right Position. —
Turn the right side
near to the desk, but
not in contact with it.
Keep the body erect,
the feet level on the
floor. Place the right
arm parallel to the
edge of the desk, rest-
ing on the muscles
just forward of the
elbow, and rest the hand on the nails of the third and fourth
fingers, not permitting the wrist to touch the paper. Let the
hands be at right angles to each other, and rest on the book,
keeping the book parallel to the side of the desk.

This position is advocated as furnishing the best support for
the hand and arm while writing, and we think not without jus-
tice in school or class rooms, where the desk is often sloping
and narrow.

Front Position. — In this,
the same relative position of
hand, pen and paper should be
maintained as described in the
former one. In commercial col-
leges and writing academies,
where more spacious desks, or
tables, are used than in the
common school room, this posi-
tion is permissible and is fre-
quently adopted. fmokt fu^hion

RIGHT POSITION.

Left Position. — Without illustrating this position, we would
say that the left side is presented to the desk, and the same rela-
tive positions maintained as in the right and front. This position
is advocated on the ground of its relieving the right arm from
being burdened with any support of the body while writing, and
thus "giving a more free, rapid and less tiresom - action to the
hand and arm. This argument has considerab 3 force where
the fore-arm or muscular movement is practiced.

It is also the most convenient, if not a necessity, in the count-
ing-room, where numerous and large books are required to
remain in a position at right angles with the desk, and also in
the execution of large drawings or specimens of penmanship,
which necessarily, or most conveniently, occupy positions directly
in front of the artist.

Right Oblique Position. — Another position at the desk,
sometimes advocated by authors and teachers, is the right
oblique, which is a position between the front and side, as

illustrated below.
In our opinion,
the question which
of these positions
is to be adopted
is not of such
vital importance
as that the prop-
er relative posi-
tion of pen % hand
and paper should
be maintained, and
thatthearm should
be perfectly free
from the weight
of the body while
writing.

Position of Pen
and Arm. — Take
the pen between
the first and second
fingers and thumb,
letting it cross the forefinger just forward of the knuckle, and
the second finger at the root of the nail, three-fourths of an inch
from the pen's point. Bring the point squarely to the paper
and let the tip of the holder point toward the right shoulder.
The thumb should be bent outward at the first joint, and
touch the holder opposite the first joint of the forefinger.

The first and second fingers should touch each other as far as
the first joint of the first finger; the third and fourth must be
slightly curved and separate from the others at the middle joint,
and rest upon the paper at the tips of the nails. The wrist
must always be elevated a little above the desk. This position
of the pen is undoubtedly the best for all writers using the
finger movement, as it admits of the greatest freedom and facil-
ity of action of the fingers. But among writers using the
muscular movement, where less depends upon the action of the
fingers, it is common, and we think well, to allow the holder to

RIGHT OBLIQUE POSITION.

<a ».

118

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

£,

fall back and below the knuckle joint. It is more easily held,
and, from its forming a more acute angle with the paper, moves
more readily and smoothly over its surface.

Finger Movement is the combined action of the first and
second fingers and thumb.

Fore- Arm M vement is the action of the fore-arm sliding the
hand on the na.is of the third and fourth fingers.

Cmbined Movement is that which is most used in business
penmanship. It is a union of the fore-arm with the finger
movement, and possesses great advantage over the other move-
ments in the greater rapidity and ease with which it is employed.

Whole-Arm Movement is the action of the whole arm from
the shoulder, with the elbow slightly raised, and the hand
sliding on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, and is used
with facility in striking capital letters and in off-hand flourishing.

SCALE OF SLANT.

Main Slant. — A straight line slanting to
j the right of the vertical, forming an angle of
10 S 2 ° w ' tn the horizontal, gives the main slant
o for all written letters.

Connective Slant. — Curves which connect straight lines in
small letters, in a medium style of writing, are usually made on
an angle of 30 . This is called the connective slant. See dia-
gram.

Base Line. — The horizontal line on which the writing rests
is called the base line.

Head Line. — The horizontal
line to which the short letters
extend is called the head line.

Top Line. — The horizontal
line to which the loop and capi-
tal letters extend is called the
top line.

A Space in Height is the
height of small i.

A Space in Width is the width of small «.

The distance between the small letters is 1 }£ spaces, measured
at head line, except in the a, d, g and q. The top of the pointed
oval in these letters should be two spaces to the right of a pre-
ceding letter.

Upper and Leaver Turns. — In the analysis of small letters,
short curves occur as connecting links between the principles.
These curves we call turns. When one appcan at the lop of a
letter, it is called an upper turn ; when at the base, it is called
a lower turn.

MOVEMENT EXERCISE.

All instruction in penmanship should be initiated with a
Bberal aM of movement exercises, arranged and practiced
with the view of facilitating upward and downward as well
as lateral movement of the hand, and each and ever)'
should be preceded by more or less practice upon movement
exercises.

POSITION OK PFN AND ARM

CARE IN PRACTICE.

In practicing upon movements and writing, it should be con-
stantly borne in mind that it is not the amount of practice so
much as the careful and thoughtful effort to acquire precision
and certainty that determines the success of the writer.

It is often said that " practice makes perfect." This is true,
if the term practice implies thoughtful, patient and persistent
effort for improvement; otherwise it may be quite untrue.

Thoughtless scribbling tends rather to retard than to enhance
the acquisition of good writing. Each time a copy has been
carelessly repeated, incorrect or bad habits have been confirmed
rather than corrected — a move backward instead of forward.
This is a fact not sufficiently appreciated by teachers or pupils.
Better far not to practice than to do so carelessly ; one might as
well seek to win a race by occasionally taking a turn in the
opposite direction.

Good or well-constructed writing is no more essential than
that it should be executed with facility and ease ; yet we would
have no learner fall into the mistaken idea that he is to give
special attention to speed before having acquired by deliberate
study and practice correct forms and proportions in writing.
First accuracy, then speed. Rapid and thoughtless practice is
worse than useless. The mind must be educated before the
hand. The hand and pen are only the servants of the mind, and
as such can never surpass the mind's conception and power to
guide and direct in any performance.

If upon the tablets of the mind there is presented constantly
to our mental vision a perfect
copy of the letters and their
varied combinations into grace-
ful writing, the hand will strike
for the single and definite pur-
pose of reproducing the same,
and will progress steadily to the
attainment of skill requisite for
the reproduction of the most
perfect conceptions of the mind'.
The hand of the greatest sculptor or artist has no cunning not
imparted by a skillful brain. Michael Angelo was the chief of
artists, because of his superior mental conception of art, and
may we not suppose that the untouched canvas presented to his
mental vision all the grandeur and beauty in design ami finish
that delighted the eye of the beholder when finished into the
[quistte painting? The hand can never excel the con-
cept inn of the mind that educates and directs its action. If
Spencer or Flickinger excel others in the perfection and beauty
of penmanship, is it not because of their superior conception of
that in which superior penmanship consists? The student who
would have success must sec that his practice is preceded by
and always attended with thoughtful study and criticism.

I having once written the copy, study and criticise your
effort before the next trial. Your faults noted, and a thought as
to how they may be lust Corrected will enable you to make an
intelligent and successful effort for improvement. Remember
that unknown faults can never be avoided or corrected. First

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

II 9

study to discover, and then to mend. Short exercises or copies,
if rightly practiced, are much more favorable for improvement
than long ones, inasmuch as they are repeated at intervals so
short as to keep faults and criticisms fresh in mind, while oft-
repeated efforts for correction will be correspondingly effective.
Faults observed by ourselves or pointed out by others at the
beginning of a long copy are very likely to be out of mind
before that portion of the copy in which they occur is repeated.

WRITING NOT A SPECIAL GIFT.

It is often said that good writing is a "special gift." This
idea is not only fallacious, but is exceedingly pernicious as
regards the acquisition of good writing, inasmuch as it tends to
discourage pupils who write badly, by leading them to believe
that, not having "the gift," they are debarred from becoming
good writers.

Good writing is no more a gift than is good reading, spelling,
grammar, or any other attainment, and in the same way it is and
can be acquired, viz., by patient and studious effort.

The correct form and construction of writing must be learned
by study, while practice must give the manual dexterity for its
easy and graceful execution. Many persons fail to become
good writers from not properly uniting study and practice.
Careful study with too little practice will give writing compara-
tively accurate in its form and manner of construction, but
labored, stiff and awkward in its execution; while, upon the
other hand, much practice with little study imparts a more easy
and flowing style, but with much less accuracy, as regards the forms
of letters and general proportion and construction of the writing,
which will commonly have a loose and sprawly appearance.

Example of writing which has resulted more from study than
practice :

Example of writing in which there has been more practice
than study:

% ^a(/l^>7laS)

The result of study properly combined with practice:

Undoubtedly, many of our readers will see forcibly illustrated
in one of these examples their own experience. So manifest is
the effect of these different modes of practice that we have only
to glance at a piece of writing to discern the extent to which a
writer has combined study with practice while learning to write.

UNITY AND- SIMPLICITY OF FORM.

It is an old but true saying that " a jack of all trades is master
of none." This is so from the fact that, working at many
things, neither the hand nor brain can attain to a high order
of proficiency or skill. It is the specialist that advances the
standard of progress in all the directions of human discovery.
Concentration of thought and action makes the great masters of
the world, while by a diffusion of the same the greatest genius
is dissipated and fails to attain to a marked degree of eminence.

So, in learning to write, the pupil who vacillates between
many systems and multitudinous forms of letters must inevitably
fail of becoming an expert and skilful writer.

It is a matter of frequent observation that persons learning or
practicing writing vacillate between from two to six different
forms of the capitals, and as many as are possible in the small
letters, apparently in the belief that variety is the chief element
of good writing, which is a double mistake, as it detracts from
the good appearance of the writing at the same time that it
enhances the difficulty of learning and of executing it.

For example, we have known writers who, in executing a
short piece of writing, would for many of the letters make use
of forms as varied and numerous as follows:

and use more or less variety in all of the letters, thus requiring
study and practice upon about one hundred different and unnec-
essarily complicated forms for the alphabet, in place of twenty-
six. Thus the labor and uncertainty of becoming a skillful
writer is magnified fourfold. A single and simple form for each
letter, capital and small, should be adopted, and, with a few
exceptions, which we shall hereafter explain, should be invaria-
bly practiced. The frequent and uniform repetition will
impart that accuracy of form, grace and facility of execution
which constitute good writing.

The simple forms are not only more easily acquired and
more rapidly executed, but they are more easily read than the
more ornate styles ; in fact, those forms that cost the most are
worth the least. It is as if a merchant should constantly pur-
chase an inferior class of merchandise and pay the high price
of the best; his chances for success certainly would not be very
promising.

ECONOMY OF FORM.

Labor, whether of the clerk or mechanic, is rewarded accord-
ing to the results it can produce.

The copyist or clerk who can write one hundred words
equally as well in the same time that another writes fifty will
certainly, other things being equal, command twice as much
pay. The rapidity with which writing can be executed depends
largely upon the simplicity of the forms of letters used and the
si/o of the writing. A medium or small hand is written with
much more ease and rapidity than a large hand, from the fact
that the pen can be carried over short spaces in less time and
with greater ease than over long ones', and can execute simple

■ .-

120

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

forms more easily and rapidly than complicated ones. To illus-
trate : Suppose one writer were to habitually make the capital
R thus :

Which requires eleven motions of the hand to
execute ; and that another were to uniformly make
it thus:

/-~y Requiring only four motions of the hand. It is
/ J/ apparent that the difference of time required to make
\^y L eacn cannot be less than the proportion of eleven to
four. That is not all. The complicated form consists of many
lines, some of which are required to run parallel to each other,
and all made with reference to balancing or harmonizing with
some other line, and requires to be made with much greater care
and skill than the more simple form, so that the disadvantage is
even greater than indicated by the simple proportion between
eleven and four.

The practice of these complex forms of the alphabet will be
fatal to rapid and legible business writing.

These remarks are intended to apply more especially to busi-
ness and unprofessional writing. Where show and beauty are
of greater consideration than dispatch, variety ar.1 complexity
of forms are quite proper, and even necessary.

We give here the entire alphabet of capitals such as we
would recommend for all business purposes, as combining sim-
plicity of form and ease of construction :

at ' @ ' J>US cf

o# of o (? a

Of- a, y. g.

We would add as not objectionable the following:

CORRECT PROPORTION ESSENTIAL TO
GOOD WRITING.

One might be able to execute faultlessly each single letter of

the alphabet, and yet be a most miseraUe writer. Writing, to

lly good, must be harmonious in all its ports; tetter* must

portlonat* to each other, properly connected, ipaced, have

D uniform slope and degree of pen-pressure, etc., as well at an

easy and graceful movement. The following example will
illustrate the bad effect of disproportion of letters :

It will be seen that each letter, taken by itself, is creditably
accurate in form, and yet, when associated with each other in a
word, they present an appearance as ungainly as would an ox
yoked with an elephant. We have often seen writing in which
the letters were really badly formed, yet so harmonious in their
combinations, and easy in their construction, as to present an
attractive, not to say an elegant, effect; while, upon the other
hand, we have often seen writing in which the letters were well
formed, and yet so awkward in their combinations, and labored
in their execution, as to be really painful to the sight of persons
having a refined and correct taste regarding writing.

CORRECT AND INCORRECT SPACING.

Another important factor of good writing is the proper spac-
ing and connecting of letters and words. Upon these very much
depends, as in many instances the connecting lines alone impart
the distinctive character to letters.

In determining the proper spacing of writing, the distance
between the straight lines of the small u may be taken as a
space in width. The distance between the parts of letters hav-
ing more than one downward stroke should be one space ;
between the letters one and one-fourth spaces, measured at the
head line, except a, d, g and f, which should occupy two spaces,
measuring from the preceding letter to the point of the ovals;
between words there should be two spaces.

Example of correct spacing :

Incorrect spacing:

(jlltt^Mt^U&s&fs*

% SLANT OF WRITING.

The degree of slant now adopted by the leading authors, and
one which we approve, is at an angle of 52 from the horizon-
tal, as per diagram in a preceding column.

The relative effects of incorrect and correct slope may be
seen in the following examples:

The variation in the slope of different letters and their parts
will be rendered much more perceptible by drawing straight
extended lines through their parts, thus :

-• a

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

121

One of the most common faults in slope occurs on the last
part of letters m, n, u, h and /, which are made thus :

Example of correct slant, space, proportion, etc. :

SIZE OF WRITING.

In its practical application to the affairs of life, writing must
be greatly varied in its size, according to place and purpose.

It would be obviously bad taste to use the same size and style
of writing for the headings of a ledger and other books of
account or record that would be employed on the body of a
page. In the address of a letter and superscription upon the
envelope much greater license, as regards size and style, may be
taken than in the body of the writing. Nor is it practical at all
times to maintain a uniform size for body writing. It may,
with propriety, be written larger upon wide than narrow-ruled
paper. Care should always be taken to gauge the size of the
writing according to the space in and the purpose for which it
is to be written. This should be done by varying the scale
rather than the proportions of the writing. When writing upon
ruled paper we should always imagine the space between the
lines to be divided into four equal spaces, three of which may
be occupied by the writing ; the fourth must not be touched,
save by the downward extended letters from the line above.
This open space between' the lines separates them, and enables
the eye more readily to follow and distinguish between the lines
when reading. A small or medium hand is the best, both as
regards the readiness with which it is read and the ease and
rapidity of its execution.

In a large hand, the writing is apt to be more or less inter-
mingled and confused, the loops of one line often cutting into
and obscuring the writing upon other lines, while the more
extended sweeps of the pen in the large writing are proportion-
ately slow and tedious.

For legibility, ease and rapidity of execution, small, unshaded
writing is decidedly the best.

HOW TO LEARN ANE TEACH
WRITING.

CONSPICUOUS FAULTS.

To note and indicate all the faults liable to occur in writing,
or to prescribe a cure-all remedy, is more than we presume to
undertake. They are as numerous and varied as are the cir-
cumstances, habits, tastes and accomplishments of the writers;
but it is quite safe to say that a very large proportion of all the
"unpleasantness" in writing comes from sheer carelessness on

the part of the writers, which is manifest in the awkward, non-
descript or uncertain forms which are employed — forms often
most easy and graceful, but which, taken separately, represent
no intelligible character, and, apart from the context, are liable
to be mistaken for any one of the several letters that are similar
in their construction. This fault is specially grievous where it
occurs in an initial letter, in short names, abbreviations and
cipher writing, as in such cases the context furnishes the reader
little or no aid.

Another prolific source of annoyance, and not unfrequently
illegibility, arises from the inexcusable use of flourishes and
superfluous lines. We say inexcusable, because, at best, they
mix and confuse the writing, and, when hurriedly and carelessly
made, they frequently take forms which are liable to be mis-
taken by the reader for letters or parts of letters, and thereby
puzzle and annoy, if not entirely change the intent of the
writer. Another frequent fault is the personal eccentricity
which leads writers to adopt, as their style, forms for letters, and
especially capitals and in autographs, which are entirely outside
the pale of any known system of writing, and whose identity
can only be guessed at by those unfamiliar with the peculiarity.

While, as we have stated, it is quite impossible to name all
the sources of bad writing, or to formulate rules for its pre-
vention or correction, we do believe that there are many of the
most common faults — among which are those enumerated
above— that with a little thought and care may be avoided.

To aid the student, as far as possible by negative instruction,
to avoid some of the more common and inexcusable faults, we
have formulated a few rules, with examples illustrative, which
we here present.

Rule First. — All unnecessary, superfluous or flourished lines
must be omitted ; as :

Rule Second. — No capital letters or words should be joined
together; as :

tor

.. £—Jt

arl

122

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

A'ult Third. — Capital letters should not be joined to the
smaller letters; as:

^L&J&riy for ^U/dn/

Rule Four. — The capital T should never be looped at the
top; as:

Several expensive litigations have grown out of the delivery
of messages having the latter combination, as Seventy when it
was written for Twenty, or vice versa, by the sender of the
dispatch. We are not informed respecting the precise circum-
stances of any of the cases, but, supposing the error to have been
in orders to buy twenty thousand bushels of grain, shares of
stock, or other thing of similar value, the consequence might
have been serious.

Rule Five. — A capital // should never be so made as to be
mistaken for an A or other combination ; as :

Rule Six. — Cross all /'s with a single horizontal line at the top.

A telegraph dispatch addressed as above was taken down and
sent to Ha-Hi-E, who was not known at the street and number
to which it was directed, and it was consequently returned ; and
when the error was discovered, and traced to the operator who
made it, he was asked how he came to make such a mistake, and
whom he supposed lla-Hi-E to be. The operator replied,
" Some Indian Chief or Chinese " — a very natural supposition
in such a city of all peoples as is New York.

Rule Set en. — The capital /should always be made above the
line, while the J should extend below. Otherwise, when used
as initials or in cipher-writing, they cannot be distinguished with
certainty.

Rule Eight. — The small .t should never be made with the
loop below the line, as it is liable to be mistaken for a/ or f; as :

fbrMrft/

Rule A'ine. — Letters should be connected in their parts, and
with other letters, by the proper and characteristic curved or
straight lines. It is a common and grievous fault in writing that
a straight line or the wrong curve is employed in the construc-
tion and connection of letters, thus leaving them without dis-*
tinctive character, or imparting one which is false and misleading.
For instance, a form made thus y/^^ may be taken for
an /7^/,* ^4/- and, possibly, for a sC& . Incases
where the context docs not determine, its identity becomes a
mere matter of guess, and when extended thus /fsfiff^
its significance, as will be seen, is still more vague and uncertain,
as it might be intended for either of the following seven
combinations :

With a pro|>crly trained hand no more time or effort is
required to impart the true and unmistakable characteristics to
each letter than to make forms whose identity is open to doubt
ami conjecture.

— ©

"71

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

123

Rule Ten. — No letter should have a doubtful form, such as
may be mistaken for one of several letters ; as :

r -

# . of' or Or .

fad*

J*/Sr/0^a/; ^Cfif.

Rule Eleven. — All eccentric form6 and conspicuous personal
oddities, which so often render writing, and especially auto-
graphs, illegible, should be avoided; as:

for

cfir

^rt This example was used as an initial letter in
f*~tr a communication recently received. In address-
ing the author we could only do as we are
often obliged to do with doubtful initials — make a facsimile,
and leave it to the postmaster to decipher at the office of delivery.
Writers should remember that short names and initial letters,
when carelessly written, are very liable to be misread, from the
fact that no aid can be derived from the context.

A large proportion of letters which miscarry through the
mails do so from the careless manner in which they are super-
scribed. As an example, let us suppose that a writer desires to
address an important communication to

but he hurriedly and carelessly superscribes it thus :

</^.se$iW^

-^r

The abbreviation for the name of the State (Cal.) is so
indefinite that the letter goes first to Colorado, but, there being
no Herman or Sherman in that State, it is finally re-directed to
Herman, Cal. The initial S and following letter h being of so
indefinite and doubtful a character, they together were naturally
mistaken for an H, but, there being no Herman post-office in Cali-
fornia, the mistake is finally discovered by a distributing agent,
and the letter is again re-directed to Sherman, Cal.; here the H
in Howell is read St, and accordingly the letter is placed in S
box for general delivery ; not being called for, it is at length
advertised in the list of undelivered letters, thus : /. A. Stowell.
The J, having been made above the line, is mistaken for an /,
while the initial H is so nearly closed at the top that it is mistaken
for an A. After being duly advertised, the letter is sent to the
Dead Letter Office at Washington, and from there returned,
after several weeks, to the writer. J. H. Howell, in the mean-
time, has enquired daily for letters at the Sherman post-office,
when the delivery clerk has looked in the H box and answered,
" Nothing." Mr. Howell has also carefully scanned every list
of advertised letters, but never could he have imagined that the
letter advertised for I. A. Stowell was the one he had so long
and anxiously looked for.

It is just such errors as those above described that cause a
large percentage of the miscarriages of mail matter.

124

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

fflOYEMENT GXEI^GISBS.

■-;;:■

Much patience should be devoted by the learner to practice
upon movement exercises, for the purpose of disciplining and
bringing under perfect control the motions of the hand and arm.

The following will serve a good purpose, and, with the
copies following, will be a guide to a course of twenty lessons,
with or without the aid of a teacher :

PRINCIPLES

/ y s

COPIES.

z^arma&z/

<f<

/V7~<V7— ,,

•

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

125

z4a^n^n^iy

(fj^ZS ^d*ZUS'l&7Z£6'

/^^2^^^a^m^

6*^

lavwu^UJ/

/cT

(& (fa <J^W<^

/f 0^(XQ^^

/r\

i¥

m/Cy

'MW?/^teCC&ld<

■

<m r

126

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

3 G/^ni^k^/a^y^a^xk^/a^^ (um6

6 C^7^^^^^^^^^/^^^^ CM^tts

7 jZtentJjte^J^

/^^S^^^^^^^^^^^^^^r dtsUds

f i/ud£c^sur?*zm4^/n^^

/tf &un<mv^^A^

// O^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Q^??^

/& C^i^/prrrpTVU/stUtw^

/J (LM^^P^iTT^y^U^

— \l

•

<* »

5 •

=7?

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

I27

/ yO<

/^j3W,

/ZT~

'yU^^ri^C^i

V€^^U^m^A^9Z^U^<

/r\

'/M£€zfcs<M&:

/^(^fe^%i^>^^^^^c^^^^r

J&0 u^^^^^^<^^k^^^<

K-

128

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

SCALE OF

SLANT.

-I . • » // / r

PRINCIPLES.

ZZL

■s — 1 — / * / *—

•

SCALE OF PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS.

ZZ33

1 r, W&

rf^rf^y^:/r/

\jj;//r ;js /j y sw/js'~W-

•te

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

I29

STANDARD ALPHABETS.

/ d f ^ /

/OS*

>«%>^^4^^^

/£<$4t<f6z<rf0.

ABBREVIATED CAPITALS FOR BUSINESS.

EXTENDED LETTERS FOR LADIES' EPISTOLARY WRITING.

<^OW&

/as.

'/TW/Tl/sV,

's/s^& /&^f^s/v>e/s4Me'sv's*

Jr^/is^m sprr /^fe^^

r ^tw

y?n<awne<r.

7 s^sjrwu4>£dfUif .

SI S) SI // SI * SI Si rt/f

Y-

\a^-

«- -» 9 >

N A

130 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

C^W%5z£z^%^> (^M^ca^zZ^ L^rmfifims ^^J^Utana^n^ (O/?

♦

9. 4k.

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

'3»

V';V.-^;

WHOLE-ARM CAPITALS.— PLAIN.

/0F~

WHOLE-ARM CAPITALS.— FLOURISHED.

132

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

*f^um<r?zrr^

ROUND WRITING FOR HEADINGS.

'^ta^£c^

V-

=7f

€uO€€M> /0. /<T<&

i/OWl^U>

z4/.Q?sc4s

yO^ny^n^

P s44^/2WZ<t4/^ / ?w/z4<'7?i

fawtrtz/wze/sun

cn^yS^n€/t^a^n^y ^r^Ji^^t^u

?//fy?l

^^^^^^^^^^^^//^^^

/^sru^/OWM^u/sG-

^tlJt^tH^sU^.

^n^zzny, ' y ^'94^/a>cd^s/i>t04i<d<es'^t / 1

tzsm^.

tsrW/0Z

744< /,J

^Am^Cx^^

I34 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

**£

S^UVWUU^ C< {J^ftrz^cri^

V-

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

'35

^rti^tie •:• epenman^ip.

-^ — " g>$g^ 4/

^jlpmEN embellishment is one of the oldest and
: j-/ most useful of the arts. In ancient times,
2_ [<Mt before the discovery of the art of printing,

^t the pen was not only the sole recording
agent, save the chisel, but the chief implement
of art. All manuscript books were the tedious
productions of the pen. These were often elab-
orately embellished with ornate lettering and
various styles of ornament. The more ancient
styles of ornamentation were of the scroll and
grotesque order. Mythical figures of gods,
dragons, genii and all manner of imaginary
forms figured conspicuously in ornamentation.
Later, beginning with about the sixteenth cen-
tury, in nearly all of the French, English and
American published works upon penmanship,
off-hand flourishing was the predominant mode
of pen embellishment, which appeared in all
manner of forms, from a simple sweep of the pen
to elaborate designs representing birds, beasts,
dragons, fishes and all manner of fanciful
designs. This order of embellishment, although
greatly modified from the masters of a few
centuries ago, is still a conspicuous element in
the penman's as well as the engraver's art, and
is, therefore, entitled to consideration in any
work of the present time devoted to artistic
penmanship. The art of flourishing is not only
desirable as an accomplishment to the pen
artist, but its practice tends to discipline the hand
and eye, so as to impart greater ease and dex-
terity in the execution of practical writing.

Recently, through the introduction of the
various photographic processes for transferring

and printing pen drawings, new demands have
been made upon the penman's art. The pen
artist is now called upon to execute all manner
of designs which have hitherto been strictly
within the province of the engraver, and such
designs must be produced not only with a
degree of care and perfection, but in a style to
meet and rival the various classes of engraving
with which they must compete.

Through this exacting demand, the styles of
lettering and ornamentation which were formerly
known and recognized as essentially the pen-
man's art require modification and adaptation to
these new purposes. Flourishing is now less
abundant and conspicuous; in its place are
various other species of ornamentation, such as
floral, scroll, panel and tint work. Examples of
these several styles of ornamentation, illustra-
tive of their proper application in artistic pen
work, will appear upon the following pages.

It has been the earnest endeavor of the author
to present the best forms for standard and ornate
lettering, together with designs covering the
entire range of the penman's art.

r THE DESIGN AND EXECUTION
•JH^-p.* OF PEN-WORK, ^g

Srd

HATEVER the purpose of any work,
much of its success depends upon the
skill and artistic effect of the design ;
hence extreme care and thought should be ex-
ercised in this respect. No amount of work,

136

it.

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

however carefully and skilfully performed, can
produce a good or satisfactory result from a
design awkward or inappropriate.

After selecting the paper or material upon
which the work is to be executed, fasten it with
thumb-tacks or glue to a drawing-board ; draw
with a pencil border and centre lines ; then
sketch lightly with a pencil the design, having
care to give due prominence to the several parts
according to their importance in the work, with
a proper intermingling of light and shade.

When designs are to be copied, there are
numerous methods for making transfers. The
most common is by means of thin, transparent
paper or cloth, which is placed over the design
to be copied, and the outline traced over with
a pencil, after which the opposite side of the
tracing is penciled over with a soft, black pencil;
then place the tracing upon the paper on which
the copy is to be made, when the lines upon the
tracing are retraced with a pencil or any smooth-
pointed instrument which will give a distinct
outline upon the paper underneath.

Transfer or blackened paper is often placed
under the tracing before retracing it, instead of
pencilling its reverse side, which is objectionable
from the liability of blackening or soiling the
paper upon which the drawing is to be made;
and then the transfer lines thus made are not
easily removed with a rubber.

Of course this method of transfer can be used
only where the desired reproduction is the same
size as the original. If it is to be enlarged
or diminished, other methods must be sought.
This may be accomplished by marking the copy
to be transferred into squares, and the paper
upon which the reproduction is to be made into
corresponding squares, enlarged or diminished

according to the change desired from the size of
the original copy. The same change is accom-
plished very readily by the use of proportional
dividers, with which every draftsman should be
provided, or by the use of the pantograph.

MATERIALS ADAPTED TO ARTISTIC PEN-
WORK.

Use a fine quality of Bristol board or What-
man's hot-pressed drawing-paper, and a fine
quality of black India-ink, freshly ground from
a stick, in a tray containing rain-water. Ink of
any desired shade may thus be made. If work
is intended for reproduction by any of the pho-
tographic processes, the ink must be ground
until jet black, and then the pencil guide-lines
must be removed with a soft gum or sponge
rubber, so as to remove as little of the ink as
possible. Hard rubber will not only remove
much of the ink, but will tear up the fibre of the
paper, and thus break or make ragged the deli-
cate hair-lines, which will therefore fail of a good
result when photo - engraved. It should be
specially noted that all lines to reproduce must
be clear, smooth, continuous and black ; if so,
no matter how fine, they will answer the pur-
pose. Copy should also be made at least twice
the dimensions of the desired reproduction.

PENS.
For script writing, use Gillott's " 303 " or
Spencerian Artistic No. 14. For fine drawing
or tinting, use the " 303 " or Crow Quill. For
flourishing, use Spencerian No. 1 or Ames'
Penman's Favorite. For lettering, especially
Old English, German and Church Text, the
Sonnecken pen, both broad and double-pointed,
may be used to advantage.

140

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

141

/■

"■ s \ ,

fOI^

7t»

>*a

-■<-*'

Wm&

•SttSBRJZ

U .' -

>)-

4*-

- — >

aftrfofgljtjMronajtqrsftt

- >

PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP.

147

Z 5

-^-<-

r- 1

148

~7ff

SHORT-HANL, ANI) TYPE-WRITING.

pSoit* to Require cmb p^otu to practice ttjese ^rts.

-i-f*^^*^

HORT-HAND is the general term applied to
all styles of brief or rapid writing, as dis-
tinguished from the ordinary writing, or
long-hand. Numerous systems of abbre-
viated writing under various names, the
principal of which were "Short-hand" and "Sten-
ography," have been used and recommended by
prominent men from the times of Socrates and
Cicero down to the present day. It is commonly
conceded that we are indebted for the first system of
short-hand which has been preserved to the invention
of Tiro, a freedman of Cicero, in the year 65 B.C.,
although it is recorded that Xenophon, the Greek
philosopher and historian, used abbreviated charac-
ters for noting down the sayings of Socrates, and
that these characters were adopted by the Romans
and reduced by Ennius to a methodical scheme,
about 150 B.C. Herodotus also informs us that
traces of abbreviated writing were found among the
Persians 480 B.C., at the time of the expedition of
Xerxes into Greece. The Tironian characters were
used for the preservation of speeches as delivered in
the Roman Senate. Plutarch says that the oration
of young Cato of Utica, delivered in the Roman
Senate on December 5th, 63 B.C., was reported at
Cicero's request. In the year 52 B.C., professional
short-hand writers in Rome are mentioned for the
first time.

Besides the use of short-hand by Tiro and his
pupils in the Roman Senate, Cicero was accompanied

by Tiro, as short-hand writer, in many of his travels,
and many of his letters were written from dictation.
Pliny is represented as never being abroad without
a short-hand writer at his elbow ; and St. Paul dic-
tated to Tychicus, his amanuensis, some of his
epistles. Under the Emperor Constantine, imperial
or official reporters were among the court attaches.
Mention is also made of them in other courts, and
references to the quality of their work and the inci-
dents connected with it, such as severe punishments
for betrayal of professional secrets, and misreporting.
All the facts collected from history clearly indicate
the practical uses of short-hand as at the present
time. From the verses of the Latin poet Ausonius,
written about the year 380, we learn something
of the manner of writing, in the following words:
" Fly, young and famous reporter ; prepare the
tablets on which you express, with small dots, whole
speeches as rapidly as others would trace one single
word."

These early characters were called notte non
literce, and the short-hand writers were called notarii.
They were a numerous and respectable profession,
including many of the well known names of hi-'
such as Cicero, Augustus, Vespasian. Julius Caesar
and Cassienus.

Tracing short-hand from these earliest times, we
find it under the titles of Brachygraphy, Charactcrie,
Tuc hygraphy, Semigraphy, Criptographv. Bodio-
graphy, Zeiglography, Polygraph)-, Zeitography,

SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING.

149

~7[

Radiography, Thoography and Stenography. The
last name is still applied to nearly all systems of
short-hand writing in use on the continent of Eu-
rope.

By a careful study of the history and characters of
the systems of short-hand, we find that they were based
upon the common spelling, or ordinar^ alphabet, fol-
lowing the ABC order, until 1837, when Isaac Pit-
man, of Bath, England, invented a system of sound-
writing based upon an analysis and philosophical
arrangement of the different sounds of the English
language, and in the year 1840 issued a small sheet
entitled " J'honography ; or, Writing by Sound: a
New and Natural System of Short-hand," which sold
for a penny a copy.

One of these original sheets is in the possession
of Brown & Holland, of Chicago, who have had pho-
tographic copies made of it. The system of Isaac
Pitman has passed through many editions, undergone
frequent changes and improvements, and is now used
more than any other system in England, although
several others have been invented and published
there.

In the United States, Mr. Pitman's system was
republished as early as 1845. ^ n I ^53> Mr- Benn
Pitman, a brother of Isaac Pitman, who had been
teaching phonography in England for ten years,
came to this country and commenced the publica-
tion of phonographic works, which he has carried on
ever since, at Cincinnati, Ohio. The early and
continued dissemination of Pitman's phonography in
the United States has given to that system the
advantage of having the largest number of practition-
ers in this country, although many other systems of
short-hand have been published. Those, however,
having a phonetic basis have all been derived from,
or, rather, are imitations of, Pitman's system. The
changes made by Isaac Pitman in the various edi-
tions of his phonographic works in England, and by
Benn Pitman in the various editions of his system in
the United States, hive caused these two systems to
differ. Benn Pitman's system, although the oldest
phonographic system in this country, has kept pace
with all the recent improvements in the art. In
illustrating the principles of phonography and its
uses, in this article, we have selected this system,
the alphabet of which will be found on this page.

SHORT-HAND OR PHONOGRAPHIC
ALPHABET.

CHAR-
ACTER. SOUND.

p as in up.

\ b

I t

I d

/ ch

/ )

be.

it.

do.
each.

joy-
oak.

g°-
if.

V. v " vie.
( th " oath.
( th " thy.

me.

day.

alms.

all.

no.

boot.

ice.

oil.

CHAR-
ACTER.

or O

or o

J
r
r

*-"

SOUND.

s as in us.

sh
zh
1

wish,
azure,
ale.
ye.

no.

sing.

he.

it.

pet.

at.

up.

foot.

owl.

By a careful examination of this alphabet it will be
seen that the forty sounds of the English language
are represented in a philosophical arrangement, con-
sisting of twenty-four consonants, twelve vowels and
four diphthongs. The simplest geometric signs, a
straight line and a curved line about one-sixth of an
inch in length, written in -four different directions,
and made light and heavy, furnish sufficiently dis-
tinct characters for the representation of all the
consonants. A small dot and dash are used to rep-
resent the vowels, being placed in three relative

T> V

'5°

;•■■

SHORT-HAND AND TYPEWRITING.

positions to the consonant strokes, and, made light
and heavy, are adequate for all practical purposes.
A small angle placed in two positions to the conso-
nants represents the diphthongs. The signs for the

" / >

"P. ?

v^.

2cc,

n<-

C \ ^ftf"

C /O \ £'<> oi

HV -

NN-»

6 /,

vowels and diphthongs may be written on either side
of the consonant stroke. For example, write the
vertical shaded line d and make the second vowel,
a heavy dot, on the left-hand side near the middle
of the letter, for a, which will be read a-d, and

represents the word aid. Make the same sign d
and place the second-place vowel a on the opposite
of right-hand side of the letter near the centre,
and you have d-a, representing the word day.
Write the horizontal consonant stroke «, and
make a short dash above the centre of it, thus
representing o-n, and spelling the word own.
Write n and put the dash for the vowel o be-
neath it, and you spell the word know.
This illustrates one of the principal features of
phonographic writing or sound-writing, repre-
senting only the sounds in words as spoken.
By the use of the above alphabet any word in
the English language, and, indeed, in almost
any other language, may be written much more
briefly than in ordinary long-hand. By the
combination of letters, writing all the conso-
nants of a word without lifting the pen, and
by the use of abbreviating principles, such as
hooks and circles on the consonants and the
combining of words into phrases, a sjx;ed in
writing sufficient to keep pace with a rapid
speaker may be attained. This is termed the
" reporting style " of short-hand, in which the
appended letter is written.

TYPE-WRITING.

It is not probable that any system of short-
hand writing will ever be brought into common
use and supplant the ordinary handwriting.
The attainment of this end has been the fond
delusion of many authors of short-hand systems,
but years of labor and thought have as yet failed
to produce such a system. The opinion held
by some, that no short-hand writer can read
the writing of another, is not a corre< t one, as
there are, at the present time, hundreds of short-
hand writers who read each other's writing in
correspondence and in actual work, so that it
is altogether ]>ossible that short-hand may be
so written by one person as to be read by
■ others. However, in the practical use of the

art, this question is of little important
nearly all short-hand writing is transcribed, that
is, written in onlinar ■ long-hand, by the writer,
in order to adapt it to the various uses now made
of it. This transcribing has, in past years, been
done by the tedious method of long-hand writing.

•

— 9

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

I<U

~7\

A COMPLETE COURSE, IN TWELVE PRACTICAL LESSONS,

Base4 on tie Benn Pitman System of Plonograply.

Arranged ly Brown & Holland, and nsed by tnem in Heir
Sclool anting tie past eleven years.

3333333^J.w:T5TrT&,j.jj^j.j:i l ^,j5,j^;^;[i^^

*g*

LESSON I.-THE ALPHABET.

Name.

Sign.

Sound.

Name.

Sign.

Sound.

\ as

in up.

) or o as in us.

' boy.

)or o

" zero.

1 '

' it.

esh

" ash.

1 '

' day.

zhe

" azure

che

/ '

' each.

" oil.

jay

' joy-

" yet.

kay

— '

oak.

"Vv

" air.

gay

— '

' go.

" way.

Vs. '

' if.

•^

" me.

V* '

' vote.

x-/

" no.

eth

( '

' oath.

ing

" sing.

the

( ■

' they.

j*s

" hat.

*1 '

' me.

• 1

" sit.

•1

' aim.

" let.

J '

' car.

" cat.

-1 '

' all.

" not.

-j

' old.

«' nut.

ooh

J '

' boot.

" foot.

eye

VI (

' pile.

" now.

fit '

' toy.

" you.

LEARN the names, by repeating them over several
times, tracing the signs with a dry pen as you pro-
nounce each name. Trace the short-hand signs several
times, naming each as you trace it, according to the
following directions: The signs pe, be, ef, ve, ar, we,
slope from left to right, and are written downward ; the
signs te, de, elh, the, es, ze (stroke form), are upright, and
are always written downward; the signs che, jay, esh,
zhe, ye, slope from right to left, and are written down-
ward ; the signs el, he, slope from right to left, and are
written upward, commencing at the line; the signs kay,
gay, em, en, ing, are horizontal, and are written from left
to right, the lower part of the letter touching the line.

WRITING EXERCISE I.

Write the consonant signs ten times on double-ruled
paper, the lower part of each sign touching the line,
according to the alphabetical arrangement — pe, be, te, de,
che, jay, giy, ef, ve, elh, the, es, ze, esh, zhe, el, ye, ar, we,
em, en, ing, he. The shaded straight letters are made
heavy throughout. The shaded curve letters are made
heavy in the center, tapering toward each end.

The vowels and diphthongs are written in three posi-
tions, beginning, middle and end of the consonant, and
are called first-place, second-place, third-place. When
written on the left hand of upright or sloping consonants,
they are read before the consonant.

Write before the letter te the first-place vowels ee, i, aw,
o, eye, oi ; also write them before pe, che. When vowels
are written above a horizontal letter they are read first.
Write the first place vowels before the letter kay. Write
before the letters/^, te,che and kay the four second-place
vowels, ay, e, oh, u. Write before these four consonants
the six third-place vowels — ah, a, ooh, oo, <nv, no.

When the vowels are written on the right-hand side of
upright and sloping consonants, and below horizontal
ones, they are read after the consonants. Write after the
consonants pe, te, che and kay all the first, second and
third place vowels.

The student must become thoroughly familiar with the
names and forms of the short-hand signs. ' He may then
try how many words he can write containing one conso-
nant with a vowel either before or after. Spell words in
short hand as they are pronounced, that is, represent by
the short-hand sign the sounds as heard by the ear. For
example, the word though is not spelled t-h-o-u-g-h, but
the sounds are represented by the sign the and the second
place heavy dash, oh.

The use of the second sign given in the alphabet for
es, ze, ar and he will be explained in future lessons.

[Copyright, 1884, by Brown &: Holland.]

'5 2

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

LESSON II.— POSITION OF WORDS.

TN short-hand, words are written in three positions — those "~

^containing first-place vowels in the first position, those

containing second-place vowels in the second position, and J_
those containing third-place vowels in trie third position.

At the beginning of the study, and until the hand is trained "J
to an accurate and uniform style of writing, double-ruleO
paper should be used, that is, paper ruled with lines about —
one-eighth of an inch apart, and twice that distance between —
the lines. The lower lire of double-ruled paper corresponds
to the one line of single ruled paper, and is the one referred J_
to when " the line " is spoken of. On double-ruled paper
upright and sloping letters in the first position are written —
through the uppe: line, second position between the lines, —

and third position through the lower line. Horizontal letters

in first position immediately below the upper line, second _£_
position resting on the lower lir.e, thi.-d position immediately
below the lower line. When single-ruled paper is used, the ~r
first position is above the line, second position resting on the

line, third position through the lower line, and horizontal let-

ters under the line. The consonants form the basis or out- —
line of a word, and must always be written first, and the
vowels inserted afterward. When a vowel occurs before a \>
consonant, it must be written on the lelV hand side of upright
and sloping letters, and above horizontal letters. When it is —
desired to represent a vowel after a consonant, it must be —
placed on the right-hand side of upright and sloping letters, _
and beldw horizontal letters. All dash vowels are made at _ii
right angles with the direction of the consonant to which
they are placed. "ii;

When vowels are inserted in words, the writing is called
" vocalized," or "corresponding style; " when the vowels are —
omitted, it is called "unvocalized," or " reporting style."

In the short-hand lesson words are placed in three positions,

according to the vowel used. Read aloud lines i to 8 in- 21
elusive, tracing each word with a dry pen as you read it.

Consonants which are written upward — el, ray, he — are "15
vocalized from the bottom, which is the beginning of the let-
ter. The first word in line 9 is eel. Read aloud and trace —
lines 9, 10, II and 12. —

The object of writing words in three positions, according
to the accented vowel, is to indicate the vowels in unvocalized
words. Each of the letters in lines 13, 14 and 15 represents a
word. Read these lines aloud, using one of the vowels indi-
cated by the position of the letter, making a common word, and
tracing each character as read. For example, the first word in
line 13 may be read air, ore, or err. When words are grouped
together in sentences, there is no difficulty in determining what
word is intended to be represented by the consonant outlines, as
the context will indicate the same.

When vowels alone are used to represent words, they are
called vowel word signs. The vowel word signs in line 16
represent the following words : The, of, all, or, already, on,
aught, and, to, two, but, before, should, who, how, you, ah,
oh, I.

!£

4-t

1 r / ^ v v ''v. 'V •>, -) •)

\ \ \ 1 -I Z2L

^ *J v *\ A ' ** 7\ ^

T^-V

-fr

A-

-A

YZ£

-Vr

ZZE

-^r^-

=HV

r(^-f=-

-f-

rF-

/: c r.

ZK.

-7^

ZZL

/ y

-**:

IZI

-tt-

S* s*

-7^

-6-

y_"_

-7f=-

is:

-f-

\ \ / — —

-H-

-v=-

-v-f

-j-

-J-

w 1 1 — 7—r-

WRITING EXERCISE II.

Copy lines 1 to 16 inclusive ten times, and transcribe the lines
into long-hand. Write the following words in short-hand :

Ate, at, awed, ape, Abe, ache, aid, add, are, am, an, all, air,
aim, ale, age, ago, allow, alloy, allay, airy, arrow, away, Annie,
annoy, anew, Anno, aha. Be, by, boy, bough, bow, bay. Cow,
cue, coy, chew, chaw. Die, do, due, day, dough. Eat, each,
eve, eel, car, ebb, Edd, etch, edge, err, eyes, ell, echo. Era, era,
easy, Erie, Emma. Foe, fay, few, fee, fie. Go, gay, gnaw.
.High, hue, how, he, hay. It, itch, if, ill, ice, icy, in, issue.
Jaw, jew, Joe. Key, knee. Lay, low, lee, law, lieu, lie. May,
me, mew, mow. New, now, nay, no. Ought, oat, out, odd,
off, of, or, oath, ope, ode, oak, ooze, oil, oily, owl, own, owes,
obey, our. Pew, pea, paw, pie, pay, pshaw. Row, row, raw,
rue, rye, ray. Say, so, show, see, sigh, shoe, she, sue, saw, shy.
Tie, toe, toy, tea, to, the, they, though, thaw, thigh, thy, thou.
Up, use, use. View, vow. Way, woe, we, woo, who. Yea,
your, youth, ye, you.

\tm

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

'53

k ~n "^ -S

/CV v^_

LESSON III— WORDS CONTAINING ONE OR MORE CONSONANTS.

the direction. When el begins a word followed by kay or
em, use the upward /// when a vowel precedes it, use the
downward el; when el is the last letter in a word, write the
el downward, if it joins conveniently ; when there is a final
vowel after it, write el upward, if it joins conveniently. See
lines 5 and 6.

The curved sign ar is written downward, and should al-
ways be used before em. The straight sign for ar (called
ray) is always written upward, and should be used before
ef, ve, ith, en, ing. In other cases, when preceded by a
vowel, use ar; when followed by a vowel, use ray. When
it is the last letter of a word, use ar; when followed by a
final vowel, use ray. See lines 8 and 9.

When words contain more than one vowel, the primary or
accented vowel determines the position. When any doubt
exists, write the word in the second position, it being the
most convenient.

In the alphabet there is no shaded letter corresponding to
em. This sign represents the double consonant mp or ml/,
Called emp.

The reporting style of short-hand is writing consonant out-
lines in three positions, without vowels (or "unvocalized"),
and the use of word-signs and phrases. Each of the conso-
1 nants in lines 11, 12, 13, represents a common word.

A word-sign is one or more letters written in other than
the position of the leading vowel, or a contraction represent-
ing the word. The single consonant word signs, lines 15
and 16, represent the following words; Party, dollar, do,
had, be, to be, time, it, which, much, advantage, large, com-
mon, come, give, together, for, ever, have, however, think,
thank, them, was, shall, issue, usual, will, are, thing, language,
your, important, improvement.

Read and copy exercise 3 ten times, and transcribe
it into long-hand, numbering each line of transcript.

TN combining consonants to form words, they are written in
*■ the same direction as when standing alone, the second begin-
ning where the first ends, the third where the second ends, etc.

First-place vowels occurring between two stroke consonants
must be placed after the first consonant, and third-place vowels
before the second consonant.

The first upright or sloping letter in a combination determines
the position of the word. In first-place words this upright or
sloping letter is written halfway through the upper line (see line
1) ; second place words between the lines (see line 2) ; third-place
words through the lower line (see line 3). In combinations con-
taining two upright or sloping letters the first one determines the
position of a word, as in line 4.

When the letter el is joined to other letters, it may be written
either upward or downward, convenience in joining determining

WRITING EXERCISE III.

Write the following words three times vocalized, and three
times unvocalized :

Acute, arm, ask, alum, arrive, abode, abide, ambush, am-
ple, advantage, are, army. Beam, bought, babe, bell, bale,
bellow, body, bump, bit, bite, bait, boat, bet, body, boot, bat,
beauty, be, book, bake, become. Cheek, coat, code, cage, cud,
cash, copy, camp, common, come, chalk. Date, dolly, dare,
dish, dash, duly, decay, damp, dairy, dollar, do. Elm, error,
earth, embark, embellish, ever, early Fame, full, feed, foot,
fill, folly, fully, fair, fairy, fish, fob, fire, far, fury, for. Genuine,
give, hourly, have, however, half, had. Into, it, issue, improve-
ment, important. Keep, kneel. Like, love, look, lamb, long,
lamp, lump, large, language. Mouth, mule, male, meal, Mary,
many, money, manual, much. Nail, namely. Occupy. Peak,
pick, peep, pope, pure, pale, page, pull, purely, pump, party,
pout, pile, pale, pier. Room, roam, roof, rainy, rebuke, revoke,
redeem, repair, romp, ring, rosy. Shame, shade, shape, sheep,
shore, sheer, share, shall. Talk, team, time, tame, take, took,
taught, toad, tool, tide, to be, together, think, thank, them, thing.
Vowel, very. Usual. Which, was, will. Your.

=k\.

9 *»

i54

A SELF INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

*fr

LESSON IV.-THE HALVING PRINCIPLE.

T>y the mastery of lessons :, 2 and 3 the student has al-
** ready learned short-hand sufficiently to write any word
in the English language, and has made all the progress that
is claimed for any of the " shortest, easiest-to-be-learned "
systems which have ever been invented. A study and prac-
tice in writing of what has al»eady been learned equal to
that which is devoted to learning long-hind writing, would
enable the pupil to write sixty words a minute, or three
times as fast as ordinary long-hand writing. This, however,
would not be sufficient for reporting speeches in which the
speed varies from 100 to 200 words a minute. In order to
attain this higher rate of speed in writing it is necessary to
use abbreviating principles. The simplicity of the primary
principles of short-hand, as already given, allows the applica-
tion of a variety of abbreviating principles, by the employ-
ment of which the highest possible rate of speed in writing
may be attained. These principles will be introduced ac-
cording to our own arrangement in this and subsequent
lessons.

The halving principle is used as frequently as any other,
and is always difficult to learn. We, therefore, give it as the
first principle of abbreviation.

Each stroke consonant may be made half its usual length
to add / or d. When a vowel is written after a half-length
letter it is read between the consonant and the added / or
d, as in "pet," first word line I. When a vowel is written
before a half-length letter it is read first, as in " apt," first
word line 2. The first position for half-length letters is im-
mediately under the upper line, second position resting on
the lower line, third position below the lower line.

As either t or d is added by the halving principle, the
half length letter pe, followed by the vowel ay, may repre-
sent either pale or paid, and similarly with many other
simple words.

Read aloud and trace lines I to 4, inclusive.

In consonant combinations either one or all of the conso-
nants may be made half-length. When a half-length letter is
followed by another consonant the / or d is read before the
additional consonant. See first word in line 13, "intellect."
Read aloud and trace lines 6 to 13, inclusive.

The halving principle can be used only in combinations
where a distinct angle is formed at the joining of letters. In
some words it is better to write the half-length letter disjoined,
as in line 14, the first word in which is " doubted." In other
cases it is necessary to write the full consonant outline, as in line
15. Read aloud and trace lines 14 and 15.

The half-length word signs given in line 16 represent the fol-
lowing words: Could, good, feature, after, fact, that, without,
astonish, establish, wished, immediate, nature, under, read.
Read aloud and trace line 16.

WRITING EXERCISE IV.
Copy short-hand lesson IV. ten times, and transcribe it in long-
hand. Write the following words in short-hand :

Art, apt, about, aged, added, ached, arrived, acted, avoided.

-K_^

1;,

T-

].;

Jd.

"cr

v v

_it.

C j' e*

-A_

-=s= 6-

V V
31

V L-

J2±-

Y*~.

-**=-

-e-

v* ^i-

-7^

^VfV

^ v-

-£-

^ — "ET

-^—^

JEL

-^T^V

-tp-

ZZCZZ^I

J±3_

-**-

==V

"ST

J&.

.^fc.

"«-— I

z±t

-zr

-*p-

^ Li A>\ -V, ■" ^>l '' '•>! ^

xrrv

-**=!-

-*=*

-Z7~

alphabet, assert, awaited, affect, after, astonish. Bet, boat, bait,
bad, boot, begged, belt, backed, better. Chat, cut, cat, coat, cot,
caged, captivate, could. Date, dead, doubted, dated, deeded,
dotted. East, end, ended, editor, evident, effect, evoked, estab-
lish. Fight, foot, failed, filed, fold, fitted, faded, feature, future.
Get, got, gate, good. Hate, height, hat, hot, hated, hunted,
habit. Invite, induct, indeed, individual, imitated, intellect,
intend, intended, immediate. Knocked, kicked, l.ct, light,
lot, lit, load, laid, loved, laughed, lived, lighted, legitimate,
little, lately, locate, locked, looked. Met, meat, mode, moved,
mailed, mold, mild, mended, middle, model, mutual, meditated.
Not, night, note, noted, nature. Oft. Pet, pad, paid, port,
paged. Rout, robbed, relieved, removed, repeated, radiated,
read. Shut, sheet, shot. That, talked, toiled. Used, un-
packed, untold, under. Vote, viewed. Wait, weighed, written,
writing, without. Yacht.

•r

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

'55

LESSON V.-THE CIRCLE "S" AND "Z.

-T^-j-nr

TJGi

q •)

J" *. 6 i

1 IN.

• '<y.

tl* ) . J >

t xr ^y )• L k

■J

« b O ^ \ \

p * (^ ^ ff^ 1^ <TS <^ '

J b

^^-^^

THE frequently recurring sounds es and 2^ are provided for
in short-hand by a small circle joined on the right-hand of
upright and sloping straight letters, and above horizontal straight
letters. The student must observe carefully the side of straight
letters on which this circle is used, as by confining it uniformly
to one side, we have the use of it on the opposite side for the
representation of other abbreviating principles. This, however,
does not apply to curved letters, as the circle s is always made
inside the curve. The circle s at the beginning of a lettar is
always read first.

As there is no beginning, middle or end to the circle, it can-
not be vocalized. The vowels must, therefore, be placed to the
consonant to which the circle is joined, and read either before
or after that consonant ; if before, between the circle j and the
consonant. See first word in exercise 5 — s-u-p, " sup." When

the circle is at the end of a letter, it is read last, after the
vowels. The circle may be used both initial and final,
as in the lines 5 and 6.

By making the circle double its usual size, it represents
the syllables sts and sez, as in "pieces." See lines 7, 8
and 9. When the circle s occurs between two straight
letters forming an angle, the circle is made outside the
angle, which is the shortest direction for writing. If both
letters are written in the same direction, the circle ts must
retain its position on the right-hand side of upright and
sloping straight letters, and above horizontal straight
letters. See line 2. The application of this principle
makes it necessary, in placing the es on the outside of the
angle, to join the circle on either side. See line 12.

The circle s used on half-length letters, is read after the
added t or d. When s or 2 are the only consonants in a
word, or when s or 2 is the first consonant, preceded by
a vowel, or the last consonant, followed by a vowel, use
the stroke form for s and 2, as in line 14.

The word signs in lines 15 and 16 represent the follow-
ing words : Is, as, speak, special, subject, satisfy, sig-
nature, several, salvation, similar, single, simple, somewhat,
objects, religious, because, those, impossible, influence,
system, United States.

When a sign represents more than one word it is called
a phrase, as in line 16. The large circle, first position,
represents is-as : second position, as-is. The remaining
phrases in line 16 are : Is-the, as-the, is-a, as-a.

WRITING EXERCISE V.

Write the following words in short-hand: Assays,
arise, arouses, accuses, amuses, accept, ask, asp, also, arts,
as, as-is, as-the, and-is and-as. Boys, basis, bestow,
besides, boots, busy, because, bask. Cheese, choose, case,
custody, ceases, chooses, cask, choosing, chats, cuts, cosy,
causing, cities. Does, doses, dusty, decide, desk, dismay,
designs, dots. Eggs, exist, exercise, except, easy. Face,
faces, fights. Goes, ganes, gossip, goods. Hou.:e, hours,
hisses, husk, hasten. Insist, induce, icy, is, impossible,
influence, is-as, is-the. Joys, Jesus, jots. Kisses. Lace, lessons,
listens, loosens, loses, loves, lazy, lights. Mass, mazes, misses,
musty, meets. Nice, noses, necessary, necessity, notes. Oozes,
owns, opposite, objects. Pays, pieces, possess, possessor, passage,
pets. Rose, reasons, rises, rosy. Sup, sob, sorrow, sway, sighs,
sash, stay, soar, shoes, suppose, series, speak, speedy, special,
said, sale, sake, says, sobs, siezes, sways, sashes, supposes,
systematic, spoke, shoots, several, signs, system, such, sum,
seeds, souls, seems, success, snake, saying, salvation,
sieges, signs, songs, sages, soars, sense, since, smoke, seeing,
similar, simple, sky, sip, sex, stays, scheme, subject, single,
somewhat, sage, safe, soap, sacks, suspect, saves, snare, sauce,
sat, suffices, seek, signify. Toes, thaws, thus, tosses, thesis,
task,, thoughts. United States. Upset. Voice, vices, votes.
Wise, ways, waits. Yes, yachts.

-» s

'5°

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

LESSON VI.-LOOPS "ST" AND "STR."

1 1

A LOOP the width of the circle s, and one-half the length
■*"*• of the consonant to which it is joined, represents the
combination st. This loop is governed by the same rules as
the circle s, and is made on the right-hand side of upright
and sloping, and above horizontal, straight letters, and on the
inside of curved letters. See lines I to 4. A large loop the
width of the circle set, represents the combination str. See
line 5. The circle s may be made after the st and str
loops, as in line 6. These loops may be used in the middle
of words, as in line 7. The circle s sometimes represents
st, where the loop cannot be conveniently made, as in line
8. The ending st is occasionally represented by the half-
length s, written upward, as in the first four words of line 11.

The circle s represents the prefix self and the affix self ;
the large circle ses represents the affix selves, as in line 12.
The circle s in phrases represents is, as, his, or has. The
phrases in line 13 are : as-good-as, as-much-as, is-not, is-to-
be, this-is, which-is, as-large-as, for-his, have-his, is-ever.
The circle s is used to represent the plural of nouns the
singular of verbs, and the possessive case. The word signs
inline 14 are: Parties, times, dollars, does, advertisements,
advantages, because, comes, gives, thinks.

The words and phrases in line 15 are : Of-his, all-is, to-his,
or-is, already-has, luit-as, before-his, on-his, should-his,
whose, thoughts, facts, that-is, astonishes, establishments.
The word signs in line 16 are: First, largest, commonest,
extraordinary, influenced, next, stenography, stenographer,
yesterday, history.

Read aloud lines 1 to 16 several times.

WRITING EXERCISE VI.

Copy exercise VI. ten times. Transcribe it into long-
hand. Write the following words in short-hand : Atheist,
assayist, arrest, amazed, amused, announced, antagonist,
abstract, analyzed, as-good-as, as-much-as, as-large-as, adver-
tisements, advantages, all-his, already-has, astonishes, answer.
Beastly, before-his, best, boaster, boasts, but-has. Castor,
castors, castle, caucuses, chaste, chests, chorister, coast,
coaster, coasts, costly, comes, commons, commonest. Distinct,
distinguish, does, dollars, dust, duster, dusters. Embarrass,
embezzle, establishments, extraordinary. Faced, facts, fast,
Cuter, feast, feastcrs, festers, first, for-his, foster, guest, gives.
1 lands, haste, has-not, have-his, his-has, history, honest, honesty.
Influenced, invest, investigate, is-ever, its, itself, is-not, is-to-be,
imposter. Jest, jester, jesters, joist, justify, justified. Largest,
last, lastly, lists, luster. Master, midst, most, mostly, muster,
must, myself. Orchestra, ourselves, obstruct, of-his, on-his,
or-his, ought-Ms. Parties, past, pester, posts, postal, postage,

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post-office, poster. Raised, raciest, revised, received, rosiest,
rooster. Stab, stack, stabbed, state, stage, stag, staff, stake, stare,
starry, start, stamp, stain, stairway, stamina, step, stead, stem,
steam, stealthy, steamed, stenographer, stenography, stamped,
sting, stove, stole, story, stock, stoop, store, storm, stuff, stung,
stitch, study, stuffed, songsters, sincere, selfish, selfsame, self-
made, self-esteem, self-education, self-possessed, should-his,
sometimes, style. Taste, tastes, testify, testified, times, this-is,
thinks, thanks, thoughts, that-is, themselves, thyself, to-his.
Vast, vaster, vastly, vest. Waste, west, westward, which-is,
whose. Yesterday, yourself, yourselves. Zest

'Ju—r

=4f

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

157

LESSON VII.-

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AND "YE" DIPHTHONGS.

ti sen\s,yaio,yo,yoo; an «« curve in the position of the tliree

~^^___ short dash vowels represents yo, yu, yoo. Read line 2.

These coalescent diphthongs in the first and third positions

~ may be joined to the consonant when they will form a dis-

—£■ tinct angle. Read lines 3 and 4.

We Hooks. — A small initial hook on /, ray, m, emp and «

L — represents the letter w, the hook is read first. Read lines

5 and 6. A large initial hook made above the letter i also
represents the letter w ; this hook is used in the class of
words commencing with qu, pronounced kw. This hook is
read after the k. Read lines 7 and 8.

He Signs. — In addition to the stroke form for he, given
in the alphabet, it is also represented by a che tick, that is, a
small tick written downward in the direction of the letter
che. The stroke form for he should be used in all words
where he is the only consonant, and in many others begin-
ning with the letter he. Read line 9. The tick he is only
used before those consonants with which it will form a dis-
tinct angle, as k, gay, r, m, 2 and we. Read lines 10 and
II. The last five words in line II, when written in long-
hand, commence with the letters wh ; but as the he in this
combination is pronounced first, in short-hand it is written
first. When a word beginning with hw can be most con-
veniently written with the w hook on /, ray, m and «, the
he may be omitted. Read line 12, commencing each word
with hw.

Double- Length Letters. — Any curved letter made
double its usual length, represents the addition of (her, ter
or der. Double-length ing also represents an added ger,
and double-length emp an added per or ber. Read lines 1 3
and 14.

Line 15 contains the following word-signs: We, with,
were, what, would, ye, yet, beyond, you, while, where, where-
with, when, he, their. With and we may be represented by
a we hook in phrases. Line 16 contains the following
phrases : With-me, with-him, with-whom, with-him-you-will,
we-will, we-are, we-may, we-may-be, we-might, we-met.

WRITING EXERCISE VII.

TN addition to the consonant signs for the coalescents we and
*■ ye, when these letters are used in connection with any of the
vowels or diphthongs, they form what is called a coalescent diph-
thong, which is represented as follows : A small the curve,
that is the curved sign resembling the letter the, but only about
one-fourth the length of the letter, placed in the position of the
three long-dot vowels, represents we, wa, ivah ; an eth curve,
written in the position of the three short dot vowels, represents
■wi, we, wa; a ze curve in the position of the three long dash
vowels represents wau, wo, woo ; an es curve in the position of
the three short dash vowels represents wo, wu, woo ; a small
right angle in the position of the diphthongs represents wi, woi,
wow. Read line I. A small ing curve in the position of the
three long dot vowels represents yee,ya, yah ; an en curve in the
position of the three short dot vowels represents yi, ye, ya ; an
emp curve in the position of the three long dash vowels repre-

Copy lines I to 16 ten times. Write the following words
in short-hand : Aha, another. Betwixt, beyond. Curious. Due,
dwell. Father. High, highly, hip, hay, hate, hat, height,
hung, hang, hasten, house, harmony, horse, harm, hearsay, her,
here, hug, hog, hack, hook, home, hazy, hymn, huzzy, hymeneal.
Inquiry. Leather, letter, latter, longer. Mother. Neither.
One, once. Quick, quote, quake, quarrel, queer, quartz, "quo,"
quire, query, quack, quest, quilt, quit, qualify. Smoother, Sep-
tember, Swede, sweat, swift, swiftest, swing, superior. Twice,
twill, timber, twist. Use. Weave wound, wave, walk, waif,
wag, wove, wit, wooed, woof, widow, weed, wide, walked,
wife, want, war, wanted, warm, Wabash, wardrobe, washing,
worship, wall, weary, wilt, worse, wealth, work, well, wool,
wear, went, wigwam, Winchester, wampum, window, win, wine,
whimper, while, when, wheel, whale, whim, whence, wharf,
where, whine, whither, weather, wander, winter, wonder, Walter,
we, what, wherewith, would, with, were, with-me, with-whom,
with-him-you-will, we-will, within, with-him, we-are, we-may-be,
we-may, we-might, we-met. Year, young, yoke, yet, yon, youth,
Yankee, you, ye.

_iJ

i 5 8

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

=fr

LESSON VIII.-THE «'L"
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HOOK.

HTIIE letter / occurs frequently in connection with all other
-*- consonants, forming in many words a consonantal diph-
thong. It is conveniently represented by a small initial hook
made on the right-hand side of upright and sloping, and
above horizontal straight letters, as in line I . To distinguish
the / hook series of letters from the single consonants, the
latter are called pe-el, be-el, and the former pel, bel, etc.
Although the / hook is made on the beginning of a conso-
nant, it is read aftjr it.

A vowel after an / hook consonant is read last ; the first
word in line 1 is plea. A vowel before an / hook conso-
nant is read first ; the second word in line I is idle. Read
line I. The / hook on the esh and zhe cannot be made
on the back of the letter, or on the right hand side, these
letters are therefore struck upward, and are never used ex-
cept when joined to other letters. The / hook on ray, m,
mp, n, ing is made large to represent rel, mel, empl, nel,
ingl, and to distinguish it from the we hook on those letters.
The initial hook of he is also made large to represent hel.
Read line 2. In half-length consonants on the / hook
series, the added t or d is read after both consonants. Read
line 3.

A vowel may be represented between the double conso-
nants by making a small circle in the position of the vowel
before the double consonant for the long dot vowels ee, ay
ah, and by a small circle after the double consonant for the
short dot vowels 1, e, a. The dash vowels are struck through
the stem of the letter, except when they would interfere with
a hook or circle, when they are written immediately before
the consonant, if first-place; and immediately after it, if
third-place. Read line 4. When a double consonant of
the / hook series is preceded by the circle s, the circle is
slightly flattened and made inside the hook, and is always
read first. Read lines 5 and 6. Curved Consonants of this
series may be made double length for adding /her, ter, der.
Read line 7. In a few words, where the / hook is preceded
by another consonant and a circle s, the hook cannot be
made complete, but there is no difficulty in reading those
words. Read lines 8 to 12.

The frequently recurring prefixes corn and eon are repre-
sented by a dot made before the beginning of the letter. Read
line 13. The affix ing, when the consonant ing cannot be con-
veniently joined, is represented by a dot made after the end of
the letter. Read line 14.

The word signs in lines 15 and 16 are: Comply, complete,
people, belong, build, until, deliver, delight, children, child,
angel, equal, difficult, collect, glory, follow, value, theology, only.

The curved word signs may be made double length for the
addition of their-there in phraseography. The last three signs
in line 16 represent the phrases: Follow-their, value-their, only-
there.

WRITING EXERCISE VIII.

Transcribe exercise VIII. and copy lines 1 to 16 ten times.
Write the following words in short-hand: Able, agile, angle,

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ankle, applied, apple, April, awful. Beautiful, belong, Bible,
blame, blot, build. Call, camel, calling, canal, casual, casual-
ties, child, children, civil, clay, clot, clothed, clouded, close,
circle, connect, commencing, complacent, complete, compel,
completing, complex, comply, conclude, concluding, conflict,
consonant, context, cultivate. Dangle, delight, deliver, de-
veloping, difficulty, double. Enable, enclose, equal, evil, ex-
ample, exclude, explicit, explode, explore, explosive. Fangle,
family, female, final, flat, flight, flutter, fly, follow, follow-their,
fulfill, funnel. Glad, girl, glory, glue, gold. Halifax, healing,
help, helping. Idle, imperial, initial, initialed, including, in-
volved. Melancholy, military. Oblige, official, only, oral.
Pearl, people, peopled, pickled, place, plat, plea, please, pleas-
ing. Railway, reality, relent, reply, rule. Saddle, sable, serial,
settle, school, shouldered, simplicity, skill, stable, supple, supply,
supplying. Table, talc, tell, theology, till, titled, told, tolerable,
tunnel. Unable, uncle, unhealthy, until. Value, value-their,
vocalize. Yale, yellow, yield.

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

»59

LESSON IX.

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R" HOOKS.

letters are therefore reversed to bring the hook on the left
side and inside the curve. These forms will not be mis-
taken for the similar letters r, we, s and z, as the initial r,
hook is not used on these four letters. The stem of the
letter is shaded in mer and nerto distinguish them from wem
and wen. Read lines I and 2.

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A SMALL initial hook on the left-hand side of upright and
sloping and below horizontal straight consonants represents
r. This is called the per series of double consonants. When
speaking of them we use the one-syllable name per to distinguish
them from the single consonants pe-ar etc. Vowels are written
either before or after double consonants of the per series, or may
be expressed between the two consonants, the same as in the pel
series, as follows : For the long dot vowels make a small circle
in the position of the vowel before the double consonant ; for
the short dot vowels a small circle in the position of the vowel
after the double consonant. Write the first-place dash vowels
just off the beginning of the consonant ; the second-place dash
vowels through the consonant, and the third-place dash
vowels just off the end of the consonant. The student will soon
become familiar with the outlines of words, and full vocalization
will not be necessary. It would not be convenient to make
a hook on the back of the curved letters /, v, ith, the. These

On eight straight consonants of the per series the hook is
made into a circle on the left side to represent the sir series
of treble consonants. Read line 3.

When the circle is used on the curved letters of the per
\ ^i series it is made inside the r hook, and is always read first.
Read line 4.

When j occurs before the double consonant in the middle
of a word, both the circle and the hook must be made.
Read line 5.

When ker and ger follow Is and ds, the circle only is used
and is written on the right side of / and d and below the k
and gay. Read line 6.

After p and b the circle and hook cannot be distinctly
made, but there will be no difficulty in reading this class of
words. Read line 7.

The prefixes in and «« before the spr series of conso-
nants is represented by a small backward hook; also before
ser, set and sent. Read line 8.

When double consonants of the per series are made half-
length, the added t or d is read after both consonants.
Observe that although the hook representing r is initial, it is
always read after the consonant on which it is used. Read
lines 9 to 13 inclusive.

The word-signs in line 14 are : Principle, practice, ex-
perience, surprise, express, suppress, particular, opportunity,
liberty, remember, number, truth.

Inline 15; Strength, external, instruct, doctor, during,
consider, charity, danger, larger, according, accurate,
Christian.

In line 16: Correct; character, from, over, virtue, other,
short, sure, pleasure, measure, Mr. or remark.

WRITING EXERCISE IX.

Copy exercise IX. ten times, and transcribe either in long-
hand or on the type-writer.

Write the following words in short-hand : Archer,
azure. Brow. Cedar, charming, charity, cheerful, christian,
character, color, court, comprise, consider, correct, criminal,
cry, culture. Danger, destroy, descry, discried, disgrace,
disagree, describer, disagreeable, discursive, dear, doctor, dray,
during. Either, energy, every, everywhere, extra, extreme,
examiner, expert, express, expressive. Farmer, figures, former,
forgot, from, fraternal, free, further. Greet, grow. Honor,
humor. Instruct, instructor, inscribe, insert.insult, inseparable,
invulnerable. Labor, larger, learner, lover, liberty. Masterly,
Mr. measure, more, maternal, minor, murder. Number. Obscure,
occurs, opportunity, over, other, owner. Pray, present, prescribe,
practice, particular, prosper, proscribe, principle pleasure.
Remember, roller, rumor. Saber, sadder, seeker, surely, sober,
spray, strew, striver screw, suitor, supper, suffer, swimmer,
sooner, sever, sinner, sailor, seizure, safer, suffering, subscribe,
subscriber, scribe, severed, secure, short-hand, spry, strong,
strength, sure, strung, spring, separate, suppress, surprise. Try,
treasure, true, there, truth, through, toward. Unscrupulous, un-
seemly, unsalable, unsociable. Virtue. Wager, wager, westerly,
writer, wrestler.

3!=
< 6 »"

1 60

A SELF INSIRTCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

=7?

LESSON X.-"F,"

A SMALL final hook on the right hand side of upright
•**■ and sloping and alx>ve horizontal and straight letters
represenst either/or v. On ray and he, which are written
upward, this hook is made above. The / and v hook is
only on straight letters. Read line I. S may be added
after the /or v hook by making .the circle inside the hook.
Read line 2.

The /and v hooks may 1« used in the middle of words.
Read lines 3 and 4.

A large final hook made on the right hand side of upright
and sloping and above horizontal straight letters (the same
side as the / and v hook) represents Hon or sion. This
hook is also used on the inside of curved letters. Read lines
5 and 6.

To represent lions and sion; make the small circle s inside
the hook. Read line 7.

The syllable Hon is represented after the circle s and
loops st and sir by a small hook made on the opposite side
of a consonant. This s-lion hook is vocalized by writing
first place vowels before the end of the consonant, and second
place vowels after it. Read line 8.

When s follows this s-Hon hook the circle is made inside
the small hook. Read lines 9 and 10.

The prefixes inter, intro, and enter, are represented by half-
length n joined to the remainder of the word. Read line II.

The prefixes contra, contro, counter, are represented by a
disjoined che tick ; that is a short tick made downward in
the direction of che at the beginning of a word. Read line 1 2.

The prefixes Magni and Magna are represented by a dis-
joined m, the remainder of the word being commenced
under and near the center of the m. Read line 13.

The/ and v hook word signs in line 14 are: Perfea,
whatever, divine, difference, advance, whichever, Jehovah, M
descriptive, careful, government, reverend.

The Hon hook word signs in line 15 are: Option, objec-
tion, contribution, tuition, condition, generation, imagination,
description.

The word signs in line 16 are: Correction, glorification
signification, revelation, revolution, information, justification,
jurisdiction, investigation. Read lines 14, 15 and 16.

WRITING EXERCISE X.

Achieves, approve?, adventure, advocate, advocacy, advent,
addition, ambition, aversion, actions, acquisitions, UTCSUtloM,
accusations, annexation, attestation, advance. Beef, braves,
brevity, briefest, bravest. Cessation, cuff, craft, cover, contriv-
ance, contrive, confusion, consummation, constitution, consecra-
tion, conclusion, confessions, centralization, civilization, connec-
tions, contradict, counterfeit, counterfeited, controversy, contra-
distinction, contravention, counteraction, counter-irritation,
counterpart, countersign, creative, construction, condition, cor-
rection, chief. Dive, drove, drives, derives, differ, descriptive.

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directions, description. Kdition, exhibition, emulation, exception
enterprise. Fashion. Gave, gifts, govern, generation, glorifica-
tion. Hive, half, hallucination, heaven. Intervention, intro-
duce, interline, introduction, intercept, interfered, intercourse,
interview, intercede, interest, imagination, investigation, informa-
tion, illustration. Jove, Jehovah, jurisdiction. Mission, mani-
festations, molestations, moralization, magnify, Magna Charta,
magnitude, magnetic, magnificent, magnanimous, magnetize,
mention. Notions. Oration, obligation, omissions, occasion!,
oppositions. Pave, proves, prefix, profanity, prevent, position,
possession, procession, persuasion, physician. Reverend, reve-
lation, revolutions. Strives session, stations, suggestion, sym-
bolization. Tough, tuition, twelve. Version, vision. What-
ever, whichever.

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND.

-« 9

161

LESSON. XI —THE "N" HOOK.

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The « hook is used to advantage in the middle of many
words. Read line 6.

On straight letters, the « hook may be followed by the st
and the sir loops by making the hook into a small or large
loop. Read line 7.

The ns circle on straight letters may be followed by the
back hook Hon. Read line 6.

A large final hook on the « side of straight letters repre-
sents the termination n-tion. The first word in line 9 is
"pension." Read lines 9, 10 and II.

The n hook and halving principle are conveniently used
to represent not in phrases. The phrases in line 12 are:
Will-not, was-not, did-not, do-not, had-not, have-not, are-not,
shall-not, may-not, am-not, cannot.

The final n hook logographs in line 13 are : Upon, pun-
ish, been, at-length, eternal, circumstance, denomination,
providential, denominations, audience, providence.

The logographs in line 14 are : Darken, darkens, religion,
general, imagine, religionist, generalized, generalization,
gentlemen, gentleman, imagined.

Those in line 15 are: Question, signify, significance,
begin, begun, began, organize, organization.

Those in line 16 are: Often, phonography, philanthropy,
herein, alone, men, man, human, women, woman, opinion.

WRITING EXERCISE XI.

^L.

nzx:

■v

\ p a j 1

-3-J-:

-i-t

-Jl

-J-

-*—r

j/-

~7~

-ts-

HZE

JZL

~Zrsr

rrrs

A SMALL final hook on the left-hand side of upright and
**■ sloping and below horizontal straight letters and on the
inside of curved letters, represents n. Read lines 1 and 2.

When the » hook is used on half-length letters, the added /
or d is read after the hook. The first word in line 3 is
"point." Read line 3.

The hook being on the opposite side from the circle s, it is made
into a circle on the left-hand side of upright and sloping and
below horizontal straight letters to represent ns. Read line 4.

When the « hook is followed by the circle s on curved letters
the s is made inside of the hook. In order to do this, do not
enlarge the hook, but flatten the circle. Read line 5.

Copy short-hand Exercise XI. ten times and transcribe it
once. Write the words in Exercise XI. in position, unvocal-

— ized.

— Write the following words in short-hand : Abandoned, ab-
scond, adamant, against, alone, am-not, around, are-not,

— argument, apprehansion, attends, attention, at-length, audi-

— ence, assign, assigns, assistant. Balanced, been, beans, begin,
begun, began, bound, bonds, bounced, brain, brown. Cane,

5~ canst, canister, carbon, cannot, chain, circumstance, circum-

— stances, chant, chance, chanced, counts, conscience, com-
pensation, condensation, condensations, combinations, con-

3?" sequence, consequential, comprehension, consternation,

— Danced, darken, darkness, denomination, denominations,
dine, dined, dispensation, dispensations, did-not, donations,

dunce. Earn, eternal, event, extend, extension. Fan, find,
finds, finish, finance, financial, furnish. Gained, general,
generalization, gentlemen, gentleman, gone. Had-not, hence,
have-not, hen, heathen, herein, hints, Holland. Imagine,
imagined, infant, infantry, irons. Joints, joined, June. Kind,
known. Land, line. Man, may-not, men, mind, mine, minds,
monument. Nouns. Often, one, ocean, opinion, organize,
organization, ordination, outline. Pain, pens, paints, pension,
phonography, philanthropy, point, providence, providential,
punish, punster, punsters, question. Rain, return, returned,
runs, religion, religionist. Shall-not, shown, spinster, spinsters,
suspicion, swoon. Then, thin, tent, tendency, thence, town,
towns, torment, turn, transition, transitions, transitional. Upon.
Vagrancy, vanish, veins, vine. Was-not, will-not, women,

162

A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAXD.

LESSON XII.

AS in long-hand contractions are often used, so it is found
that principles of contraction can be employed in short-
hand writing, which will materially increase the speed of
writing, without sacrificing legibility. These principles need
to be understood. As a general rule, many derivatives may
be represented by the short-hand form adopted for the root
of the word. As derivatives usually form different parts ot
speed), there is no difficulty to the experienced phonog-
rapher in readily deciphering them. A few special direc-
tions in regard to abbreviations is all that will be found
necessary in this connection.

The letter or letters representing the portion of the prefix
preceding con, com, cog, may be joined to the remainder of
the word. The words in lines I and 2 are: accommodate,
accommodation, accompany, incomplete, incompatible,
inconceivable, recommend; recommendation, unconcern,
unconditional, unconscious, magnanimous, magnificent.
Read lines I and 2.

The letter A following ing may be omitted in many words.
The words in line 3 are : Anxious, anxiety, bank, bank-
able, banking, bankrupt, sanction. Read line 3.

The letter k may be omitted in many words commencing
with ex. The words in line 4 are : Expression, expressive,
explain, explicit, explore, explode, explanation, expiration,
extension. Read line 4.

The prefixes con, com, are frequently omitted. The
words in line 5 are : Condition, condensation, combine,
combination, contend, comprehend, consideration, incon-
sideration, construction, instruction, completion. Read
line 5.

The dot for the affix ing is generally omitted. The
words in line 6 are : Doing, trying, combining, compound-
ing, craving, crossing, explaining, banking, recommending,
buying. Read line 6.

Many words which would make lengthy and difficult
forms, if written in full, are represented by two or more
consonants of the word. Word signs may lie joined either
as prefixes or as affixes. The words in line 7 are:
Acknowledge, acknowledged, assemble, auspicious, become, to
become, cabinet, captain.

Line 8 : Change, common-sense, dignity, downward, hereto-
fore, hereafter, knowledge, legible, illegible.

Line 9 : Peculiar, especially, examination, cross-examination,
rc-t\amination, direct -examination, mistake.

Word* and phrases in line 10: Nevertheless, notwithstanding,
temperance-society, humane-society, in-reply-to-yours, inreply-
to-your favor, in-refcrence.

Line 1 1 : In-rcference-to-your, inherit, inheritance, in-reccipt,
in-receipt of-your, I-am-in-receipt-of-your, short-hand, short-
hand-writer.

CONTRACTIONS, ETC.

^=^=

-y^=T~^T

zs:

J Hr

— 7

:zr

izs:

■hr

-P-

0^^

*7=

■V

_T-_

"^ ^ U^ '

-*-*

» ^

M M M'

~r.

/ — v ? r/\A .?

i;t

■V-

t~t;

=^=E

> v -v . r

n .->'

J — ^4-

^ ^ r\ u , r ~7^

^ZL

x^:

Line 12: What is your name, age, and occupation? Where
do you reside ?

Line 13: This finishes a course of 12 lessons in short-hand,
giving the

Line 14: Benn Pitman system at a glance, arranged by Brown
& Holland,

Line 15 : Chicago, and successfully taught by them for more
than ten years, with the result of

Line 16: educating hundreds of short-hand writers, who are
now occupying good, paying positions.

Read lines 7 to 16.

THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM.

163

$M*}-Jk l J^J^:S,:JJ^'^

lOISETTE ]V(EMORYj^YSTEM. I

**<|&e: • Qrt • of ® Eleuer • f^raettiner.**

f^s^prw^j^^r^E

^g^O MUCH has been said about the
Loisette memory system, the art has
been so widely advertised, and so
carefully guarded from all the pro-
fane who do not send five or many
dollars to the Professor, that a few
pages showing . how every man may be his
own Loisette, may be both interesting and
valuable.

In the first place, the system is a good one,
and well worth the labor of mastering, and if
the directions are implicitly followed there can
be no doubt that the memory will be greatly
strengthened and improved, and that mnemonic
feats otherwise impossible may be easily per-
formed. Loisette, however, is not an inventor
but an introducer. He stands in the same rela-
tion to Dr. Pick that the retail dealer holds to
the manufacturer : the one produced the article ;
the other brings it to the public. Even this
statement is not quite fair to Loisette, for he
has brought much practical common sense to
bear upon Pick's system, and, in preparing the
new art of mnemonics for the market, in many
ways he has made it his own.

If each man would reflect upon the method
by which he himself remembers things, he would
find his hand upon the key of the whole mys-
tery. For instance, the author was once trying

to remember the word blythe. There occurred
to my mind the words " Bellman," " Belle,"
and then the verse :

" the peasant upward climbing

Hears the bells of Buloss chiming."

" Barcarole, " " Barrack," and so on until finally
the word "blythe" presented itself with a
strange insistance, long after I had ceased try-
ing to recall it.

On another occasion when trying to recall the
name " Richardson " I got the words " hay-
rick," " Robertson," "Randallstown," and finally
"wealthy," from which, naturally, I got "rich"
and " Richardson " almost in a breath.

Still another example : trying to recall the
name of an old schoolmate, " Grady," I got
"Brady," "grave," "gaseous," "gastronome,"
" gracious," and I finally abandoned the attempt,
simply saying to myself that it began with a
" G," and there was an " a " sound after it. The
next morning, when thinking of something en-
tirely different, this name "Grady" came up in
my mind with as much distinctness as though
someone had whispered it in my ear. This re-
membering was done without any conscious
effort on my part, and was evidently the result
of the exertion made the day before when the
mnemonic processes were put to work. Every
reader must have had a similar experience

164

THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM.

which he can recall, and which will fall in line
with the examples given.

It follows, then, that when we endeavor, with-
out the aid of any system, to recall a forgotten
fact or name, our memory presents to us words
of similar sound or meaning in its journey
toward the goal to which we have started it.
This goes to show that our ideas are arranged
in groups in whatever secret cavity or recess of
the brain they occupy, and that the arrange-
ment is one not alphabetical exactly, and not
entirely by meaning, but after some fashion
partaking of both.

If you are looking for the word " meadow "
you may reach " middle " before you come to
it, or " Mexico," or many words beginning with
the " m " sound, or containing the " dow," as
" window," or " dough," or you may get " field "
or " farm " — but you are on the right track, and
if you do not interfere with your intellectual
process you will finally come to the idea which
you are seeking.

How often have you heard people say, " I
forgot his name, it is something like Beadle or
Beagle — at any rate it begins with a B." Every
one of these were unconscious Loisettians, and
they were practicing blindly, and without proper
method or direction, the excellent system which
he teaches. The thing, then, to do — and it is
the final and simple truth which Loisette teaches
— is to travel over this ground in the other direc-
tion — to cement the fact which you wish to
remember to some other fact or word which you
know will be brought out by the implied con-
ditions — and thus you will always be able to
travel from your given starting point to the
thing which you wish to call to mind.

To illustrate : let the broken line in the annexed dia-
gram represent a train of thought. If we connect the
idea "« " with "e" through the steps b, c and
d. the tendency of the mind ever afterwards
will be to get to e from a that way, or from
any of the intermediates that way. It seems
as though a channel were cut in our mind-
stuff along which the memory flows. How
to make it flow this way will be seen later on.
Loisette, in common with all the mnemonic
teachers, uses the old device of representing numbers by
letters — and as this is the first and easiest step in the art,

this seems to be the most logical place to introduce the ac-
cepted equivalents of the Arabic numerals :

is always represented by j, rort soft.

1 is always represented by /, th or d.

2 is always represented by n.

3 is always represented by m.

4 is always represented by r.

5 is always represented by /.

is always represented by sh,j, eh soft or^- soft.

7 is always represented by g hard, t, c hard, q or final ng.

8 is always represented by f or v.

9 is always represented by / or b.

All the other letters are used simply to fill up. Double
letters in a word count only as one. In fact the system
goes by sound, not by spelling — for instance " this " or
"dizzy" would stand for ten; "catch" or "gush" would
stand for 76, and the only difficulty is to make some word
or phrase which will contain only the significant letters in
the proper order, filled out with non-significant into some
guise of meaning or intelligibility.* Suppose you wished
to get some phrase or word that would express the num-
ber 3685, you arrange the letters this way:

0*.

^"»

You can make out "image of law,'' "my shuffle,"
" matchville," etc., etc., as far as you like to work it out.

Now, suppose you wish to memorize the fact that
$1,000,000 in gold weighs 3.685 pounds, you go about it
in this way, and here is the kernel and crux of Loisette's
system:

"How much does $1,000,000 in gold weigh?"

" Weigh— scales."

" Scales — statue of Justice."

"Statue of Justice — image of lav.'."

The process is simplicity itself. The thing you wish to
recall, and that you fear to forget, is the weight; conse-
quently you cement your chain of suggestion to the idea
which is most prominent in your mental question. What
do you weigh with ? Scales. What doe6 the mental pic-
ture of scales suggest ? The statue of Justice, blindfolded
and weighing out award and punishment to man. Finally,
what is this statue of Justice but the image of law ? and
the words " image of law," translated back from the sig-
nificant letters m, g soft, f and /. give vou 3-6-8-5. the
number of pounds in $1,600,000 in gold. You bind to-
gether in your mind each separate step in the journey, the
one suggests the other, and you will find, a year from
now, that the fact will be as fresh in your memory as it is

•You can remember the equivalents bv noting the fact that t is
the first letter of " «rn," and c of " cipher," / has but one stroke, a
has two, m three. The script/ is very like 8, the script f lik<
the last letter ot four, / is the roinan numeral for Jf/tY* which sug-
gests JSrt. The others may be retained as memorising these two
nonsense lines:

Six sky Jewesses c Aase George
Seven Great A'ings came fuarrcliajf.

-75

THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM,

to-day. You cannot lose it. It is chained to you by an
unbreakable mnemonic tie. Mark, that it is not claimed
that "weight "will of itself suggest "scales" and "scales"
"statue of Justice," etc., but that, having once passed your
attention up and down that ladder of ideas, your mental
tendency will be to take the same route, and get to the
same goal again and again. Indeed, beginning with the
weight of $1,000,000, " image of law " will turn up in your
mind without your consciousness of any intermediate sta-
tion on the way, after some iteration and reiteration of the
original chain.

Again, so as to fasten the process in the reader's mind
even more firmly, suppose that it were desired to fix the
date of the battle of Hastings (A. D. 1066) in the mem-
ory; 1066 may be represented by the words "the wise
judge" (M = 1, .« = o,/ = 6, rf§- = 6; the others are non-
significants); a chain might be made thus:

Battle of Hastings — arbitrament of war.
Arbitrament of war — arbitration.
Arbitration — judgment.
Judgment — the wise judge.

Make mental pictures, connect ideas, repeat words and
sounds, go about it any way you please, so that you will
form a mental habit of connecting the "battle of Hast-
ings " with the idea of " arbitrament of war," and so on
for the other links in the chain, and the work is done.

Loisette makes the beginning of his system unnecessa-
rily difficult, to say nothing of his illogical arrangement in
the grammar of the art of memory, which he makes the
first of his lessons. He analyzes suggestion into—

1. Inclusion.

2. Exclusion.

3. Concurrence.

All of which looks very scientific and orderly, but is
really misleading, and badly named. The truth is that
one idea will suggest another.

1. By likeness or opposition of meaning, as "house"
suggests "room" or "door," etc.; or "white" suggests
"black," "cruel," "kind," etc.

2. By likeness of sound, as "harrow" and "barrow";
"Henry" and "Hennepin."

3. By mental juxtaposition, a peculiarity different in
each person, and depending upon each one s own experi-
ences. Thus, " St. Charles " suggests " railway bridge " to
me, because I was vividly impressed by the breaking of
the Wabash bridge at that point. " Stable" and "broken
leg" come near each other in my experience, so do
"cow" and "shot-gun" and "licking."

Out of these three sorts of suggestion it is possible to
get from any one fact to any other in a chain certain and
safe, along which the mind may be depended upon after-
wards always to follow.

The chain is, of course, by no means all. Its making
and its binding must be accompanied by a vivid, method-
ically directed attention, which turns all the mental light
gettable in a focus upon the subject passing across the
mind's screen. Before Loisette was thought of this was
known. In the old times in England, in order to impress
upon the mind of the rising generation the parish boun-
daries in the rural districts, the boys were taken to each
of the landmarks in succession, the position and bearings
of each pointed out carefully, and, in order to deepen the
impression, the young people were then and there vigor-
ously thrashed, a mechanical method of attracting the at-
tention which was said never to have failed. This system
has had its supporters in many of the old-fashioned
schools, and there are men who will read these lines who
can recall, with an itching sense of vivid expression, the

144 lickings which were said to go with the multiplication
table.

In default of a thrashing, however, the student must cul-
tivate as best he can an intgnse fixity of perception upon
every fact or word or date, that he wisties fb make perma-
nently his own. It is easy. It is a matter of habit. If
you will you can photograph an idea upon your cerebral
gelatine so that neither years nor events will blot it out or
overlay it. You must be clearly and distinctly aware of
the thing you are putting into your mental treasure-house,
and drastically certain of the cord by which you have tied
it to some other thing of which you are sure. Unless it is
worth your while to do this, you might as well abandon
any hope of mnemonic improvement, which will not come
without the hardest kind of hard work, although it is work
that will grow constantly easier with practice and reitera-
tion.

You need, then :

1. Methodic suggestion.

2. Methodic attention.

3. Methodic reiteration.

And this is all there is to Loisette, and a great deal It
is. Two of them will not do without the third. You do
not know how many steps there are from your hall door
to your bed-room, though you have attended to and often
reiterated the journey. But if there are twenty of them,
and you have once bound the word "nice," or "nose," or
"news," or "hyenas" to the fact of the stairway,you could
never forget it.

The Professor makes a point, and very wisely, of the
importance of working through some established chain, so
that the whole may be carried away in the mind — not
alone for the value of the facts so bound together, but for
the mental discipline so afforded.

Here, then, is the " President Series," which contains
the name and the date of inauguration of each president
from Washington to Cleveland. The manner in which it
is to be mastered is this: Beginning at the top, try to find
in your mind some connection between each word and the
one following it. See how you can at some future time
make one suggest the next, either by suggestion of sound
or sense, or by mental juxtaposition. When you have
found this, dwell on it attentively a moment or two. Pass
it backward and forward before you, and then go on to
the next step.

The chain runs thus, the names of the presidents being
in small caps, the date words in italics:

President - - - - Chosen as the first word as the one most apt
to occur to the mind of any one wishing to
repeat the names of the presidents.

Dentists ----- President and dentist.

Draw- ----- What does a dentist do?

To give «/---• When something is drawn from one it is
given up. This is a date phrase meaning

Self-sacrifice - • - There is an association of thought between

giving up and self-sacrifice.
Washington - - Associate the quality of self-sacrifice with

Washington's character.
Morning wash - - Washington and -wash.
Dew ------ Early wetness and dew.

Flower beds - - - Dew and flowers.

Took a bouquet - - Flowers and bouquet. Date phrase (1797).

Garden ----- Bouquet and garden.

Eden ----- The first garden.

Adam ----- Juxtaposition of thought.

Adams ----- Suggestion by sound.

Fall ------ Juxtaposition of thought.

Failure ----- Fall and failure.

Deficit ----- Upon a failure there is usually a deficit. Date

word (1801).
Debt ------ The consequence of a deficit.

Bonds ----- Debt and bonds.

Confederate bonds - Suggestion by meaning.
Jefferson Davis • - Juxtaposition of thought.
Jefferson.

166

THE LOISETTE MEMOKV SYSTEM.

Now follow out the rest for yourself, taking about ten
at a time, and binding thou you do last lo those you
nave done before each time, before attacking the next
bunch.

.SON

the fraud

the heavy shell

lodge Jeffreyi

painted clay

mollusk

1 v assize

baked clay

unfamiliar word

ivement

tiles

dictionary

too /irii-jv a Job

Tyler

-on's

parental grief

Wat Tyler

Johnson

mad son

poll tax

son

Madison

compulsory

bad son

Madeira

free will

dishonest b

first-rate wine

free offering

thievish boy

frustrating

burnt offering

take

defeating

poker

feet

Polk

Grant

toe the line

end of dance

award

row

termination " ly"
adverb

school premium

Monroe

examination

row

part of speech

cramming

boat

part of a man

fagging

steamer

Taylor

laborer

the funnel

measurer

hay field

windpipe

theodolite

11 AYES

throat

Theofhiltis

hazy

quinzy

fill us

clear H v

Quincy Adams

Fillmore

vivid

quince

more fuel

brightly lighted

fine fruit .1.

the flame

camp fire

the fine bov

flambeau

war field

sailor boy

bow

Garfield

sailor

arrow

Guiteau

jack tar

Pierce

murderer

Jackson

hurt

prisoner

stone wall

feeling

prison fare

indomitable

wound

half fed V

tough make

soldier

well fed

oaken furniture

cannon

well read

bureau

Buchanan

author

Van Buren

rebuke

Arthur

rent

official censure

round table

side-splitting

to officiate

tea table -

tea cup ,V
half full

divert

wedding

annoy

linked

harassing

Lincoln

divide

Harrison

link

cleave

Old Harry

stroll

Cleveland

the tempter

sea shore

It will be noted that some of the date words, as "free
will," only give three figures of flic date, S45; but it is to
be supposed that if the student knows that many figures
in the date of Polk's inauguration he can_ guess the other
one.

The curious thing about this system will now become
apparent. If the reader has learned the series so that he
can say it down, from President to Cleveland, he can with
no effort, and without any further preparation, sav it
backwards from Cleveland up to the commencement !
There could be no better proof that this is the natural
mnemonic system. It proves itself by its works.

The series should he repeated backwards and forwards
eveVy day for a month, and it should lie supplemented bv .1
series of the reader's own making, and by this one, which
gives the numbers from a to 100. and which must In-
chained together before they can be learned.

O — hoes

1 — wheat

34 — mare

67 — hockey

2 — hen

35— mill

68 — kh

3 — home

30 — image

69 — ship

4 — hair

37— mug

'," — eggs

5 — °"

3S — muff

71— -ate

6 — shoe

39 — mob

"1-— '-

7 — hook
8— off

40— race

73— comb

41 — hart

74 — hawker

9 — bee

42 — horn

75— coal

10 — daisy-

43 — armv

70— cage

II — tooth

44 — warrior

77— cake

12— dine

4S — roval

78— coffee

13 — time

4I) — arch

79 — cube

14 — tower

47 — rock

15— dell

.;S — wharf

81— feet

16— ditch

4') — rope

sj — \xin

1 7 — duck
iS — dove

go — "heels

:ine

51— lad

s 4 — fire

19 — tabby

52 — lion

85— vial

20— hvenas

?3 — lamb

21 — hand
22 — nun

54— liar
5 e— lily

23 — name

iage

So— fib

24— owner

^7 — lake

00 — pies

Ji — nail

91 — putty

z>> — hinge

59 — t i

02 — pane

27 — inkf

(0— < -l

93 — bomb

28— knife

Oi — cheat

94 — bier

29 — knob

62 — chain

95 — bell

30 — muse

63 — sham

31 — mayday

f>4 — chair

07 — book

32 — hymen

65— jail

. >s— beef

33 — mama

60 — judge

yr-pope

IOO — ii ;

By the use of this table, which should be committed as
thoroughly as the President series, so that it can be re-
peated backwards and forwards, any date, figure or num-
ber can be at once constructed, and bound by the usual
chain to the fact which you wish it to accompany.

When the student wishes to go farther and attack
larger problems than the simple binding of two facts to-
. there is little in I m that is new,

although there is much that is good. If it is a book that
is to be learned as one would prepare for an examination,
each chapter is to be considered separately. Of each a
precis is to be written in which the writer must exercise-
all of his ingenuity to reduce the matter in hand to its
final skeleton of fact. This he is to commit to memory
both by the use of the chain and the old system of interro-
gation. Suppose after much labor through a wide
of language one boils a chapter or an event down to the
final irreducible sediment: "Magna Charta was exacted
by the barons from King John at Runnvmede."

You must now turn this statement this way and that
way; asking yourself about it every possible and impossi-
ble question, gravely considering the answers, and, if you
find any part of it especially difficult to remember, chain-
ing it to the question which will bring it out. Thus,
" What was exacted by the barons from King John at
Runnvmcdcr" "Magna Charta." "By whom w.i*
Magna Charta exacted from King John at Runnvmede?"
"By the barons." " From whom wa

John." "From what king." etc.. etc.? " King John.
"Where TO Magna Charta," etc., etc.? "At Runnv-
mede "

And so on and so on, as long as your ingenuity can
t questions to ask, or points of view from which to

THE LOISETTE SYSTEM OF MEMORY.

167

consider the statement. Your mind will be finally satu-
rated with the information; and prepared to spill it out at
the first squeeze of the examiner. This, however, is not
new. It was taught in the schools hundreds of years be-
for Loisette was born. Old newspaper men will recall in
connection with it Horace Greeley's statement that the test
of a news item was the clear and satisfactory manner in
which a report answered the interrogatories, "What?"
"When?" "Where?" "Who?" "Why?"

In the same way Loisette advises the learning of poetrv,

"The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 1 *

" Who came down?"

" How did the Assyrian come down?"

" Like what animal did?" etc.

And so on and so on. until the verses are exhausted of
every scrap of information to be had out of them by the
most assiduous cross-examination.

Whatever the reader may think of the availibilitv or
value of this part of the system, there are so many easily
applicable tests of the worth of much that Loisette has
done, that it may be taken with the rest.

Few p eo ple, to give an easy example, can remember the
value of IT— the ratio between the circumference and the
diameter of the circle — beyond four places of decimals, or
at most five — 3. 1415924-." Here is the value to 108 deci-
mal places:

3. I4 i 59-6.V35S979323S-46264338; > J705OjSS4I97i6 9 3 9 937
5-i05S20974944592307Si -6406286208 -i^)S62So34S-J5342i
170679S2 148086+

By a very simple application of the numerical letter
values, these 108 decimal places can be carried in the mind
and recalled about as fast as you can write them down.
All that is to be done is to memorize these nonsense lines:

Jlother Day will bV any shawl.

My love pick up my new muff.

A Russian jeer may move a woman.

Cables enough for Utopia.

Get a cheap ham pie by my cooley.

The slave knows a bigger ape.

I rarely hop on my sick foot.

Cheer a sage in a fashion safe.
A baby fish now views my wharf.
Annually Mary Ann did kiss a jay.
A cabby found a rough savage.

Now translate each significant into its proper value and
you have the task accomplished. "Mother Day," in = 3,
/// = 1, >-= 4, rf= 1, and so on. Learn the lines one at a
time by the method of interrogatories. ''Who will buy
any shawl?" Which Mrs. Day will buy a shawl?" "Is
Mother Day particular about the sort of shawl she will
buy?" "Has she bought a shawj?" etc., etc. Then ce-
ment the end of each line to the beginning of the next
one, thus, "Shawl" — "warm garment" — "warmth" —
"love" — "my love," and go on as before. Stupid as the
work may seem to you, you can memorize the figures in
fifteen minutes this way so that you will not forget them
in fifteen years. Similarly you can take Haydn's Dic-
tionary of Dates and turn fact after fact into nonsense
lines like these which you cannot lose.

And this ought to be enough to show anybody the
whole art. If you look back across the sands of time and
find out that it is that ridiculous old "Thirty days hath
September " which comes to you when you are trying to
think of the length of October — if you can quote your old
prosody,

"O datur ambiguis,' 1 etc.,

with much more certainty than you can serve up your
Horace; if, in fine, jingles and alliterations, wise and other-
wise, have stayed with you, while solid and serviceable in-
formation has faded away, you may be certain that here
is the key to the enigma of memory.

You can apply it yourself in a hundred wavs. If you
wish to clinch in your"mind the fact that Mr. Love lives
at 4S5 Dearborn Street, what is more easy than to turn
4S5 into the word " rifle " and chain the ideas together,
say thus: "Love — happiness — good time — picnic — forest
— wood rangers — range — rifle range — rifle — fine weapon
— costly weapon — dearly bought — Dearborn."

Or if you wish to remember Mr. Bowman's name, and
you notice he has a mole on his face which is apt to at-
tract your attention when you next see him, cement the
ideas thus: " Mole, mark, target, archer, Bowman." yr*-*-

168

BOOK-KEEPING.

ftfE ART op

^^ AMD DOUBUe ^

The Two Systems Compared Side by Side.

00K- KEEPING is the
art of recording business
transactions in a system-
atic manner, so that the
results will be readily ap-
parent, and so that the con-
dition of the business, as
to its resources and liabil-
ities, losses and gains,
may be ascertained with ease and
exactness. A knowledge of the
science of accounts is necessary to
all men, no matter in what business
they may be engaged. It is especially
valuable as it is demanded in every
position in life. There are two sys-
tems of Book-keeping, Single Entry
and Double Entry. The former is
mainly used where transactions are
limited to the business of retail dealers, and
where it is only necessary to record the details
of purchases and sales for cash or credit. A
single entry of the account in the Ledger is am-
ple for the purpose of a record. But where
business is done on a large scale, such as per-
tains to a wholesale house, it becomes necessary

to have recourse to the more satisfactory though
more intricate system of Double Entry. Instead
of making only one entry of a transaction, as
in the simpler method, two are made — first on
the Dr. or Cr. side of one account, and again on
the contrary side of some other account. The
advantage of this double entry is that the mer-
chant can always inform himself of the exact
state of each account, and not alone of the
goods sold, but of what he has on hand, without
the inconvenience of often taking an account of
stock. Then again it is a check by which errors
may be easily detected.

Books Used in Single Entry.

In Single Entry only three books are neces-
sary — Cash-Book, Day-Book and Ledger. All
moneys received or paid out are entered in the
Cash-Book. If goods are purchased for cash,
the money being paid away, the entry is made
on the Cr. side, " By Merchandise per Day-
Book." The cash should be balanced as soon
after the last day of the month as possible.

A record of the transactions of each and
every day in the order in which they take place
should be entered in the Day-Book. The name

-r

BOOK-KEEPING.

169

of the customer is entered in full, with the term
Dr. or Cr. annexed, according to the nature of
the transaction — Dr. when goods are sold to
him, and Cr. when goods are bought or received
from him. The date of each entry must be in-
serted, and the names and addresses of custom-
ers written in full. Goods purchased or received
on credit are entered under Cr., and the entry
preceded by the word " By." When goods are
sold on credit add " Dr." to the person's name
and residence, and begin the entry with the
word " To." When abatement for discount or
short measure is allowed by you, enter the
person Cr., and when similar allowance is
made to you, enter the person Dr.

Every transaction is entered in the Ledger
from all other books, with certain references,
indicating the sources from which the items are
derived. Each customer's name has a certain
space allotted to it, in which the goods sold ap-
pear on the Dr. side and the cash received on
the Cr. side.

Books Used in Double Entry.

In Double Entry the principal books used are
the Day-Book, Cash-Book, Journal and Ledger.
The first-named book should contain the prin-
cipal transactions occurring in the various stages
of business. Entries should be fully intelligible,
from the fact that it contains the greater portion
of the matter from which the other books are
made. All transactions in which cash has any
part must be entered in the Cash-Book at the
time they occur, in the same manner as other
entries are made in the Day-Book. In the
Journal are entered and methodically arranged
the scattered items of the Cash-Book and Day-
Book.

The Ledger is the most important of all the
books in the series, and into it are transferred
the entries from the Journal, under their separ-
ate heads. To facilitate the finding of particu-
lar accounts, an index-book is used in connec-
tion with the Ledger, in which the names are
alphabetically arranged, with the number of the

page of the Ledger opposite each. The very
important fact must not be lost sight of that
every item is entered twice, once on the Dr.
side of one account, and or^ce on the Cr. side of
another account.

How Entries are Ifcade.

If a person buys merchandise to the amount
of $1,000, for which he pays cash, the entry
would be made as follows :

Merchandise, Dr.

To Cash

$1,00000

The first entry shows what the merchandise
has cost him, and the second shows that he has
paid away cash amounting to #1,000. Accounts
are opened with Cash, Merchandise, Bills Paya-
ble, Bills Receivable, Interest, Commission, etc.,
in the same manner as personal accounts are
treated in the Single Entry Ledger, all items
received or disbursed being debited and credit-
ed to their account. To make it still plainer,
suppose George Smith sells a quantity of goods
to Peter Aylmer, and charges him $50 commis-
sion ; the entry would be made in this fashion :

Peter Aylmer, Dr.

To Commission

$5000

If the same party owed Aylmer the same sum
of money and gave him a note for the amount
with #5.00 interest added, it would be entered
thus:

Sundries

Peter Aylmer
Interest

To Bills Payable

$5000
500

$SS'oo

There are two styles of accounts, Real and
Representative. The latter class embraces such
as Commission, Interest, etc., and should be deb-
ited and credited for what they cost or pro-
duce. By doing this, when the books are bal-
anced a person can tell at once exactly what
these representative accounts have cost or pro-
duced.

How to Detect Errors.

It is customary among merchants to have a
set time for the adjustment of their account

o "V

170

HOOK-KEEPING.

books, and for this it is necessary, before tak-
ing a general balance, to prove the posting of
the Ledger by taking a trial balance. To do
this the accountant adds all the Dr. sides into
one sum, and all the Cr. sides into another.
When the Ledger has been correctly posted
these two sums will be equal ; but if they do
hot balance the cause of the difference must be
looked up at once. Sometimes a sum is enter-
ed to a different account than the one to which
it belongs, but on the same side, and the sums
will still agree. To find such an error as this,
the Journal and Ledger should be compared by
two persons, the one reading from the Journal,
and the other scanning the accounts in the
Ledger, and checking them when correct.
When a Journal entry is omitted or twice en-
tered in the Ledger, the summing up of the
latter will not show the error. To find it, how-
ever, it is necessary to foot up the Cash re-
ceived, Cash paid, Bills Receivable, Bills Payable
and Day-Book entries, and the sum will always
agree with that side of the Ledger which is cor-
rect, leading easily to the detection of the error.

How Errors are Made.

Very frequently errors are made in journal-
izing the subsidiary books and in posting the
Ledger, such as debiting or crediting one per-
son or account in place of another; omitting
entries ; making the sum too large or too small,
etc. Immediate attention should be paid to er-
rors of this kind, not by an erasure or interlin-
eation, but an explanatory entry in the Day-
Book. That is then to be journalized like a
regular transaction and posted in the Ledger.
For instance, in the Ledger of May ioth, Rich-
ard Klotz is debited to Bills Payable, but on the
30th of May it is found that this entry should
have been posted to John Dobbins' account.
John Dobbins is therefore debited to Richard
Klotz in the Day-Book, and the mistake is
thereby explained. If, any account has been
overposted, it must be either debited or credited
for the excess; and if it has been underposted,

a new entry must be made upon the same side
for the deficiency. When an entry has been
entirely omitted, it must be made as soon as
discovered, mentioning when omitted. When
an entry has been posted twice, it may be cor-
rected by entering the amount on the other side,
noting the fact of its being twice posted. The
greatest care should be exercised in mak-
ing original entries, as they are the 1
dangerous of all. Balancing books should not
be delayed beyond a specified time, for, the
longer the time, the more difficult the correction
of an error. Where an account has been under-
paid for a year or so the person may have sub-
sequently died, failed, retired from business, or
otherwise become inaccessible. Thus a positive
loss is sustained which might otherwise have
been avoided.

Subsidiary Books.

Among the subsidiary books generally used
is the Petty Cash-Book, in which a record is
kept of the various charges incurred in trade,
too trifling to be entered separately in the Cash-
Book. This book is balanced monthly, and the
total amount of expenditures transferred to the
Cash-Book under the head of Petty Cash. The
Bill-Book is used in the same manner in Single
and Double Entry. A separate book should be
kept for Bills Receivable and Bills Payable.
When a note is received it should be imme-
diately entered under the head of Bills Receiv-
able and duly numbered ; and when a draft is
accepted, or note paid away, it should be en-
tered as Bills Payable.

In some cases merchants keep a Cash account
and Bank account separately. Thus, if they
have $5,000 on hand in cash and should deposit
$1,000 of it in the First National Bank, they
would debit or charge the bank with the amount
and credit Cash for the amount paid away, and
when they draw any portion.from the bank they
credit the bank with the amount and debit Cash
with it ; or, if it is paid away to any person, he is
charged with it. In large establishments the

OOK-K.EEPING.

171

Bank account is frequently kept in a separ-
ate book.

-em} THE TWO SYSTEMS.

In the following pages are given three sets of
accounts, exemplifying thoroughly the theory
and practice of Single Entry and Double Entry
Book-keeping.

Of the Double Entry sets, the first is a very
simple one, and designed to prepare the student
for a thorough understanding of the second, in
which has been introduced the feature of com-
bining the Journal and Day-Book, and which
also presents two methods of closing the Led-
ger, as will be explained further on.

The Cash-Book, in Double as well as in Sin-
gle Entry, shows on the debit side all cash re-
ceived and on the credit side the cash paid out,
and the excess of debit consequently shows the
exact amount of cash on hand. The form used
in both systems is the same, with this exception,
that in Double Entry, where the posting is done
direct from the Cash-Book, a column is ruled off
next to the date column to show the folio of the
Ledger. The balances may be brought down
weekly, but when the entries are numerous it
would be better to balance the Cash account
daily. Money received or paid on account is
entered in the Cash-Book as well as the Day-
Book.

The first and last thing to remember in study-
ing Book-keeping is that

The thing received is Dr.
The thing delivered is Cr.

Or,

What you owe is Cr.
What owes you is Dr.

Debit what costs value.
Credit what produces value.

Book-Keeping by Single Entry.

In the pages immediately following we pre-
sent to the student a set of books kept by Single
Entry.

The Day-Book affords a regular daily history
of every transaction, giving details and particu-
lars. The entries in the book are direct
and simple, first stating the name of the person
to be debited or credited on the Ledger, ex-
pressed, respectively, by "Dr." and " Cr.," and
giving the consideration and amount. These
entries are transferred under the proper heads
in the Ledger, which in Single Entry exhibits
the relation in which persons with whom we
deal stand to the business. An account in the
Ledger should be transferred to a new folio be-
fore it crowds upon the one below it.

The Day-Book and Ledger contain only
transactions relating to persons. A prudent
business man, however, will feel the necessity of
keeping a record of receipts and disbursements
of cash, the issue and redemption of his own
notes and the receipt and disposition of the
notes of others, and for this purpose will keep a
Cash-Book and a Bill-Book. The Cash-Book is
here given in full. In view of the thorough ex-
planations appended, the form of the auxiliary
books is not given.

The words and figures in italics would in
practice be entered in red ink, as illustrated in
the Double Entry sets.

: 7 2

SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK.

Dr.

Cash.

iss 3 .

Nov.

To Charles Evans, invested by him
" Thomas J effers, " " "
" Edgar Hatch, on «

To Balance on hand from 3d inst,
" I Bureau, Mahogany Veneered

" Bills Receivable, Martin Stevens' Note, Evans' favor.
" John Roberts, Arm Chair fo* Office

$ V> 00

6»S t oS

60 00

& at

» CO

IJ500
500

Nov.

>4
16

To Balance on hand from loth inst.
" 1 Pint of Varnish
" Standing Cupboard
" 1 Reclining Chair
" 3 Ottomans
" 1 Walnut Bedstead.

19 To Balance on hand from 17th inst.

aa " Steamboat Vint Shlnkle, part Bill of data

M ,-

64S60

5»

J5 00

7 OS

45°
6S63S

R) --3

15000

74-

•3

Nov.

ISS3-
Dec.

To Balance on hand from 24th inst.

*' a Mahogany Bocking Chairs Walnut, ® $u. 50

" 1 Walnut Bedsteads, ® 4.50

" 1 Doz. Cane-Seat Walnut Chairs 24JJ0

« t Child's High Chair 1.15

" " Rocking " i.»S

" Edgar Hatch, in full

" Repairing Tables
■ " Chair*

To Balance from Nov. 30th, iSSj

474 83
«5 00

900

»«50

a
■

tea 1

47"

SINGLE *NTRY CASH-BOOK.

173

SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOQK.

Cash.

Cr.

1883.

Nov.

By C. R. George, Bill of Lumber
" Bill of Coal
" Balance in Bank $650, in Safe $24.98

By Joseph Maynes, Bricklayer, Repairs to House
" James Wright, Painting House
" Samuel Hudson, in full of
" One pair of Pinchers
" Wages paid hands
" Balance in Bank $620, in Safe $18.60

16 By Samuel Hudson, part Bill of Paints, etc.

17 " Wages paid hands
" Balance in Bank $jaj.J0, in Safe $72.73

By Bills Payable, Evans' Note, Smith's favor,
Less Discount from date to J an. 6th f 1S83
" Charles Evans on <t
" Bill of Varnish
" Gas Bill

" Drayage of Furniture
" Wages paid hands
" Balance in Bank $470, in Safe $4.83

$200.00
'■5°

27 By Bill of Veneering
29 " Thomas Jeffers, on f

" Glazing one Light of Glass

" Rent of Shop, one month

" Wages paid hands

'* Balance in Bank $ 460.JO, in Safe $11.48

$75 ( «°

7 5°
67/9S

75S,°S

5' 5°
21 00
6700
3«
Sl\S°
64860

82698

So.oo

38 u

SQ&'3

686 35

198S0

»3
>4

474

74S,23

25 60

2S|oO

40 CO

39 ! 25
47' OS

602 oS

'74-

SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK.

fe-

SINGLE ENTRY DAYBOOK.

St. Louis, November ist t 1883.

Charles Evans, Cabinet-Maker, associates with himself Thomas J enters — Evans transferring to the firm such portion
of his resources and liabilities as is mutually agreed upon, and Jeffcrs investing their equivalent in Cu>h.
The parties are to share alike in gains and losses.

Charles Evans,

By Cash invested

" Sundry Notes he holds against others, per B.-B.
" BaJ. of Edgar Hatch's f
11 " Maurice Perry's f

H Materials and Unfinished work, as per Inventory
" Stock of Furniture, " "

" ** Tools, " "

To Sundry Notes he owes, per B.-B,
11 Bal. due Samuel Hudson, on $
** " Richard Kelso & Co., on f

Dr.

Thomas Jeffcrs,
* By Cash invested

Edgar Hatch,

To Bal. of his f due Charles Evans

Maurice Perry,

To Bal. of his Jf due Charles Evans

Samuel Hudson,

By Bal. of Charles Evans* ^ assumed by us

Richard Kelso & Co.,

By Bal. of Charles Evans* ^ assumed by us

Edgar Hatch,

To 1 Hair Cloth Mahogany Sofa

By Cash on *

Cr.

5th

Peter Fowler,

To 9 Mahogany Chairs, Cane-Seats, (cb $1.25
" 6 " " Hair-Cloth Seats, (3 3.00

" 2 Cherry Dining Tables, (cb 6.00
M I Maple French Bedstead
" 1 " Low-Post Bedstead
^ _^_^__ - _^ •<
Osmond K;iy,

To 1 doz. Windsor Chairs

li 1 <« H H

" 4 " " "

" 1 Spring-Seat Black Walnut Sofa

Samuel Hudson,

To Cash in full

Richard Kelso & Co.,

By Bill of Lumber

To our Note ® 30 days In full of their

Edgar Hatch,

To 1 Ash Footstool

Andrew Cummins,

To 3 Patent Office Chairs « 5.00

Sth
9th
Dr.

Cr.

Dr.

Cr.

Dr.

50.00

350.00

SS-73

37-+0

356.50

a>o-«
151.20

421.00
67.00
75*>

11.25
1S.00
12.00
4-»5
»-7S

Dr.

J 12. 00
« $15.00 7.50
•* 10^0 5.00

21.00

Dr.

1,21!
5«3

6+8
55

37
67
75

■35

210

-X

SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK.

Li-

175

SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK.

5A Lotas, Nwember I2th % 1883.

Edgar Hatch,

To 1 Red Walnut Dining Table

Francis Watkins,

To 2 Children's Low Chairs, <d> $2.00

John A. Crowe,

To 3 do*. Windsor Chairs, ® $n.od
'* 1 Hocking Chair

Edgar Hatch,

To 4 of Osmond Ray, assumed by him

Osmond Ray,

By transfer of f to Edgar Hatch

Samuel Hudson,

By Bill of Paints, Varnish, etc.

To Cash In part

Francis Watkins,

To 1 Walnut Book-case

Edgar Hatch,

To 1 Hat-stand, Mahogany Veneered

Francis Watkins,

To Varnishing i Table

Steamboat Vint Shinkle,

To 3 Mahogany Sofas, <cb $15.00

w 2 " Tete-a-Tetes, " 16.00
" 1 '* Rocking Chair

'* 4 " Arm Chairs, '* 8.00

M 2 doz. u Chairs, M 30.00

" 14 Cherry Wash-stands, M 2.00

" 14 Looking-glasses, " 2.00

By Cash in part payment

Charles Evans,

To Cash on 4

A. E. Ford,

By Bill of Lumber

Edgar Hatch,

To 1 Mahogany Bureau, with Glass

Thonuis Jeffers,

To Cash on 4

13th

15th

16th

Dr.

19th

20th

22 d

Cr.

23d

26th

— 29th

John A. Crowe,

To 1 Mahogany Bureau

Francis Watkins,

To 1 Black Walnut Centre Table

30th

John A. Crowe,

By 1 Mahogany Bureau, returned because it was too large for the room

Edgar Hatch,

By his Note f3> 60 days
" Cash to Bal. i

Dr.

Cr.

Dr.

Cr.

0.00

$45.00
32.00
12.00
32.00
60.00
2S.00
2S.00

$75.00
62.75

J37

r K

176

SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER.

Dr.

SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER.

Charles Evans.

Cr.

ISS3.

Nov.

To Sundries
" Met Capital at starting

I
2

|63
04S

18S3.
Nov.

1883.
Nov,

1883.
Dec.

■

By Sundries

By Net Cap. brought down
" j Net Gains

1,111

1883.

1,211

1,111

Nov.

»3
30

To Cash on
" Ntt Cap. to New f

77*
78S

3°

14030

By Net Cap. from old *

77' 3^

Dr.

Thomas Jeffers.

Cr.

I8S3.

Nov.

29
3°

To Cash on t
" JVtt Cap. to Nra f

»5
703

18S3.
Nov.

1883.
Dec.

3°

By Cash Invested
■*. 4 Ntt Gain*

By Net Cap. from old <

648' oS
14030

7~*3i_

J63J3S

Edgar

Hatch.

x88 3 .

Nov.
m

1
3
9
12

To Charles Evans
** Sofa
" Footstool
" Dining Tablo
" Osmond Ray

Am't to folio

55
20
1
4°
45

50.^

1SS3.

Nov.

By Cash

Am't to folio

1
*

6000

ibs

Dr.

Maurice Perry.

Cr.

Nov.

To Charles Evans

Dr.

Samuel Hudson.

Cr.

1883.

Nov.

To Cash

To Cash
" Sal. to New i

00
00

1883.

Nov,
1S83.
Nov.

1S83.
Dec.

By Charles Evans
By Bill of date

By Bal. from Old 1

t
1

1883.

Nov.

16
3°

So
»S

'75

■75

'7;

»5

Dr.

Richard Kelso & Co.

Cr.

1883.

Nov.

To Bills Payable

210

.•0

.'0

1SS3.
Nov.

1
9

By Charles Evans
•' Bill of data

1
1

•U

tic

Dr.

Peter Fowler.

Cr.

1883.

Nov.

To Sundries

<? -

- «

1
1

SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. '77

Dr.

SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER.

Osmond Ray. Cr.

.83 3 .
Mov.

To Sundries

45 50

18S3.
Nov.

■S

By Edgar Hatch

Dr.

Andretv Cummins. Cr.

iss 3 .

Nov.

To Office Chairs

■5°°

ZV.

Francis Watkins. Cr.

ISS3.

Nov.

To Children's Chairs
** Book-case
** Varnishing

2
2
2

4;oo

i> 00

fag

18S3.
Nov.

By Bal. to folio

'9 50

■9

Dr.

John A. Crowe. Cr.

1SS3.

Nov.

1SS3.
Dec.

•3
29

To Sundries

" Bureau

To Bal. from Old *

42
'9

0O
OO

1SS3.
Nov.

30
3"

By Bureau
'' Bal. to New y

"9
42

00
00

z>.

Edgar Hatch. Cr.

<
. a

ISS3.

Nov.

'5
*9
26

To Am't from folio
" Hat-stand
" Bureau

1
2

162
10

75
00
00

18S3.
Nov.

15
30

By Am't from folio
Sundries

60
'37

■97

Dr.

Steamboat Vint Shinkle. Cr.

1SS3.

Nov.

1SS3.
Dec.

To Sundries

To Bal. from Old *

23700

1S83.
Nov.

22
30

By Cash
'• Bal. to New i

00
00

237 00

237

Dr.

A. E. Ford. Cr.

1SS3.
Nov.

By Bill <A date

Dr.

Francis Watkins. Cr.

1SS3.

Nov.

1SS3.
Dec.

To Bal. from folio
" Centre Table

To Bal. from Old t

5°

50 -

1SS3.
Nov.

By Bal. to New f

34I50

15 ~

:^=5

i7»

BOOK-KEEPING.

DEDUCTIONS.

UNSETTLED BALANCES ON THE LEDGER.

DEBTS DUE THE FIRM.

Maurice Perry
Peter Fowler
Andrew Cummins
John A. Crowe
Steamboat Vint Shinkle
Francis Watkins

37 40
4825

4>
87
34 50

264

DEBTS THE FIRM OWE.

Samuel Hudson
A. E. Ford

»5
9640

221 66

The above Ledger balances, together with the auxiliary books, furnish the material for the following statement i

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

ASSETS.

LIABILITIES.

Cash on hand per C.-B.
Debts due the firm per Ledger
Bills Receivable per B.-B.
Furniture per Invt. Book 9
Materials, etc., per Invt. Book
Tools, per Invt. Book

47.

*4
300
776
»39
14'

9S
«J

75
79
95

Debts the firm owe per Ledger
Bills Payable per B.-B.

Total liabilities

43'

Total assets
Deduct liabilities

»."94°»

65*86

Firm's net capital or present worth

■.54'

ASSETS, INCLUDING PARTNERS' DEBITS.

Total assets per above stati-im-nt
Cash paid Charles Evans
" Thomas Jcffers

Firm's net gains

Each partner's *,' k= $ 1 40.30.

Deduct

2,104:61

,0
»5

2,22o62

>.949!°»

2S060

LIABILITIES, INCHDIM; PARTNERS' INVESTMENTS.

Total liabilities per above statement
Cli.irli-s Kvans' investment
Thomas Jcffers' investment

652
64S

64S

>,•*■

•

■71

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

179

HE distinguishing feature of Double Entry
is in carrying out a mathematical principle
of equilibrium, under the titles of debtor and cred-
itor, or debits and credits. To preserve this
equilibrium, every debit must have a credit or
credits to balance the amount, and, vice-versa,
every credit must be balanced equally by a
debit or debits. In Single Entry a record is kept
of resources and liabilities only ; in Double En-
try is added a record of gains and losses.

The Day-Book is the original book of entry
and should contain in a concise and unequivocal
form a consecutive history of transactions, in
the order and on the date of their occurrence.

The purpose of the Journal is to decide upon*
the proper debits and credits in each transac-
tion, preparatary to entering them in the Led-
ger. The process of thus classifying transac-
tions by debits and credits is called journalizing.
Very often the Day-Book and Journal .'.re com-
bined in a "Journal Day-Book," as in Set II.

The Ledger is the final book of entry, and in
it are arranged, under the proper accounts, all
facts necessary for a full statement of the busi-
ness. Each of these accounts exhibits one
of the four following results, viz. : A resource,
a liability, a loss, or a gain. The process of
transferring accounts from the Journal to the
Ledger is called posting.

To close an account in the Ledger, add the
debit and credit sides separately on a slip of
paper, and, if the totals thus obtained are not
equal, subtract the smaller from the greater.
This difference is entered in red ink to make up
the deficiency of the smaller side. Then rule
with red ink and enter the totals in black. The
red ink entry is then transferred in black to the
opposite side of the account into which it is
closed. When both columns are equal the to-
tals are simply entered in black, and this indi-
cates that the account is cancelled. When there
are more entries on one side of an account than
on the other, a line is drawn, after closing the
account, obliquely across the vacant space.
This line commences at a double rule opposite
the double rule under the totals, and extends
thence in the direction of the last figure in the
column.

The Key to Journalizing.

Remember that the key to all journalizing is
stated in the two old lines which the student
would do well to memorize :

"By Journal laws what you receive
Is Dr. made to what you give,''

By referring constantly to this rule and ex-
amining each entry in the Journal or Journal
Day-Book by its light, the whole mystery
of Double Entry Book-keeping will become
clear.

•r

180

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

-.': :—

THE PRINCIPLES.

•-:-■- *-

--.; : -

An account is a statement of facts and figures
relating to some person, property or cause, so
arranged as to show a specific result. As stated
on a preceding page, there are two classes of
accounts, Real and Representative. In other
terms, accounts showing resources and liabilities,
and accounts showing losses and gains. The for-
mer are closed " To Balance " or " By Balance,"
and the latter " To Loss and Gain " or " By Loss
and Gain." Some accountants use the words
" Profit and Loss," instead of " Loss and Gain."

The following rules, embodying the principles
of Double Entry Book-keeping, will be found
to cover in a concise form all points which gen-
erally confuse the student groping through a
voluminous treatise :

The proprietor or the partners in a business should be cred-
ited for all investments and for the gain or share of the gain,
and debited for liabilities assumed, for all sums withdrawn from
the business and for the loss or share of the loss incurred.
Where there is only one proprietor he is represented on the
books by Stock, but in a partnership business each partner's ac-
count is kept under his own name. The Stock account and
partners' accounts are closed " To Balance " or " By Balance."

The Cash account is credited for all disbursements and
debited for all receipts of cash. It always closes "By Balance."

A Bank account shows on the debit side the amount deposit-
ed, and on the credit side the amount withdrawn, and closes
" By Balance," unless the account is overdrawn.

The Merchandise account is credited with the proceeds and
debited with the cost of merchandise on hand at commencing
and purchased in the course of business. When the merchan-
dise has all been sold, as in Set I., the difference between the
sides will show a gain if the credit side is the greater, and a loss
if the debit side preponderates. Real estate, personal property
and speculative accounts come under this rule.

The Bills Receivable account is credited when the notes,
acceptances or obligations of others are disposed of or paid,
and debited when such obligations are acquired. This account
always closes " By Balance."

The Bills Payable account is credited when notes, etc, of
the firm or business are issued, and debited when they are paid
or redeemed. It always closes " To Balance."

Personal accounts, including the names of persons, banks
and corporations or institutions competent to sue or be sued,
are credited when we become indebted to them or they get out
of our debt, and debited when they become indebted to us or
we get out of their debt. These accounts are closed "By Bal-
ance" or "To Balance."

The Expense account is debited for liabilities incurred and
cash paid out for which no direct return is expected — such as
salaries, rent, etc. This account closes " By Loss and Gain."

The Loss and Gain account is debited with losses and credit-
ed with gains, and closes "To Stock" or "By Stock."

Under the head of Interest and Discount are debited and
credited all allowances for the use of money on notes, drafts,
etc Credit the account when it produces value ; debit the ac-
count when it costs value. This account closes "To Loss and
Gain" or " By Loss and Gain."

SET I.

By way of initiation into the principles and
practice of Double Entry Book-keeping we
present in Set I. the record of simple business
transactions. It will be observed that all trans-
actions are first entered, in the order of their
occurrence, in the Day-Book, from which th£y
are transferred to the Journal, or journalized,
and thence they are posted to the Ledger. The
established form of Journal entries requires the
debit expression to precede the credit. There-
fore, in applying the preceding principles to the
first entry in the Day-Book, using the word
Stock to denote the proprietor, we have as our
first Journal entry, " Cash, Dr., to Stock, $2,-
ooo." When one person or account is indebted
to another in a certain sum, the latter is the
creditor of the former to the same amount. This
is the foundation of Double Entry Book-keep-
ing, the most important characteristic of which
we now encounter in transferring the first trans-
action to the Ledger, where it will be doubly
entered, on the Dr. side of the Cash account,
and on the Cr. side of the Stock account.

The check-mark (1/ ) in the Day-Book is to
indicate that the transaction has been carried to
the Journal, and the figure in the first column of
the Journal shows the page of the Ledger to
which the account is posted. The number in
the Ledger column immediately preceding the
amount refers, in turn, to the Journal page.

How to Close the Ledger.

The purpose of closing the Ledger is to show
the state of each account in a single amount,
to do away with the unused accounts, and to
ascertain clearly the general results of the busi-

_se

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

181

ness. In this process all the losses and gains are
gathered together in the Loss and Gain account,
and there compared, the gains being placed upon
the credit, and losses on the debit side. When
the credit side is the greater the account is closed
"To Stock" and shows a net gain. The oppo-
site entry, " By Loss and Gain," is made in the
Stock account and increases the capital. When
the debit side is the greater, the account shows a
net loss and is closed " By Stock," and the op-
posite entry in the Stock account, "To Loss
and Gain," indicates a decrease in capital.

The first step in closing the Ledger is to take a Trial Balance,
that is, to make a systematic arrangement of the Ledger accounts,
with their proper debit and credit totals and differences. If the
Ledger is correct, the total debits will equal the total credits.

The next thing in order is to ascertain by an inventory the
value of all goods and property unsold and credit the amounts
in red ink to the proper accounts, "By Balance, Inventory."
The opposite entry is afterwards made on the debit side of the
Balance account in black ink. Thus, if the Merchandise ac-
count has in red ink the entry, " By Balance, Inventory, $ 1, 600,"
the corresponding entry in black in the Balance account will
read, "To Mdse., $1,600." In Set I. the entire stock is sup-
posed to have been sold, and consequently no entry of this kind
will be found.

Now a Loss and Gain account is opened, if this has
not been done previously, and also a Balance account
In the first are to be entered in black ink all accounts closing
"To Loss and Gain" or "By Loss and Gain," showing the
profit and loss on each account. In the second are to be enter-
ed all accounts closing "To Balance" or "By Balance," show-
ing the resources and liabilities.

Close first all accounts to which inventory balances have been
carried. The differences between the sides of these accounts
will show gain or loss, and the closing entry, in red ink, will
express the difference — "By Loss and Gain" or "To Loss and
Gain."

Having finished these accounts, the other accounts in the Led-
ger, excepting Stock and partners' accounts, are closed in red
ink— "To" or "By Loss and Gain," or "To" or "By Bal-
ance."

The "Loss and Gain" and "Balance " red ink entries are
now carried in black ink to the opposite sides of the Loss and
Gain and Balance accounts.

The Loss and Gain account is now closed, in red ink, "To
Stock" or " By Stock." In a partnership business each partner
is credited or debited with his share.

The process of closing the Ledger is now completed by tak-
ing the difference between the sides of the Stock account and
entering in red ink "To Balance " or " By Balance," which is
transferred in black to the Balance account.

Balance Sheets.

The balance sheet given for Set II. is the most condensed
form for a partnership business. The style and symmetry
will commend it to all accountants, while the fulness of the
illustrations must satisfy alL The form has been used for a long
time, but has never been adopted to any great extent by busi-
ness men, the objection being its inadequacy to contain long
lists of personal accounts. This objection can be overcome by
using, instead of persons' names, the general titles Accounts
Receivable and Accounts Payable. In nearly all kinds of busi-
ness this will reduce the number of accounts within the limits of
this form.

The following rules should be used in preparing this form :
First rule the parallel head-lines, leaving space for the double
captions. Then ascertain the number of Ledger accounts to be
represented. This will, of course, embrace all the accounts in
the Trial Balance that do not cancel. If the business is that of
a single proprietor, rule in pencil as many lines as will contain
all the accounts, and five additional. If it be a partnership busi-
ness, with two or more partners, rule three additional lines for
each partner. Next lay off proper spaces for debit and credit
money columns : first, for the footings of Ledger accounts ; sec-
ond, for Gains and Losses ; third, for Stock ; and fourth, for Re-
sources and Liabilities ; also, for a single money column for in-
ventories, and for the Ledger titles and their Ledger folios.
After denoting the proper space for each heading, commence to
rule with red ink at the right hand and bring all the lines of the
first two captions, Real accounts and Stock, or one of the part-
ners, down to the lower pencil line. For the other partner drop
two lines. For Losses and Gains drop two lines, for Stock
business ; and an additional line for each partner. Then rule
the foot-lines as shown, and the schedule will be ready to receive
the accounts.

Auxiliary Books.

All accountants, where the business is any way large, keep
what are termed auxiliary books. Among these is the Inventory-
Book. It is used to enumerate the different articles of unsold
merchandise, at such times as may be deemed desirable. In-
ventories are frequently copied into Invoice-Books.

An Invoice is a statement in detail of goods sold, shipped
abroad or consigned to another to be sold. The Invoice-Book
is used for taking copies of the invoices which accompany
goods purchased or received on consignment. Some houses,
instead of copying, paste their invoices in a blank Invoice-Book
prepared for this purpose. This book, while showing the entire
cost of merchandise, will also exhibit the separate credits pro-
ducing merchandise. If a lot or package is distinguished by
a peculiar mark, that mark is transferred to the invoice, thus
serving an important purpose in checking the articles, adjusting
disputes, etc.

Bills Receivable and Bills Payable are usually bound in op-
posite ends of the same book, termed a Bill-Book. This book
should never be omitted, and especially is it important to keep
a record of the amount and condition of notes payable.

The Sales-Book contains all the regular sales, either for cash
or on time. In houses doing a mixed Dusiness the Sales-Book
and Commission Sales-Book can with equal propriety be kept
together or separate, as convenience may dictate.

182

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

SET I. DAY-BOOK. (I.)

St. Louis, December ist, 188 j.

Commenced business this day with, Cash to the amount of

Bought of Armstrong & Co., on f ,

1,000 brls. Flour, ® $6.00,

1 3

Sold Jesse Jameson, for Cash,

300 brls. Flour, ® $6.50,

" 5

Sold John Williams, on ^,

250 brls. Flour, © $7.00,

Sold Wm. Moore, on his Note <d) 30 days,

150 brls. Flour, f& $7.00,

' ■ ■ ' 10 ' ■ —

Bought of Joseph Wheelock, on our Note <® 60 days,

500 bu. Wheat, <cb $1.00,

" ■' 1 a — ■ ■■.■■■■■ — —

Sold Albert St. John, for Cash,

loobu. Wheat, ® $1.25, $125.00

100 brls. Flour, (S> $6.75, 675.00

H '

Paid Cash for Stationery and Books for use of Store,

. , 5

Bought of Edwin Ellerton, for C:ish,

300 brls. Flour, ® $5.00,

Sold Peter Potts, for Cash,

100 brls. Flour, ® $6.00,

Bought of W. L. George, on Jf ,

1,000 bu. Oats, ® 750,

1 ' " ~~ — ■" ao *■" — ^— — — ^ — — — — —

Sold Sellers A Bro., on their Note <cb 5 d;iys,

500 bu. Oats, @ So#, $400.00

100 bu. Wheat, ® $1.15, 115.00

—■■—■■■—■■ ' ' ~ " " ■ — 22 — '— '

Sold Bernard Blair, for Cash,

400 brls. Flour, <9 $6.00, $2,400.00

300 bu. Wheat, f& $1.10, 330.00

26 — — — — — — — — — ^_ _—

Bought of Howard Harrison, on < ,

1,500 brls. Flour, @ $5.50,

Sold A. A. McIIatton, on f ,

1,000 brls. Flour, *8 $6.00,

_______^_^^_^__^^__ 2S

Received Cash in full for Sellers & Bro.'s Note,

_ _^ _ 29 — ^ — — — — -
Sold Patrick Connolly, for Cash,

500 brls. Flour, O $5.75, $2,875.00

500 bu. Oats, @ oo0, 450.00

3 ,

Paid Clerk Hire, in Cash, fnaoo

Paid Store Kent, . , 40.00

V
V
Y

V
V

V
V
V

V
V

I..,- J
".750
1,050

Soo

S°

1,500

600

750

5'5

'.7.3°

8,JS0

6,000
5'5

3J*J
>o*

*7~

*i.

--—

■

£~

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

183

SET 1. JOURNAL (1.)

St. Louis, December i, 1883.

2>. Cr.

a
t

Cash,

2,000
6,000

1,950

".750

",05°

Sro

800

>,5°°
600

750

" 5>i

2.730

8,250

6,000

5'5
3.3*5

100

2,OOC

6,00c

".95(
>.7.«
1,05c

5°o

800

1,500

600

75o

5'5

2,730

8,250

6,000

5>5

3.3*5

100

Merchandise,

Cash,

— — ■■ - ' 3 — - - ■ • ■

John Williams,

Bills Receivable,

Merchandise,

Cash,

Expense,

Merchandise,

Cash,

■7

Merchandise,

Bills Receivable,.

Cash,

Merchandise,

A. A. McHatton,

*> —
To Merchandise

Cash,

To Merchandise, ..••...,,

Expense,

- J»

3S,385

1 38.3S5

a "■

NT*

vr.

»a ^

184

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

Z>r,

SET I. LEDGER. (I.)

Stock.

Cr.

Dk.

To Balanct,

3JTO

1 88 j.

Dec.
it

1
3'

By Cash,

" Loss and Gala,

By Balance,

1
L>

1,000

3,570

3.5TO

1884.
Jan.

3J7«

Dr.

Cash.

Cr.

■883.

Dec.

18S4.
Jan.

To Stock,
" Mdse.,

" Kills Receivable,
'• Mdse.,

To Balance,

a, coo

1. 950
800
600

2,730
5iS

3,3«

18S3.
Dec.

•«

■4

3'
3i

»i9*>

10,270

By Expense
" Md»e.,

1,500

100

10*70

>»*■

Dr.

Merchandise.

Cr.

1883,

18S3.

Dec.

To Armstrong & Co.,

6,000

Dec.

By Cash,

•«S«>

■«

" Bills Payable,

500

" John Williams,

>.7S«

••

** Clbii.

>,5oo

" Bills Receivable,

1,090

" W. L. George,

750

" Cash,

800

36
31

"..Upward Harrison,
" Lost and Gain, '

8,250
/,7*>

1
1

>7
ao
21

»7
29

11 ••

" Bills Receivable, ■

" Cash,

" A. A. McHatton,

" Cash,

600

S'5
».7J0
6,000
3vJ'5

>8.7»o

.?.:*>

Armstrong & Co.

Cr.

1883.

Dk.

To Balanxt,

6,000

1SS3.
Dec.

By Mdse.,
By Balance,

6,oop

1SS4.
Jan.

6,000

Dr.

John

Williams

Cr.

1883.

Utt.

To Mdse.,
To Balance,

«.7So

Dk.

Bjf Bmtmmtt,

tsm

1884.

Jan.

j « — »»•

■

XiUFORt*^

Ps"

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

185

~~A

Dr.

SET I. LEDGER. (2.)

Bills Receivable.

Bills Payable.

Cr.

•883.

Dec.

To Mdse.,
To Balance,

1,050
S'5

■883.

Dec.

28
3>

By Cash,
" Bmlemte,

I
Li

5'S

t.oji

^',565

i,S"S

1884.
Jan.

lfi&>

Cr.

1883.

Dec. 31 To Balance,

s°°

Dec.

1884.
Jan.

By Mdse.,
By Balance.

_5_oo
500

Dr.

Expense.

Cr.

1S83.

Dec.

To Cash,

I
I

100

1883.

Dec.

By Loss and Gain,,

Dr.

W. L. George.

1883.

Dec.

_JT_

To Balance,

75°

18S3.

Dec.

By Mdse.,
By Balance,

z J

75°

1884.
Jan.

7S>

Dr.

Howard Harrison.

Cr.

1883.

Dec.

Dr.

18S3.

Dec.

To Balance,

To Cash,
" John Williams,
11 Bills Receivable,
" A.A. McHatton,

8,250

1883.
Dec. 26

Jan.

By Mdse.,
By Balance,

Balance.

I8S3.

10,270

Dec.

1.7S0

1,050

6,000

3<
3'

19,070

3y Armstrong & Co.,
«' Bills Payable,
" W. L. George,
" Howard Harrison.
" Balance (ntt capital),

-Las?

8,250

Dr.

A. A

. McHatton.

Cr.

1883.

Dec.

To Mdse.,
To Balance,

6,000

188',.

Dec.

By Balance,

6,000

1884.
Jan.

6,000

Cr.

5,000

500

750

8.250
3S7°

19.070

Dr.

Loss and Gain.

1883.

Dec.
it

3'
3<

To Expense,

" Stock (net gnin) ,

La
Li

150

•J7°

—

1883.

Dec.

3«

B*y Mdse.,

1,720

1.720j

'.^

186

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

Dr.

SET I. TRIAL BALANCE— FACE OF LEDGER.

Cr.

11,920

17,000

'.75°
'.565

150

6,000

3S.38;

Stock

Cash .

Merchandise

Armstrong & Co.

John Williams

Hills Kfcu:

Bills Payable

Kxpcnsc

\V, L, George

Howard Harrison

A. A. McIIatton

EifuililriuM

;. ■■
ifoy.

6,oo<

5>!
5«

75t
8,25c

,W ;

TRIAL BALANCE— DIFFERENCES.

Dr.

Cr.

Stock,
Cash,

Merchandise, .
Armstrong & Co.,
John Williams,
Bills Receivable,
Bills Payable,
KxjHnse, .
W. L. George,
Howard Harrison,
A. A. McHafton,

10,270

1.750
1,050

150

IfeMO

tpa»

500

750
S,» 5 o

l„,."o

•7

— 9

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

I8 7

DOUBLE «ni. ENTRY.

.-0.-3.

DAY-BOOK AND JOURNAL COMBINED.

J N the system given in the following pages,
the main feature is the combination
of the Day-Book and the Journal. This
form is the most practical in use for general pur-
poses, and has been adopted by accountants in
all branches of business. Its chief advantage is
in dispensing with a separate Journal, and in
bringing the Day-Book and Journal entries into
such immediate connection as to leave no doubt
of their identity. In this set by Merchandise
Companies is meant the temporary copartnership
existing between the consignor and the con-
signee, having reference to the sale of particular
consignments. In Merchandise Company busi-
ness, one of the partners, the consignee, is the
commission merchant, and, in that capacity, re-
ceives and disposes of the property as he would
of a simple consignment, the only difference be-
ing that he is interested in the losses and gains.
This species of copartnership differs from that
of a general partnership only in its duration and
the manner of conducting its sales. In the first
method, exemplified by the three Merchandise
Company accounts A, B and C, in the month of
April, the principle recognized is that the holder
of the property is responsible for it. Thus, when
we receive from James A. Wright & Co. an in-
voice to be sold on joint account, we debit
Mdse. Co. A with the invoice and expenses,
and credit the consignor with the cost of
the invoice, thus making ourselves responsible
for the property as if it were all our own. The

consignor's entry, if recognizing the same prin-
ciple, will be to debit us for the entire cost of
the merchandise. In the second method, shown
by the three Mdse. Co. accounts D, E and F,
the principle recognized is that the owner of the
property is responsible. For example, when
we receive from George Allen & Co. merchan-
dise to be sold on joint account, we debit Mdse.
Co. D with our own share only, and credit the
consignor. The consignor's entry in this case,
if made to correspond with ours, would be to
debit us for our share, and "Shipment in Co., to
St. Louis," for his share. However, the final
result is the same in both cases. So far as ab-
solute right and responsibility is concerned, the
second method is correct, the principle recog-
nized being that the owner of the property is
responsible. The only advantage possessed by
the first method is that (the Mdse. Co. account
shows its entire cost.

For the month of April the Ledger is closed
without the use of a balance account by bring-
ing down the resources and liabilities under their
proper accounts. This is the business method,
and if each month is supposed to represent a
year, this would be a good instance of the man-
ner of closing books at the end of each year.
The method of closing by Journal entries as
shown in the month of May is used frequently,
though requiring more labor and possessing no
advantage over the other. The books used in
this set are the Journal Day-Book and Ledger.

188

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

SET II. JOURNAL DAYBOOK. (I.)

St. Louis, April 2, 1883.

John Adams and Arthur Astor have this day entered into copartnership, under the style and firm of Adams
& Astor, In the prosecution of a general Commission and Grocery business; to invest in equal amounts
and participate alike in gains and losses.

Cash, Dr

To John Adams,
lor amount of his investment.

First National Bank, Dr

To Arthur Astor,
For amount of his investment.

Store and Fixtures, Dr. To Sundries,

Bo't of John Adams his store and fixtures.
To Mortgage Payable, Assumed mortgage on the property, .
" Interest, Due on mortgage to date,

" Cash, For balance,

' 3

Merchandise,

Dr.

To John A. Fargo & Co.,
Bo't on J,

5 casks Brandy, 300 gals, (a) $2,

200 brls. Mess Pork, (a) $9, . .

30,000 lbs. Bacon Sides, @ 5^,

* 600

1,800
1,500

Expense,

To Cash,
Paid for set of Books.

Mdse. Co. A,

Dr. To Sundries,

Received from James A. Wright & Co., Pittsburg, to be sold on our joint 4
and risk, each 1,

Soo kegs Nails, © $3 ■ $2,400

20,000 lbs. Lead, ® 1$ ... 1,400

To James A. Wright & Co., Their invoice as above,

" Cash, Paid freight

Mdse. Co. B, Dr .

To Butler & Carlton,

Kcceivcd from B. & C, Sedalia, Mo., to be sold on our joint f and risk, each |, ,
500 brls. Flour, © $S,

Cash,

Dr.

To Mdse. Co. A.,
Sold George Cooper, ....
400 kegs Nails, (S) $3.50,
6

Bills Receivable,

To Mdse. Co. A,
Sold Joseph Stanton, on his note <d> 30 days,
30,000 lbs. Lead <2> otf ....

400 kegs Nails la $3.75 .

*i,Soo

1.500

Mdse. Co. A, Dr. To Sundries

Closed Company sales with Jamoi A. Wright & Co., and rendered them an f
of tho same.

To Storage and Adv

" Commission, Our charges © 2\ % on $4,700,

" J. A. Wright A Co., Their i net gain, •

" Loss and Gain, Our " "

■0,000

10,000

12.500

3.9°°

3.900

4,000

1.400

«Ai

10,000

CsOOO

3.4'°

MOO

100

'.400

3k1«

117 jo

33" -5

4o.<75

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

189

-/'

SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (2.)

Saint Lotas, April 6, 1883.

Amounts brought forward,

Butler & Carlton,

To Bills Payable,
" Cash.

Dr. To Sundries,

Shipped them, to be sold on our joint f , each l ,

20 hhds. Sugar, 24,000 lbs. ® 5(J $1,200

100 bags Coffee, 14,000 lbs. (S3 io<p i,4°°

100 boxes Raisins ® $3 300

Bo't of J. Wills & Co., on our Note (2) yo days

For above Note,

Paid Insurance, \ 4 on $3,000

7 — ■

James Scott,

Dr.

To Mdse. Co. B,
Sold him (3> 30 days,

500 brls. Flour ® $9, .

Mdse. Co. B,

To Storage and Adv.
" Commission,
" Butler & Carlton, Their J net gain
" Loss and Gain, Our " "

Dr. To Sundries,

Closed sales in Company with Butler & Carlton, of Sedalia, Mo., and rendered
them an f of sales.

Our Charges

2J * on $4,500

Sundries,

Cash,

Bills Receivable,

To Merchandise,

Dr.

Sold John Tyler,

30,000 lbs. Bacon (St 6$

Received

His Note Ot 30 days, for balance,

James A. Wright & Co.,

To Bills Payable

Accepted their draft on us <S> thirty days sight, favor F. B. Morse & Co., in full of
their j.

Mdse. Co. C,

To Peter Curtis,
" J. G. Holland,
" Cash,

Dr. To Sundries

Received per Anchor Line, from Peter Curtis, Cairo, to be sold on joint f of him -
self, J. G. Holland, Memphis, and ourselves, each J, as per contract,
1,000 brls. Flour, ® $S.so $S,5oo

For his and our | above invoice,

Paid Freight

Str. Missouri Belle St'k, Dr. To Sundries,

Bo't of John Dunn, J Steamer Missouri Belle, for

To Cash, Paid in hand

" Bills Pa yable, Gave our note © ninety days, for ....

Sundries,

Bills Receivable,
Cash,

Dr. To Mdse. Co. C,

Sold William Cook, Sedalia,

1,000 brls Flour, <S> $10
His note (3t forty days, for
For Balance

Mdse. Co. C, Dr. To Sundries

Closed sales in Company with Curtis & Holland, and rendered them each an Ac-
count of the same.

Adver., Our charges,

z\ it on $10,000

His J net gain,

To Storage
'• Commission,
" Peter Curtis,
" J. G. Holland,
" Loss and Gain

Our

49,875
».9'5

-4,500

500

800

1,000

4,136

5,700

7,000
3,000

',300

93,7*°

-<S

49,875

2,900

4,5oc

112
■83

75
iS3)7S

1,800

4,136 2 5

5,66667
2,S33 ii

5,ooo
5,ooo

30
350
340
340
340

93,7*6

-5

■=

£*

190

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (3.)

Saint Louis, April 14., i88j.

'. !

1 3

Amounts brought 1
Cash,

*>. 93.7*
9"

i/xs

'/*»

300

3+
«.

»-95t

sec

955

1,500

»S°

•59
"5

'•Sot

150

995
3«

'.333
66t

sac

9«

1.50c
150
'59
"5

2
6

a
3
6

3
3

5
3

a
1

(.
6

3
a

3
6

To Merchandise,
Sold J. Collins, East St. Louis,

Merchandise,

To Cash,
" J. Wills & Co.,

Dr. To Sundries,
Bo'tofJ. Wills & Co.,

'3 .

Sundries,
Expense,
Arthur Astor, Priv.

Dr. To Cash

Sundries,

Cash,
Interest,

John Tyler has discounted his note in our favor, due May lath.

isi'tler & Carlton,

Received on Account Sales of the Mdsc. sent them to be sold on joint account
on the 7th inst. Our \ net gain as above.

•* . ,,

Sundries,

J. G. Holland,
Peter Curtis,
To Merchandise,
" Cash,

Dr. To Sundries,
Shipped J. c;. Holland, Memphis, to be sold on joint » of J. G. Holland
Curtis, of Cairo, and ourselves, each },
33 hhds. Sugar, 30,000 lbs., ® 6Jj>

Peter

$'.95°
SO

S -•.'-■« ■

" " j " "

John Adams, Priv.,

To First National Hank,

Drew on Private f.

Butler & Carlton,

Paid their draft on us in favor of James Flood.

Cash,

Received rent for upper floors to date.

Steamer Missouri II

ILLE, Dr

For our share of earnings of last trip, as par sutcment rendered this day.

1, '"

T.Xl'KNSK,

Dr " . - V

Sundry expenses to date, as per Expense-Hook.

Loss and Gain,

Dr 3

To J. G. Holland

For our | net lost i>n shipment of Sugar for ioint i <>f Holland. Curtis and our-
selves, of the aad inst., as per Account Sales this day received.

ioj."9

»03."9,

fc-

. »

r -

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

I 9 I

SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (4.)

St. Louis, April 30, 1 88 j.

Amounts brought forward.

Cash, Dr. -

To John Adams

Amount invested this day.

St. Louis, May ist, 1883.

Mdse. Co. D, Dr. To Sundries

Received from George Allen, St. J oseph, to be sold on our joint j , each \ t

100 brls. Cider Vinegar, (d) $7 $700

50 do. Linseed oil, @ $40 2,000

40 h'f kegs White Lead, fa) $3 120

$J,320

To George Allen, For our £ above invoice

" First National B'k, Paid freight per check

First National Bank, Dr

To Cash

Deposited.

- — —— 2 — ^ .

Sundries, Dr. To Sundries,

Shipped Watson Weed, Springfield, 111., to be sold on joint f , each \,

200 brls. Mess Pork (a) $9 $i,Soo

Drayage charges, iS

$I,SlS

Watson Weed, For his \ above invoice

Shipment in Co. 1. " ourj " "

To Merchandise, As above,

" Cash, Paid Drayage, ....

. _ 3

Cash, Dr

To Mdse. Co. D

Sold to Richard Pratt,

100 brls. Vinegar ® $7.50

Insurance, Dr

To Cash

Kffectcd Insurance for $5,000 on any property that may be in our Warehouse.

Henry Green & Co., Dr

To Mdse. Co. D,
Shipped them to Chicago, as per their order,

50 brls. Linseed Oil © $45 $ 2 , 2 5o

40 h'f kegs White Lead (d> $3. 120

Payable fa) Sixty Days.

Mdse. Co. D, Dr. To Sundries,

Closed Sales in Company with George Allen, and rendered him an Account
Sales.

To Charges, Storage, Advertising and Insurance

" Commission, 2 1 * $3,120

" George Allen, For his ! invoice $1,410 and net gain $/ii

" Loss and Gain, " Our J net gain,

103,1 >c
2.6SS

105,807

103,11c
2,68! 90

105,80; 90

.,46c

8,500

009
009

750

2.370

i°>595

i°

1,41c

S,5oc

1, 80c

7SC

»,37<J

S 4

7 1
i,47^

61]

I6.59S

/•

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (5.)

St. Louts, May j, 1883.

-*'

Amounts brought forward,

Expense, Dr

To First National Bank,
Paid advertising bills per check,
7

Mdse. Co. E,

Dh. To Sundries

Received of George Emerson & Co., of Vicksburg, to be sold on joint 1 of them-
selves, M. S. Clay & Co. and ourselves, each J,

loo hhds. Sugar <cb $60 56,000

To Geo. Emerson & Co., For our } Invoice

' First National Bank, Paid freight per check

■6,595 po
ISO

1,500

Mdse. Co. F,

Dr. To Sundries

Received from Hugh Spencer, Topeka, to be sold on our joint , each J,

500 brls. Pork, ® $9. $4,500

350 do Lard, 50,000 lbs., (da 5^ 2,500

To Hugh Spencer, Our 4 above invoice,

" First National Bank, Freight per check,

J7.000

Sundries,

Hills Receivable,

Interest,
Cash,

Dr. To Mdse. Co. E,

Sold George Jenks,

100 hhds. Sugar, IS) $75

Received in payment, Frank H. Wells' note, dated January 1, 1883, due one day

after date,

Due to date on above note

For balance,

Mdse. Co. E,

Dr. To Sundries

Closed Mdse. Co. E. . and rendered Account Sales of the same to George Emer-
son, and M. S. Clay & Co., of Vicksburg.

To Charges, Storage, Advertising, etc

" Commission, 2 1 * on $7,500

11 Geo. Emerson & Co. Their net proceeds

" M. S. Clay & Co., Their net proceeds

" Loss and Gain, Our J net gain

Cash,

Dr.

To Bills Receivable,
Joseph Stanton has paid his note, due this day.

First National Bank, Dr.

Deposited.

To Cash,

Sundries,

Dr. To First National Bank,
Paid on mortgage, favor of Patrick Fields.
Mortgage Payable, Amount applied on mortgage, ....
Interest, In full to date

Hills Payablb,

Dr.

To First National Bank, .
Paid our acceptance, favor James A. Wright A: Co., due this day.

John A. Fargo & Co., Dr.

To Bills Payable,

Accepted their draft on us payable ® ten days sight.
14

Cash,

Dr.

To Mdse. Co. F.
Sold Adam Kauffman,
500 brls. Pork, 13 $9.50

4,000

5,000

"3
».37°

5,000

3.300

4,000

4.SUO
'57

5°
♦.13* »S

3.000

4,75"

60,,

■'-.--; )n

.50

s.ooo

500

7.500

SO
1
M54

4J9B

-: f>

M5«|»7
»54"7

3.3O0
4,°rx

—

*» <S_

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

193

SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (6.)

St. Louis, May ij, 1883.

Amounts brought forward,

j Henry Green & Co., Dr

To Loss and Gain,

Received advice from H. G. & Co., Chicago, of an error in an Account Sales of
last year's business, in which we were credited too little by the above amount.

Sundries,

Cash,
Interest,

Dr. To Henry Green & Co.,

Sold our draft on them @ thirty days sight.

Net proceeds,

Discount and exchange off, ....
>7

6o,4So
*75

Cash,

Dr.

3,60^05
44 95

2,000

-5

60,43925

*7J

».°4i

To Mdse. Co. F,
Sold John W.Welsh,

250 brls. Lard, 50,000 lbs., fal 40.

Sundries,

Mdse. Co. F.,
Loss and Gain,
To Charges,
11 Commission,
" Hugh Spencer,

Dr. To Sundries,

Closed "Mdse. Co. F," and rendered Hugh Spencer, Topcka, an Account Sales
of the same.

To close f j

Our 4 net loss t

Storage, cooperage, etc., . •

2\$ on sales

His \ invoice, ■ ?3>5°°

Less J net loss 4°4 33

Leaves net proceeds • • •

2.75°
4S41

Hugh Spencer,

Dr.

To Cash,

Remitted him in full of f.

Cash,

Dr.

To Bills Receivable,
Received payment in full for William Cook's note of April 13th.
' »3 ,

First National Bank, Dr.

Deposited.

To Cash,

_ 25 _

6.515

7,000

Watson Weed,

Dr.

To Shipment in Co. No. 1

Received an Account Sales of 200 brls. Mess Pork, shipped on the 2d inst. Our
net proceeds as above.
s6

George Allen,

Dr.

To Bills Payable,
Accepted his draft on us (a) thirty days sight, favor of W. H. Walker, for amount
his due.

; Bills Pay'able,

To Cash

Paid our acceptance favor of John A. Fargo & Co., due this day.

sS ,

Cash,

Dr. .

To balance 0.

To James Scott,
_ 30

J. Wills & Co.,

Dr. .

To balance ^ .

To Cash,

Sco

2.SS

3.900

4.500

1,000

5<
16S

3.oi!
6,5i.

105,24

4024

Soo

2, S3

3.90 >

4.50 >

105,24^ 24

-a V

— *k

01
1

194

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (7.)

St. Louis, May j 1, 1883.

I
6

1
6

8
1

2
2

3
3

Amounts brought
John Adams,

For amount charged to J. D.'s Private Jf , now carried to his Stock f.

, •

»4

105 ,34c 14

SCO

IO£^«t

'S*

AUTHUR ASTOR,

**
For amount chargcj to Pfrivatf J, n >w carrlad to g£ock y .

Interest,

Allowed 7 * on his additional investment of April 30.

■05/05

iq
$0

CLOSING ENTRIES.

15,00a
».5«
4.5«
4.57$

»>J37
IS

»3

IJC
5,000

434

Balance,

Store and Fixtures

Valuation of property.

iSfica

4JO0

4.575

»<J3J

>4«
"2
150

Dr. . . •

To Loss and Gain,

Tor increase in value of property.

Mortgage Payable,

Amount due on Mortgage.

Balance,

Amount on hand.

Balance,

!'.:' in. . .,,1 deposit.

Interest,

D ' • '

Amount due from us to dute on Mort^ .: -

Balance,-

Amount due us on ♦ I'. II. Wills' nof ■

Loss and Gain,

Cost over proceeds of Interest.

Loss and Gain,

Balance of Expense Account.

Balance,

Note on hand ^F. U. Walla).

5.000

Commission,

Gain on Commission.

sj.-;5

•

•^

> 6

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (8.)

St. Louis, May ji, i88j.

Amounts brought forward

5 Bills Payable, Dr

8 To Balance,

Our outstanding Xotes.

5 Peter Curtis,

Dr.

To Balance,

Amount due him.

6 J. G. Holland,

Dr.

To Balance,

Amount due him.

8 Balance,
6

To Steamer Missouri Belle Stock,
Valuation of our interest in Steamer Missouri Belle.

8 Balance,
6

Dr.

To Steamer Missouri Belle,

Amount due us.

8 Balance,
7

Dr.

To Watson Weed,

Balance due us.

Dr,

3 Loss and Gain,

7 To Shipment in Co. i, .

Our loss on shipment.

Dr.

4 Loss and Gain,
7 To Insurance,

Cost of insurance.

7 Charges,

To Loss and Gain,
Gain on storage, advertising, etc.

Geo. Emerson & Co., Dr.

To Balance,

Amount due them.

M.S. Clay & Co.,

Dr.

To Balance,

Amount due them.

3 Loss and Gain, Dr. To Sundries,

Net gain carried to Partners' $ .
To John Adams, His £ net gain, . . ...

1 Arthur Astor, •# « « h

John Adams,

Dr.

To Balance,

For amount his net capital.

Arthur Astor, Dr

To Balance,
For amount his net capital.

■*> ■■'

195

=7?

53.S75 S
10,781

5.34° P 1

1.954 99

10,000

350

1.709

109

53.S7S
io,7Si

5.34° |«

".954 9°

350

1.709

IOQ

37 50

>50

4.354

3,354

3,6So

>5,7S5

■3.'3°

133,311

37 50

■50

4.354 16

3^54 17

■ ,34030

1,34020

■S.7S5

■3,'30

"3,311

VTs^

J-

0j
1

196

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

Dr.

SET II. LEDGER. (1.)

John Adams.

Cr.

•

as 3 .

Jlfr.

To JJalafi.-e,

To J. A., Private,
" Balance,

7
8

'</>*>

IS83.

Apr.

2
3°
3°

By Cash,

" Loss and Gain,

By Balance,
" Interest,
" Loss and Gain,

1
4
L3

10,0a

s,68

1 JO

14,6*3

14/a

May

20c
'5.7S5

May

(1
l<

1
3'
3'

7
S

•4*4*

15 fl

'5.9S5

IS.

Dr.

Arthur Astor.

Cr.

iSSj-

To Tlalanct, s

To A. A., Private,
" Balance,

Li
7

",«o

iSSj.

Apr.

a
3°

By First National Bank,
" Loss and Gain,

By Balance,

" Loss and Gain,

L3
Li

•

10,000

->37

»*•

= 37
5 37

J JO

'57

May

3'
3'

'5c
13, '3^

May

"J*

■3.28c

■3^8,

Dr.

Store and Fixtures.

1SS3.

Apr.

" Loss amrGain.

To Balance,
M Loss and Gain,

...50O

1SS3.
Apr.

^ Z>SW*tV, Inimtory,
By Balance,

14,000

14,00c

May
11

12,500
15,000

May

15,000

15.000

Dr.

Mortgage Payable

■

1S83.

May

To First N i-.i.m.il Hank,
" Balance,

4.500
4i5°°

Apr.

By Store and Fixtures,

9,00c

0.00a

*Q0<

(!•

« ■■

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

I 97

Dr.

1SS3.
Apr.

SET II. LEDGER. (2.)

Cash.

Cr.

Dr.

First National Bank.

To A. Astor,

1SS3.
Apr.

*5
25

, Way

■ •

By John Adams,
M Butler & Carlton,

" Balance t

By Mdse. Co. D,

" Expense,

" Mdse. Co. E,

" Mdse. Co. F,

M Sundries,

" Bills Payable,

" Balance,

Dr.

Interest.

I8S3.

iS*$.

Apr.

To John Adams,

10,000

Apr.

By Store and Fixtures,

3.4'°

" Mdse. Co. A,

M°o

" Expense,

" Mdse.,

800

" Mdse. Co. A,

100

■ Mdse. Co. C,

3.ooo

" Butler & Carlton,

*«

" Mdse.,

900

" Mdse. Co. C,

200

" Bills Receivable,

995 73

'* Str. Missouri Belle Stock,

5,000

11 Store and Fixtures,

1,500

" Mdse.,

800

" John Adams,

2,68890

iS
23
30

" Sundries,
" Expense,

3
3
3

200
50
'59

^^^

** Balane*,

j/,2ot]p3

21,28463

' i 1

2.^4.

May

To Balance,

11,26963

May

By First National Bank,

8,500

" Mdse. Co. D,

750

• •

" Sundries,

" Mdse. Co. E,

2,37" 53

1 "

" Insurance,

37.0

" Bills Receivable,

3,300

" First National Bank,

4,000

" Mdse. Co. F,

4,750

" Hugh Spencer,

6,;i5'0

" Henry Green & Co.,

2,600 05

" First National Bank,

10,000

■7

" Mdse. Co. F,

2,000

" Bills Payable,

3,9°°

" Bills Receivable,

7,000

■ (

" J. Wills & Co.,

1,000

" James Scott,

4,5oo

3 1

" Balance,

4,575

38,546 *'

Cr.

.S3 3 .
Apr.

8
11

■5
3'
3'

To Bills Receivable,
•* Lass and Cain,

To Mdse. Co. E,
" First National Bank,
" Henry Green & Co.,
** John Adams,
" Balance,

3
13

4*7

71\73

; 18S3.
Apr.

By Store and Fixtures,

By Balance,

M Loss and Gain,

**[

May

5
6

7
7

123
'57
44
'5
iS

50
95
68

37
97

May
11

7
7

i 4 r»
213

V.9

-M

IT-

■

«•■

198

BOOK-KEEPING BV DOUBLE ENTRY.

7* '

SET II. LEDGER. (3.)

Dr.

Expense.

Cr.

1883.

iSKj.

Apr.

To Cash,

A,r.

3»

77k Loss and Gam,

■3

11 <i

5°

«( 11 •

'59

*34

»H

May

To First National Bank,

ISO

May ; ji

By Loss land Gala,

150

Cr.

Dr.

Butler & Carlton.

1883.

Apr.

To Sundries,

»,9'5

Apr.

B) Mdse. Co. B,

spoo

" Loss and Gain,

300

U 14 44

'SJ7S

•t

" First National Bank,

y-.S;

♦.'S3 i

f S3 75

.LV.

Merchandise.

•

Cr.

1SS3.

18S3.

Apr.

To John A. Fargo & Co.,

2*oo

Apr.

By Sundries,

vfm

" Sundries,

'.Soo

" Cash,

900

J 3

" Loss and Gain,

7S<>

" Sundries

ugfB

•

•lanct, Invtntory,

6r»50

6,450

May

To Balance,

I,SoO

May

By Sundries,

«rS00

Z/r.

1SS3,

Loss and Gain.

Cr.

'SSj.

Apr.

To J. G.Holland,

H5 Apr.

By Mdse. Co. A,

33615

1°

" Expense,

aS*

'• Mdie. Co. B,

■

3°

'* John Adams {tut gain).

1,940 &

•• Mdse. Co. C,

" Arthur Aslor (■>/ gain) ,

1.040

II
II

" Butler & Carlton,
M Store and Fixtures,

3
ti

300

<■:- •■

jS^

" Interest,

79 73

" Mdse.,

" Storage and Adver.,

' .XT

" Commission,

4S0

" Str. Missouri Belle Stc jk,

4..

4^79 7

May

To Mdse. Co. F,

*S43

7 May

By Mdse. Co. D,

" Interest,

• 131

• •

" Mdse. Co. E,

«7$|

" Expense,

150

" Henrv Green * Co.,

■1

" Shipment In Co. 1,

too

" Store and Fixtures,

j.= «i

M Insurance,

373

n Commission,

«M '5

" Sundries,

a/Bos
3.674 4

" Chafes,

I$0

3-"74 41

. V

<r- »

■• -t>K

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

I 99

SET II. LEDGER. (4.)

Dr.

John A. Fargo & Co.

Cr.

I&3. 1

May 12

To Bills Payable,

3,900

I»3-
Apr.

By Mdse.,

■1

3,900

-sra

Dr.

Mdse. Co. A.

Cr.

ISS3.

Apr. 3 To Sundries,

6 " "

3AOO
Soo

4.70O

1SS3.
Apr.

By Cash,
" Bills Receivable,

■■400
3.300

4.700

Dr.

James A. Wright & Co.

Cr.

1SS3.

Apr. 9

To Bills Payable,

Dr.

4,130" »S
4,'3° *S

1SS3.
Apr.

By Mdse. Co. A,

4f H I* II

Mdse. Co. B.

3,So0j
33 6 2 5

4.'3<> 2 5

1SS3.
Apr. 4

To Butler & Carlton,
" Sundries,

4,000
500

4,5""

ISS3.

Apr.

By J ames Scott,

4.S0O

Dr.

Bills Receivable.

Cr.

1883.

Apr.

9
13

To Mdse. Co. A,
" Mdse.,
" Mdse. Co. C,

To Balance,
" Mdse. Co. E,

I
1

3,300
1,000
7.000

1SS3.
Apr.

By Sundries,
" Balancf,

By Cash,
" Balance,

1,00c

•0,300

11,300

May

1
s

10,300
5,000

May

8
>7
3'

5
6

3,300
7,oco
5.ood

«S,3°o

15,300

Dr.

Storage and Advertising.

Cr.

18S3.

Apr.

To Loss and Gain,

"60

■s%.

Apr.

By Mdse

«« (i

200

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

Dr.

SET II. LEDGER. (5.)

Commission.

Cr.

1883.

Apr.

To Lost and Gain,
To Loss and Gain,

*&>

I8S3.

Apr.

6
7
'3

By Mdsc. Co. A,
B.

By Mdse. Co. D,

" " " F,

1
*
a

"'7
in

5°

480

May

3»

434

May

3
8
'7

4
5
6

1S750

434

434 »5

Z?r.

Bills Payable.

Cr.

IBB3.

Apr.

3°

TV Balanct,

To First National Bank,
" Cash,
" Balance,

I2f>3b

1SS3.
Apr.

9
■ a

By Butler & Carlton,
" J as. A. Wright A Co.,
" Str. Missouri Belle Stock,

By Balance,

" John A. Fargo & Co.,

" Geo. Allen,

a
a

a, 900

4.>36 >S
5.000

",036

»S

ia,036 aj

May
it

j6
3'

4.'3°
3.900

10,781

»s

.May

11
M

■ a
a6

11,03635
3.900

a,SSi

iS,Si7

iS,Si; a 5

Z?r.

James Scott.

Cr.

1883.

Apr.

To Mdse. Co. B,

4.500

18S3.
May

■a

By Cash,

4J00

Dr.

Mdsc. Co. C.

Cr.

I8S3.

Apr.

•1

9
>3

To Sundries,

M (t

a
2

8,700

■ .3'"'

1 883.
Apr.

By Sundries,

•

10,000

10,00c

Dr.

Peter Curtis.

Cr.

1883.

Apr.

»3
f

To Sundries,
■ Balanct^

To Balance,

666

I8S3.

Apr.
11

9
'3

By Mdse. Co. C,
11 11 ii «

By Balance,

*
1

s/wSer

6,006

«7

0,00667

May

5.34o

May

L 5

-L

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

SET II. LEDGER. (6.)

Dr.

J. G. Holland.

Cr.

ISS3.

Apr.

To Sundries,
" Balance,

To Balance,

3
Lb

i,333
',<bV

18S3.

Apr.

9
13
3°

By Mdse. Co. C,
" Loss and Gain,

By Balance,

a
2
3

2,S33|»

3,*SS

■ 3.^33

May

«,954 99

May

J, 9:;

Dr.

Steamer Missouri Belle Stock.

Cr.

18S3.

Apr.

May 1

To Sundries,
" Loss and Gain.

To Balance,

•

10,000
ISO

1SS3.
Apr.

2S
JO

10,250

10,000

May

3, l

By Steamer Missouri Belle,
" Balance, Inventory,

By Balance,

3
£6

250
/o,ooo

io,;jo

10,000

Dr.

J. Wills & Co.

•

Cr.

1SS3.

May 30

To Cash,

1,000

18S3.

Apr.

By Mdse.

1,000

Dr.

1SS3.

Apr.

To Cash,

Arthur, Astor, Private.

'50

Cr.

1SS3.

May 31 By A. A., Stock,

>5<

/v.

John Adams, Private.

Cr.

1SS3.

Apr.

To First National Bank,

200

II 1SS3.

May

By J. A., Stock,

200

Dr.

Steamer Missouri Belle.

1SS3.

Apr. »S To Str. Missouri Belle Stock,

Dr.

250

1SS3.

May

31 By Balance,

Mdse. Co. D.

Cr.

_*Soj

Cr.

IS83.

May

1
3

To Sundries,

4
4

1,660

18S3.

May

• f

3
3

By Cash,
" Henry Green & Co.,

4
4

750
».37<>

3i"o|

3,'2d

•

£~

202

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

■
>

Dr.

SET II. LEDGER. (7.)

•

George Allen.

Cr.

.883. j
May ! 16

To Bills Payable,

2,881

.883.
May

By Mdse. Co. D,

!• HUM

M7>

■gn

«*

Dr.

Watson Weed.

Cr.

1SS3.
May

To Sundries,
" Shipment in Co. No. 1,

909

Soo

May

3«

By Balance,

>.7°9

..709

Dr.

Shipment in Co. No. i.

Cr.

18S3.

May a

To Sundries,

909

■«3.
May

»5
3'

By Watson Weed,
" Loss and Gain,

800

.09

9°9

V*.

=»

Z>r.

Insurance.

•

Cr.

:88 3 .
May

;

To Cash,

37 5°

1SS3.
May

3«

By Loss and Gain,

zv.

Henry Green & Co.

Cr.

.8S3.

May

To Mdse. Co. D,
" Loss and Gain,

».37°

■"75

iMj.

May

«S

By Sundries,

>^»s

a.645

»*4S

Dr.

Charges.

18S3,

May

To Loss and Gain,

ISO

May

»7

By Mdse. Co. D,
•■ « •• s >

♦
S
6

150

_J»

•■

-*7

* 6

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

SET II. LEDGER. (8.)

203

Dr.

Mdse. Co. E.

Cr.

1SS3.
May

7
8

To Sundries,

5
5

| I

».500

5. 000

,SS,

May

By Sundries,

7.5oo

7o-oo

7.S00

Dr.

■ss 3 .

May 31 1 To Balance,

Geo. Emerson &• Co.

4.254

16
16

1SS3.
May

7
8

*r»S4

By Mdse. Co. E,

5 2,000

5 2. 2 S4 16

4.254 '6

Dr.

Mdse. Co. F.

Cr.

IS83.

May

■ 7 7

To Sundries,

M M

4.000

2,750

1883.

May

«4

•7

By Cash,

5
6

4.75o

2,000

6,750

6.750

Dr,

Hugh Spencer.

Cr.

ISS3.

May

To Cash,

6,515

1SS3.
May

7
'7

By Mdse. Co. F,
>• <■ 11 •■

5 3.5oo

6 3,015 6a

6,515

6,5=5 62

Dr.

1SS3.

-May

31 To Balance,

M. S. Clay & Co.

»,254

1883.

May

By Mdse. Co. E,

Cr.

2,254 -7

Dr.

18S3.

May

Balance.

Cr.

i3S 3 .

* "

To Store and Fixtures,

15,000

May

By Mortgage Payable,

4.S0C

1 Cash,

4,575

" Interest Payable,

11 First National Bank,

2 '.337

" Bills Payable,

10,7s 1

" Interest Receivable,

146

11 Peter Curtis,

5,340

M Bills Receivable,

5,000

i«

" J. G. Holland,

",954 99

•* Str. Missouri Belle Stock.

10,000

•* Geo. Emerson & Co.,

4-2?4 ' 6

a Str. Missouri Belle,

25a

■i

" M. S. Clay & Co.,

2,254 17

' Watson Weed,

1,709

" John Adams,

15,783, '4

TT— rl

" Arthur Astor,

■3,"30
5S.0.S

58.018

4L_

-H

■^

204

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

SET II. TRIAL BALANCE, APRIL

8,831 »S

284

1,050

10,300

♦.500

9.75o

aoo
■50
250

TOTAL
FOOTINGS.

12,500

21,284
l'J,0O0

A
4,i»3
5.7°°

4,7<»
4,'36
4,5oo
• ',300

4.500
10,000
666 do

1.333
10,000

200

>5o
250

57.5S4 83 105,80790

John Adams (Stock)

Arthur Astor (Stock)

Store and Fixtures

Mortgiuje Payable

Cash

First National Bank

Interest

Expense

Butler & Carlton

Merchandise

• Loss and Gain -
John A. Fargo A Co.

- Mdse. Co. A. .
J as. A. Wright & Co.

. Mdse. Co. B. •

Bills Receivable

Storage and Advertising

Commission

• Bills Pavable •
James Scott

• Mdse. Co. C. •

Peter Curtis

. J. G. Holland .

Steamer Missouri Belle Stock

- J. Wills & Co. -
John Adams (Private)
Arthur Astor (Private)
Steamer Missouri Belle

Inventory. — Property Unsold, April jo.

Store and Fixtures, rained at cost .

M dse. on hand

Steamer Missouri Belle, at cost ....

SET II. TRIAL BALANCE, MAY.

BALANCES.

FOOTINGS.*

•

FOOTINGS.

BALANCSS.

200

• • John Adams •

14,64404

I4444 04

150

Arthur Astor

".94037

>> 1790 37

12,500

Store and Fixtures

4.500
38,546

Mortgage Payable
Cash

o,oorj

4.5O0

4.575P9

J3W7i ■»

2i,337i|o

31,331

First National Bank

SAW 75
5°a>7

34160

341

• Interest

150

484

Expense
Loss and Gain

»°!

80 .

5.000

15.30O

Bills Receivable

10,300

• Commission *

iS.3.7 -15

i* '5

8,036

Bills Payable

• Peter Curtis

5.340 01

5.340 oi

250

2C.0

Steamer Missouri Bi-l'e

1.709

>.709

• Watson Weed -

•

109

9°9

Shipment in Co. *

80c

5°

• Insurance
Charges

>5«

ffl <

1 ■

Geo. Emerson ft Co.

4.»5-

4.354 ■*

M. S. Clav ft Co.

».»5-

■7

MM '7

. J.G.Holland -

«r95-

■.954 99

10,000

Steamer Mi-«»uri Belle Stock

;

50,009

124445 18

™4rf45 18

(0,00969

* The amounts In this column do not comprise, like those in the preceding balances, the footings of all the Ledger accounts
as do not balance or cancel. The footings of this column and its opposite will not, therefore, tally with the footings of the
method ban adopted is the one most in use with accountants, but docs not afford so sure a test of the correctness of the Ledger.

but such only
J'-urnsl. The

■f <* *-

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

205

«3
"1

os;

•5

5 I

*fi rrS;

«**

«1

N - N - ^

.itmt

■Sals

8— c »
£0 »^
K|§8

c i-u a

< r.
gllj

SS? 8

UJ
CO
UJ

CO
CO

o
I-
co

a
<

1 roo
1 N -

iffR

: : :

-v - : £ r£ cf :

: '- : *

if", i-r. -

• Q Q n-r>.0 1

! o" cows !

^ '-- ? :

2 ■£& £ I? • ** • ""

ft <■>

•«/*>/ -7

■ « N W f3fO^-VlU]Vi\0 NNNNOOCChQnO

£2i

I = S3
So

:0-2

4> C W L

: - x o

0-3 _

o
«1J

£ o t
<->X|

206

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY

OLUMNAR

OURNAL.

Combining in one book the Day-Book, Journal, Cash-Book and Sales-Book,

AND INTRODUCING THE

COMBINED STATEMENT,

SHOWING, ON ONE SHEET, TRIAL, BALANCE, LOSSES AND GAINS, ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

A GREAT saving of space and time is effected by the use
of the Columnar Journal. This plan essentially com-
bines four books in one : Day-Book, Journal, Cash-Book
and Sales-Book, and the classification of the entries obviates the
necessity of carrying a multiplicity of items to the Ledger. In
the pages immediately following, the transactions of Set I. are
presented in the shape of a Six-column Journal — so called
because it has six columns for figures — three debit and three
credit columns. Merchandise and Cash, being the principal
items in this set, are given special columns, and are posted to
the Ledger in totals at the end of the month, or as often as the
Journal is to be posted. All the amounts that pass immediately
to the Ledger are placed in the General column, and to this
column must be added the footings of the special columns when-
ever the Journal is to be fully posted. This plan may be
extended to suit the requirements of any business, and instead

of six columns, eight, ten, or even twenty, may be employed,
the most frequently occurring items being given special columns.
Besides the advantages mentioned above, the Columnar Journal
presents a monthly summary, by which the business of a month
or quarter may be compared with that of others, and the in-
crease or decrease in trade may thus be more easily and defin-
itely calculated.

By way of practice, the student of the science of accounts
will do well to write up a Ledger conforming to the Six-column
Journal here presented. The results will be identical with the
Ledger of Set I., except that the Cash and Merchandise entries
will be posted in totals at the end of the month, " By Sundries"
and " To Sundries," when the footings of the special columns
have been added to the General column. When this set is
completed Set II. will furnish material for further study and
practice.

. Pew T0 Cotge gipicE Entity BeoKg ijto Double Entity.

THE difference in the two systems.it should be remembered,
is that in Double Entry you introduce Representative
Accounts, representing the firm or business in every
transaction under some one or other of the subdivisions
adopted, as Stock, Cash, Merchandise, Expense, Bills Payable,
Bills Receivable, Interest, Profit and Loss, etc. In changing
single entry books into double entry the first step should be to
make an inventory of stock, etc., and a statement of all accounts
due to or by you, on separate sheets of paper. When this is
done proceed to make the following entries in your Journal,
entering, of course, the proper amounts in the debit and credit
columns :

STOCK, DR.
Bills Payable,

John Jones,

Piter Smith,

TO SUNDRIES.
For my Notes due as per schedule hereto.
For amount due him as per schedule hereto.

For amount due him as per schedule hereto.
(And so continue the list 0/ parties you owe anything Iff.)

SUNDRIES, DR. TO STOCK.

Merchandise,

For amount of stock on hand as per Inventory.

Bills Receivable,

For notes due me as per schedule hereto.
Charles Grey,

For amount due me as per schedule hereto.
Robert Brown,

For amount due me as per schedule hereto.
(Ami so continue the whole list.)
Property account in the same way, if you have any ; also Mortgages sad
Stocks.

When this has been accurately done and the amounts posted
to the Ledger, the accounts will produce a positive balance-
sheet — that is, the total credits will be equal to the total debits,
for the following reasons :

1 . Sundries is no actual account, but is used of necessity,
meaning that n plurality is intended.

2. Stock Dr. to Sundries means that it is Dr. to all the
accounts named, which are respectively Cr.'s, and therefore
must be equal.

3. Sundries Dr. to Stock means that all the names and
accounts stated are Dr., and Stock is Cr. for the aggregate of the
several Debtors, and therefore must be equal.

Note. — The balance of Stock account will show what you
are worth, or have in your business.

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

207

A SIX-COLUMN JOURNAL, (i.)

(The transactions of Set I. Written up in the form of a Columnar Journal.)

Mdse.

Cash. General.

2,000 bo

6,000

1,95000

50000

(,50000

75000

80000

60000

8,75000

5,350

1,75000

1,05000

5000

L.F,

51500

3.365 bo

St. Louis, December /, 1883.

L.F. General. Cash. Mdse.

Cash, To Stock

Commenced business this day with $2,000 cash on hand.

Merchandise, To Armstrong & Co., .

Bought, on acc't, 1,000 brls. Flour, @ $6.00.
3

Cash, To Merchandise, .

Sold to Jesse Jameson, 300 brls. Flour, @ {6.5a

John Williams, To Merchandise, . . .
250 brls. Flour, @ $7.00.
7

Bills Receivable, To Merchandise, . . .
Sold Wm. Moore, on his Note @ 30 days,

150 brls. Flour, @ {7.00.

Merchandise, To Bills Payable, ....

Bought of Joseph Wheelock, on our Note @ 60 days,
500 bu. Wheat, @ $1.00.

Cash, To Merchandise, ....

Sold Albert St. John,

100 bu. Wheat, @ $1.25, . . $125.00
100 brls. Flour, " 6.75, . . 675.00

14 ~

Expense, To Cash, . . .

Stationery and Books for use of Store.
_ r5-«

Merchandise, To Cash,

Bought of Edwin Ellerton, 300 brls. Flour, @ $5.00.

Cash, To Merchandise, . .
Sold Peter Potts, 100 brls. Flour, @ $6.00.
, 18

Merchandise,

To W. L. George, . . .
1,000 bu. Oats, @ 75c.
20 — ■

Bills Receivable, To Merchandise, ....
Sold Sellers & Bro., on their Note @ 5 days,

500 bu. Oats, @ 80c., . . $400.00
100 bu. Wheat, @ $1. 15, . 115.00

2,000

6,00000

50000

1,95000

1,75000

1,050 00

80000

5000

1,50000

750 00

600 00

51500

9,25000 1,550:00 6,665 00

£-

208

BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY.

-7

A SIX-COLUMN JOURNAL. (2.)

KIdsb.

8,75600

Cash. General. L.F.

St. Louis, December 22, /8Sj.

8,253

17,000

5.350O0 3.36^00
2.730 o<J

S«S

3.32500

11,920)00

6,00000

9,465 oc
11,920,0c
17,0000c

38.385

. Amounts brought forward, ....

Cash, To Merchandise, ....

Sold Bernard Blair,

400 brls. Flour, @ $6.00, . $2,400.00

300 bu. Wheat, " 1.10, . 330.00

Merchandise, To Howard Harrison,

Bought, on acc't, 1,500 brls. Flour, (nj, 55.50.

A. A. McHatton, To Merchandise, . .

1 000 brls. Flour, @ $6.00.

Cash, To Bills Receivable, . . .

Sellers & Bro.'s Note paid in full this day.

29 1

Cash, To Merchandise

Sold Patrick Connolly,

500 brls. Flour, @ $5.75, . $2,875.00
500 bu. Oats, " .90, . 450.00

3 ,

Expense, To Cash,

Paid Clerk Hire $60.00

" Store Rent, 40.0

Dr. Cash, Cr.

Dr. Merchandise, Cr.

L.F. General

9.250

8,2500c

5iS

18,015
1,650
18,720-00!

38.385

Cash.

1,55000

100 TO

1,65000

V:.-;

6,665

2,73000

6,00000

3.325 00

18,72000

COMBINED STATEMENT.— Trial Balance, Assets and Liabilities, Gains and Losses, all in one.

15000

3M°

3,22< oct

Gains.

3,220 CX

3,22600

Debit
Face op L. F
Ledger.

11,92600

17,000 CXI

1,565011

I5(OII

1,75c ex 1
6,006 a 1

38.383 00

Credit.
Face or |

l.HM.m

. Stock, j ^

Cash 1,65000

Merchandise 18,72006

Asse

Sttek Investment,

•• Gain, .

Bills Receivable,
Bills Payable, .
. Expense, .

Armstrong & Co.,
JOKH Williams, .

"W. L. George, .
Howard Harrison,
A. A. McHatton,

■ 3W

Wtrtk

5'5oo
5000a

6,000 ooi

750

8,250! oa

10,27000
1,50000
1,05000

1.75000

6,000

50000

6,00000

75000
8,25000

<.-.>

20,57ok» 20,57000

1^!

-«• »

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

209

rf?ST ^

IOGRAPHY •

-040c i^sh -cw>o»' :=S)=? -*o4o-

-o^o-

'< lf»Mj/e<J. o^p <j/i/e<ifc noon. «/C -vevyxlwdi ma
V? © <vet/n. *rva.&-o a*vi/ tUt>e<s. a-u/fiCt/m/B,

£K»«<tp/M/>atcJ. o-ru tA/o (Kvntl.i <a>f tirvve."

— Longfellow/ s Psalm 0/ Lift.

<m&&-

©KB eMINENT F?ISIP0I^IGAL l!?EI^SONAGES OP ALL flGBS.

N the following Biographical Diction-
ary the most salient points in each
career have be<*n touched, and par-
ticular attention has furthermore been
paid to adapting it to the wants of
American readers and of the present
time. It will be found that many
names are included of persons recently brought
into prominence, which are the subject of daily
enquiry in this country, but of which no men-
tion can be found in the more pretentious and
bulky volumes devoted exclusively to biogra-
phy. The great extent of the work has made
it impossible within the pages allotted to this
department to do more, in the majority of cases,
than answer about each individual named the
following questions: "Who was he?" "What
was he?" "Where did he live?" "What did
he do?" "When was he born?" "When did he
die?" These queries have been replied to in
the shortest possible manner. It has been the

endeavor of the editor to make the collection
so complete that this biographical information
will answer eve>y demand made upon it by the
reader. It is confidently believed that no name
at all apt to be met with in an ordinary course
of English reading has been omitted.

EXPLANATION!

The figures following the name indicate the years of birth and death.
After the names 'of some of the Popes, -where the date of birth is un-
known, the first figure shows the year of accession to the pontificate.

An interrogation mark indicates that the date is doubtful or approx-
imate.

Assumed names or sobriquets are printed in italics immediately fol-
lowing the name.

Fl. — Flourished or lived.

B. C. — Before the Christian era.

Am. — American.

Van. — Danish.

Eng. — English.

Fr. — French.

Ger. — German.

Gr. — Greek.

It.— Italian.
Nor. — Norwegian.
Port. — Portuguese.
Prus. — Prussian.
Scot. — Scottish.
Sw. — Swedish.

H^ ACHEN, Johann van. 1552-1620 German painter.

Aaron. 1574-1451 B.c. First high priest of the Israelite*.

Brother of Moses.
Aarschot, Philippe de Croi, Duke of. ....-1595. Flemish

general and statesman.

Aarssens, Franz Van. 1572-1641. Dutch diplomatist.

+•

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

r f — '

Abati, Bocco degli. Florentine traitor mentioned in Dante's
Inferno.

Abbas Pasha, 1874-. . . . Khedive of Egypt. Suc-
ceeded his father, Mohammed Tewfik Pasha, in 1893.

Abbas I. Tie Great. 1 557-1628. Shah of Persia.

Abbassides. Fl. 749-1258. The most famous dynasty of
Caliphs at Bagdad and Damascus.

Abbot, George. 1562-1633. English prelate.

Abbot, Rev. Jacob. 1803-1879. Am. author. Hollo Books.

Abbott, John Stevens Cabot. 1805-1877. American historian.

Abd-el-Kader. 1807-1883. Emir of Algeria. Led the
Arabians, about 1830, in hostilities against the French, then beginning
to invade his country. After a brave struggle he was vanquished in
1847 and imprisoned in France. In i860, risking his own life, he averted
the massacre of thousands of Christians in Syria.

Abdur Rahman Khan. 1845-. . . . Amir of Afghanistan.

Abdul-Aziz. 1830-1876. Sultan of Turkey.

Abdul-Hamid II. 1842- Sultan of Turkey.

Abelard, Pierre. 1079-1 142. French orator and philosopher.

Abercrombie, James. 1706-1781. British general in America.

Abercrombie, John. 1781-1844. Scottish metaphysician.

Abercromby, Sir Ralph. 1734-1801. British general.

Abernethy, John. 1764-1831. Eng. physician and anatomist.

About, Edmond Francois Valentin. 1828-1885. Fr. author.

Abraham, or Abram. Born about 2000 B.C., and died at the
age of 175. Hebrew prince and patriarch.

Acier, Michel Victor. 1736-1799. French sculptor.

Acilius Glabrio, Manius. Fl. 191 B.C. Consul of Rome.

Acosta, Jose de. i539?-l6co. Spanish Jesuit, missionary and
author.

Adair, John. 1757-1840. American general and statesman.

Adam. 4000 B.C. Father of the human race.

Adams, Charles Francis. 1807- 1888. American statesman
and diplomatist. Son of J. Q. A. Negotiated the Treaty of Geneva.

Adams, John. Born at Braintree, Mass., 1735; died, 1826.
American statesman and diplomatist. First vice-president and second
president of the United States ; one of the negotiators of the treaty of
peace with Great Britain, 1782. Defeated by Jefferson for the presi-
dency in 1800, he retired to private life, disliked by both prevailing
parties. His talents, patriotism and public services, however, entitle
him to be regarded as one of the greatest of the founders of the American
republic.

Adams, John Quincy. 1 767-1848. Son of J. A. American
statesman and diplomatist. Sixth president of the United States, being
elected by the House, not one of the four candidates in 1824 — Adams,
Clay, Jackson and Crawford, all members of the same party — having a
majority. Defeated by Jackson in 1828. Elected to the House in
1830, his oratory gained for him the title " Old Man Eloquent," and he
was distinguished for his unremitting devotion to public business. He
was a member of the House until 1848, in which year, while in his seat
at the Capitol, he received a stroke of paralysis, which caused his death.

Adams, Samuel. 1722-1803. Governor of Massachusetts;
one of the popular leaders of the Revolution ; a signer of the Declaration
of Independence.

Adanson, Michel. 1727-1806. French naturalist.

Addison, Joseph. 1672-1719. English poet, moralist and
dramatist. Requested by Lord Godolphin to write a poem on the battle
of Blenheim, Addison composed " The Campaign," which procured
for him a great public applause and a lucrative government position. He
became under-secretary of state in 1705, and was elected to Parliament
In 1708. Dr. Johnson says of him : " He not only made the proper use
•f wit himself, but taught it to others. * * * He has restored virtue
to its dignity, and taught innocence not to be ashamed." His contribu-

tions to the Toiler and the Spectator are examples of his graceful style
and genial spirit.

Adelaide. 1792-1849. Consort of William IV. of England;

Adelung, Johann Christoph. 1732-1806. German philologist

Adrian I. Pope, from 772-795. II.', 867-872. III., 884-885.
IV., 1154-1 159. V., 1276 ; died same year. VI., 1521-1523.

/Bschines. 398-314 B.c. Athenian orator; rival of De-
mosthenes.

/Esop. 6i9?-5&4 B.C. Greek" fabulist. Being a slave, he
was liberated by his master on account of his talents.

iEsopus. Fl. 1st century B.C. Roman tragedian.

xEtion. Fl. end of 4th century. Greek painter.

Afire, Denis Auguste. 1793-1848. Archbishop of Paris.
Killed during the insurrection of June, 1848, In an effort to arrest the
carnage.

Aga, Mohammed. 1734-1797. Founder of the reigning Per-
sian dynasty ; assassinated.

Agamemnon - Generalissimo of the Greek forces

during the Trojan war.

Agassiz, Louis. 1807-1873. Swiss naturalist; professor at
Harvard; founder of museum of comparative zoology, Cambridge.
Research** on Fossil Fishes.

Agatharchus. Fl. 480 B.C. Greek painter, said to have
been the first to adopt the rules of perspective.

Agnesi, Maria Gaetana. 17 18-1799. Italian lady possess-
ing rare talents for languages and mathematics.

Agricola, Cnxus Julius. 37-93. Roman general ; built a line
of fortresses across Scotland.

Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius. 63-12 B.C. Roman soldier and
statesman.

Agrippina Augusta -60 A.D. Mother of Nero; noted

for her cruelty and immorality ; poisoned her uncle and second hus-
band, the Emperor Claudius ; executed by order of Nero.

Aiken, John. 1 747-1822. English writer. General Biog-
raphy.

Ains worth, Robert. 1 660-1 743. English classical scholar.

Ainsworth, William Harrison. 1805-1882. English novelist.
Jack Sheppard, Guy Fawkes, etc.

Airy, Sir George Biddell. 1801- Astronomer Royal of

England.

Akbar. 1542- 1605. Most illustrious of the Mogul emperors.

Akenside, Mark. 1 721-1770. English physician, poet and
classical scholar. Pleasures of the Imagination.

Aladdin. Fl. 1375. Son of Osman and organizer of the
Janissaries.

Alaric. 350?-4io. King of the Visigoths; conquered Rome.

Albert, or Albert Francis, Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince
ofSaxe-Coburg-Gotha. 1819-1861. Consort of Queen Victoria.

Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. 1841- Heir-apparent

to the British Crown.

Alboin -573- King of the Lombards. Assassinated si

the instigation of his wife, whom he had requested to drink wine from
the skull of her father.

Alboni, Marietta. 1824- Italian vocalist; married

Count Pepolo ; retired from the stage, 1863.

Albuquerque, Alfonso, Marquis de. Tie Great. !453-'5l5-
Portuguese conqueror.

Alcibiades. 450-404 B.C. Athenian general. Assassinated.

Alcott, Amos Bronson. 1 799-1888. American philosopher
and teacher.

Alcott, Louisa May. 1833-1888. American authoress; acted
as hospital nurse during the civil war. Little Women: Am Old-Fash.
tone J Girl, eu .

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

211

Aldrich, Thomas Baily. 1836-.... American poet and

novelist. Story of a Bad Boy ; Margery Daw ; Baby Bell ; Pru-
dence Palfrey , etc.

Alembert, Jean le Rond d'. 1717-1783. French geometer.

Alexander. The Great. 356-324 B.C. King of Macedon.
" The youth whoall things but himself subdued." — Pope. Taughtby
Aristotle. Ascended the throne of Macedon 336, destroyed Thebes and
was chosen commander of the Greeks against Persia. He invaded Asia
Minor in 334, defeating Darius on the banks of the Granicus. In 333
he almost annihilated the Persian army at the battle of Issus. Cut the
Gordian knot and caused the Ammonian oracle to declare him the son
of Jupiter Ammon. Captured Tyre in 33a, and, having invaded Egypt,
founded Alexandria. In 331 he defeated Darius at the decisive battle
of Arbcla. Becoming elated by his successes, he claimed the homage
due to a god, stabbing his foster-brother Clitus, for refusal to pay such
homage. Invaded India in 327, advancing as far as the Hyphasis. Died
at Babylon of a fever said to have been aggravated by excessive drinking.

Alexander I. 1777-1825. Emperor of Russia. II., 1818-1881;
assassinated by the Nihilists. III., 1845-....

Alexander I. Pope from 108 to 117. II., 1061-1073. III.,
1159-1181. IV., 1254-1261. V., 1409-1410. VI., 1492-1503,

Alexander I -1124. King of Scotland. II., 1 198-1249.

III., 1241-1286.

Alexander, Archibald. 1772-1851. Am. author and divine.

Alexander, James Waddell. 1804-1859. SonofA. A. Ameri-
can author and divine.

Alexander, Joseph Addison. 1809-1859. SonofA. A. Ameri-
can theologian and orientalist.

Alexander, William. Lord Stirling. 1726-1783. American
Revolutionary general.

Alfieri, Vittorio. 1749-1803. Italian poet.

Alfonso XII. 1857-1885. King of Spain. XIII., 1886-....

Alfred. The Great. 849?-90i. King of the West Saxons.
Established schools and a system of police, and founded a navy.

Algardi, Alessandro. i6oo?-i654. Italian sculptor.

Alger, William Rounseville. 1823- Am. author and divine.

Allen, Ethan. 1742-1789. American Revolutionary com-
mander. With only eighty-three men, in 1775, he captured Ticonderoga
and Crown Point.

Abraham a Sancta Clara. (Ulrich Megerle). 1642-1709.

Ger. pulpit orator ; chaplain at the court of Vienna.
Abt, Franz. 1819-1885. Ger. musician and composer. When

thi Swallows Homeward Fly ; Oh, Ye Tears; Over The Stars

is Your Rest.

Albani, Emma. 1850- American vocalist.

Allen, William F. 1847- American perfecter of the new

system of standard time.
Allen, William Henry. 1784-18 1 3. Am. naval commander.
Allibone, Samuel Austin. 1816- Am. author. Critical

Dictionary of English Literature.

Allison, William R. 1829 - Am. lawyer and statesman.

Allston, Washington. 1779-1843. American painter.
Alma-Tadema, Lawrence. 1836- . . . . Belgian painter.
Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of. 1508-1582.

Spanish commander in the Netherlands, infamous for his cruelties.

Ambrose, Saint. 34Q?-397- One of the fathers of the
church.

Ames, Fisher. 1758-1808. Am. orator and statesman.
Amherst, Jeffrey. Lord Amherst. 1717-1797. British'
general and field-marshal and governor of Virginia.

Ampere, Andre Marie. 1775-1836. French mathematician
and natural philosopher.

Many of his poems
'The

Cyclops. B.C. 382?-30i. General of Alexander

Anacreon. B.C. 5607-478. Greek poet.

have been rendered into English by Moore.
Anaxagoras. B.C. 500-428. Greek philosopher.

father of modern science."

Andersen, Hans Christian. 1805-1875. Danish author and
novelist.

Anderson, Maj. Robert. 1805-1861. Defender of Ft. Sumter.

Anderson, Mary. (Mme. Navarro). 1859-. . . . Am. act.

Andrassy, Julian, Count. 1823-1890. Hun. statesman.

Andre, John. 1 751- 1780. English spy ; hanged for his con-
nection with the contemplated treason of Arnold.

Andrew, John Albion. 1818-1867. American statesman and
abolitionist ; governor of Massachusetts.

Andros, Sir Edmund. 1637-1714. British colonial governor
of New England.

Anjou. Famous noble house of France.

Anne of Austria. 1601-1666. Queen of France.

Anne. 1664-1714. Queen of England ; last of the Stuarts.

Anthon, Charles. 1797-1867. American classical scholar.

Anthony, St. 251-356? Egyptian founder of monachism.

Anthony, Henry B. 181 5- 1884. U. S. Senator.

Anthony of Padua, St. 11 95-1 231. Monk of Franciscan order.

Anthony, Susan B. 1820-. . . . American " woman's rights"
advocate.

Antigonus.

the Great.

Antiochus I. King of Syria and Babylonia; reigned B.C.

280-261. II., reigned B.C. 261-246; poisoned by his queen, Laodice.

III. {The Great), reigned B.C. 223-187.
Antisthenes. Fl. 400 B.C. Greek philosopher ; regarded as

the founder of the Cynic school.
Antoinette, Marie. 1755-1793. Queen of Louis XVI. ot

France ; guillotined.

Antonelli, Giacomo.

Antonius, Marcus,
general and statesman.

Applegarth, Robert. 1831-. ... Leader of the workingmen
of England.

Aquinas, Thomas. Saint. The Angelic Doctor. 1224-1274.
Theologian, teacher and writer; member of the order of St. Dominic.

Arabi Pasha. 1834- Egyptian revolutionist.

Aram, Eugene. 1704-1759. English scholar; noted for his
learning no less than for his tragic fate. Executed for the murder of one
Daniel Clark, whom he is said to have killed to procure means for prose-
cuting his studies. The chief character in one of Bulwer's novels.

Arbuthnot, John. 1675-1735. Scottish physician.

Archimedes. B.C. 287 ?-2l2. Greek mathematician and
natural philosopher.

Argyll (or Argyle), Archibald Campbell, eighth earl. 1598-
1661. Scottish Covenanter ; defeated by Montrose ; executed for treason.

Argyll (or Argyle), George Douglas Campbell, seventh duke.
1823- English statesman and author. The Reign of Law.

Ariosto, Ludovico. 1474-1533. Italian poet. Orlando

Furioso.

Aristides. B.c -468 ? Athenian general and statesman.

Aristophanes. B.C. 444 ?-38o ? Greek comic poet.
Aristotle. The Stagirite. B.C. 384-322. Greek philosopher;

tutor of Alexander the Great. Ethics.

Arius. 2557-336? Patriarch of Alexandria and founder of

the Arian schism.
Arkwright, Sir Richard. 1732-1792. English manufacturer

and inventor of the spinning -jenny.

1806-1876. Italian cardinal.
Mark Antony. B.C. 93?-3Q.

Roman

212

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Arminius. B.C. 16-21 A.D. Ger. hero. See Hermann.
Arminius, Jacobus (Jacob Harmen). 1 560-1609. Dutch
founder of the Arminian theology.

Armitage, Edward. 1817- Eng. historical painter.

Armstrong, John. 1 709-1 779. Scottish poet and physician.
Armstrong, William George, Baron. 1810-. . . . English

inventor of the Armstrong gVO*

Arnaud, Henri. 1641-1721. Leader of the Waldenses.

Arndt, Ernst Moritz. 1 769-1860. German poet and writer.

Arnheim, Johann Georg von. 1581-1641. German general
and diplomatist.

Arnim, Harry Carl Edward von. 1824-1879 Prussian
diplomatist.

Arnold, Benedict. 1 740-1801. American general and traitor.
His plot to betray West Point, one of the most important of American
fortresses, into the hands of the British, was betrayed by the capture of
Major Andre, and he barely escaped. He became a colonel in the
British army, and is said to have received ,£6,315 from the British at
indemnity for the loss he sustained by his treachery.

Arnold of Brescia (or Arnaldo) -1 155. Italian re-
former, orator and popular leader.

Arnold, Edwin. 1832- English journalist aad poet.

Light of Asia. Light of the World.

Arnold, Matthew. 1822-1888. English author, poet and critic.
God and the Bible ; The Strayed Reveller ; Essays on Criticism, tie.

Arnold, Thomas. 1795-1842. English historian and master

of Rugby. History of Rome.

Arnold von Winkelried -1386. Swiss patriot, who

broke the Austrian phalanx at the battle of Sempacb by throwing him-
self against the points of their spears, gathering in his arms all the spears
within reach. He was mortally wounded, but his brave action decided
the fate of the battle in favor of his countrymen.

Artemisia. Fl. 480 B.C. Queen of Halicarnassus. Joined
the fleet of Xerxes against Greece, and commanded her own ship in the
battle of Salamis with courage and ability.

Artemisia. Fl. 350 B.C. Consort of Mausolus, Prince of
Caria, and after his death erected in his honor a tomb numbered among
the seven wonders of the world.

Artevelde, Jacob van. I300?-I345. Leader of the people of
Ghent.

Artevelde, Philip van, son of J. v. A. 1340-1382. Leader
of the insurrection in Flanders.

Arthur, Chester Allan. 1831-1886. Twenty-first President of
the United States. Born at St. Albans, Vermont ; read law, was
admitted to the bar and began practice in New York city ; i860, quarter*
master-general on the staff of Gov. Morgan ; 1871, collector of the port
of New York, but superseded, 1878, by Gen. Merritt ; 1880, placed in
nomination for vice-president by the republican party and elected ; sue*
cceded to the presidency on the death of Garfield, Sept. 19, 1881.

Arthur, Timothy Shay. 1 809-1 841. American author.
Lights and Shadows of Real Life; Ten Nights in a Bar-Roem, etc.

Ascham, Roger. 15 15-1568. English scholar and author.

Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Lord. 1774-1848. English
diplomatist. (Ashburton treaty.)

Aspasia of Miletus, r.c -432 ? Mistress of Pericles, the

Athenian law not permitting a citizen to marry a foreigner. Socrates
called himself one of her disciples.

Astor , John Jacob. 1 763-1 848. Wealthy American merchant,
native of Heidelberg, Germany. Settled in New York city, and entered
the fur trade with great success, establishing trading posts in the north-
west as far as the Pacific Ocean and founding Astoria in 1811. He
next made extensive investments in real estate, and when he died his
property was estimated at twenty millions. Founded the Astor Library.

Atahualpa -1533- Las* Inca of Peru.

Athanasius. 2967-373. Greek father of the church.

Athelstan. 8o5?-94i. King of England.

Athenagoras. Fl. 168. Greek Christian philosopher.

Atterbury, Francis. 1662-1732. Eng. prelate and politician.

Attila. The Scourge of God. . . . .-453. King of the Huns.

Attucks, Crispus - r 77°- Mulatto leader of mob in

Boston massacre.

Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit. 1784-187 1. French com-
poser. Fra Diavolo ; Afasaniello.

Audubon, John James. 1 780-1851. American ornithologist.

Auerbach, Berthold. 1812-1882. German Jewish author
and poet. The Country House on the Rhine.

Augereau, Pierre Francois Charles, Due de Cast igli one. 1757—
1816. French general? The son of a mechanic, he received but little
education. Enlisted as a private in the French army in 179a, but was
rapidly promoted, and at the end of a year had attained to the rank of
general of division. Throughout his successful military career he ex*
hibited remarkable valor and ability.

Augustine, Sa^nt. 354-430. Latin father of the church.
Augustus I. 1670-1733. King of Poland and elector of

Saxony.

Augustus Caesar. B.C.63-A.D. 14. First Emperor of Rome.
Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Due d'.

1822 French general. Son of King Louis Philippe.

Aurelianus. 212-275. Roman emperor.

Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus. Marcus Aureliw. 121-180.

Roman em|>eror and philosopher
Aurung-Zebe. 1618-1707. Emperor of Kindostan.
Ausonius. 310-394? Latin poet.
Austen, Jane. 1775-1817. English author.
Austin, Saint. Fl. 597. The apostle of England.

Austin, Stephen F -1836. Founded the first colony in

Texas.
Avicenna. 980-1037. Arabian physician.
Aytoun, William Edmondstoune. 181 3-1865. Scottish poet.

^>ABER, Mohammed. I483?-I530. Founder of the

*^~^ Mogul empire in India.

Baccio della Porta. Fra Bartolommeo di San Marco.
1469-1517. Italian painter . member of the order of St. Dominic Last
Judgment; Marriage of St. Catherine; Virgin on a Throne.

Bach, Johann Sebastian. 1685-1750. German composerand
musical director, distinguished also for his skill as a performer on the
organ and the piano. The Nativity.

Bache, Alexander Dallas. 1806-1867. American philoso-
pher and savant ; great-grandson of Dr. Franklin.

Bache, Franklin. 1 792-1864. Am. physician and chemist.

Back, Sir George. 1 796-1878. English Arctic navigator.

Bacon, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans. Lord
Bacon. 1561*1636. English statesman, jurist and philosopher. Son
of Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper of the great seal under Elizabeth. His
youthful precocity caused Queen Elizabeth to call him her " little lord
keeper." Studied at Trinity College, and at 15 began to oppose the
philosophy of Aristotle. Called to the bar, and nude queen's counsel
at 98. Solicitor-general, 1607; judge of the marshal's court. 1A11;
attorney-general, 1613; lord keeper, 1617; lord high chancellor, 1619.
Charged with gross bribery and corruption in Parliament, 1671, he
pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to pay a fine of ,£40,000, and to be
imprisoned during the royal pleasure, and incapacitated from holding
public office. He regained his liberty after two days* imprisonment, his
fine, too, being remitted hy King James, who also allowed him a pernio*
of j£i,soopcr annum. He spent the remainder of his life in retirement,
diligently pursuing the study of literature And science. The belief

**■*■

*f-

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

213

that Bacon is the real author or at least the principal author of
the plays attributed to Shakespeare has of late years found many
adherents, and numerous books on the subject have been published.
The Wisdom 0/ the Ancients : Novum Organum.
Bacon, Nathaniel. l630?-l677. Virginia patriot, bom in

England.

Bacon, Roger. The Admirable Doctor. 1214-1292. Eng-
lish philosopher. Opus Ma/us.

Baconthorp, John. The Resolute Doctor. -1346?

English monk and philosopher.

Baffin, William. 1580-1622. English navigator. (Baffin's Bay.)

Bailey, Philip James. 1816- English lawyer and poet.

Festus: The Mystic.

Baillie, Joanna. 1762-1851. Scottish poetess. The Family
Legend : Plays on the Passions.

Baillie, Matthew. 1761-1823. Scottish physician.

Baillie, Robert. 1602 ?-i662. Scottish theologian.

Bailly, Jean Sylvain. 1736-1793. French astronomer and
philosopher. 1789, first president of the States-General ; mayor of Paris
same year. Endeavoring, with Lafayette, to curb the violence of the
revolutionists, he caused the National Guard to fire on a riotous mob in
the Champ de Mars, in 1791, thus incurring the enmity of the people.
Executed by the Jacobinsr

Baily, Edward Hodges. 1788-1867. English sculptor.
Baily, Francis. 1774-1844. English astronomer.
Bainbridge, William. 1774-1833. Am. naval commander.
Baird, Sir David. 1757-1829. Scottish general.

Baird, Spencer F. 1823- American naturalist.

Bajazet (or Bayazeed). 1347-1403. Sultan of the Ottomans.

Subjugated Bulgaria, Asia Minor, and a portion of Greece, and gained
a victory over the Hungarians, French and Poles at Nicopolis, in 1396.
Defeated and captured in 1401 by Tamerlane, by whom he is said to
have been confined in an iron cage.
Baker, Sir Samuel White. 1821-.... English African
explorer, and author of geographical and literary works. In 1847 he
established a sanatorium and prosperous agricultural settlement in the
mountains of Ceylon, 6,200 feet above sea level, whither he conveyed
emigrants and the best breeds of sheep and cattle. In 1861-4 explored,
at his own expense, the region lying around the sources of the White
Nile ; discovered and named Lake Albert N'yanza, and found the exit of
the Nile. In 1869, the sultan of Turkey placed at his disposal 1 ,500
troops, with which another expedition was made to the great African
lakes.

Baker, Valentine, Pasha. English officer and commander of
Egyptian troops in the Soudan.

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de. I475?-I5I7. Spanish discoverer.
Discovered the Pacific Ocean, 1513. The jealousy of his superior offi-
cers caused his conviction on a charge of treason, for which he was
executed.

Baldwin I. 1058-1118. King of Jerusalem; brother of
Godfrey de Bouillon.

Balfe, Michael William. 1808-1870. Irish composer. The

Bohemian Girl.

Baliol, Edward -'303- King of Scotland.

Baliol, John. ....-1269. English baron; father of Edward

Baliol.

Baliol, John de. I259?-I3i4. Son of the preceding. King
of Scotland ; rival of Bruce.

Ballou, Hosea. 1771-1852. American theologian; founder
of the denomination of Universalists.

Balmaceda, Jose Manuel. 1840-1891. President of Chili.

Deposed and committed suicide.

Balzac, Honore' de. 1 799-1850 French novelist.

Bancroft, George. 1800- 1891. American historian and diplo-
matist. Minister to Germany and to England ; secretary of the navy.
History 0/ the United States, which has been translated into all the
principal languages of Europe.

Baner (or Banier), Johan. 1595-1641. Swedish general.

Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss. 1816- American general and

politician. Native of Massachusetts; worked during boyhood in a cot-
ton factory ; learned the machinist's trade ; edited a country newspa-
per ; admitted to the bar ; elected to Legislature of his native state in
1849, and three years later became speaker. Sent to Congress in 1852 as a
Democrat, and in 1854 re-elected by the American and Republican par-
ties. Speaker of House in 1855. Served three terms as Governor of
Massachusetts, and in 1861 was appointed major-general of volunteers.
After the war was sent to Congress in 1866, 1868 and 1870. Supported
Horace Greeley for presidency in 1872. Re-elected to Congress in 1876
by Democrats and disaffected Republicans.
Banks, Thomas. 1 735-1805. British sculptor.

Banneker, Benjamin. 1731-1806. American negro mathe-
matician.

Barbarossa, Hadher. I476?-I546. Corsair king of Algiers.

Barbaroux, Charles Jean Marie. 1 767-1 794. French rep-
resentative and Girondist; beheaded by the Jacobins.

Barbauld, Anna Letitia. 1 743-1825. English authoress.

Barbour, John. 13207-1395? Scottish poet. The Bruce.

Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince. 1755-1818. Russian

field-marshal.
Barclay, Robert. 1648-1690. Scottish Quaker author.
Barham, Richard Harris. 1788-1845. English divine and

humorist. Ingoldsby Legends.

Barebone, Praise God -1680. English fanatic.

Baring, Sir Francis. 1740-18 10. English capitalist.
Barlow, Joel. 7755-1812. American patriot and poet.
Barnard, John 'j. 1815-1882. American general and writer.
Barmecides. Famous Persian family, noted for its tragic fate.

Barnes, Albeit. 1798-1870. American theologian and com-
mentator.

Barneveldt, Johan van Olden. 1549-1619. Dutch statesman.

Barnum, Phineas T. 1810-1891. American showman; na-
tive of Connecticut. Humbugs of the World.

Barras, Paul Francois Jean Nicola, Count de. 1 755-1829.
French statesman.

Barry, James. 1741-1806. Irish painter.

Barry Cornwall. See Procter.

Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Jules. 1805- French states-
man and writer.

Baxter, Richard. 1615-1691. English Dissenting minister
and writer. The Saints' Everlasting Rest ; Call to the Unconverted.

Bayard, Pierre du Terrail de. 1475-1524. French warrior,
whose bravery earned f«r him the sobriquet "The cavalier without
fear and without reproach." Francis I. showed the universal reverence
for Bayard's character by choosing to be knighted at his hands. Mor-
tally wounded at Romagnano, Bayard would not allow himself to be
carried from the field of battle, refusing to " turn his back to the enemy
for the first time."

Bayle, Pierre. 1647-1706. French philosopher and critic.

Bazaine, Francois Achille. 181 1- 1888. French general. Made
general of division during the Crimean war ; held a command in the
French expedition to Mexico, in 1862, with great distinction, and suc-
ceeded to the supreme command in 1863. Created a marshal of France in
1864. In the Franco-German war he surrendered the fortress of Metz.with
173,000 men, 6,000 officers, 50 generals and 3 marshals, and fled to Eng-
land. He was court-martialed and sentenced to degradation and death,
but the sentence was commuted to twenty years' imprisonment. Con-
fined at the isle Sainte Marguerite, he escaped in nine months and
settled in Madrid.

-M

"71

2I 4

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of. 1804-1880. Eng-
lish statesman and novelist. His first novel, Vivian Grey, was pub-
lished at the age of 21. Entered Parliament in 1837, and became the
leader of the Conservative party. Acted as chancellor of the exchequer
a number of years, and in 1868 was prime minister of England for a lew
months. Was again called to the premiership in 1874, and was raised
to the peerage. Was succeeded in 1880 by William E. Gladstone.

Beaton (or Beatoun), David, Cardinal. 1494-1546. Primate
of Scotland.

Beattie, James. 1735-1803. Scottish poet and philosopher.

Beauharnais, Eugene de. .1781-1824. French general ; son
of Alexander de Beauharnais ard Josephine, afterward Empress of
France.

Beaumarchais, Pierre Auguste Caron de. 1732-1799. French

dramatist.

Beaumont, Francis. 1586-1615. English dramatic writer;

associate of John Fletcher.

Beauregard, Peter Gustavus Toutant. 1816-.... American

Confederate general. Born in Louisiana; graduate of West Point;
served in Mexico. Entered Confederate army in i86t,and commanded at
Fort Sumter and at the first battle of Bull Run ; defeated at Shiloh by
Gen. Grant in 1862 ; defended Charleston in 1863. Mgr. La, loti 1
Becket, Thomas a. 1117-1170. Archbishop of Canterbury ;

high chancellor of England. Having excommunicated two bishops for
complying with the king's will, he was assassinated byfour barons of the
royal household. Canonized in 1172.

Bede. The Venerable. 673 ?-735- English monk and
ecclesiastical writer. Ecclesiastical History 0/ the English Nation.

Bedford, John Plantagenet, Duke of. 1390-1435. English
general. Regent of France and protector of England during the
minority of Henry VI. Defeated by Joan of Arc.

Beecher, Henry Ward. 1813-1837. American divine and lec-
turer. Born in Connecticut. Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church,
Brooklyn, since 1847. Powerful advocate of the abolition movement.
Star Papers : Sermons.

Beecher, Lyman. 1775-1863. American divine. Father of

H. W. B. Views on Theology.
Beethoven, I.udwig von. 1770-1827. German composer.

Sin/onia Eroica : Lenore ; Fidelio : Ninth Symphony.

Behring, Vitus. 1680-1742? Danish navigator. Discovered
Behring's Strait : suffered shipwreck while commanding an expedition
to the northern seas and died on Behring's Island.

Belisarius. 505 ?~565. Byzantine general.

Bell, Sir Charles. 1774-1842. Scottish physiologist.

Bellini, Vincenzo. 1802-1835. Italian composer. La Son-
namSula ; ■ / Puritani : Norma.

Belvedere, Andrea. 1646-1732. Italian painter.

Belzoni, Giovanni Battista. 1778-1823. Italian traveller.

Bendemann, Edward. 181 1- German painter.

Benedek, I.udwig von. 1804-1878. Hungarian general.

Benedict I. Pope from 575 to 578. II., 684-685. III., 855-
858. IV., 900-903. V., chosen pope 964 but driven from Rome by Otho
I., died at Hamburg 965. VI., 972-974; killed by the people of Rome.
VII., 975-984. VIII., 1012-1034. IX., ascended the pontifical chair in
1034, but was driven from Rome. X., 1058-1059, when he was deposed
on account of being irregularly elected. XI., 1303-1304. XII., 1334-
134a. XIII., 1724-1730. XIV., 1740-1758.

Benedict XIII. 1334-1424. Anti-Pope. Original name,
Pedro de Luna. Chosen pope at Avignon in 1394, while Boniface IX.
reigned at Rome. Both were deposed in 1415 by the council of Con-
stance.

Benedict, Sir Julius. 1804-1858. Ger. musician and

COinpOMI 111 I- Hi*. Coli'lniti'.l at Jenny I.iml u Ami.

Benezet, Anthony. 1713-1784. French philanthropist.

Bennett, James Gordon. 1800-1872. American journalist ;
native of Scotland ; founded the New York Herald.

Benjamin, Park. 1809-1864. Am. journalist and poet

Bentham, Jeremy. 1748-1832. English jurist and utilitarian
philosopher.

Bentinck, William Charles Cavendish, Lord. 1774-1839.
British general ; governor-general of India.

Bentley, Richard. 1662-1742. English classical scholar and
divine. The Epistles of Phalaris.

Benton, Thomas Hart. 1782-1858. American statesman.
Born at Hillsboro, N. C. ; removed to Tennessee, where he studied
law, and commenced practice at 29. Commanded a regiment under
Gen. Jackson, who, in a quarrel, attempted to strike Benton with a horse-
whip, causing Benton's brother to severely wound Gen. Jackson with a
pistol. Benton shortly after removed to St. Louis, where he published
a political paper. Elected to the United States Senate in 1820, he con-
tinued a member of that body for thirty years, being defeated in 1850 by
a division in the Democratic party on the slaver)* question. His advo-
cacy of a gold and silver currency during his second term in the Senate
earned for him the sobriquet of *' Old Bullion." Elected in 185a to
the National House of Representatives, he earnestly opposed the repeal of
the Missouri Compromise. Defeated for the governorship of Missouri in
1856. Favored Buchanan for the presidency in opposition to his son-
in-law, Fremont. A Thirty Years' Virtu,

Beranger, Pierre Jean de. 1 780-1 857. French lyric poet.
Bergerac, Cyrano de. 1620-1655. Fr. dramatist and duelist.
Beriot, Charles Auguste de. 1802-1870. Belgian violinist

and composer.
Berkeley, George. 1684-1753. Irish Protestant prelate and

metaphysician. The Principles of Human Knowledge.

Berlichingen, Gotz von. Of the Iron Hand. 1480-1562.

German warrior ; hero ef one of Goethe's dramas.
Berlioz, Louis Hector. 1803-1869. French composer. The

Damnation of Faust : symphonies, Harold, Romeo and Juliet.

Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules. 1764-1844. Marshal of

France ; King of Sweden and Norway as Carl XIV. Johan.

Bernard, Saint. 1091-1153. French ecclesiastic, canonized
1174. Abbot at Clairvaux, refusing other ecclesiastical preferment, but
exerting great power over Europe. -

Bernard de Menthon, Saint. 923-1008. Founder of the

hospices of St. Bernard.

Bernardo del Carpio. Fl. 9th century. . Spanish soldier.

Bernhardt, Sara (Mme. Damala). 1850- Fr. tragedienne.

Bert, Paul. 1833-1886. French physician and politician.
Berthier, Ix>uis Alexandre, Prince of Wagram. 1753-1815.

Marshal "f France.
Berthollet, Claude Louis. 1748-1822. French chemist.
Berwick, James Fitz-James, Duke of. 1660-1734. Marshal

of France ; natural son of James II. of England.

Bessel, l'riedrich Wilhelm. 1784-1846. Prus. astronomer.
Bessemer, Henry- 1813- English engineer. (Bessemer

process.) Knighted 1S7U.

Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand von. Count. 1809-1886. German

statesman.
Beza, Theodore. 1519-1605. Fr. Calvinistic theologian.
Biddle, John. The father of English Unitarians. 161 5-1662.
English theologian.

1786-1844. American financier.

1 829- 1 882. American landscape painter ,

Biddle, Nicholas.

Bierstadt, Albert.
native of Germany

Billings, Wiiliam.

Binney, Amos. 1803-1847.

Binney, Horace. 1780-1875

1746-1800. American musical composer.

American naturalist.

American lawyer.

^JL

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

2I 5

Birney, James G. 1792-1857. American politician.

Bird, Robert Montgomery. 1803-1854. American author.

Bismarck-Schonhausen, Karl Otto, Prince. 1815-....
German statesman; chancellor of the German Empire. Retired i8yo.

Bjornson, Bjornstjerne. 1832-. . . Norwegian poet and
novelist.

Black Hawk. 1 767-1838. American Indian chief.

Black, William. 1841- Scottish author. A Princess of

Tkule; MacLeod of Dare; A Daughter of Heth.

Blackburn, Joseph Clay Stiles. 1838- Am. statesman.

Blackstone, Sir William. 1723-1780. English jurist. Com-
mentaries on the Laws of England,

Blackwood, William. 1776-1817. Scottish publisher. Black-
wood 's Magazine.

Blaine, James Gillespie. 1830-.... American statesman.

Born in Pennsylvania; removed to Maine, whtre he edited the Port-
land Adve* User; served four terms in the Legislature; in Congress
from 1862 to 1876, and speaker for three terms. Prominent candidate for
the Republican nomination for the presidency in 1876 and 1S80. Chosen
Uniied States senator in 1877, but resigned to accept the secretaryship
of state under Garfield.

Blair, Hugh. 1718-1800. Scottish divine and rhetorician.

Blake, Robert. 1599-1657. British admiral, regarded as
the founder of England's naval supremacy.

Blake, William. 1757-1828. English poet and artist.

Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis. 1813-1883. French jcurnalist,
historian and politician.

Hlavatsky, Helena. 1831-1891. Fo'nder Theosophical So.

Blennerhasset, Harman. 1770-1831. Friend and accom-
plice of Aaron Burr.

Blessington, Margaret, Countess of [nee Power). 1789-1849.

Beautiful and accomplished Irish lady.

Blind, Carl. 1820- German radical.

Bloomfield, Robert. 1766-1823. English poet. A tailors

son and a shoemaker's apprentice. The Farmer's Boy.
Blucher, Gebhard Lebrecht von. Marschall Vonodrls. 1742
-1819. Prussian field-marshal. Decided the battle of Waterloo.

Blumenthal, Leonard von. 1810- Prussian general and

strategist.
Boabdil -1536? Last Moorish king of Granada.

Boadicea -62. British queen.

Bobadilla, Francisco de. Fl. 1500. Spanish administrator

who sent Columbus in chains to Spain.
Boccaccio, Giovanni. 1313-1375. It. novelist. Decameron.
Bodenstedt, Friedrich Martin. 1819- German poet and

author.
Boerhaave, Herman. 1668-1738. Dutch physician and

philosopher.
Boethius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus. 475-525 ?

Roman statesman and philosopher. Falsely charged with treason, he

was beheaded. De Consolatione Philosophic.
Bogardus, James. 1S00-1874. American inventor.

Bohn, Henry George. 1800- English publisher.

Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas. 1636-1711. French poet and

satirist.

Boleyn, Anne. 1507 ?-I536. Second queen of Henry VIII.

of England. Beheaded. *

Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount. 1678-1751. English
author, orator and politician. Dissertation on Parties.

Bolivar, Simon. 1 783-1 830. Liberator of the South Ameri-
can colonies.

Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon. Napoleon III. 1808-

1873. Son of Louis Bonaparte. Emperor of the French. As claimant
to the throne of France, he attempted in 1836 to take Strasburg, but
was banished. In i8*ohe was imprisoned in Havre for an attempted
insurrection at Boulogne, but escaped to England in 1846. Returning to
France after the revolution of 1848, he was elected president. He gained
the support of the army, and abolishing popular representation by the
coup d'etat of 1851, was declared emperor. In 1853 he married Eugenie,
Countess de Teba, Having surrendered at Sedan, after the decisive
battle of the Franco-German war, he was deposed and retired to Chisel-
hurst, in England, where he died.

Bonaparte, Jerome. 1784-1-860. Youngest brother of Napo-
leon I. King of Westphalia.

Bonaparte, Joseph. 1768-1844. Eldest brother of Napoleon
I. King of Spain.

Bonaparte, Louis. 1778-1846. Brother of Napoleon I.
King of Holland.

Bonaparte, Lucien, Prince de Canina. 1775-1840. Brother

of Napoleon I.

Bonaparte, Napoleon. Napoleon I. 1769-1 821. Emperor

of the French. Born at Ajaccio, Corsica. Attended a military school
from 1779 to 1784, and showed particular aptitude for history and mathe-
matics. Entered the army as sub-lieutenant in 1785, ana in 179a had
risen to the rank of captain of artillery. In 1793 he submitted a plan
for the reduction of Toulon, held by the English and Spaniards, and was
entrusted with its execution. His success in this undertaking won for
him a commission as brigadier-general. In 1794, on the fall of Robes-
pierre, Napoleon was suspended and put under arrest, his detention,
however, being of short duration. In the spring of 1795, on the remodel-
ling of the army, he was again suspended, and placed upon half-pay, the
only reason g ; ven by the authorities being that be was too young to com-
mand the artillery of an army. In the fall, on the breaking out of a for-
midable insurrection led by the National Guard, the whole force of
insurgents numbering more than 30,000, the convention recalled Napo-
leon, who, with only 5,000 regulars and 1,500 volunteers, gained a
brilliant victory after a brief but sanguinary engagement. This victory
made him virtually commander-in-chief of the army of the interior. In
1706 he was appointed to the command-in-chief of the army of Italy, and
in the same year married Josephine de Beauhamais. In his very first
campaign Napoleon appeared a consummate general. His peculiar
mode of attack consisted in precision of movement, concentration of
forces and formidable charges upon a determinate point. In a few weeks
he gained four victories, conquered Lombardy and laid siege to Mantua,
which he captured after almost annihilating three Austrian armies.
Napoleon then turned his arms against the Pope, compelling him to pay
30,000,000 lires and surrender many valuable works of art. After
defeating another Austrian army sent to Italy, Napoleon cot luded a
treaty securing his brilliant success. In 1798 he was given command of
a powerful expedition into Egypt, the intention being to strike at the
power of Great Britain, and gained a decisive victory over the Mamelukes
and Turkish auxiliaries at the battle of the Pyramids, and another at
Aboukir. Returning to France, he overthrew the Directory and was
elected first consul. In 1800 he gained the great victory of Marengo.
Made peace with England 1802, granted general amnesty, established
public order, re-established the Catholic faith, and produced his Civil
Code. Napoleon became emperor in 1804, and engaged in war with
England, Russia, Sweden and Prussia. Divorced from Josephine in

1809, he married Maria Louise, daughter of the Emperor of Austria, in

1810. In 1812 occurred the ill-fated Russian campaign, Napoleon's
loss being estimated at 450,000 men. Beaten at Leipzig, 1813, he made
a disastrous retreat. In 1814 the allies entered Paris, compelled Napo-
leon to abdicate, and sent him to Elba, granting him the sovereignty
of that island, with a yearly pension of 6,000,000 francs. Returning
again to France, he was enthusiastically received and raised an army of
about 125,000, but was completely defeated at Waterloo, 1815. He
abdicated again, and, unable to carry out his intention of embarking for
America, he surrendered to the captain of a British man-of-war. Carried
to the island of St. Helena, he died there in 1821 after nearly six years'
confinement.

-7T

-M to

216

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Boi

Bonaparte, Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul. Prince Napoleon.
1823-1891. Son of Napoleon I. and Maria Theresa.

Bonaparte, Napoleon Francois Charles Joseph. Napoleon II.

1811-1833. Son of Napoleon I. and Maria Theresa.
Bonaventura, Saint. The Seraphic Doctor. 1221-1274.

Italian theologian.

Bonheur, Rosa (or Rosalie), 1822-.... French painter of
animals.

Boniface I. Pope, ruling from 419 to 422. II., 530-532.
III., elected 607 and died same year. IV., 608-615. V., 619-624; dis-
tinguished for his efforts to convert the Britons VI., died in 805. fif-
teen days after his election to the Papacy. VII. (Anti-Pope),elected
974, during reign of Benedict VI. ; driven from Rome, but returned in.
985, imprisoning John XIV., who is said to have been starved to death;
died 985. VIII., 1294-1303. IX., 1389-1404.

Boniface, Winfred, Saint. Apostle 0/ Germany. 680-755?

Bonner, Edmund. Bloody Bonner. i490?-'569. Bishop
of London, noted for his persecution of the Protestants.

Bonneville, Benjamin L. E. 1 795?— 1 878. American soldier

and traveller.

Bonnivard, Francois de. 1496-1570. The hero of Byron's
Prisoner 0/ Chilian.

Boone, Daniel. 1 735-1820? American pioneer. Born in
Pennsylvania, but removed in boyhood to North Carolina. Visited
Kentucky, hitherto unexplored, in 1769, and emigrated to that State
with his own and five other families in 1773, constructing a fort at
Boonsborough in 1775. Captured by the Indians, he was adopted by
them, but escaped and returned to the fort, which was shortly after at-
tacked by Indians under the British flag. The fort was ably de-
fended, two of Boone's sons, however, being killed. Boone lost his
lands in Kentucky in consequence of a defective title, and, removing 10
Missouri, pursued the occupation of a hunter and trapper.

Booth, Edwin. 1833-.... Son of Junius Brutus Booth.
American tragedian.

Booth, John Wilkes. 1835-1865. Son of Junius Brutus Booth.
American actor, who became infamous as the assassin of Abraham
Lincoln, whom he shot at the theatre on the evening of April 14th, Ib6s.
Effected his escape, but was traced into Virginia, where, refusing to sur-
render, he was shot.

Booth, Junius Brutus. 1796-1852. English tragedian.

Borden, Simeon. 1798-1856. American civil engineer.

Borgi, Giovanni. 1735-1802. Italian founder of ragged

schools.

Borgia, Cesare, Due de Valentinois. 1457-1507. Natural

•on of Alexander VI. Italian cardinal and military leader. Made
cardinal in 1492, but afterwards secularized. Notorious for cunning,
perfidy and cruelty.

Borgia, Francisco. See Francis, Saint.

Borgia, Lucrezia, Duchess of Ferrara -'523. Sister

of Cesare Borgia. Distinguished for^ieauty and talents, and a patron of
learning, but contemporaneous writers differ in their estimation of her
character.

Borromeo, Carlo, Saint. 1538-1584. Italian cardinal, noted

for benevolence and care of the sick.
Borrow, George. 1803-1881. English author and traveller.
Bos, Ilieronymus. I450?-I5CO. Dutch painter.
Boscawen, Edward. 1711-1761. English admiral.

Bossuet, Jacques Benigne. 1627-1704. French prelate, ora-
tor and controversialist.

Boswell, James. 1740-1795. Scottish lawyer ; biographer of
Dr. Johnson.

Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of. 1526 7-1577? Scottish

conspirator ; husband of Mary of Scotland.

Bottcber, Johann Friedrich. 1682-1719. Inventor of Dres-
den china.

Boucicault, Dion. iSj2-iS</). Irish dramatist, residing
in New York since SS76, ( otUtm /!■/: h; Tltr (klumm

Boulanger, Geo. Ernest Jean Marie. 1837-1891. Fr. gen.

Bouillon, Godfrey de. 1060 ?-i 100. Leader of the first
Crusade.

Bourbaki, Charles Denis Sauttr. 1816- Fr. general

Bourbon. The name of a famous dynasty reigning in France
from 1589 to 1848, excepting the republic and the empire of the first
Napoleon.

Bourbon, Charles, Due de. Constable Bourbon. 1490-1527.

French general. Killed after mounting the wall of Rome at the head of

his troops. A prominent character in Byron's Tke Deformed Trans-
formed
Bourdaloue, Louis. 1632-1704. French Jesuit orator.
Bourdon, Sebastien. 1616-1671. French painter.
Bourne, Hugh. 1772-1852. English founder of Primitive

Methodism.
Bowditch, Nathaniel. 1 773-1838. American mathematician;

son of a cooper. Navigation.
Bowdoin, James. 1727-1790. American statesman.
Bowles, Samuel. 1826-T878. American journalist.
Bowles, William Lisle. 1 762-1 850. English poet.
Bowring, Sir John. 1 792-1872. Eng. scholar and statesman.
Boyce, William. 1710-1779. Eng. organist and composer.
Boydell, John. 1719-1804. Eng. engraver and art publisher.
Boyle, Robert. 1626-1691. Irish experimental philosopher

and philanthropist. Disquisition on Final Causes.

Bozzaris, Marcos. 1 790-1823. Patriotic leader in the Greek
war for independence. Slain in a night attack upon the Turks.

Braddock, Edward. I7I5?-I755. English general in Amer-
ica. Killed by Indians.

Braddon, Mary Elizabeth. 1837- English novelist; editor

of Belgravia. Lady Audley s Secret; Dead Sea Fruit: An Open

Verdict.

Bradford, William. 1 590-1657. Governor of Plymouth colony.

Bradford, William. 1660-1752. First printer in Pennsylvania.

Bradlaugh. Charles. 1834-1891. British statesman.

Bradley, Joseph. 1813- Judge supreme court U. S.

Bradstreet, John. 1711-1774. American major general.

Bragg, Braxton. 1815-1876. Confederate general.

Brahe, Tycho. 1545-1601. Swedish astronomer.

Brainerd, David. 1718-1747. American missionary.

Bramante d' Urbino. Donate Lausri. 1444-1514. Italian
architect of St. Peter's.

Brandt, Joseph. Thayendanega. !742?-l807. Half-breed
chief of the Mohawks.

Breckenridge, John Cabell. 1821-1875. American states-
man and Confederate general. Born in Kentucky. Vice-president
1857-61. Democratic candidate for the presidency In i860. Elected to
the United States Senate from Kentucky in lE6i, but resigned to enter
the Confederate army. Confederate secretary of war, 1865.

Bremer, Fredrika. 1802-1865. Swedish novelist. Trie Neigh-
bors; Toe Homes of the Mew World.

Brentano, Clemens. 1777-1842. German novelist and poet

Brenghcl, Jan. 1 569-1625. Flemish painter.

Brewster, Sir David. 1781-186S. Eng. optician and physicist.

f£

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

217

Brian Boru (or Boroikme). y2f?-toi4. King of Ireland.
Bridget, Saint. 1302-1373. Patroness of Ireland.
Bridgman, Laura. 1829-1889. American blind deaf-mute,

noted for her mental acquirements.
Bright, John. 181 1-18S9. English statesman and orator.
Bright, Richard. 1789-1858. English physician.
Brillat-Savarin, Anthelme. 1755-1826. French author.

Physiology 0/ the Taste.

Brissot de Warville, Jean Pierre. 1 754-1 793. French leader
of the Girondists ; beheaded.

Broglie, Charles Jacques Victor Albert, Due de. 1821-

French statesman and writer.

Bronte, Charlotte. Currer Belt. 1816-1855. English novelist.
Jane Eyre; Shirley; Villette.

Brooks, James. 1810-1873. American journalist.

Brougham, Henry, Lord. 1779-1868. British author, states-
man and orator.

Brown, Charles Brockden. 1771-1810. Am. novelist.

Brown, Hablot, Knight. Phiz. 1815-1882. English comic

designer.

Brown, John, Captain. 1800-1859. Born in Connecticut, and

a tanner by trade. Removed to Kansas and became prominent as an
abolitionist, and gained the title of "Ossawatomie " by a victory, in
1856, over a company of Missourians vas f, .y exceeding his own force in
number. In pursuance of a plan for the invasion of Virginia and the
emancipation of slaves, he surprised Harper's Ferry in 1859, and took
the arsenal and armory and forty prisoners. Attacked the next day by
the United States marines and the Virginia militia, two of his sons.and
most of his company oftwenty men were killed, and he himself was
wounded and taken prisoner. He was tried and hanged at Charlestown,
Virginia, the same year.

Brown, Thomas. 1778-1820. Scottish metaphysician.

Browne, Charles F. Artemus Ward. 1835-1867. Ameri-
can humorist.

Browne, Sir Thomas. 1605-1682. English physician, phil-
osopher and author. Religio Medici; Enquiries into Vulgar and
Common Errors.

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett. 1809-1861. Wife of Robert

Browning. English poetess. Aurora Leigh; Casa CuiJi Windows.
Browning, Robert. 1812- 1S89. English poet. The Ring

and the Book; Strafford ; Men and Women ; Fjfine at the Fair ;

A Soul's Errand.
Brownlow, William Gannaway. Parson Browniow. 1805-

1877. American politician.
Brownson, Orestes Augustus. 1803-1876. Am. theologian.
Bruce, James. 1730-1794. Scottish traveller ; discovered the

source of the Blue Nile.

Bruce, Robert. 1274-1329. King of Scotland. Defeated

Edward II. at Bannockburn, in 1314. The greatest of the rulers of

Scotland.
Brummel, George Bryan. Beau Brummel. 1 778-1840.

English man of fashion.
Brunei, Isambard Kingdom. 1 806- 1859. Eng. engineer.
Brunei, Sir Mark Isambard. 1769-1849. English engineer,

born in France. Built the Thames tunnel.

Brunelleschi, Filippo. 1377-1444. Italian architect and

sculptor.

Bruno, Saint. I040?-U9i. German founder of the Car-
thusians.

Brutus, Lucius Junius. Fl. 500 B.C. Roman patriot; over-
threw Tarquin.

Brutus, Marcus Junius. 80-36 B.C. One of Casar's assas-
sins ; committed suicide after his defeat at Philippi.

Bryant, William Cullen, 1794-1878. American poet and
journalist; born in Massachusetts. At 13 composed The Spanish /(ev-
olution and The Embargo. Entered Williams College, read law, and
was admitted to the bar in 1816. Published Thanatopsis in 1816. Became
editorof the New York Evening Post in 1826. He was a firm oppo-
nent of slavery.

Buchanan, George. 1 506-1 582. Scottish historian and poet.

Buchanan, James. 1791-1868. Fifteenth president of the
United States. Born in Pennsylvania. Admitted to the bar, 181a ;
member of Congress, 1821-31; minister to Russia, 1832-4; U. S. *
senator, 1834-5; secretary of state, 1845-9; minister to England,
1853-6; signed Ostend manifesto in 1854; president, 1857-61. la
his last message, President Buchanan censured the Northern people for
the imminent disruption of the Union, holding that neither the executive
nor Congress had power to coerce a state.

Buckland, William. 1 784-1 856. English geologist.

Buckle, Henry Thomas. 1822-1862. English writer. History

0/ Civilization.

Buddha (or Booddka), Gautama. 624-523 B.C. Hindoo re-
former ; founder of Buddhism.

Buell, Don Carlos. 1818?-. . .. American general.
Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc de, Comte. 1707-1788. French
naturalist and philosopher. Natural History; Epochs of Nature.

Bull, Ole Bornemann. 1810-1882. Norwegian violinist.
Bulow, Bernhard E/nst von. 1815-. . . . German statesman.
Bulow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, Count. 1775-1816. Prussian

general.
Bulow, Hans Guido von. 1830-. . . . German pianist.
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton, Baron Lytton.

1805-1873. English novelist.
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward Robert, Earl of Lytton. Owen

Meredith. 1S31-1S91. Son of the preceding. English poet.
Bulwer, Sir Henry Lytton Earle. 1804-1872. English author

and diplomatist.

Bunsen, Christian Karl Josias von, JJaron, 1791-1860. Ger-
man philologist and diplomatist.

Bunyan, John. 1628- 1688. English author. The son of a

tinker, he followed that vocation and led for many years a dissipated,
wandering life ; served in the Parliamentary army; joined the Anabap-
tists in 1654, and in 1655 became a Baptist minister ; sentenced to trans-
portation for life on a charge of promoting seditious assemblies, but
sentence not enforced ; was, however, imprisoned for more than twelve
years, and during this time wrote his Pilgrim's Progress.

Bun-Lan. 1879- King of Siam. Succeeded his

father, Tu-Duc, 1889.

Burckhardt, Johann Ludwig. 1784-1817. Swiss traveller.
Burdett-Coutts, Angela Georgina, Baroness. 1814-. . . .

English philanthropist.

Burger, Gottfried August. 1748-1794. German poet.

Burgoyne, John. 1 730-1 792. English general and dramatist.
Surrendered at Saratoga.

Burke, Edmund. 1730-1797. English (Irish) orator, states-
man and writer. Prominent as the ablest member of the Commons to
oppose the ministry's American policy. Impeached Warren Hastings
in 1 788. Rejections on the Revolution in France.

Burke, Thomas N. 1 830-1 883. Irish Dominican orator.

Burleigh, William Cecil, Lord. 1520-1598. Eng. statesman.

Burlingame, Anson. 1822-1870. American diplomatist;

negotiator of treaty between the United States and China.
Burnet, Gilbert. 1643-1715. British prelate and historian.

HisUry 0/ My Own Times.

2l8

=7?f

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Burns, Robert. 1759-1796. Scotch lyric poet. Born at
Ayr ; the son of a poor fanner. Burns worked hard on his father'*
farm and had little opportunity for education. Began rhyming at the
age of 16, and studied mensuration and surveying. His poems brought
him into society, where he acquired dissipated habits. Formed a liai*
ton in 1785 with Jean Armour, whom he married in 1788. Intended to
emigrate, but the popularity of his poems, published in full in 1787, in-
duced him to remain in Scotland. He afterward became an officer of
the excise. The principal characteristics of Burns' poems are beauty
and independence of thought and intensity of feeling. The Cotter's
Saturday Night ; Tarn O' Shunter; To the Unco* Guid ; Halloween ;
Holy Willie's Prayer,

Burnside, Ambrose Everett. 1824-188 1. American general.

Burr, Aaron. 1756-1836. American statesman and lawyer.

In r8oo Burr and Jefferson were the Democratic candidates for presi-
dent and vice-president. Receiving the same number of votes, the
House gave the higher office to Jefferson. Burr's course in endeavor-
ing tosupplant Jefferson lost him the regard of his party. Unsuccessful
as candidate for governor of New York in 1804, Burr attributed his
defeat to Alexander Hamilton, whom he killed in a duet. After the ex-
piration of his term as vice-president, Burr was tried for treason,
charged with the subversion of federal authority, and with raising an
expedition for the conquest of Mexico, but acquitted.

Burritt, Elihu. The Learned Blacksmith. 1810-1879. Am-
erican scholar and journalist. The son of a shoemaker, and appren-
ticed to ablacksmith, he devoted all his spare time to study, and event-
ually mastered eighteen foreign languages. He became a successful
lecturer and advocated many reforms.

Burton, Sir Rich. Francis. 1821-1890. Irish traveller in
Africa.

Burton, Robert. 1 576-1640. English philosopher. Anatomy

0/ Melancholy.

Bushnell, Horace. 1802-1876. American divine.

Butler, Benjamin Franklin. 1818- American politician,

lawyer and general. Born in New Hampshire. Butler applied the
term "contraband of war" to the slaves who sough'; .jrrtcction at
Fortress Monroe while he was in command there. Military governor
of New Orleans in 1862, rrtling with vigor and efficiency and preserving
the city from the yellow fever. Went to Congress as a Republican in
1866, and was re-elected for several terms. Elected governor of Mas-
sachusetts in 1882 by the Democrats, but defeated for the same office a
year later.

Butler, Joseph. 1692-1752. English theologian.

Butler, Samuel. i6i2?-ifc8o. English poet. Hudibras.

Byng, John. 1704-1757- Eng. admiral, shot for cowardice.

Byron, George Gordon Noel, Lord. 1788-1824. English
poet. Born in London and educated in Scotland. Travelled 1809-11,
and on returning produced the first cantos of Child* Harold. Giaour
and Bride of Ahydos, 1S13; Corsair, 181 4. In 1815 he married Anne
Isabel Millbank, but separated from her and left England in 1816. In
Italy he formed a liaison with the beautiful Countess Ouiccioli. Espous-
fng the cause of the Greeks in their struggle for liberty, he left for
Greece in 1823, and died the following year at Missolonght from the ef-
fects of exposure while preparing for the siege of Lepanto. Byron's
poetry is characterized by intense emotion, and by rare taste and mar-
vellous felicity in composition. Child* Harold's Pilgrimage; Don
JuAn .

/TfABAj-LERO, Fernan. 1787-1877. Pseudonym of the
Tr-*> Spanish novelist Cecilia Bohl de Faber.

Cabanel, Alexandre. 1823-. . . . French historical painter.

Cabanis, Pierre Jean George. 1 757-1 808. French physician
and philosopher.

Cabot, (icorgc. 1751-1823. President of the Hartford Con-
vention.

Cabot, John -1498? Venetian navigator in the service

of England. Discovered North American continent in 1497.
Cabot, Sebastian. 1477?— 1557. Son of preceding. English

navigator.

Cade, John. Jack Cad* -1450. Irish rebel.

Cadoudal, George. 1769-1804. French Bourbon general.
Executed for plotting the dethronement of Napoleon I.

Cadwalader, George -'879. American general.

Cadwalader, John. 1 743- 1786. American general.

Caedmon -680? Anglo-Saxon poet. The Creation.

Caesar, Caius Julius. 100-44 B.C. Roman general and
statesman. Elected Consul 60 B.C.; formed a secret alliance with
Pompcy and Crassus known as the first triumvirate. It is said that
during his Gallic wars a million of men were stain, eight hundred cities
and towns captured and three hundred tribes subdued. Pompcy having
become Caesar's enemy through jealousy, the latter crossed the Rubicon,
49 B.C., and in a short time became master of Italy. Having conquered
all his enemies, and subdued Spain and Africa, Caesar was made per-
petual dictator, and received from the Senate the title •( Imperator.
Although beloved by the masses, the patricians fc...ed and hated him,
and the result of a conspiracy of Ca&sius, Brutus and others was his
assassination.

Cagliari, Paolo. Paul Veronese. I530?-I588. Italian

painter.

Cagliostro, Alexandra (Joseph Balsamo). 1743-1795. Italian

impostor and adventurer, physician and alchemist.
Caille, Nicolas Louis de la. 1713-1762. French astronomer.

Caillet, Guillaume -, 359- French insurgent leader.

Cajetan, Thomas de Vio. 1469-1534. Italian prelate.

Calderon de la Barco, Don Pedro. 1600-1683. Spanish
poet and dramatist. Produced his first drama at the age of 13.
Served as a soldier, but took orders in 165a, after which he wrote only
sacred dramas. He wrote some five hundred plays.

Calhoun, John Caldwell. 1783-1850. American statesman.
Born in South Carolina; elected to Congress, 1810; secretary of war,
1817; vice-president, 1825-1833, resigning to enter the Senate; secre-
tary of state, 1844 ; returned to the Senate, 1845. Calhoun was an
avowed champion of slavery and state's rights.

Caligula, Caius Caesar. 12-41. Emperor of Rome, noted

for cruelty and sensuality. Built a temple to himself. Assassinated.

Calonne, Charles Alexandre de. 1734-1802. Fr. statesman.

Calvert, Cecilius, second Ix>rd Baltimore -1676. First

proprietor of Maryland, residing in England.

Calvert, George, first Lord Baltimore. I582?-i632. Father
of the preceding. Founder of Maryland.

Calvert, Leonard. i6o6?-i647. Brother of Cecilius. pint

governor of Maryland.

Calvin, John. 1509-1564. French theologian. Established

the Presbyterian form of church government. The fundamental prin-
ciple of his theology Is that of predestination to eternal happiness or
misery by the absolute decree of God.
Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Regis de. 1 757-1824. French

statesman.

Cambyses -522 B.C. King of Persia; conqueror of

Egypt.
Cameron, Richard -1680. Scottish Covenanter.

Cameron, Simon. 1799- 1S80. American politician; senator
from Pennsylvania, secretary of war and minister to Russia.

Camillus, Marcus Furius -364 B,C Roman general

and dictator.

==H======= _^^ All

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

219

Camoens, Luis. 1517—1579. Portuguese poet. Served in
Morocco as a volunteer, and, failing to procure advancement at court on
his return, went to India. There he was banished, on account of his
satire. Follies in India, from Goa to Macao, where he wrote the Lusiad,
the greatest of his works. Recalled to Goa, he suffered shipwreck, and
saved the Lusiad by holding it above the waves as he swam ashore. He
died in great poverty.

Campanini, Italo. Italian tenor singer.

Campbell, Alexander. 1788-1866. Irish founder of the de-
nomination of "Christians," or " Disciples of Christ."

Campbell, Colin, Lord Clyde. 1792-1863. British General.

Campbell, John, Lord. 1779-1861. Lord chancellor of
England. The Lives 0/ the Lord Chancellors.

Campbell, Thomas. 1 777-1844. Scottish poet. Son of a
Glasgow merchant. Published Pleasures 0/ Hope in 1 799.

Camphon, Jules. Governor-general of Algeria. Ap-
pointed May 11, 1S91.

Canby, Edward

general.

Canisius, Petrus.

theologian.
Canning, George.
Canova, Antonio.

Richard Sprigg. 1819-1873. American
(De Hondt.) 1521-1597. Dutch Jesuit

English statesman and orator.
Italian sculptor. Venus Vic-

1770-1827.
1757-1822.

torious : Venus and Adonis ; Theseus and the Minotaur: Dtgda-
/us and Icarus ; The Graces. He executed statues of Washington
and Napoleon.
Canrobert, Francois Certain. 1809-.... French marshal

and senator.
Cantacuzenus, John -141 1? Greek emperor and

historian.

Canute II. 990-1035. King of Denmark; conqueror of

England.
Capet, Hugh. 9407-996. Founder of the Capetian dynasty.
Caracalla. 188-217. Emperor of Rome, noted for cruelty.
Caracci, Agostino. 1558-1602. Italian painter and engraver.
Caracci, Annibal. 1560-1609. Italian painter.
Caracci, Ludovico. 1555-1619. Italian painter.
Caravaggio, Michel Angelo da. 1569-1609. Italian painter.
Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell, Earl of. 1 797-1868.

English general.

Carducci, Bartolommeo. 1560-1610. Florentine painter.
Carey, Henry Charles. 1793-1879. Am. political economist.

Carlisle, John G. 1829-. American statesman.

Carlos, Don, Duke of Madrid. (Carlos Maria de los Dolores

Juan Isidoro Josef Francesco Quirino Antonio'Miguel Gabriel Rafael.)
1848-.... Claimant to the Spanish throne. Nephew of Charles VI.

Carlyle, Thomas. 1795-1881. Scottish essayist, biographer
and historian. The son of a small farmer; educated at the University
of Edinburgh. Taught mathematics for some time, but resolved to
devote himself to literary pursuits and became thoroughly familiar
with the literature of Germany. Married Jane Welch in 1827, and set-
tled on a farm. Besides his best known works and several translations,
he produced biographies of Schiller, Frederick the Great and John
Sterling. Sartor Resartus first appeared in Fraser's Magazine in
1833; Freds'' ^v.'olution, 1837; Chartism, 1839; Heroes and Hero
Worship,\%*p; Latter-Day Pamphlets and Cromwell's Letters and
Speeches, 1845.

Carnarvon, Henry H. M. Herbert, third Earl of. 1831-. . . .

English statesman.
Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi. 1837-. . . . President of

the French Republic.
Carroll, Charles (of Carrollton). 1737-1832. Am. patriot.

Cartier, Jacques. 1494-1555? French navigator.
Cartwright, Edmund. 1743-1823. English inventor.
Cary, Alice. 1822-1870. American poetess.
Cary, Henry Francis. 1722-1884. Eng. translator of Dante.
Casas, BartolomS de las. 1474-1566. Spanish missionary

and historian. History of the Indians.
Casaubon, Isaac. 1559-1614. Swiss scholar and critic.
Casimir I. 77i' Pacific. . . . .-1058. King of Poland.

II., 1 137-1194. III., ThcGrcat, ....-1370. IV., 1425-1492. V., 1609-

1672.
Cass, Lewis. 1782-1866. Am. statesman and diplomatist.
Castelar y Rissol, Emilio. 1837- Spanish republican

orator and statesman.
Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount. 1769-1822. Second

marquis of Londonderry. British statesman, prominent in suppressing
the Irish rebellion of 1798, and to him is attributed the union of Ireland
with Great Britain. Opposed Bonaparte Committed suicide.

Castro, Joao de. 1 500-1 548. Port, general and navigator.

Catherine, Saint. 1347-1380. Italian nun at Siena. Mediator
between the rival popes in the great schism.

Catherine I. 1682-1727. Empress of Russia ; succeeded to
the throne on the death of her husband, Peter the Great. II., 1729-1796;
notoriously immoral.

Catherine of Aragon. 1486-1536. Queen of Henry VIII. of

England ; divorced.

Catherine de, Medici. 15 10-1589. Queen of Henry II. of

France ; opponent of the Huguenots.

Catiline, Lucius Sergius. io8?-62 B.C. Roman conspirator.

Cato, Dionysius. Fl. 3d century. Latin poet.

Cato, Marcus Portius. The Elder. 234-149 B.C. Roman
statesman and author.

Cato, Marcus Portius. The Younger. 95-46 B.C. Opponent
of Caesar; famed for purity and nobility. Committed suicide.

Catullus, Caius Vallerius. 77 ?-45 ? B.C. Latin poet.

Caulaincourt, Armand A. L. de. 1773-1827. Fr. diplomat.

Cavaignac, Louis Eugene. 1802-1857. French general and
statesman. Put down the insurrection of 1848.

Cavour, Camillo Benso di. 1818-1861. First prime minister
of the kingdom of Italy.

Caxton, William. I4I2?-I492. English scholar and mer-
chant. Introduced printing into England.

Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh. 1 520-1 598. Lord treasurer
of England.

Cecilia, Saint. Fl. 2d century. Roman martyr; patroness of
music.

Cenci, Beatrice. The beautiful Parricide. 1583?-! 599.
Roman lady, famous for her beauty and tragic fate.

Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de. 1547-1616. Spanish novel-
ist. Don Quixote.

Cesnola, Louis Palma di. 1832-. . . . Born in Italy; colonel

in U. S. army during the civil war ; appointed 1865 consul to Cyprus,
and became famous for his excavations in that island.

Chalmers, Thomas. 1780-1847. Scottish divine ; founder of

the " Free Church." Astronomy in its Connection with Religion.
Chambers, William. 1800-1883. Scot, editor and publisher.

Chambord, Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne d'Artois,
Comte. 1820-1883. Head of elder branch of the Bourbons.

Chamisso, Adelbert von. 1 781-1838. German traveller.

Champollion, Jean Francois. 1791-1832. French Egyptolo-
gist. Hieroglyphic Dictionary.

Changarnier, Nicolas A. T. J793-1877. French general.

l£

**?

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Charming, William Ellery. 1780-1842. American divine and

author; opponent of slavery.
Chantrey, Sir Francis. 1 782-1841. English sculptor.

Chapin, Edwin Hubbell. 1814-1881. American divine.

Charlemagne. CharUs the Great, or Charles I. 742-814.

Emperor of Germany and King of France. Crowned emperor of the
West, with the title of Caesar Augustus, by Pope Leo III., 800. The'
most powerful and enlightened monarch of his time. His empire extended
from the Elbe to the Ebro, and from Calabria to Hungary. Founder of
the Carlovingian dynasty.

Charles II. The Bald. (Charles II. of France.) 823-877.
Emperor of Germany. Invaded Italy and was crowned Emperor. III.,
The Fat, 83a?-888. IV M 1316-1378. Emperor of Germany and King
of Bohemia. V., 1500-1558. Emperor of Germany. King of Spain
as Charles I. Ascended the Spanish throne in 1516 and became Emperor
of Germany in 1519. In 1521 summoned the Diet of Worms to check the
progress of Luther's doctrines. In 1527, warring with Francis I. of
France, and Pope Clement VII., Rome was sacked and the pope made
prisoner. Convened the Diet of Augsburg to suppress the Reformation,
but, the Protestants having united, liberal terms were granted them. In
1535, defeated Barbarossa and captured Tunis, liberating thousands of
Christian slaves. Defeated in 155a by the Protestant forces under
Maurice of Saxony, he signed the treaty of Passau, establishing the
Protestant church on a firm basis. Three years later he retired to the
monastery of St. Yuste. VI., 1685-1740. VII. (Kart Albrecht),
■697-1745-

Charles II. The Bald. (Charles II. of Germany.) 823-877.

King of France. IV., The Fair. 1x294-328. V., The Wise, 1337-

1380. VI., The Mad or The Beloved, 1368-1422. Became insane in

1392. VII., The Victorious, 1403-1461 ; expelled the English. IX.,

>55o--574. X., 1757-1836.
Charles I. Charles Stuart. 1600-1649. King of England.

Executed alter ineffectually attempting to subdue his rebellious subjects.

II., 1630-1685; witty, but careless and voluptuous, the Habeas

Corpus act was passed during his reign.
Charles I. (Charles V. of Germany.) 1500-1558. King of

Spain. II., 1661-1700. III., 1716-1788. IV., 1748-1819.

Charles IX. 1550-1611. King of Sweden. X. (Gustavus),
1622-1660. XII., 1682-1718; ascended the throne in 1697. A
league being formed against him by Russia, Denmark and Poland, in 1 700,
he besieged Copenhagen, forced Denmark to make peace, and beat the
Russians. He then invaded Poland, compelling King Augustus to
resign. Invading Russia, he was badly defeated at Pultowa. He fled
to Turkey, but soon returned. Marching into Norway, he was killed at
the siege of Fredericks. ill. XIII., 1748-1818. XIV. (Bernadotte),
1714-1844. XV., 1826-1872. King of Sweden and Norway.

Charles Edward Stuart. The Young Pretender. 1720-1788.
English prince.

Charfes the Bold. 1433-1477. Duke of Burgundy. While
still Count of Charolais and before succeeding to his dukedom, he led
a successful revolt of the nobles against Louis XI. of France. Aspiring
to enlarge his dominions, he invaded Lorraine, but was defeated by Duke
Rene's Swiss allies and killed in battle.

Charles Martel. 6o4?-74i. King of the Franks.

Charron, Pierre. 1 531-1603. French moralist.

Chartier, Alain. 1385-1455. French poet.

Chase, Salmon Portland. 1808-1873. American statesman

and jurist. Secretary of the Treasury; chief justice.

Chateaubriand, Francois Auguste de, Viscount. 1768-1848.

French author. Genius of Christianity.

Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of. The Great Commoner.

1708*1778. English statesman and orator. Opposed taxation of the

American colonics.
Chatterton, Thomas. 1752-1770. English literary impostor.

Chaucer, Geoffrey. 1340?- 1 400. English poet, styled the
" Father of English poetry." Canterbury Totes.

Cheever, George Barrelle. 1807-1890. American divine.

Cheke, Sir John. 1514-1557. English scholar.

Chenier, Andre Marie de. 1 762- 1 794. French poet; exe-
cuted. The young- Captive, written just before his death, is caBed by
Lamartine " the most melodious sigh that ever issued from a dungeon."

Cherbuliez, Victor. 1832-.... French novelist.

Cherubini, Maria Luigi C. Z. S. 1 760-1842. It. composer.

Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of. 1694-1773.
English orator and wit, distinguished especially as a man of fashion.

Chevalier, Michael. 1806-1879. Fr. political economist.

Chiabrera, Gabriello. 1 552-1637. Italian lyric poet

Child, Lydia Maria. 1802- 1880. American philanthropist.

Chillingworth, William. 1602-1644. English theologian.

The Religion 0/ Protestants a Sa/e Way to Salvation.

Chitty, Joseph. 1776-1841. English jurist and writer.

Choate, Rufus. 1 799-1859. American lawyer and statesman,
noted for his eloquence. Senator from Massachusetts.

Choiseul, Eticnne Francois de. 1719-1785. Fr. statesman.

Choris, Louis. 1795-1828. Russian painter and traveller.

Christian I. 1425- 1481. King of Denmark. II., 1481-1556.
Called "The Hero of the North." III., 1503.1559. IV., 1577-1648. V.,
1646-1699. VI., 1699-1746. VII., i749-itk>8. VIII., 1786-1848. IX.,
1818-....

Christina. 1 629-1 689. Queen of Sweden. Daughter of
Gustavus A.dolphus. Learned and eccentric. Abdicated 1654.

Chrysippus. 280-207 B.C. Greek Stoic philosopher.

Chrysostom, John, Saint. 350?-407. Greek father of the
church.

Church, Frederick Edwin. 1826-. . . . American painter.

Churchill, Charles. 1731-1764. English poet and satirist.

Cialdini, Enrico. 181 1-.... Italian general.

Cibber, Colley. 1671-1757. English actor and dramatist.

Cicero, Marcus Tullius. 106-43 B.C. Roman author, states-
man and orator. While consul, suppressed the conspiracy of Catiline.
Exiled 58 B.C., but recalled and enthusiastically received. Was an ad-
herent of Pompcy.but enjoyed the favor of Julius Caesar. Killed by
the soldiers of Antony. Cicero is regarded as an orator second only to
Demosthenes.

Cid Campeador. (Ruy Diaz de Bivar.) I040?-ioo9. Cas-
tilian hero.

Cimabue, Giovanni. 1 140-1300? Italian painter.

Cimon. 500-499 B.C. Athenian general and statesman.

Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintus. 520-438 B.C. Roman patriot
and Dictator. Elected consul while cultivating a farm, having lost his
property. Conquered the jEqui. Twice chosen dictator, and at the
expiration of each term of office he returned to the plow.

Cinna, Lucius Cornelius -84 B.C. Roman demagogue.

Cinq-Mars, Henri C. de Ruze, Marquis de. 1620-1642.

French conspirator.

Civilis, Claudius. Fl. 70. Chief of the Batavi.

Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of. 160S-1674. English
historian and statesman.

Clarke, Adam. 1762-1832. Irish Methodist Bible com-
mentator.

Clarke, John S. 1835-. . . . American comedian.

Clarke. Mary Cowden. 1809-. . . . English writer. C*n-

cordance of Skaksyere.

Claude Lorraine. 1600-1682. French painter.

7 «• ■»■

Claudian (Claudius Claudianus). 365 ?-4o8 ? Latin poet.

Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero). B.C. 10-54 A.D.
Roman emperor; invaded Britain.

Claudius, Marcus Aurelius. 214-270. Roman emperor.

Clay, Henry. 1777-1852. American statesman and orator.
Born in Virginia; removed to Kentucky 1797; practiced law; elected
to Kentucky Legislature in 1804, and two years later chosen to fill a
short term in the U. S. Senate; re-elected to the Senate 1809, and to
the House of Representatives 1811, of which body he was made
speaker; re-elected speaker 1813; signed treaty of Ghent, 1815; re-
elected speaker four times ; advocated Missouri Compromise. Not
one of his decisions as speaker was reversed. In 1824, he was one of
four candidate* for the presidency, receiving thirty-seven electoral
votes. When the election devolved on the House of Representatives,
his influence decided the contest in favor of Jackson. A bloodless
duel between Clay and Randolph, in 1826, was the result of charges
against Clay growing out of this election. Re-elected to the Senate in
1831 for six years ; and in 1832 was defeated for the presidency as the
candidate of the anti-Jackson party. Again elected to the Senate in 1836,
but resigned in 1842. Whig candidate for the presidency in 1844. Re-
elected Senator 1848. Clay is generally given credit for the compro-
mise of 1850, believed to have postponed for ten years the civil war.

Clemens, Samuel Langhorne. Mark Twain. 1835-. . . .
American humorist. Learned the printer's trade, and became a pilot
on the Mississippi. The Innocents Abroad. The Jumping Frog;
Roughing It; The Gilded Age ; The Tramp Abroad.

Clement I. 30?-ioo. Pope. IV., ...-628. V., I264?-I3I4.
VII. (Giulio de Medici), i475?-i534- VIII., 1605, XL, 1649-1731.
XIV., 1705-1774.

Clement of Alexandria. i50?-220? Father of the church.

Cleon -422 b.c. Athenian demagogue and general.

Cleopatra. 69-30 B.C. Queen of Egypt, remarkable for
beauty and accomplishments.

Cleveland, Grover. 1837- American statesman.

Born at Caldwell, N. J., the son of a Presbyterian minister, who
removed to Fayetteville, N. Y., in 1840. First worked in a country
store, secured an education and became a teacher in the N. Y. Blind
Asylum. Studied law in Buffalo; admitted to the bar in 1863, and
became assistant district attorney ; afterwards sheriff. Mayor of
Buffalo, 1881, and then elected Governor of New York by 192,00c*
majority. Elected President in 1884.

Clinton, De Witt. 1769-1828. American statesman; pro-
moter of the Erie Canal. Governor of New York, United States Sena-
tor, and Federal candidate for the Presidency.

Clinton, George. 1 739-181 2. Vice-president of the U. S.

Clinton, Sir Henry. 1738-1795. English general in America.

Clive, Robert, Lord. 1725-1774. English general and
founder of the British empire in India. Committed suicide.

Clodius, Publius. 52 B.C. Roman tribune and demagogue.

Clootz, Jean Baptiste, Baron. Anackarsis Clootz. 1753-1794.
Prussian traveller and French revolutionist. Guillotined.

Clough, Arthur Hugh. 1820-1861. English poet.

Clovis (or Cklodwig). 465-511. King of the Franks; con-
queror of Gaul.

Cobbett, William. 1762-1835. English political writer.

Cobden, Richard. 1804-1865. English statesman and

economist. Leading orator of the Anti-Corn-Law League.
Coke (or Cook), Sir Edward. 1552-1633. English jurist.
Colbert, Jean Baptiste. 1610-1683. French statesman.
Cole, Thomas. 1801-1848. English landscape painter.

Colenso, John William. 1814-1883. Eng. theologian. Bishop

of Natal. The Pentateuch and Book 0/ 'Joshua Critically Examined.

Coleridge, Hartley. 1796-1849. Son of S. T. C. Eng. poet.

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. 1772-1834. English poet and
critic. Educated at Cambridge. Intimate friend of Robert Southey,
with whom he intended to emigrate to America for the purpose of found-
ing a democratic community. In company with Wordsworth he studied
German literature and wrote the Lyrical Ballads. In 1807 he took to
wandering habits, and left his family dependent on his brother-in-law,
Southey. His health failing about 1825, he became addicted to the
opium habit, but succeeded in overcoming it. The Ancient Mariner.

Colfax, Schuyler. 1823- 1885. Am. politician ; vice-president.

Coligny, Gaspard de. 1517-1572. French admiral. Leader
of the Huguenots, and killed in the massacre of St. Bartholomew.

Collier, Jeremy. 1650-1726. English theologian.

Collingwood, Cuthbert, Lord. 1750-1810. English lord high
admiral ; second in command at the battle of Trafalgar.

Collins, Anthony. 1 676-1 729. Eng. author and free-thinker.

Collins, William. 1 720-1 756. Eng. poet. The Passions.

Collins, William Wilkie. 1824-1889. English novelist.
AJter Dark; Armadale; The Woman in White; Man and Wife.

Colman, George. The Elder* 1 733-1 794. Eng. dramatist.

Colman, George. The Younger. 1762-1836. English dra-
matist. John Bull.

Colonna, Vittoria. 1490-1547. Italian poet.

Colt, Samuel. 1814-1862. Am. inventor ofthe revolving pistol.

Columba, Saint. 521-597. The apostle of Caledonia.

Columbus, Christopher. 1436-1506. Genoese navigator and
discoverer of America. Became a sailor at 14. Studied mathe-
matics at the University of Pavia. Removed to Lisbon at the age of
thirty, and was employed in several expeditions to the west coast of
Africa. Columbus meditated reaching India by a western route. He
unsuccessfully solicited the aid of John II. of Portugal, but finally
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain furnished him two small vessels, and
another was added by the efforts of his friends. With these ships and
one hundred and twenty men he set sail from Palos, August 3, 1492, and
after a long voyage, during which he was threatened with death by his
mutinous crew, he discovered the island of San Salvador, October 12 of
same year. Supposing that he had reached India, he called the natives
Indians. After visitingCuba and Hayti, he returned to Spain, where he
was received triumphantly. In 1493 he again sailed across the Atlantic,
this time with seventeen ships, and discovered Jamaica and Porto Rico.
In 1498 he made his third voyage, with six vessels, discovering the
mainland at the mouth of the Orinoco. In 1499, complaints having been
made to the court of the conduct of Columbus at Hispaniola, he was
carried to Spain in chains by Francisco de Bobadilla, whose action was f
however, repudiated by the king and queen. Columbus* last voyage
to America was made in 1502, to Honduras. He died neglected.

Combe, George. 1788-1858. Eng. educator and phrenologist.

Comines, Philippe de. 1445-1509. Fr. statesman and historian.

Commodus, Antoninus. 161-192. Emperor of Rome.

Comonfort, Ignacio. i8io?-i863. President of Mexico.

Comte, Auguste. 1798-1857. French philosopher. Positivism*

Conde, Louis II., Prince de. The Great Condi. 1621-1686.
French general. Victorious over the Spaniards at Rocroi, 1643, and
over the Germans at Nordlingen, 1645. Again defeated the Spanish at
Lens in 1648, almost annihilating their infantry, previously regarded in-
vincible. Seeking revenge for having been imprisoned by the orders of
Mazarin or the queen, he warred against the government, and neitt
entered the service of Spain. Returned to France in 1659, and
defeated William of Orange in 1674.

Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de. 1 715-1780. French meta-
physician.

Condorcet, Marie Jean A. N. C. de. 1 743-1 794. French
mathematician and philosopher. Imprisoned in 1794, he committed
suicide by poison.

*?5

Confucius, or Kong-foo-tse. 551-478 B.C. Chinese phil-
osopher. The son of a soldier, he was raised to the rank of mandarin
at 10 ; superintendent of public markets and public fields. Commenced
public teaching at 22. Became, in 499 B.C., minister of crime, and
soon after retired from public life, devoting his time to study, travel, and
the dissemination of his doctrines. The philosophy of Confucius re-
lates to the present life only, the useful and the practical forming the
chief objects. He placed great importance upon outward forms of po-
liteness, being the first to enunciate, in substance, the Golden Rule His
object was to promote human happiness. His influence upon posterity
has been truly enormous, his teachings affecting two-thirds of humanity
for twenty-three centuries.

Congreve, Sir William. 1772-1828. English engineer. (Con-
greve rocket).

Congreve, William. 1 670-1 729. English dramatist and wit.

Conkling, Roscoe. 1829-1888. American statesman, lawyer
and orator. U. S. senator from New York.

Conrad I -918. Emperor of Germany. II., ....-1039.

III., 1093-1153. IV., 1228-1254. V., 1252-1268,

Conscience, Hendrik. 1812-1883. Flemish novelist.

Constans I. 320?~35o. Emperor of Rome. II., 630-668.

Constanrine I. 7 he Great. 272-377. Emperor of Rome.
Embraced Christianity, an J transferred his court from Rome to Byzan-
tium, thenceforth called Constantinople. II., 312-340. III. (emperor
of the East), 612-6 ji. IV., ....-635. V., 719-775. VI., 771-797.
VII., 905-959; poisoned by his son, Romanus II. VIII., .,..-946,
IX., 961-1038. X., ... .-1054. XI., ... .-1067. XII., ... .-1071.
XIII. (Palaeologus), 1 394-1543 ; killed while defending Constantinople^
against thfl victorious Mahomet II. Last emperor of the East.

Constantius I. 250-306. Emperor of Rome. II. (emperor
of the West), 317-361. III., -421.

Conti, Francois Louis de, Prince. 1 664-1709. Fr. general.

Cook, Eliza. 1817-. . . . English poetess.

Cook, James, Captain. 1728-1779. English discoverer, and
circumnavigator of ihc globe. KiiUd by natives in the Sandwich Islands.

Cooke, George Frederick. 1755-1S12. English actor.

Cooper, Sir Astley PastOtL 1768-1841. English physician.

Cooper, James Fenimore. 1779-185 1. American novelist.
Having studied at Yale College, he entered the navy in 1806 as mid-
shipman,but left the service in 1811. His first novel, Precaution, ap-
peared in 1809, but was not a success. His next. The Sfiy, was enthu-
siastically received. His sea-stories are considered the best of his
numerous productions.

Cope, Edward Drinker. 1840-. . . . American naturalist.

Copernicus (Copemik or Kopemik") , Nicholas. '473-1543-
German astronomer. Disproved the Ptolemaic theory. In his great
work. The Revolution 0/ the Celestial Orbs, the first copy of which
was handed to him on the day of his death, he demonstrated that the
sun is the centre of the universe.

Coppee, f'raiicou Kdouard Joachim. 1842-. . . . French
poet.

Corday, Charlotte. (Mariane Charlotte Corday d'Armans).
176&-1793. French heroine ; assassinated Marat.

Coriolanus, Cneius Marcius. Fl. 490 B.C. Roman hero.

Cornsille,' Pierre. 1 606-1 684. Founder of the Fr. drama.

Cornelius, Peter von. 1787-1867. German painter.

Cornell, Ezra. 1807-1874. American philanthropist.

Cornwallis, Charles, Earl. 1738-1805. British general.

Corot, Jean Baptist* Camilie. 1 796-1875. French painter.

Correggio, Antonio Allegri da. 1494-1534. Italian painter.
Extremely skilful in foreshortening and in the use of chiaroscuro. The
Assumption of the Virgin; Rcce Homo; Penitent Magdalen; St.
Jerome; l^a Vierge au Panier.

Cortez, Hernando. 1485-1547- Spanish conqueror of Mexico.

Corvinus, Matthias. 1443-1490. King oPHungaiy.

Corwin, Thomas. 1 794-1865. American statesman.

Cotton, John. 1585-1652. Puritan minister in Boston.

Cottin, Sophie Ristaud. 1773-1807. French novelist

Cousin, Victor. 1792-1867. French philosopher.

Cowley, Abraham. 1618-1667. Eng. poet Pindaric Ode*.

Cowper, William. 1731-1800. English poet. Studied at
Westminster school, and became a fine classical scholar. Admitted to
the bar, but never practiced, his morbid sensitiveness, nervousness and
diffidence making him unable to occupy a conspicuous position! Became
temporarily deranged, and made several attempts at suicide. In 17&4 he
commenced his translation ct Homer. The Task was published in 1785.
Cowper** letters are considered among the best in the language. His
poetry U by turns playful and pathetic, tender and sarcastic — »omctimc*
sublime.

Cowper, William. 1666-1709. English anatomi-t

Cox, Samuel Sullivan. 1824-1889. American statesman.

Coxe, Arthur Cleveland. 1818-. . . . Am. l.ishop and poet

Cozzens, Frederick Swart wout. 1818-1869. Am. author.

Crabb, George. 1778-1854. Eng. philologist. Synonyms.

Crabbe, George. 1754-1832. English poet. Studied surgery,
but abandoned that profession. Wcs befriended by Edmund Burke, and
published The Library in 1781. Ordained a minister of the Church of
England in 1782. The Village, his best work, was produced in 1783.

Craik, Dinah Maria (Mulock). 1826-1887. English authoress.
Olive; John Halifax, Gentleman; A Life for a Life ; A Woman's
Thoughts about Women,

Cranch, Christopher Pearse. 1813-. . . . Am. artist and poet.

Cranmer, Thomas. 1489-1556. English reformer; arch-
bishop of Canterbury. Burned to death.

Crassus, Marcus l.icinius. io8?~53 B.C. Roman triumvir;
immensely wealthy. Defeated and slain by the Parthlans.

Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. 1812-1878. English historian.

Fifteen Decisive Battles,

Crichton, James. The Admirable Crichtan, 1 560-1 583.
Scottish prodigy. Stabbed by his pupil, a son of the Duke of Mantua,

Crittenden, John Jordon. 1786-1863. American statesman.

Crockett, David. 1786-1836. American backwoodsman.

Crcesus. 590-546 B.C. King of Lydia, famous for wealth.

Croly, George. 1 780-1860. Irish poet and pulpit-orator.

Cromwell, Oliver. 1 599-1659. English general; lord pro-
tector of England. Elected to Parliament 1G28. In 1637 resolved to
emigrate with his cousin, John Hampden, but they were detained by an
order of council. Re-elected to Parliament 1640. Entered the Parlia-
mentary army in 1642 as captain of cavalry. Rapidly promoted, and
led left wing at Mam ton Moor, 1644. Commanded right wing at Nascby,
1645, and became leader of the Independents. Transferred the custody
of the king from Parliament to the army, 1647. Won the battle of
Preston, 1648. Signed the death warrant of Charles I., 1649. Made
commander-in-chief, 1650, and defeated the Scotch at Dunbar and
Charles at Worcester. Dissolved Parliament in 1653, and was in 1654
proclaimed by the army protector of the commonwealth.

Cropsey, Jasper Frank. 1823-. . . . American painter,

Cruden, Alexander. 1700-1770. Scottish bookseller and
author. Concordance.

Cruikshank, George. 1792-1878. Eng. humorous artist.

Cumberland, William Augustus/Duke of. 1721-1765. Con-
queror at Culloden. *
Cunningham, Allan. 1785-1S42. Scottish author and critic.
Curran, John Philpot. 1750-1817. Irish barristerVnd orator.
Curtis, George Ticknor, 1S12-. . . . Am. law. and auth.

-*£=

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

-• »

Z2 3

Curtis, George William. 1824-. . . . Am. author and editor.
Cushing, Caleb. 1800-1879. American lawyer, Statesman

and diplomatist.
Cushman, Charlotte Sanders. 1816-1876. Am. actress.
Custer, George A. 1839-1876. American general, killed by

the Sioux.

Cuvier, Georges C. L. F., Baron. 1 769-1832. French naturalist.

Cyprian, Saint. 20O?-258. Latin father; bishop of Car-
thage ; martyr.

Cyril, Saint. 3I5?~386. Bishop of Jerusalem.

Cyril, Saint. 376P-444. Bishop of Alexandria.

Cyrus. TJie Great, ox The Elder. ...-.-529 B.C. King of
Persia ; conquered Babylon.

Cyrus. The Younger -401 B.C. Hero of Xenophon's

Anabasis.

1750-1818. American mathemati-

Y^ABOLL, Nathan.

Jk—f cian.

Dacier, Andre. 1651-1722. French scholar and critic.

Dacier, Anne Lefevre. 1654-1720. Wife of preceding.

Translated Homer.

Daendels, Hermann Willem. 1762-1818. Dutch general.
Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande. 1789-1851. French artist;

inventor of the daguerreotype.
Dahlberg, Eric. 1625-1703. Swedish general and engineer.
Dahlgren, John Adolph. 1809-1870. Am. rear-admiral.
Dallas, Alexander James. 1759—1817. Am. statesman.
Dallas, George Mifflin. 1792-1864. Am. statesman.
Dalton, John. 1766-1844. English chemical philosopher.
Damiani, Peter. 990-1072. Italian ecclesiastic.
Damiens, Robert F. 17 14-1757. French fanatic.
Darnpier, William. 1652-1712. Eiig. explorer and navigator.
Dana, Chas. A. 1819- . . . Am. journ. Ed. N. Y. Sun.
Dana, Francis. 1743-1811. Am. lawyer and statesman.
Dana, Richard Henry. 1787-1879. American poet and writer.

The Buccaneer.

Dana, Richard Henry. 1815-1882. Son of preceding. Am.

author and lawyer. Two Years Be/ore the Mast.

Dancer, Daniel. 17 16-1794. English miser.

Dandelot, Francois de Coligny. 1521-1569. French general.

Dandolo, Enrico. H05?-I205. Blind doge of Venice ; took

Constantinople by storm,

Dane, Nathan. 1752-1835. Am. lawyer and statesman.
Daniel. Fl. 6th century B.C. Hebrew prince and prophet.
Daniel, Samuel. 1562-1619. English poet.

1265-1321. The greatest poet of Italy.

Dante Allighieri.

Divina Commcdia.

Danton, Georges Jacques
revolution, and head of the

'759-'794- A leader of the French
Dantonists." Guillotined.
D'Arblay, Mme. (Frances Burney.) 1752-1840. English

novelist. Evelina: Cecilia; Camilla.

Darboy, Georges. 1813-1871. Archbishop of Paris.
Darius I. (Darius Hystaspis.) -435 B.C. King of Persia.

II -405 B.C. III. (Codomannus), ....-330 B.C.; defeated by

Alexander.

Darius the Mede. Supposed to be Cyaxares II.

Darley, Felix 0. C. 1822-1888. American artist.

Darling, Grace. 1815-1842. English heroine.

Darnley, Henry Stuart, Lord. IS4S?-I567. Husband of

Mary Queen of Scots ; assassinated.

Darwin, Charles Robert. 1809-1882. English naturalist and
originator of the theory of evolution. In his " Origin of Species by
means of Natural Selection," published in 1859, he propounds the
theory that all forms of life, animal or vegetable, past or present, have
been produced by a series of gradual changes in natural descent. In
his " Descent of Man," he infers that "man is descended from a hairy
quadruped furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in
its habits."

Darwin, Erasmus. 1731-1S02. English physician and poet.

D'Aubigne, Jean Henri Merle. 1794-1872. Swiss historian.

D'Aubigne, Theodore. 1550-1630. French soldier, poet
and historian.

Daudet, Alphonse. 1840-.... French novelist. Jack.

Davenport, Edward L. 1816-1877. American actor.

David. 1090-1015 B.C. King of Israel; prophet and poet.

David, Saint. 490?-544. Patron of Wales.

David, Jacques Louis. 1748-1825. French historical painter.

David, Pierre J. 1 789-1856. French sculptor.

Daviess, Joseph Hamilton. Jo Daviess. 1 787-1 854. Am-
erican statesman.

Da Vinci, Leonardo. See Vinci.

Davis, Henry Winter. 1817-1865. American politician.

Davis, Jefferson. 1808-1889. American statesman and presi-
dent of the Confederacy. Born in Kentucky ; graduate of West Point;
served in the Black Hawk war and Mexican war; elected to U. S.
Senate front Mississippi in 1847; secretary of war 1853-7; re-
elected senator in 1857 ; inaugurated provisional president of *he Con-
federate States in 1861, and elected for six years in 1862. Imprisoned
in Fortress Monroe for two years after the fall of Richmond. History
0/ the Civil War.

Davoust for Davout), Louis Nicholas, Duke of Auerstadt and
Prince or Eckmiihl. 1770- 1823. Marshal of France.

Davy, Sir Humphrey. 1778-1829. English chemist. Dem-
onstrated that the fixed alkalies are metallic oxides. Inventor °f the
safety lamp. Researches Chemical and Philosopliical.

Dayton, William Lewis. 1807-1864. American statesman.

Dearborn, Henry. 1751-1829. Am. general and statesman.

Decatur, Stephen. 1779-1820. American naval commander.
Defeated the Algerines. Killed in a duel.

De Foe (or Defoe), Daniel. 1661-1731. English novelist.

Son of James Foe, a butcher, he assumed the prefix " de." Took part
in the insurrection against James II. Imprisoned and pilloried in 1 702
for publishing The Shortest Way -with Dissenters, an ironical
pamphlet. His works are over two hundred in number, and show
great versatility and originality.^ Robinson Crusoe: The True-born
Englishman^ The History of the Union: Memoirs of a Cavalier;
Religious Courtship.

De Kalb, John, Baron. 1732-1780. German general; ac-
companied Lafayette to America in 1777, and served under Washington.
Killed at the battle of Camden.

De Haas, Maurice F. H. 1830?-. . . . Dutch marine painter.
Delacroix, Ferdinand V. E. 1799-1863. French painter.
De la Rame, Louisa. OuiJa. 1840?-. . . . Eng. novelist.-
Delaroche, Paul. 1797-1856. French painter.
Delaware, Thomas West, Lord. . . . .-1618. Gov. of Virginia.
Delmas, Antoine Guillaume. 1768-1813. French general.
Delorme, Marion. 1612-1650. French beauty and courtesan.
Del Sarto, Andrea Vannuchi. 1488-1530. French painter.
Demetrius Phalereus. 345?-284? B.C. Attic orator and
philosopher.

Demetrius Poliorcetes. 3357-284? B.C. Macedonian

general.

te-

Democritus. The Laughing Philosopher. 460-361 B.C.

Greek philosopher.
Demosthenes. 3857-322 B.C. Athenian orator. Conquered an

impediment in his speech, and by perseverance and determination be-
came the greatest of orators. Opposed Philip of Macedon, against whom
he delivered his Philippics. It being proposed to reward his public ser-
vices with a golden crown, a bitter contest ensued with his rival /Eschines,
in which Demosthenes, however, was triumphant. This led to the
oration On the Crown, considered his greatest achievement. Con-
demned to death by Anlipatcr, he committed suicide by poison. He
left sixty orations.

Denis, Saint 272. Apostle and patron of France.

De Quincey, Thomas. 1785-1859. Eng. author. The son
of a wealthy merchant. Contracted the opium habit while pursuing his
studies at Oxford — a habit which he overcame, in 1820, after a severe
and prolonged struggle. His Confessions of an Opiuin-I-'atcr, written
as an autobiography, and published in 1821, created a great sensation.
De Quincey was a brilliant writer, and l:ft numerous works.

Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, Earl of. 1 790-1869.
English statesman and orator. Translator of Homer's Iliad.

Derby, Edward Henry Smith-Stanley, Earl of. 1826-

English statesman.

Descartes, Rene. 1 596-1650. Fr. philosopher and mathe-
matician. Discourse on the Metltod of Reasoning Well, and of In-
vestigating Scientific Truth ; Meditaliones de Prima Philosophia ;
principles of Philosophy. " I think, therefore I am."

Desfontaines, Rene Louiche. 1752-1833. French liotanist.

De Smet, Peter John. 1801-1873. Jesuit missionary to the
Indians.

Des Moulins, Camillc. 1762-1794.

De Soto, Ferdinand. 1460-1542.
ered the Mississippi river.

1 760- 1 806.

Fr. Jacobin ; guillotined.
Spanish explorer ; tliscov-

Negro emperor of

1 799-1863. Fr. novelist and poet.

Dutch statesman.
President of Mexico.

Dessalines, Jean Jacques.

Hayti.

De Vigny, Alfred, Count.

De Witt, Jan. 1625-1672.

Diaz, Porfirio. 1830-

Dibdin, Charles. 1745-1814. English song writer

Dick, Thomas. 1772-1857. Scottish author.

Dickens, Charles. 1812-1870. English novelist. After study-
ing at college, he was articled to an attorney, but found the study of l.iw
uncongenial, and became a reporter for the press. Sketches by Box
appeared in the London Morning Chronicle in 1836. Pickwick Papers:
Oliver Twist; Dombey cV Son ; Bleak House : Hard Times ; Nicho-
las Nickleby ; David Copperfeld ; A Tale of Two Cities ; Great
Expectations, etc.

Dickinson, Anna Elizabeth. 1842-. . . . Am. lecturer.

Diderot, Denis. 1712-1784. Fr. philosopher and novelist

Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth. 1843-.... English states-
man, editor and author. Greater Britain.

Diocletian. 284-305. Roman emperor.

Diogenes. Died 323 B.C. Greek Cynic philosopher. Lived

in a tub, affecting great contempt for the comforts of life.
Dionysius. The Elder. 4307-367 B.C. Tyrant of Syracuse.
Dionysius. The Younger. 398-340?
Dionysius of Halicarr.assus. 70?~7? B.C.
Disraeli, Benjamin. See Beacomfield.
Disraeli, Isaac. 1766-1848. Father of preceding. English

litterateur ■ born of a Jewish family. Curiosities of Literal u re.
Dix, John Adams. 1798-1879. Am. general and <.(atr-.ni.in.
Dixon, William Ilcpworth. 1821-1879. English traveller

Tyrant of Syracuse.
Greek his(orian.

and historian.
Dodge, Mary Abigail,
can authoress.

GaiUlamiUon. 1838?-

Amcri-

1536-1608. English poet

American surgeon.

.-1514? " The great

Dodsley, Robert. 1709-1764. English author and bookseller.

For some time employed as a footman. The footman' s Miscellany.

Doellinger, John Joseph Ignatius. (799-1890. German (heolo-

i-i.m and historian ; leader of the " Old Catholic movement.

Dom;nichino. (Zampieri). (58(-i64i. Italian painter.

Dominic, Saint 1170-1221. Spanish preacher, and founder of
the order of Dominicans

Domitian. 5i?-96. Rom. emperor. Cruel and depraved.

Donatus. Fl. 300. Founder of (he Donatists.

Donizetti, Gae(ano. 1798-1848. Italian composer. Lucia

di l.ammermoor; Lucrezia Borgia.

Donnelly, Ignatius. 1832-.... Am. statesman and author.

Dore, Paul Gustave. 1832-1883. French artist

Doha, Andrea. 1468-1560. Genoese patriot and commander.

Dorr, Thomas Wilson. 1805-1854. American politician.

Dorset, Charles Sackville, Earl of. 1637-1706. English poet
and wit.

Dorset, Thomas Sackville, Earl of.

and statesman.
Dorsey, John Syng. 1783-1818.

Douglas, Archibald flelllhe-Cat.
carl of Angus." Lord chancellor.

Douglas, James, Earl of. ... .-1330. Scottish patriot.

Douglas, Stephen Arnold. The Little Giant. (8l7?-l86l.
American statesman. Native of Vermont , admitted to the bar in New
York ; removed to Illinois and gained destinction as an orator. Judge
of Illinois Supreme Court 1841 , elected to Congress 1843 : senator 1847.
Supported the compromise measures of Henry Clay, and advocated the
doctrine known as "squatter sovereignty " Re-elected to the Senate
1853, and reported the bill repealing the Missouri compromise. Candi-
date for the Democratic nomination for the presidency in 1856. De-
feated Lincoln for the U.S. senate in 1858, they canvassing the state to-
gether. Candidate of one wing of the Democratic party for president in
i860. Supported the Union party in 1861.

Douglass, Frederick. 1817?-. ... Am. orator; formerly a

slave; native of Maryland His father was a white man and ha mother
ancgro slave. Sold to .1 shipbuilder in 18-2. bur escaped to Massachu-
setts and assumed the name of Douglass. Exhibiting rare powers as an
orator, he was aided by Wm. L Garrison and others, and employed, in
1841, by the American Anti-Slavery Society.

Dow, Lorenzo. 1777-1834. American preacher.

Dow, Neal. 1S04- . American prohibition Ut.

Draco (or Dracon). Fl. 624 B.C. Athenian lawgiver.

Drake, Sir Francis. 1540-1595. English naval hero; first
English circumnavigator of the globe, captured or destroyed one hundred
vessels in the port of Cadiz in 1587, and contributed in 1588 to the defeat
of the Spanish Armada.

Drake, Joseph Rodman. 1795-1820. American poet.

Draper, John William. 181 1-1882. American scieii;

Drayton, Michael. 1563-1631. English poet.

Dreyse, Johann Nikolaus von. 1787-1867. Prussian inventor
of the needle-gun.

Drusus, Claudius Nero. 38-9 B.C. Roman general.

Dryden, John. 1631-1700. English poet, critic and dram-
atist. Educated at Cambridge. Wrote some spirited heroic slanras in
memory of Cromwell. After the accession of Charles II., he became a
stannch royalist. His first drama. The Wild Gallant, was published
in 166a ; Annus Mirabilis and The Indian Emprrtr, 1667. Appointed
poet-laureate in 1668. He next wrote his Essay on Dramatic Pe+try
and several comedies and tragedies. Absalom and Achitopkel, 1681.
Became a Roman Catholic in 1686 and wrote The Hind and Pantkrr,
a poetical allegory. His ode on Alexander's Feast, considered the
finest English lyric, appeared in 1606, after he had completed his trans-
lation of Virgil. Lord Macaulay calls Dryden " an incomparable res-
soner in verse."

4-r

Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni. 1835- French traveller.

Dudevant, Mme. Amantine Lucille Aurore ( nit Dupin).
George Sand. 1804-1876. French novelist. Married at the age of 18
to a retired army officer, she separated from him ten years later. She
was at one time a zealous Catholic, but later adopted most liberal views,
adopting man's attire and denouncing the marriage system. She edited
a democratic paper during the revolution of 1848. She has left numer-
ous novels and several dramas.

Dudley, Benjamin Winslow. 1785-1870. Am. physician.

Dudley, Charles Edward. 1780-1841. American senator.

Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas. 1798-.... Fr. statesman.

Dufferin, Frederick Temple Hamilton Blackwood, Earl of.
1826- English statesman. Governor-general of Canada.

Dumas, Alexandre. 1803-1870. French novelist.

Dumas, Alexandre. 1824-. . . . Son of above. Fr. novelist.

Dumouriez, Charles Francois. 1739-1823. French general.

Duncan I -1040. Scottish king. Killed by Macbeth.

Dundonald, Thomas Cochrance, Earl of. 1775-1860. Brit-
ish admiral.

Dunglison, Robley. 1 798-1869. American physician. Mtdi-

cal Dictionary.
Dunois, Jean de. Bastard of Orleans. 1402-1468. French
national hero. Natural son of the Duke of Orleans. Defeated the
English at Montargis in 1427, and assisted at the siege of Orleans in
1429. Expelled the English from Normandy and Guienne, and was
created Count d'Orleans.

Duns Scotus. The Subtle Doctor. 1 265?-' 308. Scottish

theologian.

Dunstan, Saint. 925-988. English prelate.

Dupanloup, Felix Antoine Filibert. 1802-1878. Fr. prelate.

Dupleix, Joseph, Marquis. 1695-1763. Fr. governor in India.

Dupont, Samuel Francis. 1803-1865. Am. rear-admiral.

Duquesne, Abraham. 1610-1688. Fr. naval commander.

Durer, Albreckt. 1471-1528. German painter and engraver.
Crucifixion; Adoration of the Magi ; The Knight and Death: Reve-
lation of St. fohn.

Dwight, Timothy. 1752-1817. Am. author and divine.

Confederate general.

V^ARLY, Jubal A. 1818?-.

Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock. 1793-1865. English painter.
Eaton, Amos. 1777-1842. American naturalist.
Eaton, William. 1764-1811. American soldier.
Eble, Jean Baptiste. 1758-1812. French general.
Edes, Benjamin. 1732-1803. Am. patriot and journalist.
Edgeworth, Maria. 1767-1849. English novelist.
Edgeworth, Richard Lovell. 1744-1817. English author;

father of preceding.

Edison, Thomas Alva. 1847- American electrician and

inventor.

Edmund I. 9227-946. Anglo-Saxon king. II., Ironside,
989-1016.

Edmunds, George F. 1828- American lawyer and

statesman. Born in Vermont ; admitted to the bar 1849 : became U. S.
senator in 1866 to fill an unexpired term, and has since been con-
tinuously re-elected. Elected pres. of Senate 1883. Retired 1891.

Edward I -925. King of the Anglo Saxons. II.,

The Martyr, 96W-978 ; assassinated by order of his stepmother. III.
The Confessor, 1004-1066.

Edward I. Longs/tanks. 1239-1307. King of England;
conquered Wales and Scotland. H., 1284-1327 ; defeated by Bruce at
Bannockburn ; dethroned by the Queen and her favorite, Roger de

Mortimer, in 1326; was murdered the following year. III., 1312.
1377; son of Edward II. ; proclaimed king in 1327 ; executed Mortimer,
and imprisoned the queen-mother; carried on war with France and
won the great victory of Crecy. IV., 1441-1483. V., 1470-1483 ;
ascended the throne at the age of 13, but assassinated two months later.
VI., l537-'553-

Edward, Prince of Wales. The Black Prince. 1 330-1 376.
Son of Edward III. Participated in the invasion of France, command-
ing the main body of the English at Crecy. Won the battle of Poitiers.

Edward the Confessor. 1004-1066. King of England.

Edwards, Amelia Blandford. 1831- English novelist.

Edwards, Jonathan. 1 703-1 758. American theologian and

metaphysician. Freedom of the Will.

Edwin. 586P-633. King of Northumbria.

Edwy. 938-958. King of the Anglo-Saxons.

Effingham. See Howard, Charles.

Egbert. The Great. 775?-838. Saxon king of Wessex.

Egmont, Lamoral, Count. 1522-1568. Flemish statesman
and soldier. Tried for treason and executed.

Elbee, Gigot d'. 1752-1794. Vendean general.

Eldon, John Scott, Earl of. 1751-1838. English statesman.

Elgin, James Bruce, Earl of. 1811-1863. British statesman.
Governor -general of Canada.

Elgin, Thomas Bruce, Earl of. 1777-1841. British diplo-
matist. The " Elgin Marbles," in the British museum, were obtained
by him at Athens and sold to the government for ^35,000.

Eliot, George. See Evans, Marian C.

Eliot, John. Apostle of the Indians. 1604-1690. English
clergyman. Ttranslated the Bible into the Indian language.

Eliot, Sir John. 1590-1632. Eng. orator and statesman.

Elizabeth. 1533-1603. Queen of England. Daughter of
Henry VIII. Proclaimed Queen 1558; restored the Protestant religion.
During her reign the Spanish Armada was repulsed, and Mary Stuart
executed. Essex, Leicester and Raleigh were among her favorites.

Elizabeth Petrovna. 1 709-1 762. Empress of Russia.

Daughter of Peter the Great. Ascended the throne in 1741; took up
arms against Frederick the Great, and her armies in 1760 captured
Berlin. Though unmarried, she was the mother of a large family.

Elizabeth, Saint. 1 207-1 231. Queen of Hungary.

Ellenborough, Edward Law, Lord. 1748-1818. English
chief justice.

Ellenborough, Edward Law, Earl of. 1790-187 1. English
statesman.

Ellery, William. 1727-1820. American patriot.

Elliot, George Augustus, Lord Heathfield of Gibraltar. 1718-
1790. British commander.

Elliott, Ebenezer. The Corn Law Rhymer. 1 781-1849.
English poet.

Elliott, Jesse Duncan. 1782-1845. American commodore.

Ellsworth, Ephraim Elmer. 1837-1861. American officer.

Ellsworth, Oliver. 1 745-1807. Am. jurist and statesman.

Ellwood, Thomas. 1639-1713. English Quaker author.

Elssler, Fanny. 1811-1884. Viennese dancer.

Elzevir. A celebrated family of printers and publishers at
Leyden, 1570-1680.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. 1803-1882. American essayist,
philosopher and poet. Born in Boston ; graduate of Harvard ; or-
dained Unitarian minister in 1829, but retired from the ministry in
1832 ; travelled in Europe, and on his return began lecturing. The
firstvolume of his Essays appeared im84i,andhis Representative Men,
regarded by some as his greatest work, in 1850.

Emmanuel. The Great. 1469-1521. King of Portugal.

226

~7T

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Emmet, Robert. 1780-1803. Irish patriot and orator.
Early in life became a leader of the "United Irishmen," and in 1803
became implicated in the killing of Lord Kilwarden, chief justice of
Ireland, and others. Although defending himself with great eloquence,
he was sentenced to death and executed.

Emmet, Thomas Addis. 1764-1827. Brother of the preced-
ing. A leader of the " United Irishmen," and imprisoned from 1798
till idol. Removed to America in 1804, and was in 1812 elected at-
torney-general of New York.

Empedocles. 475-. . . . B.c. Greek philosopher.

Encke, Johann Franz. 1791-1865. German astronomer.

Endicott, John. 1589-1665. Colonial governor of Mass.

Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Due d'. , 1772-
1804. French prince. Charged with conspiracy, and executed by order
of Napoleon.

Ennius, Quintus. 239-169 B.C. Roman epic poet.

Enoch (or Henoch). 3378- B.C. Father of Methuselah.

Translated at the age of 365.

Epaminondas. 4127-362 B.C. Theban statesman, orator and
general. Defeated the Spartans at Leuctra ; died after his victory at
Mantinea, from a wound received in battle.

Epictetus. 60-. . . . Greek Stoic philosopher. Enchiridion.

Epicurus. 340?-270B.c. Greek philosopher ; founder of the
Epicurean school.

Erasmus, Desiderius. 1465-1536. Dutch scholar.

Erastus, Thomas. 1524-1583. Ger. physician and writer.

Eratosthenes. 276-196? B.C. Greek geometer. Considered

the founder of the science of astronomy.

Eric XIII. 1382-1450. King of Sweden (VII. or VIII.
of Denmark). XIV., i535f-i577-

Eric the Red. Fl. 1000. Scandinavian navigator; discov-
ered Greenland.

Ericsson, John. 1803-1889. Swedish engineer and inventor.
Constructed the " Monitor" which destroyed the Confederate iron-clad
Merrimac.

Erigena, Joannes Scotus. Fl. 850. Irish philosopher.
Ernesti, Johann August. 1707-1781. German scholar.
Erskine, Ebenezer. 1680-1754. Scottish theologian.
Erskine, Henry. 1746-1817. Scottish lawyer and orator.

Erskine, Thomas, Baron. 1750-1823. Scottish lawyer and
orator. Recognized as the greatest advocate of his time. " He spoke
as his clients would have spoken, being endowed with his genius."
Admitted to the bar in 1778 ; successfully defended Lord George Gor-
don in 1781 ; elected to the House of Commons in 1783, and again in
1790 ; secured the acquittal of Hardy and John Home Tooke in the
state trials oi 1794: was made lord chancellor, and created a peer in
1806 ; retired from office in 1807.

Escobar y Mendoza, Antonio. 1 589-1669. Spanish Jesuit
and casuist. Cases of Conscience.

Espartero, Joaquin Baldomero, Duke de la Vittoria. 1 792-
1879. Spanish statesman and general ; defeated the Carlists.

Essex, Robert Devereux, second Earl of. 1567-1601. Favor-
ite of Queen Elizabeth ; beheaded for high treason.

Essex, Robert Devereux, third Earl of. 1592-1647. English
Parliamentary general.

Estaing, Charles Hector, Count d'. 1729-1794. French
admiral; beheaded.

Esterhazy de Galantha, Paul. '635-1713. Hungarian

governor-general.

Ethelbeld -860? King of Wessex.

Ethelbert. 455 ?-6i6. King of Kent.

Ethelbert -866. King of the Anglo-Saxons.

Ethelred I -871. King of the Anglo-Saxons. II.,

The Unready, 968-1016 ; ordered massacre of Danes in 100a.

Ethelwulf. -858. King of Wessex.

Euclid of Alexandria. 11. 300 B.C. Greek mathematician.
Eudoxie (or Eudocia). 394?-46i. Roman empress.
Eugene of Savoy. (Prince Francois Eugene de Savoie-

Carignan). 1663-1736. Austrian general. Defeated the Turks at Zenta ;

associated with Marlborough at Blenheim, Oudenard and Malplaquet;

defeated the Turks at Peterwaradin in 1716, and at Belgrade in 1717.
Eugenie Marie de Montijo. 1826-. . . . Empress of the

French ; wife of Napoleon III.
Eugenius I. Pope; ruled from 654 to 658. II., 824-827,

III., 1145-1153. IV., 1431-1438; deposed; died in 1447.
Euler.Leonard. 1707-1783. Swiss mathematician.
Euripides. 480-406 ? B.C. Greek tragic poet.
Eusebius of Nicomedia. Fl. 325. Arian prelate.
Eusebius Pamphili. 266-340? Ecclesiastical historian, and

bishop of Csesarea.

Evald, Johannes. 1 743-1 781. Danish poet.

Evans, Marian C. George Eliot. 1820-1881. English nov-
elist. The daughter of a clergyman. Lived with George H. Lewes, as
his wife, for several years, and after his death married J. W. Cross.
Adam 3cdc : Rontola: Middlemarch ; Daniel Deronda.

Eustachi, Bartolommeo. 1510-1574. Italian anatomist.

Evarts, William Maxwell. 1816-. ... American lawyer and
statesman. Leading counsel for the defence in the impeachment trial
of President Johnson ; attorney-general 1868-9 : counsel for the
United States in 1872 before the Geneva Arbitration Tribunal.

Evelyn, John. 1620-1706 English author. Sylva.

Everett, Edward. 1 794-1865. American scholar, orator and
statesman. Graduated at Harvard, 1811, and ordained a minister in
1814. Appointed professor of Greek at Harvard 1815, but did not occupy
the chair until 1819, after completing a course of study at Gottingen and
travelling extensively in Europe. Elected to Congress in 1834, remain-
ing in that body for ten years, and in 1835 became governor of Massa-
chusetts. Minister to England, 1841-s. Secretary of state, 1851.
Elected to the United States Senate, 1853, but resigned on account of ill-
ness. Defeated for the vice-presidency in i860. Supported the Federal
government during the civil war.

Ewing, Thomas. 1789-1871 American statesman.

Exmouth, Edward Pellew, Viscount. i757-<833- English

admiral
Eyck, van, Hubert. 1366-1426 Flemish painter.

Eyck, van, Jan. John of Bruges. I300?-I440? Brother of

preceding. Flemish painter Adoration of Ike Magi.
Eyre, Edward John. 181 8?- Eng. explorer in Australia.

Ezekiel. Fl. 7th century B.C. Hebrew prophet.

Ezra. Fl. 5th century B.C. Hebrew law-maker.

V7ABER, Frederick William. 1815-1863. English priest

jL. and writer.

Fabius Maximus, Quintus. Cunetator. 203 BC. Roman

consul and general. As opponent of Hannibal he inaugurated the

" Fabian " policy, carrying on only a defensive war.
Faed, Thomas. 1826- . . . Scottish painter.
Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel. 1686-1740 German natural

philosopher and inventor of the Fahrenheit thermometer.
Fairfax, Thomas, Lord. 1611-1671. Parliamentary general.

As commander-in-chief in 164s, won the battle of Naseby.
Falconer, William. 1735 ?-i 709. Scot. poet. The Shipwreck.
Faliero (or Falieri), Marino. 1278-1350. Doge of Venice;

the hero of Byron's tragedy.

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

227

£-

Faneuil, Peter. 1700-1743. American merchant.
Faraday, Michael. 1791-1867. English chemist and natural

philosopher. Founder of the science of magneto-electricity.
Farnese, Alessandro, Duke of Parma. 1546-1593. It. general.
Farquhar, George. 1678-1707. Irish dramatist. The Beaux'

Stratagem: The Constant Couple.
Farragut, David Glascoe. 1801-1870. American admiral.

Passed the New Orleans forts and captured New Orleans in 1862, and

was made rear-admiral same year. Congress created for him the office

of vice-admiral in 1864, and he was made admiral in 1866.

Faust, Karl. 1825- German composer.

Faust, Dr. Johann. Fl. 1500. German necromancer.

Faust, Johann -1466 ? One of the inventors of printing.

Fawkes, Guy -1606. English conspirator; executed.

(" Gunpowder plot.")
Fearne, Charles. 1 749-1494. English jurist.
Featherstonhaugh, George William -1866. American

traveller and geologist.
Fechier, Charles Albert. 1824-1879. English actor.
Fenelon, Francois de Salignac de la Mothe. 1651-1715.

French prelate and author. Telemachus.
Ferdinand (of Saxe-Coburg). 1861- ... Prince of Bulga.
Ferdinand I. 1503-1564. Emperor of Germany. II.,

1578-1637; king of Bohemia and Hungary. Ill "i657«

Ferdinand IV. 1751-1825. King of Naples. (I. of the

two Sicilies.)

Ferdinand II. 1810-1859. King of the two Sicilies.
Ferdinand I. The Great. 1000-1065. King of Castile. V.,

The Catholic (II. of Aragon, III. of Naples, II. of Sicily), 1452-
1516; founded the Spanish monarchy. VI., The Wise, 1713-1759. VII.,
1784-1833.

1724-1816. Scottish philosopher.

1 7 10-1776. Scottish astronomer.
1808-1886. Scottish architect.

Fl. 1446. Portuguese navigator.

-1576. Spanish navigator.

-1558. French physician and writer.

Ferguson, Adam.
Ferguson, James.
Fergusson, James.
Fernandez, Diniz.
Fernandez, Juan.
Fernel, Juan. 1497-

Ferry, Jules Francois Camille. 1832-.
Fersen, Axel von, Count. 1755-1810.
Fesch, Joseph, Cardinal. 1763-1836.
Fessenden, William Pitt. 1806-1869.

. . Fr. statesman.
Swedish field-marshal.
French prelate.
Am. statesman.

Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm. 1775— 1S33. German jurist.

Reformer of the criminal law.

Feuillet, Octave. 1812-1890. French author.

Fichte, Immanuel Hermann. 1797- 1879. Ger. philosopher.

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. 1762-1814. Ger. metaphysician.

Field, Cyrus West. 1819- American merchant and

financier. Established the first telegraph cable between America and
Europe, via Newfoundland.

Field, David Dudley. 1805- American jurist.

Fielding, Henry. 1 707-1 754. Eng. novelist and dramatist.
Son of Edmund Fielding, a lieutenant-general under Marlborough.
Commenced reading law at 18, but discontinued this study in a few
years, and began to lead a. dissolute life. About this time, however, he
produced several successful plays. After marrying, and squandering his
wife's fortune, he resumed the study of law, but, gout preventing his
practicing, he turned his mind to literature. In 1749 his great novel,
Tom Jones, was published. In 1750 he was appointed a magistrate, and
endeared himself to the inhabitants 01 the London suburbs by suppress-
ing numerous bands of robbers. Among Fielding's novels, besides
Tort Jones, may be mentioned Amelia and Joseph Andrews.

Corsican conspirator ;
Leader in a conspiracy to

Fieschi, Joseph Marco. 1790-1836.

inventor of the so-called infernal machine.

kill Louis Philippe. Executed.
Fiesco (or Fieschi), Giovanni Luigi, Count of Lavagna.

I 525-I547. Genoese conspirator. Having sent some of his adherents to
capture the palace of the Dorias, he made a night attack on the Doria
galleys in the harbor, but fell while passing from one galley to another,
and was drowned before help could reach him.

Fiesole.Giovanni da. FraAngelico. 1387-1455. It. painter.

Fillmore, Millard. 1800-1874. American statesman ; thir-
teenth president of the United States. Bora in New York ; learned
fuller's trade ; read law and acquired a lucrative practice in Buffalo.
Elected to Congress 1832, and continued a member of that body till
1842. Elected vice-president 1848, and became president on the death
of Taylor, in 1850. Approved the Fugitive Slave Law and the com-
promise measures of Henry Clay, and made Daniel Webster secre-
tary of state.

American statesman.
English prelate; executed. Op-

Am. inventor. (Steamboat.)
1763-1798. Irish revolutionist.
B.C. Rom. general and consul.
230-174 B.C. Roman general

Fish, Hamilton. 1808-. . .

Fisher, John. »459-«535-
posed the Reformation.

Fitch, John. 1743-1798.

Fitzgerald, Edward, Lord.

Flaminius, Caius -217

Flaminius, Titus Quintius.
and consul.

Flamsteed, John. 1646-1719. Eng. astronomer.

Flaxman, John. 1755-1826. English sculptor.

Fleetwood, Charles . . . .-1692. Eng. Parliamentary general.

Fletcher, Andrew {of Saltoun). 1653-1716. Scottish author.

Fletcher, John. 1576-1625. English poet and dramatist ;
associate of Beaumont. The Maid's Tragedy ; The Faithful Shep-
herdess.

Flotow, Frederick Ferdinand Adolphus von. 1812-1883.
German composer. Martha.

Fontenelle, Bernard de Bovier de. 1657— 1757. Fr. author.

Foote, Andrew Hull. 1806-1863. American rear-admiral.

Foote, Samuel. 1720-1777. English wit and comedian.

Ford, John 1586-1639. English dramatist.

Forrest, Edwin. 1806-1872. American tragedian.

Forster, John. 1812-1876. English biographer.

Forster, William Edward. 1818-1886. English statesman.

Forsyth, John. 1780-1841. American statesman.

Fortescue, Sir John. 1 3957-1485? English jurist.

Fortuny, Mariano. 1 839-1 874. Spanish painter.

Foscari, Francesco. 1373-1457. Doge of Venice.

Foster, Birket. 18 12-.... English engraver.

Foster, Stephen Collins. 1826-1864. Am. song-writer.

Fourier, Francois Charles Marie. 1772-1837. French social-
ist ; founder of Fourierism. Theory of Universal Unity.

Fowler, Orson Squire. 1809-1887. Am. phrenologist.

Fox, Charles James. 1749-1806. English orator and states-
man. Entered Parliament in 1768 as a Tory, but joined the opposition
in 1773, and became leader of the Whigs, in which capacity, and also as
foreign secretary and secretary of state, he opposed the policy of Pitt.

Fox, George. 1624-1690. English founder of the society of
Friends, or Quakers.

Fox, John. 1517-1587. English Protestant clergyman and
author. Book of Martyrs.

Foy, Maximilian Sebastian. 1775-1825. French orator and

general.

Fra Bortolommeo di San Marco. See Baccio delta Porta.

228

A COMPKNDIU.M OF BIOGRAPHY.

Fra Diavolo. (Michael Rozzo.) 1769-1806. Neapolitan

brigand.
Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez. i757?-i840. Dictator of

Paraguay ; adopted a policy cutting off all intercourse with other

nations.
Francis I. 1494-1547. King of France ; defeated at Pavia.

II., 1543-1560.
Francis I. 1708-1765. Emperor of Germany. II. (I. of

Austria), 1768-1835.
Francis II. 1836-.... King of the Two Sicilies.
Francis Borgia, Saint. 1510-1572. Duke of Gandia and

Viceroy of Catalonia ; joined the Society of Jesus and became a zealous

preacher; elected general of the order in 1565.
Francis de Paula, Saint. 1416-1507. Italian Franciscan

monk ; founded the order Fratres Minimi.
Francis de Sales, Saint. 1 567-1622. French Jesuit, writer

and orator ; bishop of Geneva. Treatise on the Love 0/ God.
Francis of Assisi, Saint. 1 182-1226. Italian founder of the

Franciscan order.

Francis Joseph Charles. 1830- Emperor of Austria.

Francis, John Wakefield. 1789-1861. Am. physician.

Francis, Sir Philip, 1 740-1 8 1 8. British statesman and

writer. Believed to have been the author of the Letters of Junius.
Francis Xavier, Saint. See Xavier.
Franklin, Benjamin. 1706-170X). American statesman and

philosopher. Born in Boston; the youngest of a family of seventeen
children. His father was a tallow-chandler and soap-boiler. Learned
the trade of a printer and studied diligently. Removed to Philadelphia,
where he established the Pennsylvania Gazette. Began the publica-
tion of Poor Richard's Almanac in 1735. Discovered the identity of
lightning and electricity in 1752, by means of a kite. Franklin occupied
many positions of public trust and was the recipient of many honors.
He was deputy postmaster-general of the colony ; delegate to the Con-
tinental Congress; minister to France, 1776-85; president of Pennsyl-
vania, 1785-8 ; member of the convention of 1787.

Franklin, Sir John. 1786-1847. English Arctic explorer;
perished in the Arctic regions.

Fredegonde. 546?~5o6. Wife of Chilperic I. of France.

Frederick I. Barbarossa. 1 121-1 190. Emperor of Ger-
many. Crowned by Pope Adrian IV. Reduced Milan in 1158, but
was defeated by the Lombards near Legnano. Joined the third crusade
in 1189 with 150,000 men, and defeated the Turks at Iconium. Died in
the Holy Land. II., 1194-1250. Opposed by the Guelphs and the
pope in his project to unite Italy and Germany in one empire. Began a
crusade against the Moslems in 1227, but turned back, and was excom-
municated by Pope Gregory IX. Resumed the crusade in 1228, cap-
tured Jerusalem and made peace with the pope. Defeated the Guelphs
at Cortenuova, 1237, and renewed war with the pope.

Frederick William. The Great Elector. 1620-1688.

Elector of Brandenburg ; founder of the Prussian monarchy.
Frederick I. 1657-1713. First king of Prussia. II. (Fred-
erick the Great), 1712-1788. Subjected to inhuman treatment in youth
by his father, he gave but little promise of his future greatness. As-
cended the Prussian throne in 1740, and invaded Silesia, which was
ceded to him by Maria Theresa in 174a. An alliance having been
formed against him by Austria, Russia and France, he began the Seven
Years' War in 1756 by invading Saxony. Gained a great victory at
Prague in 1757, but was defeated at Kolin soon afterward. His affairs
were now in a desperate condition, but in the same year he defeated a
French army twice as large as his own at Ross bach, and won a brilliant
and decisive victory over the Austrians at Lcuthen. In 1759 he was de-
feated at Kunnersdorf, and Berlin was captured by the allies, but in 1760
he gained the victories of Licgnitz and Torgau, and peace was made in
1763, Prussian Poland being added to Frederick's dominions. Besides
being a great general and monarch, Frederick was a voluminous writer.

Frederick William I. 1688-1740. King of Prussia.

Father of Frederick the Great. II., 1744-1797* III., 1770-1840; founded

the Zollverein. IV., 1795-1861.
Frederick III Frederick William;. 1831-1888. King of

Prussia and emperor of Germany.

Frederick VI. 1768-1839. King of Denmark. VII.,

1808-1863.
Freeman, Edward Augustus. i823- # »«« English historian.

The Norman Conquest ; Historical Essays ; History 0/ Federal

Government.

Freiligrath, Ferdinand. 1810-1876. German lyric poet
Frelinghuysen, Theodore. 1787-1862. Am. statesman.
Frelinghuysen, Frederick Theodore. 1817-188$. Nephew

of preceding. American statesman.
Fremont, John Charles. 1813-1890. American politician,

explorer and general. Republican candidate for the presidency in 1856.
Freycinet, Charles Louis de. 1828- French *■■

BULB,

Froebel, Frederick. 1782-1852. German educator ; founder

of the "Kindergarten."
Froila I. 722-768. King of Spain.

Froissart, Jean. 1337-1410? French historian. Chronicles.
Froude, James Anthony. 1818-. . . . English historian. Short

Studies on Great Subjects ; Histor? of Henry VHl.

Fry, Elizabeth (nit Gurney). 1780-1845. Eng. philanthropist.
Fuller, Melville W. 1833-. . . . Chief justice of th,- t . >
Fuller, Sarah Margaret, Countess d'Ossoli. 1810-1S50. Am.

authoress.
Fulton, Robert. 1 765-181 5. American engineer and inven*

tor of the steamboat. Born in Pennsylvania. After spending some years
in London as an artist, he turned his attention to civil engineering and
inland navigation. In 1 796 he published a treatise on Canal Navigation.
Went to Paris, and there invented a submarine torpedo. He returned
to New York in 1801 and, with the assistance of Robert Livingston, dis-
covered steam navigation. In 1806 he built the steamer Clermont, which
made regular trips between Albany and New York at a speed of five
miles an hour. Although he spent a large amount of money on his inven-
tion, the patent did not prove of pecuniary value to him.
Fuseli, John H. 1 742-1825. Swiss historical painter.

y^ADSDEN, Christopher. 1724-1805. American states-

V3£ man.

Gadsden, James. 1 788-1858. American statesman. (The

Gadsden purchase.)
Gage, Thomas. I720?-I787. British general in America.
Gaines, Edmund Pendleton. 1777-1849. American general.
Gaines, Myra Clark. 1805-1885. Wife of E. P. G. American

heiress.
Gainsborough, Thomas. 1 727-1 788. English painter.

Galba, Servius Sulpicius. B.c 4?-A.D. 69. Roman emperor.

Galen. 131-205? Greek physician, medical writer and phil-
osopher, living at Rome. De Locis AJfectis.

Galerius, Caius Valerius Maximianus -31:. Roman

emperor.

Galilei, Galileo. Galileo. 1 564-1642. Italian astronomer.

Discovered, about 1584, the isochronisvn of the vibrations of a pendulum,
and the law by which the velocity of falling bodies Is accelerated.
Adopted tn astronomy the system of Copernicus, and constructed his
wonderful telescope in 1609. Through it he discovered the satellites of
Jupiter, and was enabled to explore the surface of the moon and view
the phases of Venus. He also ascertained that the "milky way" was
composed of myriads of stars. In 1631 he produced his THatafues am
the Ptolemaic and Cepernuan Systems, but was c o m p el led by the

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

220

Inquisition to abjure the theory of the motion of the earth. He was
detained in prison for several years, but it does not seem that he was
severely treated, as he was allowed to pursue his studies until prevented
by blindness.

Gall, Franz Joseph. 1758-1828. German physician ; founder
of phrenology.

Gallatin, Albert. 1 761-1849. American statesman; native
of Switzerland. Secretary of the treasury, 1801-13.

Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins. 1787-1851. American clergy.

man and instructor of deaf-mutes.

Gallienus, Publius Licinius Valerius. 233?-268. Roman

emperor.

Gallitsin, or Galitzin. An illustrious family of Russian princes.
Gait, John. 1779-1839. Scottish novelist.
Galvani, Aloisio. 1 737-1 789. Italian discoverer of galvanism.
Gama, Vasco da. I45o?-I524. Portuguese navigator.
Gambetta, Leon. 1838-1882. French radical orator and

statesman.

Gambier, James, Baron. 1756-1833. British admiral.

Garcilaso de la Vega. 1503-1536. Spanish poet.

Gardiner, Stephen. 1483-1555. Eng. prelate and statesman.

Garfield, James Abram. 1831-1881. Twentieth president of
the United States. Born in Ohio; worked on a farm in boyhood, and
learned the trade of a carpenter ; afterward became driver and helms-
man of a canal-boat ; graduated at Williams College in 1856 ; appointed
professor of Latin and Greek at Hiram College, Ohio, and chosen
president of that institution in 1858. About this time he married Miss
Lucretia Randolph, and occasionally acted as a Campbellite minister.
Elected to the state senate in 1859, and in 1861 was chosen colonel of an
Ohio regiment ; promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. Elected to
Congress in 1862, and remained in that body until 1880, when he was
made senator. Nominated for the presidency by the Republican party in
1880, and elected the following November. Shot by Charles J. Guiteau,
in Washington, July 2, 1881, and died on September 19 of same year.

Garibaldi, Giuseppe. 1 807- 1 882. Italian patriot and general.
Garrick, David. 1716-1779. English actor.
Garrison, William Lloyd. 1804-1879. Am. abolitionist.
Garth, Sir Samuel. 1672 7-1719. Eng. physician and poet.
Gascoigne, George. 1535—1537. English poet.
Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn. 1810-1865. English authoress.
Gassendi, Pierre. 1592-1655. French savant.
Gates, Horatio. 1728-1806. American Revolutionary general ;
bom in England. Captured Burgoyne's army at Saratoga.

Gatling, Richard Jordan. 1818- American inventor.

Gauss, Carl Friedrich. 1777—1855. German mathematician.
Gautama Booddha. 624-543 ? B.C. Hindoo reformer, and

founder of Buddhism. See Buddha.

Gautier, Theophile. 1811-1872. French poet and novelist.
Gaveston, Piers de -1312. Favorite of Edward II. of

England ; executed by the nobles.
Gay, John. 1688-1732. English poet.
Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis. 1778-1850. French chemist

and natural philosopher ; discovered cyanogen.

Gellert, Christian Furchtegott. 1715-1769. German poet.

Genevieve, Saint. 422?~5I2. French religious, said to have
converted Clovis to Christianity. Patron of Paris.

Genghis Khan. 1 163-1227. Mogul conqueror; subdued
China and Persia.

Genseric. 4o6?-477. King of the Vandals. Invaded Africa,
429 ; defeated the Romans in numerous battles ; captured Carthage,
439 ; captured and sacked Rome, 455 ; defeated the navy of the Emper-
or Marjorian in 457.

Geoffrey of Monmouth. I too?- 1154. Eng. chronicler.

George I. (Lewis.) 1660-1727. King of Great Britain. II.
(Augustus), 1683-1760. Defeated the French at Dettingen in X743.
Charles Edward Stuart was defeated at Culloden, 1746, by the Duke of
Cumberland, and the latter part of the reign of George II. was marked
by victories over the French in Canada, in India, and on the ocean. III.
(William Frederick), 1738-1820. Arbitrary and ignorant, and through
his obstinacy lost the American colonies. Became insane in 1810. IV.
(Augustus Frederick), 1762-1830. *' The First Gentleman of Europe."
Led a dissipated life and incurred an immense debt. Married, in 5786,
Mrs. Fitzherbert. She being a Roman Catholic, the marriage was ille-
gal. As his father refused to pay his debts unless he contracted a regu-
lar marriage, he was induced, in 1795, to marry his cousin, whom he
regarded with great dislike, a separation being the result. Became
regent 1811. Took little interest in public afTVirs. One year before his
death, an act was passed relieving Roman Catholics from political dis-
abilities.

George, Saint. Fl. 3d century. Bishop of Alexandria. Patron
saint of England. To him is attributed the destruction of a terrible
dragon.

Gerard-Thorn, or Tenque. 1040 ?-l 121. Founder of the

Knights of St. John of Jerusalem.

Germanicus, Csesar. B.C. 14-A.D. 19. Roman general.

Gerome, Jean Leon. 1824-. Fr. painter.

Gerry, Elbridge. 1744-1 8 12. Am. Revolutionary statesman;

signer of the Declaration of Independence. Governor of Massachusetts,

1810; vice-president, 1812.

Gessler -'3 7- Austrian bailiff killed by Tell.

Gesner, Conrad. 1 5 16-1565. Swiss naturalist.

Ghiberti, Lorenzo. 1378-1455. Florentine sculptor.

Gibbon, Edward. 1737-1794. English historian. Educated
at Oxford. The first volume of his great work, History 0/ the Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire t appeared in 1776; the next two in
1781, and in 1783 he retired to Lausanne, in Switzerland, where he com-
pleted the last three volumes, which appeared in 1788. Gibbon has
been justly criticised for the antagonism to the Christian faith shown in
this work.

Gibson, John. 1791-1866. English sculptor.

Giddings, Joshua Reed. 1795-1864. Am. abolitionist.

Gifford, Sanford Robinson. 1823-1880. American painter.

Gifford, William. 1757-1826. English writer and critic;
founder of the Quarterly Review. Studied at Oxford, after serving five
years as a shoemaker's apprentice.

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey. 1539-1583. English navigator.

Gilbert, Sir John. 1817- English artist.

Gilbert, William Schwenck. 1836-.... English humorous

author and librettist. Bab Ballads ; Pygmalion and Galatea ; Pina-
fore ; Patience; Pirates 0/ Penzance ; lolantke : Princess Ida, etc.

Giles, Wm. Branch. 1762-1830. American statesman.

Gilray, James. 1785—1815. English caricaturist.

Girard, Stephen. 1750-1831. American merchant and banker,

born in France. Founded Girard College.
Girardin, Emile de. 1806-1881. French journalist.
Giulio Romano. 1492-1546. Italian painter and architect.

Gladstone, William Ewart. 1809- English premier.

Glauber, Johann Rudolph. 1604-1668. German chemist.
Glendower, Owen. 1349?-I4I5. Welsh chieftain.
Gluck, Christoph Wilibald von. 1 7 14-1787. Ger. composer.
Gobelin, Gilles and Jean. Fl. 1450. French dyers.
Godfrey of Bouillon. io58?-iioo. Leader of first crusade.
Godiva. Lady Godiva. Fl. I Ith century. English heroine

wife of Leofric, Earl of Leicester.

V-

230

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Godman, John D. 1794-1830. Am. physician and naturalist.

Godunoff, Boris Fedorovitch. 1552-1605. Czar of Russia.

Godwin, William. 1 756-1 836. Eng. novelist. Caleb Williams.

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. 1749-1832. German poet
and author, dramatist, scientist and statesman. Faust: Wilhelm
Mtisttr ; Fgmont : Sorrows of Werther ; Iphigenia in Tauris;
West-Eastern Divan.

Goffe, William. 1605 ?-l670. Eng. Puritan and regicide.

Goldsborough, Lewis M. 1805-1876. Am. rear-admiral.

Goldsmith, Oliver. 1728-1774. Irish poet and miscellaneous
writer. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterward studied
medicine. Squandered in dissipation a large portion of the funds fur-
nished for his education. In London, he became the intimate friend of
Dr. Johnson. His Vicar 0/ Wakefield was written while he was under
arrest for debt. The Traveller ; The Deserted Village ; She Stoops to
Conquer.

Gomez, Sebastiano. 1616-1690. Spanish painter. A slave
of Murillo, who liberated him and took him into his studio.

Gonsalvo de Cordova, Hernandez. The Great Captain.
I443?-I5i5. Spanish commander.

Goodrich, Samuel Griswold. Peter Parley. 1793-1860.
American author.

Goodyear, Charles. 1800-1860. American inventor. (Vul-
canized india-rubber.)

Gordon, George, Lord. 1750-1793. English agitator.

Gorgey, Arthur. 1818-.... Hungarian general.

Gore, Catherine Grace. 1799-1861. English novelist.

Gortschakoff, Alexander Michaelovitch, Prince. 1798-1883.

Russian statesman and diplomatist.

Gottschalk, Louis Moreau. 1829-1869. Am composer.

Gough, John B. 1 822-1886. American temperance lecturer,
born in England.

Gould, Augustus Addison. 1805-1866. American naturalist.

Gould, Hannah Flagg. 1789-1865. American poetess.

Gould, Jay. 1836-.... American railway financier.

Gounod, Charles Francois. 1818-.... French composer.
Faust; La Heine d* Saba : Romeo and Juliet.

Gower, John. I320?-I402. English poet.

Gracchus, Caius Sempronius. 159-126B.C. Rom. statesman.

Graham, John, Viscount Dundee. Claverhouse. 1650?-
1689. Scottish officer, noted for merciless severity toward the Cov-
enanters.

Graham, Sylvester. 1794-1851. American vegetarian.

Granger, Gideon. 1767-1822. American statesman.

Grant, James. 1822-1887. Scottish novelist.

Grant, Ulysses Simpson. 1822-1885. Eighteenth presi-
dent of the United States. Born in Ohio; graduated at West Point,
1843; served in Mexico; became a captain in 1853. Resigned in
1854, and after passing some time in St. Louis, removed to Galena, 111.,
in 1859, and engaged *n business. In 1861 he was made aide-de-camp
to the governor of Illinois, but soon after was chosen colonel of the
Twenty-first Illinois Volunteers, and in July of same year was made
brigadier-general. His war record is history. Made commander-in-
chief of the Union armies in March, 1864. Elected to the presidency in
1868, and again in 1872, and after the expiration of his second term he
travelled extensively in Europe and Asia,

Granville, Granville Geo, Earl. 1815-1891. English
statesman.

Grattan, Henry. 1746-1820. Irish orator and statesman.

Gray, Asa. 1810-18S8. American botanist.

Gray, Thomas. 1716-1771. English poet. Declined the
position of poet-laureate. Elegy.

Greeley, Horace. 181 1-1872. American journalist. Born in
New Hampshire ; learned the printer's trade, and worked as a journey-
man printer in New York for one year. Founded the Mrui Y'ork Trib-
une in 1841. A staunch Whig and Republican, he favored Fremont for
the presidency in 1856, and Lincoln in i860. Accepted the Democratic
nomination in 1872, but was defeated at the election by Grant.

Green, John Richard. 1874-1883. English historian. SJurt
History of the English People.

Green, Seth. 1817-1888. American pisciculturist.

Greene, Nathaniel. 1742-1786. Am. Revolutionary general.

Greenleaf, Benjamin. 1786-1864. American mathematician.

Greenleaf, Simon. 1783-1853. American jurist.

Greenough, Horatio. 1805-1852. American sculptor.

Gregory I. (Saint.) The Great. 540-604. Pope, ascending
the pontifical chair in 590. II., ruled 715-731. III., 731-741. IV.,
827-844. V., 997-999 VI. 1044-1047. VII. (St. Hildebrand), 1073-
1085; excommunicated Henry IV. VIII., 1187; died same year XI.,
1227-1241; excommunicated Frederick II. X., 1271-1276. XI., 1370-
1378 ; condemned the doctrines of Wycliffe. XII., 1406-1409, when be
and the anti-pope, Benedict XIII., were deposed by the council of Pisa;
died 1417. XIII., 1572-1585; reformed the Julian calendar. XIV.,
1590-1591; excommunicated Henry IV. of France. XV., 1621-1623.
founded the Propaganda. XVI., 1831-1846; succeeded by Pius IX.

Gregory of Nyssa, Saint. 332-394. Greek father of the
church.

Gregory of Tours, Saint. 540-595. French prelate and
historian.

Gregory, James. 1638-1674. Greek geometer.

Gregory Nazianzen, Saint. 326?-389. Bishop of Constanti-
nople.

Grenville, George. 1712-1770. Eng. statesman. (Stamp act.)

Grevy, Francois Paul Jules. 1807-1891. Fr. president.

Grey, Henry, Earl. 1802-. . . . English statesman.

Grey, Lady Jane. 1537-1554- Gifted English lady ; executed.

Grimm, Fricdrich Melchior, Baron. 1723-1807. Ger. writer.

Grimm, Jakob Ludwig (1785- 1 863), and Wilhelm Karl (1786-
1859) German philologists ; brothers.

Grisi, Giulia. 1812-1869. Italian singer.

Griswold, Rufus Wilmot. 1815-1857. American author.

Grotius (De Groot), Hugo. 1583-1645. Dutch jurist and

theologian.

Grouchy, Emmanuel de, Marquis. 1766-1847. Fr general.
Guarneri, Giuseppe A. 1683-1745. Italian violin-maker.
Guatemozin. 1497-1525. Last Aztec emperor of Mexico.
Guelph (or Welf). Noble German family, originally Italian.
Guiccioli, Teresa Gamba, Countess. 1801-1873. Friend of

Byron.
Guido Reni. 1575-1645. Italian painter.
Guillotin, Joseph Ignace. 1738-1814. French physician;

advocate of the guillotine.
Guiscard, Robert. 101 5-1085. Norman commander.
Guise, Charles de. 1525-1574. Cardinal of Lorraine.
Guise, Claude de Lorraine de, Duke. 1496-1550. French

general and statesman.

Guise, Francois de Lorraine de, Duke. 1519-1563.
Guise, Henry I. of Lorraine de, Duke. 1550-1588.

Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume. 1787-1874. French
statesman and historian.

Gustavus I. ((iustavus Vasa.) 1496-1559. King of Sweden.
II. (Gustavus Adolphus), 1594-1632. Defeated the Polish and Russian
armies invading Sweden. Became the head of the Protestant league in

■Tf

»£-

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

231

Germany and defeated Tilly at Leipsic in 1631, and on the banks of the
Lech in 1632. At the great battle of Liitzen, Wallenstein now com-
manding the imperial army, Gustavus was killed, but his troops
nevertheless gained a complete victory.' III., 1746-1792 ; assassinated.
IV., 1778-1837 ; ascended the throne in 1792, but was deposed in 1809.

Gutenberg, Johann. (Gansfleisch.) 1400-1468. German

inventor of printing.
Guzman, Alfonso Perez de. 1258-1309. Spanish commander.

HACKLANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm von. 1816-1878.
German novelist. Military Life in Time of War.

Hadrian (or Adrian). 76-138. Roman emperor.

Hafiz, Mohammed Sherns ed-Deen. I300?-I390? Persian

poet. Divan.

Hagedorn, Friedrich von. 1 708-1 754. German poet.
Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich. 1755-1843. Ger-
man physician and founder of homoeopathy.
Hale, Edward Everett. 1822-.... Am. clergyman and author.
Hale, Sir Matthew. 1609-1676. English jurist.
Hale, Nathan, Captain. 1755-1776- American patriot.
Halevy, Jacques F. F. E. 1 799-1 862. French composer.
Haliburton, Thomas Chandler. Sam Slick. i8o2?-i865.

Nova Scotian jurist and humorous writer.

Halifax, Charles Montague, Earl of. 1661—1715. English

statesman.

Halifax, George Saville, Marquis of. 1630-1695.

Hall, Charles Francis. 1821-1871. Am. Arctic explorer.

Hall, Tames. 1811-.. . American author and judge.

Hall, Mrs. S. C. (Anna Maria Fielding.) 1800-1881. Irish
authoress. Sketches 0/ Irish Character ; The Outlaw, etc.

Hallam, Arthur Henry. 1811-1833. Engiish critic and
essayist.

Hallam, Henry. 1777-1859. Father of preceding. English
historian and critic.

Halleck, Fitz-Greene. 1790-1867. American poet. Marco
Bozzaris ; Fanny.

Halleck, Henry Wager. 1714-1872. American general and
lawyer.

Halley, Edmund. 1656-1742. English astronomer.

Hamilcar Barca -229 B.C. Carthaginian general;

father of Hannibal.

Hamilton, Alexander. 1757-1804. American orator, states-
man, financier and general. Born in the West Indies. Secretary and aide-
de-camp to Washington in Revolutionary war ; chosen to the Conti-
nental Congress in 1782, but resigned in order to practice law ; leading
member of the convention of 1787; secretary of the treasury, 1789-95 ;
became recognized leader of the Federal party. Hamilton died from
a wound received in a duel with Aaron Burr, and his death was deeply
deplored.

Hamilton, Sir William. 1788-1856. Scottish metaphysician.

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan. 1805-1865. Irish astronomer.

Hamlin, Hannibal. 1809-1891. American statesman.

Hampden, John. 1594-1643. English statesman and re-
former. Entered Parliament in 1620. Denied the authority of the crown
to levy tonnage without the consent of Parliament, and refused to con-
tribute to the forced loan ordered by King Charles, for which he was
imprisoned. Regaining his liberty and re-entering Parliament, he ably
and firmly resisted the arbitrary measures of the crown. Intending,
with his cousin, OliverCromwell, to emigrate in 1638, they were detained
by order of council. In 1640 he was leader of the opposition in the Long
Parliament, and the most popular public man in England. Impeached
for high treason in 1642, together with four other members, the Commons
refused to surrender them, the king himself going so far as to personally
lead his guard in an attempt to arrest them in their seats. This caused

the greatest excitement and indignation, so that the Commons were
soon enabled openly to defy the regal authority. Hampden afterward
raised a regiment for the Parliamentary army, and, after displaying great
courage in numerous engagements, was slain in a skirmish with Prince
Rupert's forces.

Hampton, Wade. 1755-1835. American general.

Hampton, Wade. 1818- Confederate general. Elected

governor of South Carolina in 1876, and U. S. senator in 1878.

Hancock, John. 1 737-1 793. American statesman; presi-
dent of the Continental Congress.

Hancock, Winfield Scott. 1824-1886. American general;
second in command at Gettysburg. Democratic candidate for president
in 1S80.

Handel, George Frederick. 1684-1759. German composer.
Composed sonatas at 10 ; produced Almeria at 18 ; settled in England
in 1712, after spending some years in Italy, and became chapel-master of
George I. The oratorio of Saul was produced 1740, and his greatest
work, The Messiah, the greatest of oratorios, in 1741. Handel was
stricken with blindness in 1751, but continued to conduct his oratorios.
Buried in Westminster Abbey.

Hannibal. 247-183 B.C. Carthaginian general. Sworn by

his father, Hamilcar Barca, to eternal enmity toward Rome ; became
commander of the Carthaginian forces, 221 B.C.; subdued several power-
ful Spanish tribes, and in 219 captured Saguntum ; crossed the Alps, 218 ;
defeated the Romans near the Ticinus and on the banks of the Trebia;
routed Flaminius at Lake Thrasymene, 217 ; almost destroyed a supe-
rior Roman army near Cannae, 216 ; captured Capua. Recalled to
Carthage to repel a Roman invasion under Scipio Africanus, he was
defeated at Zama in 202. Banished from Carthage about 194, through
the enmity of the aristocracy. Finally ended his life by taking poison,
to escape falling into the hands of the Romans.

Hans Sachs. 1494-1576. German poet and shoemaker.

Hardee, William J. 1818-1873. Confederate general.

Hardenberg, Friedrich von. See Ncwalis.

Hardicanute. ioi7?-io42. King of England and Denmark.

Hardinge, Henry, Viscount. 1785-1856. English general.

Hardwicke, Philip Yorke, Earl of. 1690-1764. Eng. jurist.

Hardy, Thomas. 1840-.... English novelist. Far from
the Madding Crowd; Under ike Green-wood Tree.

Harley, Robert, Earl of Oxford. 1661-1724. Eng. statesman.

Harney, William Selby. 1798^1889. American general.

Harold I. Harefoot. -1041 King of England. II.

. . . .-1066 Defeated by William the Conqueror, i»rd slain.

Haroun-al-Raschid. 766? -809. Caliph of Bagdad.

Harrison, William Henry. 1773-1841. American general
and ninth president.

Harrison, Benjamin. 1833-. . . . Born at North Bend, O.
Graduated from college at 1 8; studied law and began practice at
Indianapolis in 1854 ; elected reporter of the supreme court in i860.
This office he abandoned in 1862, to aid the cause of the Union,
and rose to the rank of Brigadier-General. Elected U. S. Senator,
1881, and President, 1888.

Harte, Francis Bret. 1839-.... American writer and
humorist. Born in New York ; removed to California at 15, where he
was successively miner, school-teacher and editor. Removed to Boston,
and was appointed in 1878 consul to a German port. Heathen Chinee ;
Luck 0/ Roaring Castp, etc.

Harvard, John. i6o8?-i688. Founder of Harvard College.

Harvey, William. 1578— 1657. English physician and anato-
mist. Discovered the circulation of the blood.

Hasdrubal -207 B.C. Punic general ; brother of Han-
nibal. Defeated the Scipios in Spain ; slain at the Metaurus.

4fe

232

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Hastings, Warren. 1732-1818. British general and states-
man; president of the Council of Bengal, and governor-general of
India. Defeated Hyder Ali, king of Mysore. After perpetrating
great outrages against the Rajah of Benares and the Begums of Oude,
In order to replenish the treasury, he resigned in 1775 and returned to
England. Impeached soon afterward, and opposed in his trial by Burke,
Sheridan and Fox, but acquitted.

Havelock, Sir Henry. 1795-1857. British general. De-
feated the Sepoys in India, and relieved Lucknow.

Hawke, Edward, Lord. 1715-1781. English admiral.

Hawkins, Sir John. I520-»I595. English naval officer.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. 1804-1864. American author.
Twice-told Tales; Mosses from an Old Manse: House 0/ Seven Ga-
bles; Scarlet Letter; The Marble Faun ; The Blithtdate Romance.

Haydn, Joseph. 1732-1809. German musical composer.

Born of extremely poor parents; served some years as a chorister in
Vienna; appointed in 1760 chapel-master to Prince Esterhazy, who
*>ecame his patron ; visited London 1 791, where six of his symphonies
were received with great enthusiasm. His masterpiece, the oratorio of
The Creation, was produced in 1798.

Haydon, Benjamin Robert. 1786-1848. English painter.

Hayes, Isaac Israel. 1832-1881. American Arctic explorer.

Hayes, Rutherford Birchard. 1822-.... Nineteenth presi-
dent of the United States. Born in Connecticut; admitted to the bar,
1845; brigadier-general in civil war ; Congress, 1865-8; governor of
Ohio, 1868-76. Republican candidate for the presidency in 1876;
inaugurated president in 1877, the electoral commission to determine
the result of the election of 1876 having decided, by a vote of eight to
seven, that Hayes had received 185 electoral votes as against 184 for
Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic candidate.

Hayne, Robert Young. 1791-1840. American orator and
statesman; opponent of Webster in discussing the constitution; gov-
ernor of South Carolina.

Heath, William. 1737-1814. Am. Revolutionary general.

Heber, Reginald. 1783-1826. English prelate and author;

bishop of Calcutta. Hymns ; Journey through India.

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1770-1831. German
philosopher, metaphysician and pantheist. His system of philosophy
is developed in the Encyclopedia of thg Philosophical Sciences,

Heine, Heinrich. 1799-1856. German lyric poet and author.

Heloise. 1 101-1 164. French nun ; pupil and friend of

Abelard.

Helps, Sir Arthur. 1817-1875. English author.

Helvetius, Claude Adrian. 1715-1771. Fr. philosopher.

Hemans, Felicia Dorothea (tike Browne). 1794-1835. Eng-
lish poetess. Published her first volume of poems in «8o8, and in 1813
married Capt. Hemans, but separated from him In 1818, she retaining
all their children. Restoration of the Works of Art to Italy.

Hendricks, Thomas Andrews. 1819-1886. Am. statesman.

Hengist -488. Jutish chief ; founded kingdom of Kent.

Hennepin, Louis. 1640-1702? French Catholic missionary

and explorer of the Mississippi.

Henrietta Maria. 1609-1669. Queen of England.

Henry I. Beauelere. 1068-1135. King of England. Defeated
hi* brother Robert and usurped the throne. II., 1:33-1189; first of the
Plantagenets ; issued constitutions of Clarendon, which were, however,
repealed about ten years later; conquered Ireland. During his reign
Thomas a Hecket was killed. III. {of Winchester), 1207-1373 ; warred
with the barons. IV., Bolingbroke f 1366-1413 ; first king of the house
of Lancaster. V. {of Monmouth), 1388-1432; conquered France. VI.
{of Windsor),i 421-1 471 ; his reign was made memorable by the war of the
Roses. VII., 1456-1509 ; founded the Tudor dynasty. VIII., 1 491-1547 ;
defeated the French at Guinegastc and the Scotch at Flodden, 1513;
made 'lhomu Wolaey prime minister ; applied unsuccessfully to the

pope for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, his wife ; favored the
Reformation ; deposed Wolsey and elevated Thomas Cranmer ; had
himself declared head of the church ; married Anne lioleyn after the
convocations of York and Canterbury had declared bis marriage with
Catherine invalid ; declared the English Church independent of the papal
see and abolished the monasteries ; had Anne Boleyn executed in 1536, and
married Jane Seymour the day after the execution ; excommunicated by
the pope, 1538 ; his third wife having died in 1537, he married Anne of
Cleves in 1540; was divorced from her the same year and married
Catherine Howard, who was executed on a charge of adultery in 154a;
married Catherine Parr in 1543, she surviving him.

Henry I. ioo5?-io6o. King of France. II., 1518-1559;

married Catherine de' Medici. III., Henri de I atois, 1551-1589; tMt
of the Valois. IV., Le Grand, 1553-1610; king «f Navarre ; first of the
Bourbons ; assassinated.

Henry I. The Fowler. 876-936. Emperor of Germany.
Defeated the Hungarians. II. (Saint), 972-1034. III., The Black, at
The Bearded, 1017-1056. IV., 1050-1106 ; excommunicated by Gregory
VII. V., 1081-1125; last of the Salic line. VI., 1165-1107. VIL,
1262-1313.

Henry, Patrick. 1 736-1799. American patriot and orator.
Member of the Continental Congress ; governor of Virginia.

Heraclitus. Fl. 500 B.C. Greek philosopher.

Herbert, George. 1593-1632. British poet and divine.

Herder, Johann Gottfried von. 1 744-1803. German author.

Hermann !or Arminius). B.C. 16- A.D. 21. German hero.
Defeated the Romans a.d 9, near the Lippe.

Herod. The Great. B.C. 73 -a.d. I. King of Judea.

Herodotus. 484?-4o8? B.C. Greek historian.

Herrick, Robert. 1591-1674. English divine and poet

Hespe rides, or Poems Human and Dhnne.

Herschel, Sir John Frederick William. 1790-1871. English

astronomer and philosopher.

Herschel, Sir William. 1738-1822. Father of preceding.

German astronomer. Bom in Hanover, but removed to England at ai ;

discovered Uranus.
Hesiod. Fl. 800 B.C. Greek poet. Works and Days,
Hezekiah. 750-698 B.C. King of Judah.
Hicks, Elias. 1 748-1830. American Quaker preacher.
Hildreth, PJchard. 1807-1865. Am. journalist and historian.
Hill, Sir Rowland. 1795-1879. Author of the English penny

post system.
Hipparchus. Fl. 150 B.C. Bithynian astronomer.
Hippocrates. The Father of Afedicine. 460-360? B.C. Greek

physid.m.

Hoar, George Frisbie. 1826-. . . . Am. lawyer and statesman.

Hobart, Augustus Charles. Hobart Pasha, 1822-1886.
Turkish naval commander, bom in England.

Hobbes, Thomas. 1 588-1 679. English philosopher.

Hoche, Lazare. 176&-1797. French general.

Hoe, Richard March. 1812-18B7. American inventor of print-
ing presses.

Hofer, Andreas. 1767-1810. Tyrolcse patriot; executed.

Hoffman, Charles Fenno. 1806-1884. American author.

Hogarth, William. 1697-1764. Bag. painter and engraver.

Hogg, James. Tht Ettrick Shepherd. 1772-1835. Scottish
poet.

Hohenlohe. Hohenstaufen, Hohenzollern. Princely families

Of (i( 1

Holbein, Hans. The Younger. 1497-1554. German painter.
The Dance of Death ; Lesst Supper, etc.

Holland, Josiah Gilbert. 1819-1881. American author.

Timothy Titctmb's Letters ; The Bay Pmtk, etc.

<S aw.

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

233

:. iL

Holmes, Oliver Wendell. 1809- American physician,

author and poet. The Autocrat of the Breakfast-table : Elsie Venner;
The Guardian Angel : The Poet at the Breakfast-table : Poems, etc.

Holt, Sir John. 1642-1709. English judge.

Homsr. FI. 1000 B.C. Greek poet, about whose life scarcely
anything is known. Regarded as the greatest of poets. Supposed to have
been blind and poor. Some doubt his existence, maintaining that the
Iliad and Odyssey, the two great epics ascribed to him, are collections
of songs from various poets.

Honorius, Flavius. 384-423. Roman emperor.

Hood, Thomas. 1799-1845. English poet and humorist.

Song of the Shirt : Bridge of Sighs; Dream of Eugene Aram ;

Whims and Oddities.

Hook, Theodore Edward. 1788-1841. English author.
Hooker, Joseph. 1819-1879. American general.
Hooker, Richard. 1553-1600. English theologian.
Hopkins, Johns. 1795-1873. American philanthropist.
Hopkinson, Francis. 1738-1791. American author ; signed

the Declaration of Independence. The Battle of the Kegs.
Hopkinson, Joseph. 1 770-1842. Son of F. H. American

lawyer ; author of Hail Columbia.

Horace. (Quintus Horatius Flaccus.) 65- 8 B.C. Latin poet.

Odes ; Epistles ; Satires.

Hosmer, Harriet Goodhue. 1830- . American sculptor.

Houdin, Robert. 1805-1871. French conjurer.

Houdon, Jean Antoine. 1741-1828. French sculptor.

Houston, Sam. 1793-1863. American general and states-
man. Governor of Tennessee, 1827-9; passed a number of years with
the Cherokee Indians; commander-in-chief of the Texan forces in re-
volt against Mexico, and defeated and captured Santa Anna in 1836 ;
elected president of Texas same yonr, and re-elected 1841 ; elected sen-
ator from Texas after its admission to the Union, in 1845, and governor
in 1859.

Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey. 1516-1547. Eng. poet.
Howard, John. 1726-1790. English philanthropist.
Howard, Oliver Otis. 1830-. . . . American general.
Howe, Elias. 1819-1867. American inventor.
Howe, Samuel Gridley. 1801-1876. Am. philanthropist.

Howells, William Dean. 1837- American author.

Howitt, William. 1795-1879. English author.
Hoyle, Edmund. 1672-1769. English author. Games.
Huck, Evariste Regis, Abbe. 1813-1S60. Fr. missionary.

Hudson, Henry (or Hendrik) -161 1. Eng. navigator.

Hughes, Thomas. 1 823-. . . . English author and barrister.
Tom Brown's School-days.

Hugo, Victor Marie, Vicomte. 1802-1885. French poet, novel-
ist and dramatist. Les Miserables : Notre Dame.

Hull, Isaac. 1775-1843. American commodore.

Hull, William. 1753-1825. American Revolutionary general.

Humbert I. 1844- •■• ■ King of Italy.

Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von, Baron. 1769-
1859. German scientist. Cosmos : An Essay of a Physical Description
of the Universe.

Hume, David. 1711-1776. Scottish historian and philoso-
pher. History of England.

Hunt, James Henry Leigh. 1784-1859. English poet and
author. The Seer.

Hunt, William Henry. 1790-1864. English painter in water-
colors.

Hunt, William Holman. 1826-. . . . English painter.

Hunter, David. 1802- 1886. American general.

Hunter, John. 1728-1793. Scottish surgeon.

Huss, John. 1373-1415. Bohemian reformer. Burned at the

stake by order of Emperor Sigismund.

Huxley.Thomas Henry. 1825-. . . . Eng. scientist. Physiology.

Hyacinthe, Pere. See Loyson.

Hyder-Ali. 1718-1782. Hindoo prince.

Hypatia. Fl 500. Female philosopher at Alexandria.

IBERVILLE, Pierre le Moyne d', Sieur. 1661-1706.
Canadian military and naval commander.
Ibrahim Pasha. 1789-1848. Viceroy of Egypt.
Ibrahim Bey. 1735?— 1816. Mameluke chief.
Ignatieff, Nicholas Pavlovitch. 1832- Russian general

and diplomatist.

Ignatius, Saint. Theophorus -107. Bishop of Antioch.

Ignatius, Saint. 799-877. Patriarch of Constantinople.

Ignatius de Loyola, Saint. See Loyola.

Inchbald, Elizabeth, Mrs. 1753-1821. English authoress

and actress.
Ingelow, Jean. 1830-. ... English poetess and novelist.
Ingersoll, Jared. 1 749-1 822. American lawyer.

Ingersoll, Robert G. 1833- Am. lawyer, author and lecturer.

Ingres, Jean A. D. 1781-1867. French painter.
Inman, Henry. 1801-1846. American portrait painter.

Inness, George. 1825- American landscape painter.

Innocent I. Pope, ruling from 402 to 417. During his reign

Rome was sacked by Alaric. II., 1130-1143. III. (Loiharius.) Born
in n6i,and chosen pope 1198. Put Trance under the ban, 1 190, be-
cause Philip Augustus had repudiated his wife; promoted the fourth
crusade, the result of which was the capture of Constantinople ; de-
posed Otho, emperor of Germany, transferring the crown to Freder-
ick of Sicily , subjected John of England to the papal see, compelling
him to pay an annual tribute; crushed the Albigenses in 1214, and
died two years later. IV. (Sinibaldo de Fieschi), 1243-1254. V., as-
sumed the pontificate in 1276, and died same year. VI., 1352-1362.
VII., 1404-1406. VIII., 1484-1491. IX., 1591 ; died same year. X. t
1644-1655. XI., 1670-1686. XII., 1692-1700. XIII., 1721-1724.

Iredell, James. 1751-1799. American jurist.

IrenseuSj Saint. l40?-2O2? Bishop of Lyons ; martyr.

Irene. 7527-803. Empress of Constantinople.

Irving, Edward. 1 792-1834. Eloquent Scottish divine.

Irving, John Henry Brodribb. 1838- . . . . English actor.

Irving, Washington. 1783- 1859. American author. Born
in New York city. Read law, travelled in Europe, and on his return
was admitted to the bur, but devoted himself exclusively to literary pur-
suits. Knickerbocker' s History of New York was published in l8c^.
In 18x5 he sailed for Europe, remaining there a number of years and
becoming an intimate friend of Walter Scott. About this time Irving
lost all his property by the failure of his brother in New York, in whose
business he was a silent partner. The Sketch-Book was written in Eng-
land and appeared in 1818. Secretary of legation at London, 1829 ;
minister to Spain, 1842-6. Bracebridge Hall : Tales of a Traveller:
Conquest of Granada: Life of Washington : Columbus; Wolfert's
Roost, etc

Isabella I. The Catholic. 1451-1504. Queen of Castile.

Wife of Ferdinand of Aragon ; patroness of Columbus. II. (Maria
Isabel Luisa), 1830-. . . . Ex -Queen of Spain.

Isabelle of France. 1292-1358. Queen of England, wife
of Edward II., whom her adherents deposed, and with whose assassi-
nation she is charged. Her son, Edward III., ascended the throne and
ordered her arrest, and she died after twenty years' incarceration.

Isaiah. Fl. 740 B.C. Hebrew prophet.

Iturbide, Don Augustin de. 1 790-1824. Emperor of Mexico.

234

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

-A

Ivan III. (Vasilievitch). 1438-1505. Czar of Russia. IV.
(Vasilievitch), The Terrible, 1529-1584.

VACKSON, Andrew. 1767-1845. American general and

^- statesman; seventh president. Born in South Carolina; son of an
Irishman ; received but little education ; served against the British in
178:' began the practice of law at Nashville, 1788; Congress, 1796;
U. S. Senate, 1797 ; judge Tenneusec Supreme Court, 1 798-1804 ; fought
several duels, killing Chas. Dickinson in 1806 ; defeated the Creek Indians,
1814, and was commissioned brigadier -general ; defeated the British at
New Orleans, 1815; successfully carried on war against the Scmlnoles,
1817-18; Senate, 1823, and nominated for the presidency, the opposing
candidates being Clay, J. Q. Adams and W. H. Crawford. Although
Jackson had the highest number of votes, he did not have the necessary
majority, and Adams was elected by the House of Representatives.
Clay's advocacy of Adams in this contest caused a. bitter enmity between
that gentleman and Jackson. Jackson was elected to the presidency,
however, in 1828. He was the first president to remove public officers on
account of their politics. Re-elected in 183a. In that year, the conven-
tion of South Carolina having declared the tariff laws of 1828 null and
void, Jackson issued a proclamation declaring his intention to check
by force of arms all movements tending to disunion.

Jackson, Thomas Jonathan. Stonewall. 1824-1863. Con-
federate general, native of Virginia Defeated Gen. Banks at Cedar
Mountain, and captured Harper's Ferry with 10,000 prisoners, 1862.
Killed by a company of his own men, mistaking him and his staff for
Federal cavalry.

Jacquard, Joseph Marie. 1752-1834. French inventor.

Jamblichus. Fl. 320. Syrian Neo-Platonic philosopher.

James I. 1 566-1625 King of England (VI. of Scotland).
Executed Raleigh. A translation of the Bible was made under his
direction. II., 1633-1701. (VII. of Scotland.) Deposed by revolution.

James I. 1394-1431. King of Scotland. Assassinated. II.,
1430-1460. III., 1453-1488. IV., 1473-1513; defeated and slain at
Flodden. V., 1512-1542. VI. (I. of England). VII. (II. of England).

James, Henry, Jr. 1843- American novelist.

Jameson, Robert. 1774-1854. Scottish naturalist.
Janauschek, Fanny. 1830-.... Bohemian tragedienne.
Jansen, Cornells. 1 585-1 638. Dutch theologian ; founder

of the Jansenists.
Januarius, Saint. 272-305. Patron saint of Naples.
Jasper, William. 1 750-1 779. Brave American soldier.
Jay, John. 1745-1829. Am. statesman; first chief justice.
Jeanne d'Albret. 1528-1572. Queen of Navarre.
Jean Paul. See Richter.
Jefferson, Joseph. 1829-.... American actor.

Jefferson, Thomas. 1743-1826. American statesman;
third president. Born in Virginia; admitted to the bar, 1767 ; elected
to Virginia House of Burgesses, 17*9; Continental Congress, 1775 ; draft-
ed the Declaration of Independence ; governor of Virginia, 1779-81;
minister plenipotentiary, 1784, to negotiate treaties with European
powers; minister, at Paris, 1785-9; secretary of state, 1789-93; elected
vice-president 1 796, and president in 1800, holding that office from 1801
to 1809.

Jeffrey, Francis. 1 773-1850. Scottish critic and judge.

Jeffreys, George, Lord. 1 650- 1 689. Infamous British judge ;

lord high chancellor under James II.; died in the Tower.
Jenkins, Edward. 1838-.... Eng author. Ginx's Baby.
Jenner, Edward. 1749-1823. English physician ; introduced

vaccination.
Jenner, Sir William. 1815-.... English physician and

anatomist.

Jerome, Saint. 340 ?-420. Latin father of the church.

Jerome of Prague. 1378-1416. Bohemian religious re-
former ; follower of Huss. Burned at the stake.

Jerrold, Douglas William. 1803-1857. English humorist and
satirical writer. Mrt. Caudle' 1 Curtain Lecture* : Chroniclei 0/
Clovernook.

Jervis, John, Earl of St. Vincent. 1734-1823. Eng. admiral.

Joan of Arc. (Jeanne d'Arc.) The Maid of Orleans. 141 1 ?-
1431. French heroine. Born in Lorraine, of an humble peasant family.
Believing herself commissioned by Heaven to liberate France, and' con.
vincing Charles VII. of her divine authority, she was given command
of a considerable force, and by the victories she gained enabled Charles
to be crowned at Rheims. Although desirous of returning home and
resuming her former humble peasant life, she was induced to retain her
command ih the army. 3he was captured in 1430, by the Burpundians,
and delivered to the English. Charged with sorcery, she was burned at
the stake after a mock trial.

Joel. Fl. 775 B.C. Hebrew prophet.

John I. (Saint). Pope, ruling from 523-526. II. ,533-535. IIL,

560-573. IV., 640-642. V.,685-687. VI.,70l-705. VII., 705-707. VIII.,
872-882. IX., 898-900. X., 915-928. XI., 931-936. XII., 956-964. XIII.,
965-972. XIV., 984-985. XV., died in 985, only a few days after his
accession. XVI., 986-996. XVII. (Rival of Gregory V.in 9^7) XVIII.,
1003. XIX. 1004-1009. XX., 1024-1033. XXI., 1276. XXII., chosen
1316; deposed 1327; diedi334. XXIII., chosen in 1410 • deposed 1414.

John. 1166-1216. King of England ; granted Magna Charta.

John II. The Good. 1319-1364. King of France.

John II. (Casimir V.) 1609-1672. King of Poland. III.
(Sobieski), 1625-1696.

John I. The Great. 1357-1433. King of Portugal.

John. 1801-1873. King of Saxony.

John of Austria, Don. 1 547?-! 578. Spanish general.

John of Gaunt (Ghent). 1340-1399. Duke of Lancaster.

Son of Edward III.

John the Baptist. B.C. 5-A.D. 28. Prophet.

John the Evangelist. (St. John.) -100? Apostle.

Johnson, Andrew. 1808-1875. American statesman ; seven-
teenth president. Born in N.C.; learned the trade of a tailor in Tenn ;
Congress, 1843-53; governor, 1853-7 ; senator, 1857 ; military governor,
1862; elected vice-president in 1864, and succeeded to the presidency on
the death of Lincoln, 1865. Johnson became involved in a bitter quarrel
with the leaders of the Republican party, and was impeached in 1S68,
but acquitted, although thirty-five senators voted or conviction to only
nineteen against, a two-thirds majority being necessary. He was subse-
quently elected to he Senate from Tennessee as a Democrat.

Johnson, Reverdy. 1796-1876. American statesman.

Johnson, Richard Mentor. 1780-1850. Ninth vice president
of the United States.

Johnson, Samuel. 1700-1784. Eng. writer and lexicographer.

Johnston, Albert Sydney. 1803-1862. Confederate general .

Johnston, Joseph Eccleston. 1809-1891. Confederate general.

Joliet, Louis. 1645-1700? Fr. explorer of the Mississippi.

Jomini, Henri, Baron. 1770-1869. Swiss military writer.

Jonah. Fl. 800 B.C. Hebrew prophet.

Jones, George. 1811-1891. American journalist. N.Y.
Timet. .

Jones, John Paul. 1747-1792. American Revolutionary
naval commander ; bom in Scotland. Captured the Serapis.

Jones, Sir William. 1746-1794. English orientalist.

Jonson, Ben. 1574-1637. English poet and dramatist. Too
poor to graduate at Cambridge, he became a mason, and afterward
served as a soldier in Flanders. Returned to England nnd 1
pany of actors, but killed one of them in a duel and barely escaped -
Every Man in Hit llumer, his first drama, appeared in tsoft. Appointed

poet-laureate by James I. Died in poverty. Sejanus ; The Alchemist :
Catiline's Conspiracy. ,

Joseffy, Raffaele, 1852- Hungarian pianist.

Joseph I. 1676-1711. Emperor of Germany. II., 1741-

1790; abolished feudal serfdom.
Josephine. (Marie Josephe Rose Tascher de la Pagerie.)

1763-1814. Empress of France ; wife of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Josephus, Flavius. 37 ?-y5 ? Jewish historian.
Joshua. 1537-1427 H.c. Hebrew leader.
Jovian. 331-364. Roman emperor.
Juarez, Benito Pablo. 1806-1872. Mexican Aztec statesman.

Judas Maccabaeus -160 B.C. Hebrew leader.

Judson, Adoniram. 1788-1850. Am. Baptist missionary.
Julian. The Apostate. 331-363. Roman emperor.
Julius I. Pope, 336-352. II., 1503-1513. III., I55°- I 555
Junot, Andoche, Due d'Abrantes. 1771-1813. Fr. general.
Justin. The Martyr. 103-165? Church father in Palestine.

Justin I. 450-527. Byzantine emperor. II., -578.

Justinian I. The Great. 482?-565. Byzantine emperor.
Juvenalis, Decimus Junius. 407-125? Latin poet.

Vj^ALAKAUA, David. 1836-1S91. King of Hawaii.

Kamehameha IV. 1834-1863. King of Hawaii.
Karnes, Henry Home, Lord. 1696-1782. Scottish judge and
writer. Elements of Criticism.

Kane, Elisha Kept. 1820-1857. American Arctic explorer.
Kant, Immanuel. 1 724-1804. German metaphysician ; founder
of the transcendental school of philosophy. Critique of Pure Reason.
Kean, Edmund. 1787-1833. English tragedian.
Kearney, Philip. 1815-1862. American general.
Keats, John. 1795-1821. English poet. Eve of St. Agnes.
Keble, John. 1792-1866. Eng. divine. The Christian Year.
Keene, Laura. 1820-1873. American actress.
Kellermann, Francois Christophe de. 1735-1820. Fr. general.

Kellogg, Clara Louise. 1842- American vocalist.

Kemble, Charles. 1775-1854. Brother of J. P. K. Eng. actor.
Kemble, Frances Anne. 1809-. . . . English actress.
Kemble, John Philip. 1757-1823. English tragedian.
Kempis, Thomas a. 1380-1471. German ascetic writer.

Imitation of Christ.

Kent, James. 1 763-1847. American jurist. Commentaries.
Kepler, Johann. 1571-1630. German astronomer.
Key, Francis Scot. 1776-1843. American poet; author of
The Star-spangled Banner.

Khosru I -579- King of Persia. II., -628.

Kidd, William. 1650-1701. American pirate ; executed.
Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson. 1836- 1881. American general.
King, Rufus. 1755-1827. American statesman.
King, William Rufus. 1786-1853. American statesman.
Kingsley, Charles. 1819-1875. English divine and author.
Kitto, John. 1804-1854. English Biblical scholar.
Kleber, Jean Baptiste. 1754-1800. Fr-nch general.
Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb. 1724-1803. German poet.
Kneller, Sir Godfrey. 1 648-1 723. English portrait painter.
Knowles, James Sheridan. 1784-1862. English dramatist

and actor; subsequently became a Baptist minister. The Hunchback ;

Virginius.

Knox, Henry. 1750-1806. American general and statesman.
Knox, John. 1505-1572. Leader of the Scot, reformation.
Koch, Robert. 1843-. . . . German bacteriologist.
Kosciusko, Thaddeus. 17467-1817. Polish patriot and

general ; commanded the Polish insurgent army ; bravely defended

Warsaw, but was defeated.
Kossuth, Louis. 1802-. . . . Hungarian patriot, orator and

statesman. Leading spirit in the insurrection of 1848-49.

Kuang Hsu. 1871- . . . Emperor of China.

"y* ABLACHE, Luigi. 1794-1858. Italian singer. His

A "i voice was of phenomenal range and unusual sweetness.

La Chaise d'Aix, Francois. Pire la Chaise. 1 524-1 700.

French Jesuit.
Lactantius. The Christian Cicero. 260 7-325. Latin father

of the church. Institutiones Divinee.
La Fayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert Motier de,

Marquis. 1757-1834. French general and patriot. Came to America
in 1777 to aid the Americans in their struggle for independence, and was
commissioned major-general ; fought at Brandywine, where he was
wounded, and in numerous other engagements ; visited France and
obtained supplies and munitions, returning in 1779; commanded the
advance guard at Yorkstown, 1781 ; returned ag..in to France; chosen
commandant of the French National Guard in 1789 ; visited America in
1824, and was enthusiastically received ; took a prominent part in the
revolution of 1830.

La Fontaine, Jean de. 1621-1694. Fr. poet and fabulist.

Lagrange, Joseph Louis. 1736-1813. Fr. mathematician.

Lamartine, Alphonse de. 1792-1869. Fr. poet and statesman.

Lamb, Charles. 1775-1834. Eng. essayist. Essays of Elia.

Lambert, Daniel. 1769-1809. English giant.

Lambert, John. 1621-1694. Eng. Parliamentary general.

Lamotte-Fouque, Friedrich Heinrich Karl de, Baron. 1777—
1843. German novelist and poet. Undine.

Landon, Letitia E. 1802-1838. L. E. L. English author-
ess. Romance and Reality.

Landor, Walter Savage. 1775-1864. English author. Imagi-
nary Conversations,

Landseer, Sir Edwin. 1802-1873, English animal painter.

Langlande (or Longland), Robert. Fl. 1360. English

monk and poet. Vision of Piers Plowman.

Langton, Stephen -1228. English prelate.

Lannes, Jean, Duke of Montebello. 1769-1809. French
marshal.

Lansdowne, William Petty, Marquis of. 1 737-1805. Eng-
lish statesman.

Laplace, Pierre Simon, Marquis. 1749-1827. French astron-
omer and mathematician.

La Rochefoucauld, Francois de, Duke. 1613-1680. French

moralist and statesman.

La Salle, Jean Baptiste. 1651-1719. Founder of the Chris-
tian Brothers.

La Salle, Robert Cavelier de. 16357-1687. Fr. explorer.

Lasker, Eduard. 1829-1884. German statesman.

Latimer, Hugh. 1480-1555. English reformer; burned.

Latour d'Auvergne, Theophile Malo Corret de. 1743-1S00.
French officer, called by Napoleon " The First Grenadier of France."

Lauderdale, John Maitland, Duke of. 1616-1682. English
cabal minister.

Laurens, Henry. 1724-1792. American statesman.
Lavater, Johann Caspar. 1 74I-J801. Swiss physiognomist.

^^4^

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent. l743-'794- French chemist.

Law, John. 1671-1729. Scottish financier in France; pro-
moted the " South Sea Bubble."

Lawrence, Amos. 1786-1852. American philanthropist.

Lawrence, James. 1781-1813. American naval hero ; com-
manded the Chesapeake and engaged the British frigate Shannon off
Boston. He was killed in the action, and his last words were : " Don't
give up the ship."

Lawrence, Sir Thomas. 1769-1830. English painter.

Lawrence, Saint -258. Roman martyr.

Layard, Austen Henry. 1817- English orientalist.

Lebrun, Anne Charles, Duke of Piacenza. !775-'859-
French general.

Lebrun, Charles. 1619-1690. French painter.

Lebrun, Charles Francois, Duke of Piacenza. 1 739-1824.
French statesman.

Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. 1838- Eng. author.

Lecouvreur, Adrienne. 1690-1730. French actress.

Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre Auguste. 1808-1874. Fr. socialist.

Ledyard, John. 1751-1788. American traveller.

Lee, Arthur. 1740-1792. American statesman. Brother of
R. H. and F. L. Lee.

Lee, Charles. 1775-1782. Am. general ; native of Wales.

Lee, Francis Lightfoot. 1 734-1 797- American patriot.

Lee, Henry. Light-Horse Harry. 1756-1818. American
general and statesman. Governor of Virginia.

Lee, Richard Henry. 1 732-1 794. Am. orator and patriot.

Lee, Robert Edmund. 1806-1870. American general ; com-
mander-in-chief of the Confederate army. Son of Henry Lee. Born in
Virginia ; graduate of West Point ; chief engineer of Gen. Scott's army
in Mexico ; Confederate brigadier-general 1861, and appointed to the
chief command in 1862. Surrendered at Appomattox, April 9, 1865.
Subsequently chosen president of Washington College, at Lexington,
Va., where he died.

Leech, John. 1816-1864. English caricaturist.

Lefebvre, Francois Joseph, Duke of Dantzig. 1755-1820.

French general.

Legouve, Ernest. 1807-. . . . French author.

Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, Baron. 1646-1716. Ger-
man philosopher a.id mathematician.

Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of. I532?-I588. Favorite of
Queen Elizabeth.

Leidy, Joseph. 1823-1891. American naturalist.

L'Enclos, Ninon de. 1616-1706. French beauty.

Leo I. 4O0?-474. Byzantine emperor. III., 68o?~74i. V.,
....-8ao. VI., 865T-9H.

Leo I. (Saint). The Great. Pope, ruling from 440 to 461.
II., 683-684. HI. (Saint), 795-816. IV., 847-855. V., 903 : reigned
only two months. VI., 928-939. VII., 937-939. VIII., 963-965. IX.,
1049-1054. X. (Giovanni de' Medici), 1513-1521. XL, 1605: died
twenty-four days after his accession. XII., 1823-1829. XIII. (Gioa-
chimo Pecci.) Born at Carpineto, in the Papal States, 1810, the son
of Count Ludovico Pecci ; ordained a priest in 1837, and created Arch-
bishop of Damietta in 1843; nuncio to Belgium three years; car-
dinal, 1853: cardinal camcrlcngo, 1877; elected to the papacy, to succeed
Pius IX., February ao, 1878.

Leonidas -480 B.C. King of Sparta; leader of the

brave three hundred at Thermopylae.
Leopold I. The Great. 1640-1705. Emperor of Germany.

IL. >747->79»-

Leopold I. 1790-1865. King of Belgium. II., 1835-

Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastian. 1825- President of

Mexico.

Le Sage, Alain Rene. 1668-1747. Fr. novelist. Gil Bias.

Leslie, Alexander, Earl of Leven -1661. Scot, general.

Lesseps, Ferdinand de, Viscount. 1805- French en-
gineer and diplomatist. Planned the Suez canal, and the inter-oceanic
canal across Panama.

Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. 1 729-1 781. German author.

Leutze, Emanuel. 1816-1808. German historical painter.

Lever, Charles James. 1806-1872. Irish novelist. Charles
CrMalley; Tom Burke of Ourt : Harry Lorrequer.

Leverrier, Urbain J. J. 1811-1877. French astronomer.

Lewes, George Henry. 1817-1878. English author; hus-
band of " George Eliot." Biographical History 0/ Philosophy.

Lewis, Matthew Gregory. 1775-1818. English novelist.

Lewis, Meriwether. 1774-1809. American explorer.

Leyden, Lucas van. 1494-1533. Dutch painter.

Lieber, Francis. 1800-1872. German historical writer.

Liebig, Justus von, Baron. 1803-1873. German chemist.

Lincoln, Abraham. 1809-1865. Sixteenth president of the
United States. Born in Kentucky ; removed to Indiana when eight years
old ; captain in the Black Hawk war, 1833 ; elected to the Illinois legis-
lature, 1834 ; admitted to the bar, 1836, and removed to Springfield, 111.:
elected to Congress in 1846; Republican candidate for U. S. senator in
1854, his opponent being Stephen A. Douglas ; nominated for the presi-
dency and elected, i860; re-elected 1864, but assassinated April 14, 1865,
by John Wilkes Booth. His death was universally deplored, for his wist
administration of affairs during the civil war had won for him the regard
of both factions of the bloody controversy.

Lilinokalani. 1838-.... Queen of Hawaii.

Lind, Jenny. (Mrs. Goldschmidt.) 1821-1887. Swedish vocalist

Linnaeus, Charles. 1 707-1 778. Swedish botanist.

Lippi, Filippo. 1412-1469. Italian painter.

Liszt, Franz, Abbe. 1811-^885. Hungarian piani-t.

Littleton (or Lyttleton), Sir Thomas. I420?-I48l. English

jurist. Tenures. %

Liverpool, Robert B. J., Earl of. 1770-1828. Eng. statesman.
Livingston, Edward. 1764-1836. American jurist.
Livingstone, David. 1817-1873. Scottish explorer in Africa.

Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi.
Livy. (Titus Livius.) 59 B.C. - 1 7 A.D. Roman historian.
Locke, John. 1632-1704. English philosopher. Essay en

the Human Understanding.
Lockhart, John Gibson. 1 794-1854. Scottish author.
Logan. Tah-gah-jute. 17257-1780. American Indian chief.
Logan, Benjamin. I742?-i862. Kentucky pioneer.
Logan, John Alexander. 1826-1887. American general and

statesman.

Lola Montez. 1820-1861. Creole ballet dancer.

Long, Roger. l68o?-l770. English astronomer.

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. 1 807- 1 882. American poet.
Born in Portland, Me. ; graduated in 1835 at Bowdoin College, at which
Institution he took the chair of modem languages after travelling four
years In Europe ; held the same position at Harvard 1836-54. Hyperion;
Voices of the Night: The Spanish Student: Evangeline: Song ef
Hiawatha: Miles Standish ; Tales of a II ayside Inn, etc.

Longinus. 11. 3d century. Greek philosopher.

Longstreet, James. 1821- Confederate general.

Lome, John George Edward Henry Sutherland Campbell,
Marquis of. 1845- En(r. author. G01 .-<i t n. «. .inada 187S-S.J.

i¥

1^1

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

2 37

Lorraine. Charles IV., Duke of. 1604-1679. German general.
V., 1643-1690.

Lossing, Benson John. 18x3-1891. American historian.

Louis I. Le Debonnair. 778-840. Emperor of the West
and king of France ; divided the empire among his sons. VI., The Fat,
io78?-ii37. King of France. IX. (Saint), 1215-1270; led a large
army against the Saracens in 1248 ; defeated and taken prisoner in
Egypt, but effected his rinsom ; led another crusade in 1270, but died the
same year near Tunis. He was a wise ruler, and noted for many virtues.
XI., 1 423-1483 ; established post-offices. XII., 1462-1515. XIII.,
1601-1643. XIV., Le Grand, 1638-1715. (" I am the State.") XV.,
1710-1774. XVI., 1754-1793; guillotined. XVII. (Dauphin), 1785-1795.
XVIII., Monsieur, 1755-1824.

Louis I. 1786-1868. King of Bavaria.

Louis IV. The Bavarian. 1285 ?-i345- Ger. emperor.

Louis Philippe. 1773-1850. " The citizen king" of France;

abdicated 1848.
Louvois, Francois Michel Letellier de, Marquis. 1641-1691.

French statesman ; caused revocation of the Edict of Nantes.
Lover, Samuel. 1797-1868. Irish novelist. Handy Andy;

Rory O* Moore, etc.
Lowell, James Russell. 1819-1891. American poet and

critic ; minister to Spain and to England. The Bigelow Papers ; Under
the Willows ; The Vision of Sir Launfal ; Commemoration Odes;
Fable for Critics ; Among my Books : My Study Windows, etc.

Lowell, John. 1799-1836. American statesman.

Loyola, Ignatius de. Saint Ignatius, 1491-1566. Spanish
founder of the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits. Entered the army at an
early age; crippled by a wound in 1520, he turned his attention to
religion ; made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1523, and subsequently
studied at the University of Paris, where he met Francis Xavier and
James Lainez, in conjunction with whom, in 1543, he formed the society
which has since become so celebrated.

Loyson, Charles. Fire Hyacinthe. 1827-.... French
reformer and ex-Carmelite.

Lubbock, Sir John. 1834-. . . . Eng. naturalist and stats.

Lucanus, Marcus Annaeus. 38-65. Roman epic poet.

Lucian. 120?- Greek satirist.

Lucilius, Caius. 148 ?-ioo ? B.C. Roman satiric poet.

Lucretius. (Titus Lucretius Cams. ) 95- B.C. Latin poet.

Lucullus, Lucius Licinius. 110-57 B.C. Roman general.

Luther, Martin. 1483-1546. Leader of the Protestant
Reformation, Born at Eisleben, in Germany, the son of a miner; edu-
cated at the University of Erfurt, and in 1505 entered the Augustine
convent at that place; ordained a priest, 1507; became professor of
philosophy at Wittenberg, 1508; visited Rome, 1510; denounced the
sale of indulgences, 1517, and became involved in numerous controver-
sies; cited to appear before Leo X., he refused to comply; burned the
papal bull containing an order to destroy certain of his works, and denied
the authority of thepope; excommunicated; enjoyed the support of the
Elector of Saxony; attended the Diet of Worms, convened for his
trial, in 1521 ; laidaside his monastic dress in 1524, and married Cather-
ine von Bora, an ex-nun, in 1525 ; enjoyed, during the latter part of his
life, the greatest distinction from the princes of Germany. Luther com-
pleted, in 1522, his translation 01" the New Testament, and in 1534
that of the Old Testament. The central point of his theology is
justification by faith.

Luxembourg, Francois Henri de Montmorenci de. 1628-
1695. Marshal of France.

Lycurgus. Fl. 850 b.c. Spartan law-giver.

Lyell, Sir George. 1797-1875. Scottish geologist.

Lyndhurst, John Singleton Copley, Lord. 1772-1863. Lord
chancellor of England ; born in Boston, Mass.

Lyon, Nathaniel. 1819-1861. American general. Born in
Connecticut ; graduate of West Point ; appointed commanderof the De-
partment of the Missouri, 1861 ; killed at the battle of Wilson's Creek,

Lysander -395 B.C. Spartan general.

Lysias. 458-378 B.C. Athenian orator.

Lysimachus. 355?-28i B.C. King of Thrace.

Lysippus. Fl. 330 B.C. Greek sculptor.

Lytton. See Bulwer.

*1HT*ACAULAY, Thomas Babington, Baron. 1800-1859.
<*-VA^ English historian, critic and essayist. History 0/ England; Es~
says : Lays 0/ Ancient Rome.

Macbeth -1056 ? King of Scotland.

McCarthy, Justin. 1830- Irish writer and Home Rule

leader in Parliament. Came to America in 1868 and visited thirty-five
of the United States. My Enemas Daughter ; A Fair Saxon ; History
0/ Our Own Times, etc.

Macchiavelli, Nicolo di Bernardo dei. 1469-1527. Italian

statesman and author. Among his numerous writings are his History
0/ Florence and The Prince, the latter of which (not intended for publi-
cation, but for the private perusal of the Medici) has rendered the name
Macchiavelli the synonym of perfidy.

McClellan, George Brinton. 1826-1885. American general.
Born in Philadelphia; graduate of West Point; served in the Mexican
war, and in 1S55 served on a commission sent by the government to make
observations on the Crimean war; became chief engineer of the Illinois
Central railroad in 1857 ; re-entered the army in 1861, taking command
of the Federal troops in Western Virginia, and gained the victories of
Rich Mountain and Cheat River ; made commander of the army at
Washington, and in November, 1861, became commander of the armies
of the United States ; gained a victory at Fair Oaks, 1862, but was forced
to relinquish the plan of reducing Richmond ; superseded by Gen. Pope,
but recalled, and defeated the Confederates under Lee at Antietam ; re-
lieved of command about six weeks later ; Democratic candidate for the
presidency in 1864, and afterward elected governor of New Jersey.

McCosh, James. 1811-. . . . Scottish theologian in Am.
McCulloch, Hugh. 1808-. . . . American financier and

Secretary of the Treasury.
Macdonald, Flora. 1720-1790. Scottish heroine; saved the

life of " The Young Pretender."
Macdonald, George. 1824-. . . . Scottish poet and novelist.

David Elginbrod ; The Portent ; Wilfred Cumbermede ; Malcolm ;
Unspoken Sermons ; The Miracles of our Lord, etc.

Macdonald, Sir John A. 1814-1891. Canadian premier.

McCloskey, John. 1810-1885. First American cardinal.

McDowell, Irvin. 1818-18S5. American general.

MacMahon, Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de, Due de Magenta.
1808- Marshal of France and president of the French republic.

Macpherson, James. 1 738-1 796. Scottish poet.

MacPherson, James Birdseye. 1828-1864. Am. general.

Macready, William Charles. 1 793-1 873. Eng. tragedian;

Madison, James. 1751-1836. Fourth president of the United
States. Born in Virginia ; member of the Virginia legislature and dele-
gate to the convention of 1787 ; joint author with Jay and Hamilton of
the Federalist ; Congress, 1789-97; secretary of state, 1801-9, president,
1809-17.

Magellan, Fernando. 1470-1521. Portuguese navigator.

Magee, William C. 1822-1891. Primate of England.

Mahmood, Abool-Kasim-Yemeen-ed-Dowlah. 967-1030.
Mohammedan conqueror; founder of the Gaznevide dynasty.

Mahomet. See Mohammed.

Maintenon, Francoise d'Aubigne de, Marquise. 1635— 1719-
Consort of Louis XIV,

\C-

238

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Venetian printer.
Venetian printer and author.
French Jacobin demagogue,

Malibran, Maria Felicita {nee Garcia). 1808-1836. French
vocalist and actress.

Malthus, Thomas Robert. 1766-1834. English writer on
political economy, and author of the " Malthusian theory."

Mandeville, Sir John. 1300-1372. English traveller.

Manfred. 1234-1266. King of Naples.

Manning, Henry Edward. 1808-1893. English Catholic
prelate and author. United with the Roman Catholic church in 1851 ;
archbishop of Westminster, 1865 ; cardinal, 1877.

Mansfeld, Ernst von, Count. 1585-1626. German general.

Mansfield, William Murray, Earl of. 1704-1793. British jurist.

Mantegna, Andrea. 1431-1506. Italian painter.

ManteufTel, Edwin Hans Carl von, Baron. 1809-1883. Prus-
sian field-marshal.

Manuel I. Comnenus. H20?-n8o. Byzantine emperor. II.
Palarologus, 1348-142;.

Manutius, Aldus. I449?-I5I5.

Manutius, Aldus. 1547-1597.

Marat, Jean Paul. 1744-1793.
assassinated by Charlotte Corday.

Marcellus, Marcus Claudius. 268 ?-2o8 B.C. Roman consul.
Conquered Syracuse ; killed in a skirmish with the Carthaginians.

Margaret. Semiramis of the North. 1353-1412. Queen of
Norway, Sweden and Denmark.

Margaret of Anjou. 1429-1482. Queen of Henry VI. of
England.

Margaret of Angouleme. 1492-1549. Queen of Navarre
and author. Heptameron.

Margaret of Austria. 1480-1530. Regent of the Netherlands.

Margaret of Valois. 1553-1615. Queen of France.

Margaret, Saint. 1046-1093. Queen of Scotland.

Margaret, Saint -275. Virgin of Antioch ; martyr.

Maria Christina. 1806-1878. Queen dowager of Spain.

Maria II. da Gloria. 1819-1853. Queen of Portugal.

Maria de' Medici. 1573-1642. Queen of France.

Maria Louisa. 1791-1847. Empress of France.

Maria Theresa. 1717-1780. Empress of Austria and Queen
of Hungary and Bohemia.

Marie Antoinette. 1755-1793. Wife of Louis XVI. of
France ; guillotined.

Mario, Giuseppe, Marquis di Candia. 1810-1883. ''• singer.

Marion, Francis. 1732-1795. Am. Revolutionary general.

Mariotte, Edme. 1620-1684. French phycisist.

Marius, Caius. 157-36 B.C. Roman general and consul.

Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of. 1650-1722. Eng-
lish commander. Commanded the English forces in the Netherlands,
1689; commanded in Ireland, 1690 ; accused of treason, deposed and
confined in the Tower, 169a ; reinstated 1696 ; commanded the allied
armies in Holland, 170a ; won the battle of Blenheim, 1704 ; Ramilles,
1706; Oudenarde, 1708 ; Malplaquct, 1709.

Marlowe, Christopher. 1 564-1 593. English dramatist.

Marmont, Auguste Frederic Louis Viesse de, Duke of Ragusa.
1774-1852. French marshal.

Marquette, Jacques. 1637-1675. French missionary and
discoverer.- explored the Mississippi river.

Marryatt, Frederic. 1 792-1848. English novelist and naval
officer. Midshipman Easy; Peter Simplt t etc

Marsh, George P. 1801-.... American philologist.

Marshall, John. 1755-1835. American jurist and states-
man; chief justice of the United States.

Martialis, Marcus Valerius. 43-104. Latin poet.

Martel, Charles, Duke of Australia. The Hammer. 694-

74>. Conquered the Saracens in the great battle of Tours, or Poitiers,
732.

Martineau, Harriet. 1802-1876. English writer.

Marx, Karl. 1818-1883. German socialist.

Mary I. Bloody Mary. 1516-1558. Queen of England.
Married Philip II. of Spain; persecuted the Protestants. II., 1661-
1694; wife of William III.

Mary Stuart. 1542-1587. Queen of Scots. Daughter of
James V. and Mary of Guise ; educated ia France, where she was mar-
ried to the Dauphin in 1 558, who the following year ascended the French
throne as Francis II., but died childless, 1560 ; invited to the throne at
Scotland, and married her cousin. Lord Daraley; suppressed, 1565, a
revolt of the Protestants instigated by Queen Elizabeth ; joined, 1566,
a league to extirpate heresy, and, wearying of the arrogance and disso-
luteness of Lord Damley, bestowed her confidence on David Rizzio, an
Italian musician, whose murder was instigated the same year by Mary's
jealous husband. Lord Damley himself was killed in 1567, and Queen
Mary married the Earl of Bothwell the same year. Public sentiment
in Scotland against her became so intense that she was compelled to take
refuge in England, where she was finally beheaded on an improves
charge of conspiracy.

Masaniello. 1620-1647. Neapolitan insurgent leader.

Mason, James M. 1797-1871. American statesman.

Massasoit. I58o?-i66i. Sachem of the Wa.<ipanoags.

Massena, Andre, Prince of Essling. 1758-1817. Fr. marshal.

Massinger, Philip. 1584-1640. English dramatist.

Mather, Cotton. 1663- 1728. American divine and writer,
notorious for his persecution of witchcraft.

Mathew, Theobald. Father Mathew. 1790-1856. Irish
Catholic priest, called " The Apostle of Temperance."

Maurice. 1521-1553. Elector of Saxony; German general
and Protestant leader.

Maurice of Nassau. 1567-1625. Dutch warrior ; Prince of
Orange.

Maximilian I. 1459-1519. Emperor of Germany.

Maximilian. (Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph.) 1832-1867.
Archduke of Austria, and emperor of Mexico. Executed by the
Mexicans.

Mazarin, Giulio, Cardinal. 1 602-1 661. Fr. prime minister.

Mazeppa, Ivan Stepanovitch. 1644-1709. Polish nobleman,
and hetman of the Cossacks. Hero of Byron's poem.

Mazzini, Giuseppe. 1807-1872. Italian patriot.

Meade, George Gordon. 1815-1872. American general ; won
the battle of Gettysburg.

Medici, Alessandro de'. 1510-1537. First duke of Florence ;
assassinated.

Medici, Cosimo de'. The Elder. 1389-1464. Chief of the
Florentine republic.

Medici, Cosimo de'.
duke of Tuscany.

Medici, Lorenzo de*.

The Great. 1 5 19-1574.

First grand
Prince

The Magnificent. 144S-1492.
of Florence ; scholar, and patron of literature and art.

Mehemet AH. 1769-1849. Viceroy of Egypt.

Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest. 1812-1891 French painter.

Melanchthon, Philip. 1497-1560. German reformer ; leader
of the Reformation after Luther's death. The Augsburg C*n/essi*n.

Melikoff, Loris. 1824-1SSS. Russian general.

Melville, Andrew. 1545-1622. Scottish religious reformer.

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix. 1809-1847. G«r. comp.

Menelek. Emperor (or negus) of Abyssinia. Pro-
claimed March 11, tSSo.

V-

■ft

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

239

Menno, Simonis. 1496-1561. Frieslandic founder of the

Mennonites.
Mercadante, Saverio. 1 797- 1S70. Italian composer.
Merimee, Prosper. 1803-1870. French novelist.
Mesmer, Friedrich Anton. 1733-1815. German discoverer of

" mesmerism .*'
Metellus, Quintus Csecilius. FI. 100 B.C. Roman general.

Defeated Jugurtha, 109 b.c,
Metternich, Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von. 1775-

1859. Austrian statesman.

Meyerbeer, Giacomo. (Jakob Meyer- Beer.) 1794-1864. Ger-
man composer. Robert le Diable ; Semiramide ; Les Huguenots;
U ' Etoile du Nord.

Michael Angelo. (Michelangelo Buonarotti.) 1474-1563.

Italian painter, sculptor, architect and poet. Patronized by Lorenzo the
Magnificent; invited to Rome by Pope Julius II., where he designed
the church of St. Peter; became architect of that magnificent structure
in 1546, and devoted the rest of his life almost exclusively to its comple-
tion. Among his productions are the frescoes in the Sistine chapel, in-
cluding The Last Judgment ; The Holy Family ; a gigantic statue of
David, and a marble group called Pieta, representing the Virgin as
weeping over the dead body of the Savior.

Mifflin, Thomas. 1744-1800. American patriot; president of

the Continental Congress.
Mill, James. 1773-1830. Scottish nistorian and writer.
Mill, John Stuart. 1806-1873. English philosopher and

political economist. The Principles 0/ Political Economy.
Millais, John Everett. 1829-. . . . English painter.
Miller, Hugh. 1803-1856. Scottish geologist.
Miller, Joaquin. (Real name, Cincinnatus Hiner Miller.)

1841-. . . . American poet. Born in Indiana, and emigrated to Oregon

in boyhood. The One Fair Woman, a novel; Pacific Poems ; Songs

of the Sierras, etc.

Mills, Clark. 1815-1883. American sculptor.

Miltiades. Fl. 500 b.c. Athenian commander ; gained the

great victory of Marathon.

Milton, John. 1608-1674. English poet ; educated at Cam-
bridge ; passed several years in travel ; visited Galileo, and gained the
friendship of many eminent personages ; returning to England, he ad-
vocated the popular party, opposing prelacy and the established church;
wrote many political and controversial works in prose ; was appointed in
1648 Latin secretary of the Council of State ; in 1654 he had become
entirely blind. His Paradise Lost was completed in 1655, and sold for
;£io, half of which was not to be paid until after the sale of 1,300 copies.
His sonnets are among the best in the language, and among his other
works are Comus ; 11 Penseroso ; Samson Agontstes ; V Allegro;
Paradise Regained; Lycidas. Milton is jusdy considered one of the
greatest poets of all time.

Minie, Claude Etienne. 1810-1879. French inventor.

Mirabeau, Honors Gabriel de Riquetti de, Comte. 1749-1791.
French orator and statesman. Entered the army in 1776; exiled and
imprisoned for debt ; separating from his wife, he eloped with a young
woman in 1776, for which offence he was condemned to death ; escaped,
however, with /our years' imprisonment ; led a wandering life for sev-
eral years, engaging in numerous intrigues ; sent to Berlin on a secret
mission in 1786, and elected to the States-General in 1789, and later to
the National Assembly, of which he became president in 1791.

Mir Khodudal Khan. Khan of Baluchistan. Sue. 1857.

Mitchel, Ormsby Macknight. 1810-1862. American gen-
eral and astronomer. Captured Huntsville, 1862.

Mitchell, Donald Grant. Ik Marvel. 1822- American

author. Reveries of a Bachelor ; My Farm at Edge-wood, etc.

Mitford, Mary Russell. 1786-1855. American authoress.

Mitford, William. 1744-1827. English historian.

Mithridates VI. The Great. 132-63 B.C. King of Pontus.
Allied with Tigranes, king of Armenia, he defeated the Romans in Sev-
ern! battles.

Mohammed, or Mahomet. 560- Founder of the Mos-
lem religion. Pretended, at the age of forty, to have received a revela-
tion from Allah, and thenceforth devoted himself to the propagation of
his new religion. Previous to this time he had been an idolater. Hut
new faith, which included the unity of God, was rejected at Mecca,
where a conspiracy was formed against him, but was warmly embraced
in Medina, to which place the prophet fled in 622. From this flight,
called the Hegira, the Mussulmans compute their time. After this
event, Mohammed ceased to advocate liberty of conscience, but prop-
agated the faith of Islam by the sword, gaining numerous victories, and
spreading his religion over a large portion of Western Asia. The Koran
was composed in separate chapters, as occasion required.

Mohammed II. The Victorious, 1430-1481. Turkish sul-
tan. III., 1642-1692.

Moliere. (Jean Baptiste Poquelin.) 1622-1673. French dra-
matist and actor. Among his numerous comedies are The Misanthrope
and The Hypocrite ( Tartuffe).

Moltke, Carl Bernhard Helmuth von, Count. 1 800-1 891.

Chief marshal of the German empire. Virtually commander-in-chief of
the German armies m the Franco-German war, and designed the entire
campaign.

Mommsen, Christian Matthias Theodor. 181 7- Ger-
man historian.
Monk, George, Duke of Albemarle. 1608-1670. English

general ; restored the monarchy.

Monmouth, James Scott, Duke of. 16497-1685. Natural
son of Charles II.; rebelled, but was defeated and executed.

Monroe, James. 1758-1831. Fifth president. Born in Vir-
ginia; captain in the war of 1812 ; studied law under Jefferson ; Con-
gress, 1783; opposed the constitution; governor of Virginia, 1799;
envoy extraordinary to France, 1802; re-elected governor, 18:1; ap-
pointed secretary of state same year by Madison; elected president,
1816, and re-elected 1820.

Montague, Lady Mary Wortley. 1690-1762. EngKsh
authoress.

Montaigne, Michel Eyquemde. 1533-1592. French philos-
opher and essayist. Essays.

Montalembert, Charles Forbes de, Comte. 1810-1870. Fr.

publicist; leader of the liberal Catholic party.

Montcalm, Louis J. de St. Veran, Marquis of. 1712-1759.

French commander in Canada.
Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de. 1689— 1755.

French jurist and philosopher.
Montezuma II. i48o?-i520. Last Aztec emperor of

Mexico.
Montfort, Simon de. ri5o?-i2i8. Norman crusader.

Montfort, Simon de, Earl of Leicester. i2CO?-i265. Sort

of preceding. Ledthe barons against Henry III.
Montgolfier, Jacques Etienne (1745-1799) and Joseph Michel

(1740-1810). French mechanicians ; invented air-balloon.
Montgomery, James. 1771-1854. Scottish poet.
Montgomery, Richard. 1736-1775. American general;

killed at Quebec.

Montgomery, Robert. 1807-1855. English poet.
Montmorenci, Anne de, Due. 1493-1567. Fr. constable.
Montmorenci, Henri de, Due. 1534-1614. Constable of

France.

Montmorenci, Mathew de. 1 175-1230. Constable of France.

240

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY

~7|

Montrose, James Graham, Marquis of. 1612-1650. Scottish

general. Executed.
Moody, Dwight Lyman. 1837- American evangelist.

Born at Northfield, Mass.
Moore, Sir John. 1761-1809. British general; fell at

Corunna.
Moore, Thomas. 1779-1852. Irish poet. LallaRookh; Irish

Mr Indies : The Loves 0/ the Angels, etc.
Morales, Luis. El Divino. 1509- 1586. Spanish painter.
More, Hannah. i745-»833- English authoress. Calebs in

Search of a Wife.

More, Sir Thomas. 1480-1535. English statesman and phil-
osopher; educated at Oxford ; entered Parliament, j 504 ; produced
History 0/ Richard 111., 1513 ; Utopia, 1516 ; became a great favorite
of Henry VIII., who made him lord chancellor in 1530- being an ardent
Catholic, he refused to sanction the divorce of Queen Catherine and re-
signedhis office in 153a : imprisoned in 1534 for declining to take an oath
acknowledging the validity of the king's marriage to Anne Boleyn, and
executed the following year for denying the king's supremacy as head of
the church.

Moreau, Jean Victor. 1763-1813. French general. Victor
at Hochstadt and Hohenlinden ; fell at Dresden.

Morelos, Jose Maria. 1780-1815. Mexican revolutionist.

Morgan, John Hunt. 1825-1863. Confederate cavalry offi-
cer and major-general. (" Morgan's raid.")

Mornay, Philippe de, Seigneur du Plessis-Marly. Du Plessis
Mornay. 1549-1623. French Protestant statesman.

Morris, George P. 1802- 1864. American journalist and

poet. Woodman, Spare That Tree.

Morris, Gouverneur. 1752-1816. American statesman.
Morris, Robert. 1734-1806. Am. statesman and financier.
Morris, William. 1834-.... English poet.
Morse, Samuel Finley Breese. 1791-1872. Am. inventor of

the magnetic telegraph ; graduate of Yale College; studied painting in
England, returning to America in 1832; constructed small recording
electric telegraph in 1835 ; finally obtained aid from Congress in 1843,
and constructed a line between Washington and Baltimore in 1844.

Mortimer, Roger, Earl of March. 1287?- 1 330. Favorite of

Isabella of England ; executed.
Morton, James Douglas, Earl of. 1530-1581. Regent of

Scotland. Executed as accessory to Darnley's murder.
Morton (or Moreton), John. 1410-1500. English prelate.
Morton, Oliver Perry. 1823-1877. American statesman.
Moscheles, Ignaz. 1794-1870. Hungarian pianist.
Moses. 1 570-1450. Hebrew law-giver. Led the Israelites

out of Egypt.
Motley, John Lothrop. 1814-1877. American diplomatist

and historian. The Rise of the Dutch Republic : History of the United

Netherlands.
Mott, Lucretia (tile Coffin). 1793-1880. Am. social reformer.
Mott, Valentine. 1785-1865. American surgeon.
Moultrie, William. 1731-1805. Am. Revolutionary general.
Mozart, Johann Chrysostomus Wolfgang Amadcus. 1656-

1791. Gennan composer. Composed short uieces at the age of six, and

at seven gave concerts in Paris and London. Distinguished for the

universality of his genius. Don Giovanni: The Magic Flute: The

Marriage of Figaro: Reouiem.
Muhlenberg, Henry Melchior. 1711-1787. Founder of the

German Lutheran church in America.
Muhlenberg, John Peter Gabriel. 1746-1807. Am. general.
Mukhtar Pasha, Ghazi Ahmed. 1837- . . . . Turkish general

and statesman.

British admiral.
1550-1614. Scottish

1785-1860. British

1810-

Muller, Friedrich Maximilian (Afax AftUler). 1823-

German scholar aad writer in England. Chips from a German Work-
shop.

Mulock, Dinah Maria. See Craik.

Munchausen, Hieronymus Karl Friedrich von, Baron. 1720-
1797. German soldier and rom;.

Munzer, Thomas -1526. German Anabaptist fanatic

Murat, Joachim. 1771-1815. Fr. marshal and king of Italy.

Murillo, Bartolome Esteban. 1618-1682. Spanish painter.
Excelled as a colorist, and regarded as the greatest of the Spanish
school of painters. His virgin saints and beggar boys are famous.

Murray (or Moray), James Stuart, Earl of. 1533-1570. Re-
gent of Scotland. Opponent of Mary Stuart. Assassinated.

Murray, Lindley. 1 745- 1 826. American grammarian.

Musset, Louis Charles Alfred de. 1810-1857. French poet.

Nadir Shah. (Kouli Khan.) 1688-1747. King of Persia.
Expelled the Afghans and dethroned the Shah ; conquered part of India.

Nana-Sahib. 1824- Leader of Sepoy mutiny.

Napier, Sir Charles James. 1782-1853. Eng. general in India.

Napier, Sir Charles John. 1786-1860.

Napier, John, Laird of Merchiston.

mathematician.

Napier, Sir William Francis Patrick.

general and writer.
Napier of Magdala, Robert Cornells Napier, Baron.

1876. British general.
Napoleon. See Bonaparte.

Nash, Richard. Beau Nash. 1674-1761. English fop.
Nasir-ed-Din. 1829-. . . . Shah of Persia.
Neander, Johann August Wilhelm. 1789-1850. German

theologian and historian. History of the Christian Religion*

Nebuchadnezzar -561 B.C. Chaldean king of Babylon.

Conquered Jerusalem, Tyre and Egypt.
Necker, Jacques. 1732-1804. French statesman and financier.

Father of Mme. de Stael.
Neilson, Adelaide. 1853-1881. American actress.

Nelson, Horatio, Viscount. 1758-1805. The greatest of

Britain's naval commanders. Entered the navy at 13; post-captain,
1779 ; rear admiral, 1797, his promotion having been earoec by his share
in the victory of St. Vincent : lost his right arm in an unsuccessful at-
tack on TcnerifTc ; won the battle of the Nile in 1798, for which be was
raised to the peerage as Baron Nelson of the Nile ; became separated
from his wife, owing to an infatuation with Lady Hamilton which lasted
until his death ; created a viscount for the victory of the Baltic, where,
being second in command, he disobeyed the orders directing him to re-
treat ; fell at Trafalgar, where his fleet gained a decisive victory over
the French and Spanish.

Nepos, Cornelius. Fl. 5 B.C. Roman historian.

Neri, Fihppo de, Saint. St. Philip Neri. 1515-1595. Italian
founder of the order of " Priests of the Oratory."

Nerva, Marcus Cocceius. 32-98. Roman emperor, 76-98.

Nesselrode. Charles Robert von, Count. 1780-1862. Rus-
sian diplomatist ; minister of foreign affairs for forty years.

Nestorius -440? Syrian prelate ; patriarch of Constan-
tinople, and founder of the Nestorian schism.

Newman, John Henry, Cardinal. 1801-1890. English theo-
logian. Graduated at Oxford : founded an ascetic community in 184s,
over which he presided for three years ; a recogniied leader of the
High Church party until 1845, when he became a Catholic ; appointed
rector of Catholic University at Dublin 1854. and made a cardinal by
Pope Leo X1I1. in 1879. A Grammar of Assent.

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

241

Newton, Sir Isaac. 1 642-1 727. English philosopher and

mathematician. The son of a farmer ; graduated at Cambridge 1665,
about which time he invented the " method of fluxions." and discovered
the attraction of gravitation ; discovered, in 1668, that light is not homo-
geneous, but consists of rays of different refrangibility ; published his
Theory of Light and Color in 1675, and his greatest work. The Prin-
cipia, in 1687.

Ney, Michel, Duke of Echlingen and Prince of the Moskwa.
1796-1815. French marshal ; the son of a cooper ; entered the army at
18 as a private, and was gradually promoted. Napoleon called him "the
bravest of the brave," and his titles were conferred upon him tor his
victory at Echlingen in 1805, and his services at the battle of Borodino.
Commanded the rear guard in the retreat from Moscow ; defeated by
Bernadotte, at Dennewitz, 1813 ; submitted to Louis XVIII. upon the
abdication of Napoleon, against whom he was sent with an army in
1815, but united his army with that of his old commander; had five
horses shot underhim at Waterloo, where he fought with his usual valor ;
was captured soon after, and executed on a charge of treason.

Nicholas I. Pope, ruling from 858 to 867. II., 1059-1061.
HI., 1277-1280. IV., 128S-1292. V., 1447-1455.

Nicholas I. 1796-1855. Emperor of Russia; at war with
Persia and Turkey ; subdued Polish insurrection, 1831 ; engaged in
Crimean war.

Nicholas. 1841-. . . . Prince of Montenegro.

Niebuhr, Barthold Georg. 1776-1831. German historian.

Nicot, Jean. 1530-1600. Fr. scholar; introduced tobacco.

Nightingale, Florence. 1820-. . . . English philanthropist.

Notes on Hospitals.

Nilsson, Christine. (Mme. Rouzaud.) 1843- Swedish

vocalist.

Noailles, Adrian M., Duke of. 1678-1766. French general.
Nordenskjold, Adolf Erik. 1832-. . . . Swedish explorer.
Nordhoff, Charles. 1830-. . . . Am. author and journalist.
North, Christopher. See Wilson, John.
North, Frederick, Lord. 1732-1792. English statesman.
Northcote, Sir Stafford Henry. 1818-1887. Eng. statesman.
Norton, Caroline Elizabeth Sarah [nie Sheridan). 1808-

1877. English authoress. Stuart of Dunleith.
Nostradamus. (Michel tie Notredame.) 1503-1566. French

astrologer. Centuries.

Nottingham, Heneage Finch, first Earl of. 1621-1682. Eng-
lish jurist and statesman.

Novalis. (Friedrich von Hardenberg.) 1772-1801. Ger-
man author.

Novello, Vincent. 1771—1861. English composer.

Noyes, George Rapall. 1798- 1868. American theologian.

Noyes, John Humphrey. 1811-1886. American communist.

OATES, Titus. 1620-1705. English informer; contriver
of the celebrated "Popish Plot."

Oberlin, Jean Frederic. 1740-1816. French-German re-
former and philanthropist.

O'Brien, William Smith. 1803-1864. Irish political agitator.
Leader of " Young Ireland " party ; banished for treason.

O'Connell, Daniel. 1775-1847. Irish patriot and orator.
Advocated Catholic emancipation, but opposed resort to arms ; elected
to Parliament in 1828, but not allowed to take his seat until 1829, when
the bill for Catholic emancipation was passed , gave up his large law
practice and gave his entire attention to public duties ; began advocating
the repeal of the union in 1840, and was convicted in 1844 on a charge of
treason, but the sentence, one year's imprisonment and ^2,000 fine, was
reversed by the House of Lords.

O'Conor, Charles. 1804-1884. American lawyer.

Occam, William of. The Invincible Doctor. i28o?-I347.
English theologian.

Odoacer -493- Gothic king of Italy ; executed.

O'Donnell, Leopold, Count of Lucena, Duke of Tetuan.
1809-1867. Spanish general and statesman.

Oehlenschlager, Adam Gottlob. 1 779-1 850. Danish poet.

Oersted, Hans Christian. 1777-1851. Danish natural phil-
osopher ; founder of the science of electro-magnetism.

Offenbach, Jacques. 1819-1880. German-French composer.

La Belle Heline ; Orphie aux Enfers ; Bluebeard; La Grande
Duchesse: Lajolie Par/umeuse, etc.

Oglesby, Richard J. 1824-. . . . American statesman.

Oglethorpe, James Edward. 1698-1785. English general;
colonized Georgia.

Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham. 1360-1407. English re-
former; head of the Lollards ; executed.

Oldfield, Anne. 1683-1730. English actress.

Oliphant, Margaret. 1818-. . . .English novelist.

Ollendorff, Henri Godefroy. 1803-1865. German educator.

Ollivier, Olivier Emile. 1825-. . . . French statesman.

Omar I. 581-644. Arabian caliph. Conquered Jerusalem.

Omar Pasha. (Michael Lattas.) 1806-1871. Turkish com

mander in the Crimean war ; born in Croatia.

O'Meara, Barry Edward. 1780-1836. Irish physician and

author. Napoleon in Exile.
Opie, Mrs. Amelia. 1769-1853. English authoress.
Orange, William, Prince of. The Silent. 1 553-1 584. Founder

of the Dutch republic ; leader of the insurrection which broke out when
it was attempted to introduce the Inquisition into the .Netherlands.
Assassinated.

Origen. i86?-253. Greek theologian and preacher. Endeav-
ored to harmonize the teachings of Christ and Plato; opposed the theory
of eternal punishment.

Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Due d'. 1747-1793. Took

the popular side on the assembling of the States-General, renounced his
titles and assumed the name of Egalite (Equality). Voted for the death of
his cousin, Louis XVI. Condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, and
executed. His son, Louis Philippe, afterward became king of France.

Orleans, Philippe, Due d'. 1674-1723. Regent of France.
Orloff, Alexis, Count. 1787-1861. Russian general.
Ormond, James Butler, Duke of. 1610-1688. Irish statesman;

put down the Irish rebellion.

Orsini, Felice. 1819-1858. Italian conspirator; leader in the
attempted assassination of Napoleon III., in 1858 ; executed.

Oscar II. 1829-. . . . King of Sweden and Norway.

Osman I. 1259-1326. Founder of Ottoman dynasty.

Ossoli, Margaret Fuller, Marchioness. 1810-1850. Ameri-
can authoress.

Otho I. The Great. 912-973. Emperor of Germany.
Christianized the Danes; deposed Pope John XII. II., 955-983. III.,
980-1002. IV., 1174-1218.

Otho I. 1815-1867. King of Greece.

Otis, James. 1 725-1 783. Am. lawyer, orator and patriot.
Opposed " writs of assistance ' '; leader of the popular party.

Otway, Thomas. 1651—1685. English dramatist.

Oudinot, Nicholas Charles. 1767-1847. French general.

Outram, Sir James. 1802-1863. English general in India.

Overbury, Sir Thomas. 1581-1613. English poet.

Ovid. (Publius Ovidius Naso.) B.C. 43- 18 a.d. Roman poet.

Owen, Sir Rich'd. 1804- Eng. zoologist and anat.

242

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

i-av.

Owen, Robert. 1771-1858. English socialist ; founder of the

community of New Harmony.
Oxensticrn, Axel, Count. 1583-1654. Swedish statesman.

*T)ADILLA, Don Juan Lope* de -1521. Spanish

^ patriot and general ; executed.

Paganini, Niccolo. 1784-1840. Italian violinist.

Paine, Robert Treat. 1731-1814. Am. lawyer and statesman.

Paine, Thomas. 1737-1809. American political writer and
free-thinker; bom in England. Common Stmt; Rights of Man ; Tht
Age 0/ Reason.

Pakenham, Sir Edward -1815. British general; fell

at New Orleans.

Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da. I524?-I594. Italian com-
poser of church music. Mass of Pope Marcellus.

Paley, William. 1 743-1805. English theologian.

Palissy, Bernard. 1506-1589. Fr. potter and enameller.

Palladio, Andrea. 1518-1580. Italian architect.

Palmaroli, Pietro -1828. Italian painter.

Palmerston, Henry John Temple, Viscount. 1784-1865.
English statesman ; minister of foreign affairs and prime minister.

Paoli, Pasqualedi. 1726-1807. Corsican general.

Papin, Denis. 1647-1712. French physician. (Digester.)

Papineau, Louis Joseph. 1 789-1 871. Canadian politician.

Paracelsus, Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von
Hohenheim. 1493-1541. Swiss alchemist and empiric.

Parepa-Rosa, Euphrosyne. 1 836-1 874. Scottish vocalist.

Paris, Louis Albert Philippe d'Orleans, Comte de. 1838-

French prince ; grandson of Louis Philippe.

Park, Mungo. 1771-1805. Scottish traveller and explorer.

Travels in the Interior 0/ Africa.
Parker, Matthew. 1 504-1 575. English prelate.
Parker, Theodore. 1810-1860. Am. rationalistic theologian.
Parkman, Francis. 1823-. . . . American historian.
Parnell, Chas. Stewart. 1843-1891. Irish agitator; leader

of the Irish parliamentary party.
Parr, Catherine. 1 509-1 548. Surviving queen of Henry VIII.
Parrhasius. Fl. 400 B.C. Greek painter.
Parrott, Robert Parker. 1804-1877. American inventor.
Parry, Sir William Edmund. 1 790-1855. English Arctic

explorer ; discovered Barrow's Strait.
Parsons, Theophilus. 1750-1813; 1797-1882. Am. jurists.
Parton, James. 1822-1891. American historian.
Pascal, Blaise. 1623-1662. French philosopher and

mathematician. At the age of twelve, he had acquired, without

books, a knowledge of geometry, and established the theory of

atmospheric pressure, 1648,
Pasteur, Louis. 182*-. . . . Fr. chemist and pathologist.
Patrick, Saint. 372?-46o? Apostle of Ireland.
Patti, Adelina Maria Clorinda, Marquise de Caux. 1843-. - • •

Operatic singer, of Italian descent ; born in Madrid.
Paul, Saint, of Tarsus. Saul. lo?-66? Apostle.
Paul I. Pope from 757 to 767. II., 1464-1471. III. (Alessan-

dro Farnese), 1534-1549 ; excommunicated Henry VIII. ; called Council

ofTrent. IV., i555->5». V., 1605-1621.

Paul I. 1 754-1801. Emperor of Russia ; assassinated.
Paul Veronese. (Paolo Cagliari.) 15307-1588. It. painter.
Pausanias. Fl. 479 B.C. Spartan general.
Paxton, Sir Joseph. 1 803-1 865. English architect.

Payne, John Howard. 1792-1852. American dramatist and

poet. Home, Sweet Home.
Peabody, George. 1795-1869. American philanthropist
Acquired great wealth as a banker in London ; expended over five
millions in benevolent enterprises.

Peale, Rembrandt. 1778-1860. American painter.

Pedro (de Alcantara) I. 1798-1834. Emperor of Brazil;

king of Portugal as Pedro IV. IX, 1815-1891. Deposed 1889.
Peel, Sir Robert Orange Peel. 1788-1850. English

statesman and prime minister; repealed the Corn Laws.

Peixoto, Floriano. President of Brazil. Elected 1891.
Pelham, Henry. 1684-1754. English statesman.
Pellegrini, Carlos. Pres. Agentine Rep. Elected 1890.
Pellico, Silvio. 1789-1854. Italian poet and patriot
Pemberton, John Clifford. 1814-1881. Confederate general.
Penn, William. 1644-1718. English Quaker; statesman,

courtier, author and philanthropist ; rounder of Pennsylvania. Son of

Sir William Penn, an English admiral.

Pepin. The Short. 7i4?-768. King of France. Son of
Charles Martel and father of Charlemagne. Mayor of the palace under
Childeric III.; usurped the throne in 75a.

Pepys, Samuel. 1632-1703. English author and scholar;

secretary of the admiralty. Diary ; Memories 0/ the Navy.

Pepperell, Sir William. 1696-1759. Am. colonial general.
Perceval, Spencer. 1762-1812. Eng. statesman ; assassinated.
Percival, James Gates. 1795-1856. American poet
Percy, Thomas. 1728-181 1. English prelate and author.
Pereire, Emile (1800-1875) and Isaac (1806- ). French

financiers. Founded the "Credit Mobilier."
Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista. !7io?-i737? Italian composer.
Pericles. 4957-429 B.C. Athenian orator, statesman and

general. Became the leader of the democratic party and the first man in

Athens; greatly increased Athenian influence; erected many noble

public works, including the Parthenon.

Perrault, Claude. 1613-1688. French architect.

Perry, Matthew Calbraith. 1794-1858. American commodore ;
commanded expedition to Japan. «

Perry, Oliver Hazard. 1785-1819. American commodore;
defeated the British on Lake Erie.

Persius Flaccus, Aulus. 34-62. Roman satirist.

Perugino, Pietro. (Vannucci.) 1446-1524. Italian painter.

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich. 1745-1827. Swiss educationist.

Peter, Saint -66. Apostle.

Peter I. The Great. 1672-1725. Czar of Russia. Organ-
ized an army and entered it as a private ; studied practical seamanship,
and formed a navy ; travelled incognito in Western Europe ; worked as
a ship-carpenter in Holland : founded schools and effected a number of
reforms ; defeated Charles XII. of Sweden, at Pultowa, 1709 ; founded
St. Petersburg. His second wife, Catherine, was a prisoner of war, of
obscure parentage. The crown prince, Alexis, opposing the czar's
policy, was forced to renounce the succession and is said to have been
poisoned by his father.

Peter the Hermit. 1050?-! 1 15. Preacher of first crusade.

Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, Earl of. 1658-1735.
English general ; able but eccentric Captured Barcelona and Valencia.

Petion, Alexandre. 1770-1818. First president of Hayti.

Petrarch. (Francesco Petrarca.) 1304-1374. Italian poet
and scholar. Enamored of Laura de Sadc, whose name has been ren-
dered Immortal by over three hundred sonnets and fifty ■-«»-»■» ad-
dressed to her.

Pettie, John. 1839- Scottish artist.

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

243

1815-1852. American authoress.

Daughter of preceding
His

Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart
The Sunny Side.

Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart. 1844-. . .
American authoress. The Gates Ajar.

Phidias. 490-432 B.c. The greatest of Greek sculptors.
Zeus at Olympia is counted among the wonders of the world.

Philidor. Assumed name of a French family (Danican) of
musicians. Francois Andre Danican (1736-1795) was a celebrated chess
player.

Philip. (Pometacom.) King Philip -1676. New

England Indian chief; sachem of Pokanoket. (King Philip's war.)

Philip II. 382-336 B.C. King of Macedonia ; father of Alex-
ander the. Great. Assassinated.

Philip II. (Augustus.) 1 165-1223. King of France. An-
nexed Normandy, Anjou and Lorraine; won the battle of Bou-
vines. III., The Bold, 1245-1285; ascended the throne in 1270.
IV., The Fair, 12G8-1314; reduced the power of the feudal nobles;
imprisoned Pope Boniface III. and caused him to remove his seat
to Avignon; suppressed the order of Knights Templars. VI. (of
Valois), 1293-1350.

Philip II. 1527-1598. King of Spain. Son of Charles V.
Provoked insurrection in the Netherlands by his attempt to intro-
duce the Spanish Inquisition; married, on the death of Mary Tudor,
his second wife, Isabella of France, the betrothed of his son, Don
Carlos; equipped the "Invincible Armada" for the conquest of
England. III., 1578-1621. IV., 1605-1665. V., 1683-1746; first of
the House of Bourbon.

Philip. The Good. 1396-1467. Duke of Burgundy.

Phillips, Adelaide. 1833-. . . . English-American vocalist.

Phillips, Wendell. 1811-1884. American orator and abo-
litionist. Speech in Faneuil Hall, 1836.

Phips (or Phipps), Sir William. 1651-1695. Colonial gover-
nor of Massachusetts. Captured Port Royal.

Phocion. 4027-317 B.C. Athenian general and statesman.

Piccolomini, Ottavio. 1599-1656. Austrian general ; con-
spirator against Wallenstein. Gained great distinction in the Thirty
Years' war ; led Spanish army in Flanders.

Pickering, Timothy. 1745-1829. American statesman.

Pierce, Franklin. 1804-1869. Fourteenth president of the

United States. Born in New Hampshire ; Congress, 1832-7 ; senator,
1837-42 ; brigadier-general in Mexican war ; elected president on the
Democratic ticket, in 1852, holding that office from 1853-7 ; opposed co-
ercion ol the South in 1863.

Pilate, Pontius -38. Roman governor of Palestine.

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth. 1746-1825. American states-
man and soldier; leader of the Federalists.

Pindar. 520 7-440 ? B.C. Greek lyric poet.

Pinkney, William. 1764-1822. Am. lawyer and orator.

Pisano, Andrea. 1270-1345. Italian sculptor and architect.

Pisano, Nicola. 12007-1278? Italian sculptor.

Pisistratus. 612-527 B.C. Tyrant of Athens.

Pitcairn, Maj. John -1775- English officer; fell at

Bunker HiU.

Pitman, Benn. 1822-. . . . English phonographer.

Pitman, Isaac. 1813-. . . . Eng. inventor of phonography.

Pitt, William. 1 759-1 806. English statesman and orator.
Son of the Earl of Chatham. Graduated at Cambridge ; admitted to
thebar, 1780; entered Parliament, 1781 ; chancellor of the exchecquer,
1782 ; first lord of the treasury and prime minister, 1783 ; head of the
great coalition against Bonaparte.

Pius I. Pope, 142-157. II., 1458-1464. III., 1503; died

same year IV. (Giovanni Angelo de'Mcdici), 1559-1565 ; convoked
Council of Trent. V, 1566-1572. VI., 1775-1799. VII., 1800-1823 ;
taken from Rome in 1809 by Napoleon, and detained at Genoa and Fon-

tainebleau. VIII., 1839-1830. IX. fGiovanni Maria Maitai Ferretti),
bom 1793 ; chosen to the pontificate, 1846 ; died, 1878. During his
incumbency the dogmas' of the Immaculate Conception and of Papal In-
fallibility were promulgated; temporal power overthrown, 1870, and
the Papal States annexed to Italy.

Pizarro, Francisco. 14757-1541? Sp. conqueror of Peru.

Plantagenet. Dynasty of English kings, 1 1 54-1485.

Plato. 428-347 B.C. Greek philosopher; disciple of Socrates
Held that the human soul has always existed, and that an idea is an
eternal thought of the divine mind.

Pleasonton, Alfred. 1824- American general.

Pliny. The Elder. 23-79. Roman naturalist ; perished at
an eruption of Vesuvius. Natural History.

Pliny. The Younger. 62?-n6. Roman orator and author.

Plotinus. 205-270. Greek Neo-Platonic philosopher.

Plunkett, William Conyngham, Lord. 1764-1854. Irish

jurist.

Plutarch. 507-120? Greek biographer and philosopher.

Parallel Lives.

Pocahontas. 15957-1617. Daughter of Powhatan. Saved

the life of Capt. John Smith, an English explorer ; was converted to
Christianity, and married an English gentleman named Rolfe.

Poe, Edgar Allan. 1809-1849. American author ; extremely
dissipated. The Raven ; The Fall 0/ the House 0/ Usher ; Tales 0/
the Grotesque and Arabesque .

Polk, James Knox. 1795- 1849. American statesman;
eleventh president. Bom in North Carolina ; removed to Tennessee ;
admitted to the bar ; Congress, 1835; speaker for two terms ; governor
of Tennessee, 1839-41 ; elected president en the Democratic ticket,
holding that office from 1845-9. During his term Texas was formally
annexed to the Union, and the Mexican war prosecuted.

Polk, Leonidas. 1806-1864. Episcopal bishop and Confed-
erate general ; prominent at Shiloh and Stone River.

Pollok, Robert. 17987-1827. Scot. poet. Course of Time.
Polo, Marco. 12527-1324? Venetian traveller.
Polybius. 2067-124 B.C. Greek historian.
Polycarp, Saint. 807-169? Bishop of Smyrna ; martyr.
Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de. 172I-

1764. Mistress of Louis XV. of France ; assumed complete control

of public affairs.
Pompey. The Great. 106-48 B.C. Roman general and

triumvir; conquered Suetonius and Mithridates ; became leader of the

aristocracy and opponent of Caesar; defeated at Pharsalia.
Ponce de Leon, Juan. 1460-1521. Spanish discoverer of

Florida.

Poniatowski, Jozef Antoni, Prince. 1762-1813. Polish com-
mander; created field-marshal by Napoleon.

Pontiac. 17127-1769. Chief of the Ottawas; formed coali-
tion of Indians against the whites, and attempted to capture Detroit.

Pope, Alexander. 1 688-1 744. English poet. The son of a
linen-draper ; educated by a Catholic priest. Macaulay calls him " a
great master of invective and sarcasm." Messiah: Pastorals ; Essay
on Man ; Essay on Criticism ; The JDtmciad; Rape 0/ the Loch, and
translations of Homer.

Porter, David. 1780-1843. American commodore.

Porter, David Dixon. 1813-1891. Son of preceding. Am-
erican admiral ; reduced Fort Fisher, 1865.

Porter, Fitz John. 1823-.... Nephew of David Porter.

American general.

Porter, Jane. 1776-1850. Eng. novelist. Thaddeus of Warsaw.
Porter, Noah. 181 1-. . . . American educator.
Powers, Hiram. 1805-1873. American sculptor.
Powhatan. 15507-1618. Indian chieftain in Virginia.

=^b

244

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Praxiteles. Fl. 360 B.C. Greek sculptor.

Preble, Edward. 1761-1807. American naval officer.

Prentice, George Denison. 1802-1870. American poet and

journalist.
Prentiss, Sergeant Smith. 1808-1850. American orator and

lawyer.
Prescott, William Hickling. 1796-1859. American historian.

Ferdinand and Isabella.

Price, Sterling 1867. Confederate general.

Prim, Juan, Count de Reus and Marquis de los Castillejos.

1814-1870. Spanish general and statesman : assassinated.

Prior, Matthew. 1664-1721. English poet and diplomatist.

Probus, Marcus Aurelius. 232—282. Roman emperor.

Procter, Adelaide Anne. 1825- 1864. English poetess.

Procter, Bryan Waller. Barry Cornwall. 1790-1874. Eng-
lish poet. The Sea.

Prout, Father. (Francis Mahony.) 1805-1866. Irish journal-
ist and writer.

Prynne, William. 1600-1669. English Puritan writer.

Ptolemy I. Soter. 397?-283 B.C. King of Egypt. II.,
Philadelphus , 309-447 b.c

Ptolemy. (Claudius Ptolemseus.) Fl. 2d century Greek
astronomer and geographer. Believed the earth to be at rest in the cen-
tre of the universe, the heavenly bodies moving around 't

Pugin, Augustus N. W. 1811-1852. English architect.
Pulaski, Casimir, Count. 1 747-1 779. Polish patriot; general

in the American Revolutionary army. Fell at the siege of Savannah.
Putnam, Israel. 1718-1790. American Revolutionary general.

Conspicuous at the battle of Bunker Hill.
Pym, John. 1 584-1643. English republican statesman and

orator ; popular leader in Parliament.
Pyrrho. 36o?-270? B.C. Greek skeptic and philosopher.
Pyrrhus. 3187-272 B.C. King of Epirus and one of the

greatest of ancient generals. Defeated the Romans and conquered

Macedonia

Pythagoras. 6oo?-5io? B.C. Greek philosopher. Taught
the doctrine of transmigration of souls

QUACKENBOS, George Payn. 1826- 1881. American
educationist.

Quarles, Francis. 1592- 1 644. English poet. Emblems.

Queensberry, William Douglas, Duke of. 1724-1810. Scot-
tish profligate.

Quin, James. 1693-1766. English actor, famous as Falstaff.

Quincy, Josiah. 1744-1775. American orator and patriot.

Quincy, Josiah. 1772- 1 864. Son of preceding. American
statesman and scholar.

Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius. 50?-u8? Roman rhetorician.

Va^ABELAIS, Francois. I495?-I553- French scholar and

< AJ\ satirist. Joined the Franciscans, but left the order: afterward
studied medicine His great work, The Pleasant Story 0/ the Giant
Gargantna and hit Son Pantagruel, is a satire upon the different
branches of society of his age, more particularly the monastic orders

Rachel. (Elizabeth Rachel Felix.) 1821-1858. French
actress, born in Switzerland ; daughter of a Jewish peddler.

Racine, Jean. 1639-1699. French dramatist. Les Plat-
dears : Britannicus ; Berenice ; Bafaut ; lphigtnie : Phidre :
Esther; Athalie.

Racine, Louis. 1692-1763. French poet. Son of J. R.

Radcliffe, Ann. 1 764-1823. English novelist.

Radcliffe, John. 1650-1714. English physician.

Raglan, James Henry Fitzroy Somerset, Lord. 1788-1855.

English general. Commanded British army in Crimean war.

Raleigh, Sir Walter. 1552-1618. English courtier, states-
man, navigator and author. A favorite of Queen Elizabeth ; executed
by James I .

Rameau, Jean Philippe. 1683-1764. French composer.

Ramsay, Allan. 1685-1758. Scottish poet.

Ranavalona III. Queen of Madagascar Sue. 1883.

Randolph, John (of Roanoke). 1773-1833. American poli-
tician and orator. Entered Congress 1799; advocated extension of
slavery; opposed Missouri Compromise ; Senate, 1824; soon after fought
a duel with Henry Clay ; minister to Russia, 1830.

Randolph, Peyton. 1723-1775. President of first American
Congress.

Raphael. (Raffaelle Sanzio, or Santi d' Urbino.) 1483-1520.

Italian painter. Sistine Madonna ; Adoration of the Magi; Marriage
o/tke Virgin : Transfiguration, etc.

Ravaillac, Francois. 1578-1610. French fanatic ; assassin of

Henry IV.
Read, Thomas Buchanan. 1822-1872. American poet and

artist. The House by the Sea ; The Wagoner of the Alleghanies.

Reade, Charles. 1814-1884 English novelist. Peg Wojfing-

ton: Hard Cash; White Lies: A Terrible Temptation ; Griffith

Gaunt.
Reaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchault de. 1683-1757. French

naturalist and inventor of a thermometer.
Recamier, Jeanne F J. A. B. 1777-1849. French lady noted

for beauty and accomplishments.
Red Jacket. 1760-1830. Eloquent Seneca Indian chief.
Reeves, Sims. 1821-.... English oratorio singer.
Regulus, Marcus Atilius -250 B.C. Roman general and

statesman. Captured by the Carthaginians and sent to Rome to secure

peace, but advised against it J returning to Carthage as he had

promised, he was tortured and put to death.
Reid, Capt. Mayne. 1818-1883. Irish-American novelist.
Rembrandt van Ryn, Paul. 1607-1669. Dutch painter.
Remusat, Charles Francois Marie, Count. 1797-1875. French

statesman and philosopher. Essays on Philosophy.
Renan, Joseph Ernest. 1823- . French philologist and

writer. Life of Jesus.

Retz, Jean Francois Paul de Gondi, Cardinal. 1614-1679.
French prelate ; a leader of the Frondeurs. Memoirs.

Reuter, Kritz. 1810-1874. Low-German poet and novelist.

Reuter, Julius. 181 5-.... German originator of Reuter's
Telegraphic Agency.

Revere, Paul. 1735-1818. American engraver and Revolu-
tionary patriot. Carried the news of Gage's impending attack to
Concord.

Reynolds, John Fulton. 1820-1863. American general.

Reynolds, Sir Joshua. 1723-1792. English painter.

Ricardo, David. 1772-1823. English pohti-al economist.

Richard I. Caeur de Lion. 1 1 57-1 109. King of England.
Led a large army into Palestine, where he exhibited great pa
prowess, conquered Acre and defeated Saladin. II., 1306-1400. 111.,
1453-1485, last of the Plantagenets.

Richardson, Samuel. 1689-1761. English novelist.

Richelieu, Annand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal. 1585-1643.
French prelate and statesman. Made cardinal, i6m . prime minister,.
1624 , curbed the nobility 1 subdued the Calvinists ; restored balance of
power in Europe ; granted religious toleration to the Protestants ;
secured exile of his foe, Marie de Medici, the king's mother, 1630 ;
aided German Protestants against Austria : founded French Academy
(1635); added Alsace, Lorraine, and Roussillon to France.

_«• 9

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

2 45

Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich. Jean Paul. 1763-1825.
German author. Among his works, which are distinguished for quaint-
ness and originality, may be named Greenland Lawsuits : Hesperus ;
The Invisible Lodge ; Parson in Jubilee : Titan.

Ridley, Nicholas. i5oo?-i555. English bishop and reformer.

Burned at the stake.

Rienzi, Nicola Gabrini. I3I3?-I354- Roman orator; made
famous by his attempt to restore the Roman Republic.

Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Earl de Grey and
Marquis of. 1827-.... English statesman.

Ristori, Adelaide, Marchioness del Grillo. 1821- Italian

actress.

Rittenhouse, David. 1732-1796. American astronomer.

Riviere, Briton. 1840-. . . . English animal painter.

Rizzio, David. 1540-1566. Italian musician; favorite and
secretary of Mary Stuart ; assassinated.

Robert. Robert the Devil. ....-1035. Duke of Normandy ;
father of William the Conqueror.

Robert I. Robert Bruce. 1274-1329. King of Scotland.
II., 1316-1390; first of the Stuarts.

Robert, Louis Leopold. 1794-1835. French painter.

Robertson, Frederick William. 1816-1853. Eng. divine.

Robespierre, Maximilien Joseph Marie Isidore. 1 758-1 794.
French Jacobin revolutionist ; ruler during the Reign of Terror ; guil-
lotined.

Robin Hood. Fl. 12th century. English outlaw.

Rob Roy. (Robert McGregor.) i66o?-i735? Scottish

freebooter.

Rochamcoau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur de, Count.

1725-1807. French marshal ; general in America in 1781.

Rockefort, Victor Henri de Rochefort-Lucay, Comte. 1830-

.... French editor and communist.
Rochefoucauld, Francois, Due de la. 1613-1680. French

wit and author. Maxims.

Rochejaquelin, Henri de la, Comte. 1772-1794. French

royalist : leader of the Vendeans.
Rodney, George Bridges, Lord. 1718-1792. Brit, admiral.
Roebling, John Augustus. 1806-1869. American engineer.

Rogers, John. 1829- American sculptor.

Rogers, John. I50o?-i555. English divine; burned at

Smithfield.
Rogers, Samuel. 1763-1855. English poet.
Roland, Marie Jeanne Philipon, Mme. 1754-1793. French

Girondist and writer ; guillotined. Memoirs.
Rollin, Charles. 1661-1741. Fr. historian. Ancient History .
Rollc, ov Hrolf. 86o?-930? Norwegian viking. First duke

of Normandy.

Romanoff, Michael Feodorovitch. J598?-l645. Founder of

the Russian dynasty.
Romulus. Fl. 750 B.C. Founder of Rome.
Romilly, Sir Samuel. 1757-1818. English statesman.
Rooke, Sir George. 1650-1709. British admiral.
Rosa, Salvator. 1615-1673. Italian painter.

Roscius, Quintus. 61 b.c Roman actor.

Rosecrans, William Starke. 1817- Am. general.

Ross, Sir John. 1 777-1856. British admiral and Arctic

navigator.

Ross, Sir James Clark. 1800-1862. Nephew of preceding.

British Arctic navigator.
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. 1828-1882. English painter and

poet. House 0/ Life.

Rossini, Gioacchimo. 1 792-1 868. Italian composer. Will-
iam Tell: The Barber 0/ Seville.

Rothschild, Mayer Anselm. 1743-1812. Jewish banker at
Frankfort ; founder of the house of Rothschild.

Rouget de l'lsle, Claude Joseph. 1 760-1836. French poet

and musician. Marseillaise.

Rouher, Eugene. 1814-1884. French politician.

Rousseau, Jean Baptiste. 1670-1741. French lyric poet.

Rousseau, Jean Jacques. 1712-1778. French philosopher
and writer. Born in Geneva ; apprenticed to an engraver, but wan-
dered about, and was successively a servant, a clerk, and a music
teacher; went to Paris 1745, and met Diderot and Grimme; formed
a connection with Therese le Vasseur, an ignorant woman, whom he
afterward married. In 1760 appeared Julie, or The New Heldtie ; in
1762, The Social Contract. His Smile, or Education, was burned at
Geneva, and he was compelled to take refuge in England. Hk Con-
fessions are an autobiography.

Rubens, Peter Paul. 1 587-1640. Flemish painter.

Rubinstein, Anton. 1830- Rus. composer and pianist.

Ruckert, Friedrich. 1 789-1866. Ger. orientalist and poet.

Rudolph I. (of Hapsburg). 1218-1291. Emperor of Ger-
many. Founder of the Austrian empire. II., 1552-1612.

Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count. 1753-1814. Am-
erican natural philosopher in France.

Rupert, Prince. (Prince Robert of Bavaria.) 1619-1682.

German warrior.

Ruskin, John. 1819- English writer on art.

Russell, John, Earl. 1 792-1878. English statesman.
Russell, William, Lord. 1639-1683. English patriot. Be-
headed on a charge of complicity in the " Rye House Plot."
Rutledge, John. 1 739-1800. American statesman and jurist.
Ruyter, Michael Adrianzoon de. 1607-1675. Dutch admiral.

Q*ACKVILLE, George, Viscount. Lord George Germain.
e*^ 1716-1785. English statesman and general.
Sadlier, Mary Anne, Mrs. 1820-. . . . Am. authoress.
Saint Clair, Arthur. 1734-1818. American general.
Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin. 1804-1869. French poet

and critic.
Saint-Pierre, Jacques Henri Bemardin de. 1737-1814. Fr.

author. Paul et Virginie.
Saint Simon, Claude Henri de, Count. 1760-1825. French

socialist.
Sala, George Augustus Henri. 1828-. . . . Eng. litterateur.
Saladin. 1137-1193. Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Opposed

the Crusaders. Defeated the Christians at Tiberias.

Sale, George. 1680-1736. English orientalist.

Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne Cecil, Marquis ot
1830-.... English premier.

Sallust. (Caius Sallustius Crispus.) 86-34 B.C. Rom. historian.

Saltonstall, Sir Richard. 1 586-1658? Puritan in Massachu-
setts colony.

Salvini, Tommaso. 1833-. . . . Italian actor.

Samuel. 1 170-1060 B.C. Last of the Israelite judges.

Sand, George. See Dudevant.

Sandeau, Leonard Sylvain Jules. 181 1-1883. Fr. novelist.

Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de. 1798-1876. Mexican gen-
eral and statesman.

Sappho. Fl. 600 B.C. Greek lyric poetess.

Sardanapalus. Fl. 900 B.C. King of Assyria.

Sardou, Victorien. 1831-.... French dramatist.

c sv_

246

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

Saul - ,0 55 B - c - First king of Israel.

Savage, Richard. 1698-1743. Eng. poet. The Wanderer.

Savonarola, Girolamo. 1452-1598. Italian religious re-
former.

Saze, Hermann Maurice, Count of. 1696-1750. Marshal of
France; native of Saxony. Captured Prague 1741.

Saxe, John Godfrey. 1816-1887. American humorous poet

Say, Jean Baptiste Leon. 1816-. . . . French financier.

Member of the Academic Francaise.
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von. 1 775-1 854.

German philosopher.
Schenck, Gen'l Rob't C. 1809-1890. Am. statesman.
Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von. 1759-1805.

The most popular of German poets. Studied medicine and law,
but could not resist his inclination towards literature. His drama.
The Robbers^ appeared in 1777; Thirty Years' War, 171(1: W'ull-
enslein, the work of many years, 1799. The Maid of Orleans,
Mary Stuart and William Tell are anions his best known
dramas, and The Song of the Bell is considered the best of his
minor poems. He enjoyed the friendship of Goethe.

Schlegel, August Wilhelm von. 1767-1845. German
poet, critic and philologist. Lectures on Dramatic Literature.

Schlegel, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von. Brother of pre-
ceding. 177^-1829. German philosopher and scholar. Lectures
on the Philosophy of History.

Schliemann, Heinrich. 1822-1890. German traveller.

Schoeffer, Peter. 1430-1500. One of the inventors of

printing;; partner of Johann Faust.

Scheneld, John McAllister. 1831-. . . . Am. general.

Schomberg, Friedrich A. H., Duke of. I6i6?-i690. Protes-
tant general. Born at Heidelberg; served in Swedish army during the
Thirty Years' war ; afterward marshal of France ; entered the service of
the Prince of Orange, and fell at the battle of the Boyne.

Schopenhauer, Arthur. 1788-1860. German pessimist

philosopher. The World as Will.
Schott, Andreas. 1552-1629. Dutch Jesuit scholar.
Schubert, Franz. 1797-1828. German composer.
Schumann, Robert. 1810-1856. German composer.
Schurz, Carl. 1829-. . . . German-American statesman.
Schuvaloff, Peter, Count. 1828-. . . . Russian diplomatist.
Schuyler, Philip. 1733-1804. Am. general and patriot.
Schwanthaler, Lud wig Michael. 1 802- 1848. Ger. sculptor.
Schwarz, Berthold. Fl. 14th century. German monk and

alchemist : reputed inventor of gunpowder.
Schweinfurth, Georg August. ' 1836-..., Ger. traveller.
Scipio Africanus Major, Publius Cornelius. 235 B.c-184?

Roman general ; invaded Africa and defeated Hannibal.
Scipio AJmilianus Africanus Minor, Publius Cornelius.

185 1-129 B.C. Roman general ; captured and destroyed Carthage.
Scott, Sir Walter. 1771-1832. Scottish novelist and poet.
Scott, Winfield. 1786-1866. American general.
Sebastian, Saint. 255 ?-288. Roman soldier and martyr.
Sebastian, Dom. 1554-1578. King of Portugal and warrior ;

invaded Morocco, but was defeated and slain.
Secchi, Tictro Angelo. 1818-1878. Italian astronomer.
Sedgwick, Catherine Maria. Daughter of T. S. S. 1780-1867.

American authoress.

Sedgwick, John. 1813-1864. American general.
Sedgwick, Theodore. 1746-1813. American jurist.
Seid Abdul Ahud. 1S60-. . . . Amir of Bokhara.

Selkirk, Alexander. 1676?-. 723. Scottish sailor whose ad-
ventures suggested the story of Robinson Crusoe.

Semiramis. Fl. 1250 B.C. Assyrian queen. Built Babylon,
and greatly increased her dominions ; invaded India, but was defeated.

Semmes, Raphael. 1809-1877. Confederate naval officer.

Seneca, Lucius Amicus. 5 7-65. Roman statesman, moralist
and Stoic philosopher.

Sennacherib. Fl. 700 B.C. Assyrian king.

Sergius I. Pope from 687-701. II., 844-847. III., 904-
913. IV., 1009-10x3.

Servetus, Michael. 1509-1553. Spanish theologian. Burned
at the stake. On Ike Errors of the Trinity.

Sesostris. (Rameses.) Fl. 1400 B.C. King of Egypt.

Severus, Alexander. 205-235. Roman emperor.

Severus, Lucius Septimius. 146-21 1. Roman emperor.

Sevigne, Marie de Rahutin-Chantal, Marquise de. 1627-1696.
French lady celebrated for her beauty and accomplishments.

Seward, William Henry. 1801-1872. American statesman.

Secretary of state 1861-9.

Seymour, Horatio. 1811-18S6. American statesman. Elected
governor of New York 1853, and reelected 1863; opposed the adminis-
tration's war policy , Democratic nominee for the presidency in 1868.

Sforza, Ludovico. II Moro. 1451-1510. Italian general.
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, first Earl of. 1621-

1683. English statesman.
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, third Earl of.

1713. English philanthropist, author and freethinker.
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh Earl of

1 88$. English philanthropist.

Shakspere, Shakspeare, or Shakespeare, William.

1616. The greatest English dramatist Born at Stratford-on-Avon;
married Anne Hathaway 1583 ; went to London about 1586 and became
an actor and playwright ; acquired a competence and retired to his native
town about 1610. Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece, th«
only works published under his own hand, appeared 1593-4. The first
edition of his collected works appeared in 1633. Hamlet ; Lear 1 Mac-
beth: Othello; The Tempest: Midsummer Sithfs Dream, etc., etc.

Shaw, Henry W. Josh Billings. 1818-1885. Am. humorist.

Sheil, Richard Lalor. 1793-1851. Irish orator.

Shelley, Percy Bysshe. 1 792-1822. English poet. Expelled
from Oxford, at the age of sixteen, for writing a treatise on the necessity
of atheism ; married the daughter of a retired innkeeper against his
lather's will ; became reconciled to his father, and doped with Miss
Westbrook, whom he married at Gretna Green ; separated from her by
mutual consent, and, hearing of his first wife's suicide, married Mary
Godwin, with whom he was travelling on the continent ; demanded at
law the custody of the two children by his first marriage, but the guard*
lanship was granted to their maternal grandfather, on the ground of the
father's atheism ; removed to Italy, where he was accidentally drowned.
Adonais; Ttu Cenci ; Prometheus: Revolt cf Islam : Atastrr ; Tit
Witch of Atlas. The Cloud, Ode to the Skylark and The Sensiture
Plans are among the most exquisite of his shorter poems.

Sheppard, Jack -1724. English burglar; hanged.

Sheridan, I'lnlip Henry. 1831-1888. American general.
Victorious at Winchester, Cedar Creek and Five Forks. Made ncutcsv
ant-general of the U. S. army 1869, and promoted to the chief frdm i n cl
on the retirement of General Sherman, 1883.

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley. 1751-1816. Irish orator and

dramatist. The Rintts; The School for Scandal : The Duenna.

Sherman, John. 1823-.... American statesman. Secretary

of the treasury, 1877—81 ; resumed specie payments.
Sherman, Roger. 1721-1793. American statesman.

1671-
1801.
1564

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

247

Sherman, William Tecumseh. 1820-1891. Brother of John
Sherman. American general. Made the celebrated "March to the
Sea." Became general of the army in 1869, retiring in 1883.

Sickingen, Franz von. 1481-1523. German Protestant

general.

Siddons, Sarah (nie Kemble). 1755-18.31. English actress.

Sidney, Algernon. 1622-1683. English republican; exe-
cuted on false charge of complicity in " Rye House Plot."

Sidney, Sir Philip. 1554—1586. English soldier and poet.

Siemens, Ernst Werner. 1816-. . . . German inventor.

Siemens, Charles William. 1823-1883. Brother of preced-
ing. German inventor.

Sigismund. 1368-1437. German emperor and king of

Hungary.

Sigismund I. 1466-1548. King of Poland. II., 1518-1572.

Sigourney, Mrs. Lydia Howard Huntley. 1791-1865. Am-
erican poetess. Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse.

Silli-man, Benjamin. 1 779-1 864. American naturalist.

Simeon Stylites. 390?-459. Syrian ascetic ; lived for forty-
six years on the tops of pillars.

Simeoni, Giovanni. 1816-1892. Prefect of Propaganda.

Simon, Jules. 1814- . French statesman.

Sixtus I. Pope from 117 to 128. II., 257-258; martyr. III.,

431-440. IV., 1471-1484. V. (Felice Peretti), 1585-1590.

Skobeleff, Michael. 1843-1882. Russian general.

Glocum, Henry Wadsworth. 1827- American general.

Smiles, Samuel. 1816- Scottish author.

Smith, Adam. 1723-1790. Scottish political economist.

An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.

Smith, Gerrit. 1797-1874. American philanthropist.
Smith, Horace (i78o?-i849) and James (1775-1839). English

poets and humorists ; brothers. Rejected Addresses.
Smith, John, Captain. 1579-1631. English explorer ; found-
er of Virginia. History of Virginia.

Smith, Joseph. 1805-1844. Founder of the Mormon church.

Smith, Seba. Maj. Jack Downing. 1 792-1 868. Am. author.

Smith, Sydney. 1771—1845. English divine and essayist.

Smith, William II. 1825-1891. Leader House of Com-
mons.

Smollett, Tobias George. 1721-1771. Scottish novelist.

Sobieski, John. 1629-1696. King of Poland and patriot.
Defeated the Turks, and raised the siege of Vienna.

Socrates. 470 ?-399 B.C. Gr. philosopher; teacher of Plato.

Soliman II. The Magnificent. 1494-1566. Sultan of Tur-
key. Conquered Persia and part of Hungary.

Solomon. The Wise. 1033-975 ? B - c - King of Israel.

Solon. 638-558 ? B.C. Athenian law-giver and poet.

Somers, John, Baron. 1650-1716. Eng. jurist and statesman.

Sontag, Henriette, Countess Rossi. 1806-1854. German

vocalist.

Sophocles. 495-405 B.C. Gr. tragic poet. (Edipus Tyrannus.
Sothern, Edward Askew. 1830-1881. English comedian.
Soult, Nicholas Jean de Dieu. 1769-1851. French marshal.
Southey, Robert. 1 774-1 843. English poet-laureate. Thai-
aba ; The Curse of Kehama ; Roderick, etc.

Southworth, EmmaD. E. (Nevitt). 1818-. ... American
novelist. Retribution: The Curse of Clifford : The Pearl of Pearl
River, etc.

Sparks, Jared. 1789-1866. American historian.

Spartacus -71 B.C. Thracian gladiator in Rome; in-
augurated Servile war,

Speke, John Hanning. 1827-1864. English explorer in Africa.

Spencer, Herbert. 1820-. . . . English philosopher. Sociology.

Spenser, Edmund. 1553-1599. English poet. The Faerie
Queen ; The Shephearde's Calendar.

Spinner, Francis E. 1802-1890. Treasurer of the U. S.

Spinoza, Benedict. 1632-1677. Dutch philosopher and pan-
theist. Ethics Demonstrated by Geometrical Method.

Spurgeon, Charles Haddon. 1834-.... English pulpit-orator.

Spurzheim, Johann Caspar. 1776-1832. German phrenologist.

Stael-Holstein, Anne Louise Germaine Necker de, Baronne.
Mme. de Stael. 1766-1817. French authoress, and a lady of remark-
able genius. Corinne.

Standish, Miles. 1584-1656. Captain of Plymouth Colony.

Stanhope, Philip Henry, Earl of. 1805-1875. Eng. historian.

Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn. Dean Stanley. 1815-1881. Eng-
lish divine and author ; dean of Westminster Abbey.

Stanley, Henry M. (John Rowlands.) 1840-. . . . Ameri-
can explorer in Africa; born in Wales.

Stanton, Edwin McMasters. 1814-1869. American states-
man ; secretary of war in President Lincoln's cabinet.

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. 1816-. ... American " Woman's
rights " advocate.

Starhemberg (or Stahremberg), Ernst Rudiger, Count.
1635-1701. Austrian general.

Starhemberg (or Stahremberg), Guido Baldi, Count.
1657-1737. Austrian general.

Stark, John. 1728-1822. American Revolutionary general.

Stedman, Edmund Clarence. 1833-. . . . American poet.

Steele, Sir Richard. 1671-1729. British essayist and drama-
tist. The Funeral; The Tender Husband; The Conscious Lovers ;
Essays in The Tatler, The Spectator and The Guardian.

Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl von, Baron. 1757-1831. Prus-

sian statesman.

Stephen, Saint. Stoned 36? First Christian martyr.
Stephen I. Pope, 253-257. II., 752. III., 752-757. IV.,

768-772. V., 816. VI., 885-891. VII., 896-897. VIII., 928-930. IX.,

939-942. X., 1057-1058.

Stephen I. (Saint.) 979-1038. King of Hungary.

Stephen. 1105-1154. King of England.

Stephens, Alexander Hamilton. 181 2-1883. American
statesman. Bom in Georgia ; admitted to the bar, 1835 ; Congress, 1843;
vice-president of the Confederate States ; elected to the U. S. Senate
from Georgia, but not permitted to take his seat ; member of the House
of Representatives, however, from 1874 until his death. History of the
War between the States; A Constitutional View of the Late War
between the States.

Stephenson, George. 1781-1848. English engineer; inventor
of th; locomotive engine.

Stephenson, Robert. 1 803-1 859. Son of preceding. Eng-
lish engineer; inventor of the tubular bridge.

Sterling, John. 1806-1844. British essayist.

Sterne, Laurence, Rev. 1713-1768. Irish humorous writer.

Tristram Shandy ; The Sentimental Journey.

Steuben, Frederick William Augustus von, Baron. 1 730-

1794. German American general in the Revolutionary war.
Stevens, Thaddeus. 1793-1868. American abolitionist.
Stewart, Alexander Turney. 1802-1876. Am. merchant.
Stewart, Balfour. 1828-.... Scottish physicist.
Stoddard, Richard Henry. 1825-, • • • American poet.

248

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY

Story, Joseph. 1 779-1845. American jurist.

Story, William Wetmore. 1819-. American sculptor.

Stowe, Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth Beecher. 1812-.... Ameri-
can authoress. Uncle Tom's Cabin.

Strabo. 54 B.c-24 A.D. Greek , geographer.

Stradella, Alessandro. 1645-1678. Italian composer.

Stradivari, Antonio. 1670-1735. Italian violin-maker.

Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of. 1593-1641. English
statesman : beheaded.

Strauss, Johann. 1804-1849. Ger. composer of dance music.

Strauss, Johann. 1825-. . . . Son of preceding. German
composer.

Strickland, Agnes. 1806-1874. English authoress.

Stuart, Gilbert C. 1 756-1828. American portrait painter.

Stuyvesant, Peter. 1602-1682. Last Dutch governor of
New Netherland (New York).

Sue, Marie Joseph Eugene. 1804-1857. French novelist.

Sulla (or Sylla), Lucius Cornelius. 138-78 B.C. Roman
statesman and general.

Sullivan, Arthur. 1844-.... English composer. Pinafore,
Patience, etc. See also Gilbert. Knighted by the Queen 1883.

Sumner, Charles. 1811-1874. American statesman, lawyer
and abolitionist. True Grandeur of Nations,

Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of. 1516?— 1547. English poet.

Suwarow, Alexander Vasilievitch. 1729-1774. Rus. general.

Swedenborg, Emanuel. 1688-1772. Swedish theosophist.
In his theosophy, the central point is the correspondence of the natural
and the supernatural. The True Christian Religion ; The Mysteries
0/ Heaven.

Swift, Jonathan. 1667-1745. Irish divine and satirist. Gulli-
ver's Travels : Tale of a Tub.

Swinburne, Algernon Charles. 1837- English poet.

Sylvester I. (Saint.) Pope, 314-335. II., 999-1003. III.

(Anti-pope), 1013.

55? after 117? Roman his-
1804- 1 884. Swedish

VtVACITUS, Caius Cornelius.

, a, t torian. Germania.

Taglioni, Marie, Countess des Voisins.

opera dancer.

Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe. 1828- French author.

Talbot, William Henry Fox. 1800-1877. English author

and discoverer of photography.
Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon. 1 795-1 854. Eng. author. Ion.
Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice de, Prince of Bene-

vento. 1754-1838. French diplomatist.

Talmage, Thomas Dewitt. 1832- Am. clergyman.

Tamerlane (or Timour). 1336-1405. Asiatic conqueror.
Tancred. 1078-1112. Norman leader in the first crusade.
Taney, Roger Brooke. 1777-1864. American jurist.
Tannahill, Robert. 1774-1810. Scottish poet.
Tarquinius Superbus. (Lucius Tarquinius.) -495? B.C.

Last king of Rome.

Tasman, Abel Janssen. i6oo?-i645. Dutch navigator.

Tasso, Torquato. 1 544-1 595. Italian poet. Jerusalem De-
livered.

Taylor, Bayard. 1825-1878. American traveller, novelist,
poet and journalist; minister to Germany ; translated Goethe's Faust.
Among his works arc V'ieva Afoot, or Europe seen with Knapsack
and Staff: Travels: Poems of the Orient; Booh of Romances ; Lyrics
and Songs, and several novels.

Taylor, Jeremy. 1613-1667. English bishop and author.

Taylor, Thomas. The Platonisl. 1758-1835. Eng. scholar.

Taylor, Tom. 1817-1800. English dramatist.

Taylor, Zachary. 1784-1850. American general and states-
man ; twelfth president. Bom in Virginia; entered the army in iftot,*
served in Seminole and Black Hawk wan ; major -genera! in Mexican
war, and won the battles of Resaca dc la Palma and Buena Vista.
Elected president by the Whigs in itxB.

Tecumseh. 1 770-181 3. Chief of the Shawnee Indians;
formed alliance of Western Indians, and was defeated by Harmon at
Tippecanoe.

Tell, Wilhelm. Flem. 1305. Legendary Swiss hero.
Teniers, David. The Younger. 1610-1690. Flem. painter.
Tennyson, Alfred, Baron. 1S09-. . . . Eng. poet-laur. In

Memoriam ; Enoch Arden : The Princess ; The Idylls of the King ;

Lochsley Halt ; The Lotus Eaters ; The } My Grail ; Harold, etc.

Terence. (P. Terentius Afer.) I95?-i6o? B.C. Roman

comic poet.

Terpander. Fl. 675 B.C. Greek musician.

Terry, Alfred Howe. 1 827- 1890. American general.

Tertullian. i5o?-230? Latin father of the church.

Tetzel, Johann. I46o?-I5I9. German monk ; vender of in-
dulgences.

Thackeray, William Makepeace. 1811-1863. English novel-
ist. Born in Calcutta. Henry Esmond; I'anity Fair; The Xrtv-
c^mes; Pendennis : The Adventures of Philip: The Virginians; The
Book of Snobs ; The Four Georges ; English Humorists.

Thalberg, Sigismond. 1812-1871. Swiss pianist.
Thales. 635?-546 B.C. Greek sage and philosopher.
Themistocles. 5I4?~449? B.C. Athenian general and statesman.
Theocritus. Fl. 275? Greek pastoral poet.

,..-548. Empress of the East; wife of

Theodora.

Justinian.

Theodore.

Theodoric

iSi8?-i868. King of Abyssinia.
The Great. 455-526. King of the Ostrogoths.
Theodosius, Flavius. The Great. 346?-395. Rom. emperor.
Theophrastus. 3727-287? B.C. Gr. philosopher and moralist.
Thierry, Jacques N. Augustin. 1795-1836. French historian.
Thiers, Louis Adolphe. 1797-1877. French statesman and

historian. History of the Consulate and Empire.
Thomas, George H. 1816-1870. American federal general.

V.\m the battles of Chickamauga and Nashville.
Thomson, James. 1 700-1 748. Scotch poet. The Seasons;
The Castle of Indolence : Tancred and Sigtsmunda.

Thoreau, Henry D. 1817-1862. American author. The
Concord and Merrimac Rivers ; The Maine Woods.

Thorwaldsen, Albert D. 1770-1844. Danish sculptor.

Thucydides. 470-400 B.C. Greek historian.

Tiberius. 42 B.c-37 A.D. Roman emperor.

Tilden, Samuel Jones. 1814-1886. American statesman.
Governor of New York ; Democratic candidate for presidency, 1876.

Tilly, Johann Tzcrklas von, Count. 1559-1632. German

general in Thirty Years' war: fell at the battle of the Lech.

Timoleon. 395-337 B.C. Corinthian general.
Tindal, Matthew. 1657 ?-!733- English theological writer.
Tintoretto, II. (Giacomo Robust i.) 1512-1594. It. painter.
Titian. (Ti.'i.tno Veccllio.) 1477-1576. The greatest of

Yrnetian painters. Assumption of the I'irgrn : Peter Martyr; The
Last Supper; Bacchus and Ariadne; Homage tf Frederick Bar.
baressa tt the Pope, etc.
Titiens 101 Titjena), Therese. 1834-1877. German vocalist.

■ — ■*■*»

A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY.

249

Titus. 40-81. Roman emperor.

Tobin, John. 1770-1804. Eng. dramatist. The Honeymoon.

Tocqueville, Alexis Charles Henri Clerel de. 1805-1859.

French statesman; author of Democracy in America.
Todleben, Franz Eduard. 1818-1884. Russian general.
Tone, Theobald Wolfe. 1763-1798. Irish patriot; founder

of the United Irishman.

Tooke, John Home. 1736-1812. English philologist and
radical. Having said that certain Americans had been "murdered" at
the battle of Lexington, he was sentenced to one year's imprisonment
and a heavy fine ; subsequently tried for treason, but acquitted.

Torquemada, Tomas de. 1420-1498. Spanish Dominican

monk; inquisitor-general.
Torricelli, Evangelista. 1608-1647. Italian physicist.
Toussaint l'Ouverture, Francois Dominique. 1743-1803.

Negro leader of the Haytien rebellion.

Trajan. 52-117. Roman emperor.

Trollope, Anthony. 1815-1883. English novelist.

Tromp, Marten Harpertzoon van. 1597-1653. Dutch admiral.

Tromp, Cornelis van. 1629-1691. Dutch admiral.

Trumbull, John. 1750-1831. American poet and satirist.

Trumbull, John. 1756-1843. American painter.

Trumbull, Jonathan. 1740-1809. American statesman.

Tupper, Martin Farquhar. 1810-1889. Eng. poet and author.

Turenne, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de. 161 1-
1675. French general. Defeated Conde and the Spaniards in 1659 ; in-
vaded Holland in 1672 ; killed at Salzbach.

Turgenef, Ivan Sergyevich. 1818-1883. Russian novelist.

Turner, Joseph Mallord William. 1775-1851. English land-
scape painter. The son of a barber. The Battle of the Nile ; The Sun
Rising through Vapor; The Fall of Schaffhausen.

Turpin, Dick. 1711-1739. English highwayman.

Tweed, William Marcy. Boss Tweed. 1823-1878. American
politician and embezzler; mayor of New York city.

Tyler, John. 1 790-1862. Tenth president of the United
States. Born in Va. ; practiced law; Congress, 1816-21 ; governor of
Virginia, 1825; senator, 1827; sympathized with the nullificrs and
Opposed Jackson ; resigned 1836 ; elected vice-president on Whig ticket,
1840; succeeded Harrison in 184X.

Tyler, Wat -1381. English rebel ; leader of rebellion

against capitation tax.

Tyndall, John. 1820- Irish scientist.

yy DAL, Nicolas. 1506-1564. English dramatist and
■A^p- teacher. Author of the first English comedy.
Uhland, Johann Ludwig. 1787-1862. German lyric poet.
Ulloa, Antonio de. 1716-1795. Spanish mathematician and
naval officer ; governor of Louisiana.

Ulphilas. 3'3-3 8 3- The apostle of the Goths. Translated

the Scriptures into Gothic.

Ulpianus, Domitius -228. Roman jurist.

Unger, Johann Friedrich. 1750-1813. German printer and

engraver.
Urban I. Pope, ruling 223-230; martyr. II., 1088-1099;
organized the first crusade. III., 1184-1187. IV., 1261-1264. V.,1362-
1370. VI., 1378-1389. VII., 1500; died on the twelfth day of his pon-
tificate. VIII., 1623-1644.

Ure, Andrew. 1778-1857. Scottish chemist and physician.
Urfe, Honore d'. 1567-1625. French romancist.
Ussher, James. 1 580-1 656. Irish prelate and scholar.
Utrecht, Adriaan van. 1599-1651. Dutch painter.

'TT'ALENS, Flavius. 3287-378. Emperor of the East.
• » Brother of Valentinian I. Arian persecutor of orthodox Christians.
Valentinianus I. (Flavius.) 321-375. Roman emperor.

II. (Flavius), 371-392. III. (Placidius), 419-455.
Valerian. (Publius Lucinius Valerianus.) . . . .-268? Roman

emperor.
Van Buren, Martin. 1782-1862. Eighth president of the

United States. Enrolled at the bar in New York in 1803, and elected to
the state senate; state attorney-general, 1815; leader of the " Albany
Regency "; U. S. Senator, 1821 ; governor, 1828 ; secretary of state,
1829-31 ; vice-president. 1833-7; president, 1837-41.

Vancouver, George. I758?-I798. English navigator.
Vanderbilt, Cornelius. 1 794-1 877. American capitalist.
Vandyke (or Van Dyck), Sir Anthony. 1599-1641. Flemish

painter. Resided in England for several years before his death, where
he became the most popular artist of his time. Besides many portraits,
including those of the celebrated artists of his time and several of Charles
I., may be mentioned as amonghis best works. The Crucifixion ; St.
Augustine in Ecstacy , and The Erection of the Cross.

Vane, Sir Henry. 1612-1662. English republican statesman.
Convicted of treason and executed.

Vanloo, Charles Andre. 1705-1765. French painter.

Vanloo, Jean Baptiste. 1684-1745. French painter.

Van Rensselaer, Stephen. The Patroon. 1 764-1 839. Am-
erican statesman and landholder.

Varus, Publius Quintilius. Fl. 7. Roman general ; governor

of Germany ; defeated by Arminius.
Vassar, Matthew. 1792-1868. Founder of Vassar College.
Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre, Seigneur de. 1633- 1 707.

French military engineer.
Velasquez, Don Diego Rodriguez de Silva y. 1 599-1660.

Spanish painter.

Velde, Willem van der. The Elder. 1610-1693. Dutch

marine painter.
Velde, Willem van der. The Younger. 1633-1707. Dutch
marine painter.

Vendome, Louis Joseph, Due de. 1654-1712. Fr. general.
Verbceckhoven, Eugene Joseph. 1 799-1 881. Belgian painter.
Verdi, Giuseppe. 1814- Italian composer. Ernani ;

La Traviata; II Trovatore ; Ai'da.
Vernet, Antoine Charles Horace. 1758-1836. Fr. painter.
Vernon, Edward. 1684-1757. English admiral.
Vespasianus, Titus Flavius. 9-79. Roman emperor.
Vespucci, Amerigo. (Americus Vespucius.) 1451-1512.

Italian navigator and astronomer, after whom America is named.
Viaud, Jean ("Pierre Luti"). 1850- ... . French writer.
Victor, Claude Perrin, Duke of Belluno. 1 764-1 841. French

marshal.
Victor I. Pope, from 185 to 198. II., 1055-1057. III.,

1086-1087. IV. (Anti-pope), recognized by Frederick 1. in 1159;

died 1 164.

Victor Emmanuel I. 1759-1824. King of Sardinia. II.,

1820-1878; first king of Italy; restored Italian unity.

Victoria. (Victoria Alexandrina.) 1819- Queen of

Great Britain and empress of India.

Vidocq, Eugene Francois. 1775-1850. French detective.
Villars, Claude Louis Hector de, Due. 1653-1734- French

general.

Vincent de Paul, Saint. 1576-1660. French priest and re-
former. Founded the Congregation of Missions and the Sisters of
Charity.

Vinci, Leonardo da. 1452-1519. Italian painter. Last Sup-
per : Madonna; Adoration of the Magi, etc.

Virgil (or Vergil). (Publius Virgilius Maro.) 70-19 B.C.

Latin poet. sEneitt ; Eclogues; Bucolics; Georgia.

Volta, Alessandro. 1745-1827. It. inventor of the voltaic pile.

Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet de. 1694-1778. French
author, poet, wit, dramatist, historian, philosopher and skeptic.
The son of a notary ; imprisoned in the Baslilc in 1716 on an unfounded
suspicion of being the author of a libel on the Regent, and there pro-
duced CEdipe and wrote part of the Henriade; in Eh^land, 1726-9,
passing much time in the society of Bolingbroke; his drama of Za'ire
appeared in 1730, and about the same time he finished his History 0/
Charles XII.; Alzire, 1738; Mahomet, 1741; Merope, 1743; passed
the years 1750-3 with Frederick the Great ; took up his residence (1755)
at Ferney. The Age of Louis XIV. : Essay on the Manners 0/ Na-
tions: Candide.

Voorhees, Daniel W. 1827-. . . . American orator and states-
man ; senator from Indiana.
Vortigern -485. King of the Britons.

YaVaDDINGTON, William Henry. 1826- French

JL a\ statesman and archaeologist.

Wagner, Richard. 1813-1883. German composer, poet and
critic. Rienzi ; The Flying Dutchman : Tann/tduser; Lohengrin:
Gotterdammerung ; Nibelungenlied : Rheingold, etc.

Waite, Morrison Remich. 1816- 1888. American chief justice.
Waldemar I. The Great. 1131-1181. King of Denmark.
Walker, John. 1732-1807. English lexicographer.
Wallace, Sir William. I270?-I305. Scottish general and

patriot. Defeated by Edward. I. of England ; betrayed and executed.
Wallace, William Vincent. 1815-1865. Irish composer.

Maritana.

Wallenstein. Albrecht Wenzel Eusebitrs von, Count. 1583-
1634. Austrian general. Hero of one of Schiller's dramas. Entered
the imperial army at the beginning of the Thirty Years* war ; raised an
army at his own expense in 1625, invading Denmark ; banished from
court by Emperor Ferdinand, but recalled on the death of Marshal
Tilly ; defeated by Gustavus Adolphus at Lutzcn in 1632, but gained
several victories in Silesia ; again lost tne emperor's favor, b< ing charged
with aspirations to the throne of Bohemia, was deprived of his command
and assassinated.

Walpole, Horace, Earl of Orford. 1717-1797. English
author and wit. Catalogue 0/ Royal and Noble Authors.

Walther von der Vogelweide. ("Walter of the Bird-
Meadow.") 1170 7-1230? Greatest of the German minnesingers.

Walton, Izaak. 1593-1683. English writer. The Complete
Angler ; or, A Contemplative Man's Recreation.

Warbeck, Perkin -1499- English pretender ; hanged.

Ward, Artemas. 1727-1780. American general.

Warner, Charles Dudley. 1829-. . . . American humorist.

Warner, Susan. (Elizabeth Wetherell.) 1818-1885. American
authoress.

Warren, Joseph. 1741-1775. American physician, Revolu-
tionary general and patriot ; fell at Bunker Hill.

Warren, Samuel. 1 807- 1 877. English author.

Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of. The King-maker. 1420?-
1471. English warrior. Set up and [deposed Edward IV. Hero ol
Bulwer's Last o/the Barons.

Washington, George. 1 732-1 799. Commander-in-chief in

the American Revolution and first president of the United St;ites.

Born in Virginia. Aide-de-camp to Braddock in the Indian campaign

1 IJjsi marriel Martha Cnstis, rrW I Ghana to Congress, 1774;

appointed commander-in-chief, 1775; president, 1789-07.

Watt, James. 1736-1819. Scottish engineer and inventor.

Improved and completed the steam-engine. Has also been credited with

the discovery of the composition of water.
Watteau, Jean Antoine. 1684-1721. French painter.
Watts, Isaac. 1674-1748. English Dissenting minister and

•acred poet. Hymns.
Wayne, Anthony. 1 745-1 796. American Revolutionary

general. Captured Stony Point.

Weber, Karl Maria Fricdrich Ernst von, Baron. 1 786-1 826.

German composer. Der Freischiltz. His Waldmadclieu, subsequently
known as Sytvana, was composed at sixteen.
Webster, Daniel. 1 782-1852. American lawyer, orator and
statesman. Born in N. H. ; Congress, 1812-16, 1832-8 ; Senate, 1828-41;
secretary of state ; re-entered the Senate in 1844 ; again became secre-
tary of state in 1850. Webster was nominated for the presidency In 1834,
but defeated ; candidate for the Whig nomination in 1848, but defeated
by Taylor, whom he cordially supported. Webster's reply to Harne
of South Carolina, is considered the greatest speech ever made on the
floors of Congress. His greatest legal effort was in the famous Dart-
mouth College case.

Webster, Noah. 1758-1843. American lexicographer.

Wedgwood, Josiah. 1730-1795. English potter.

Weed, Thurlow. 1797-1883. American journalist.

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of. 1769-1852.
British general and statesman. Gained great distinction in India, in the
war against the Mahrattas ; major-general, 1803 ; Parliament, 1805 ; sec-
retary for Ireland, 1807 ; defeated the Danes at Kioge, and was given
command of an anny sent to Spain against the French, 1808 ; o p p ose d
by superior forces and able generals, but [ably thwarted their plans ; tri-
umphantly entered Madrid, 1812 ; defeated Jourdan and Soull, 1813 ; in-
vaded France and gained numerous victories ; defeated Xan£leon at
Waterloo, 1815, and entered Paris with the allies same year. W.»-
ward prime minister and minister of foreign affairs.

Wells, Horace. 1815-1848. American dentist. (Anaesthesia.)

Wells, Samuel Roberts. 1820-1875. Am. phrenologist.

Wenceslaus (or Wenzel). 1361-1419. Emperor o:
many and king of Bohemia.

Wesley, Charles. 1 708-1 788. English Methodist divine ard

hymn-writer.

Wesley, Ji hn. 1703-1791. Brother of preceding. English

founder of Methodism.
West, Ben] .min. 1738-1820.
Wharton, Francis. 1820-1889.
Wharton, Henry. 1664-1695.
Whately, Richard. 1787-1863.

Am. painter in England.
Am. jurist and theologian.
English ecclesiastical writer
Irish prelate and author.

Wheeler, William Almon. 1819-1887. American statesman;

vice-president.
Whewell, William. 1794-1866.
White, Andrew Dickson. 1832-. .
White, Henry Kirke. 1785-1806.
White, Joseph Blanco. 1775-1841.
White, Richard Grant. 1822-1885.

English philosopher.
. . . American scholar.
English religious poet.
English author.
American author.

Whitefield, George. 1714-1770. English preacher; founder
of Calvinistic Methodists.

Whitman, Walt. 1819- American poet. In tum car-
penter, editor, nurse and government clerk. Leaves of Grass.

Whitney, Eli. 1765-1825. Inventor of the cotton-gin.

Whittier, John Grcenleaf. 1807- American poet Bom

at Haverhill, Mass. Member of the Society of Friends. Fanner, shoe,
maker, journalist and abolition!*' agitator. Snow Bound; I'
Freedom: Songs of Labor ; Home Ballads: In War Time; Nation-
al /.yri.-< : Hie Tent on the Beach: Ballads of New England ':
Hanoi Blossoms, etc.

"ST

mm.

4^=

W s ~~

Wieland, Christoph Martin. 1733-1813. German poet.
Wilberforce, William. 1759-1833. English philanthropist

and statesman. Secured the abolition of the slave trade.
William I. The Conqutror. 1027-1087. King of England.

Dukeof Normandy; conquered England. II., Rufus, 1056-1100. III.

(William Henry of Nassau, Prince of Orange), 1650-170J ; won battle of

the Boyne. IV., 1765-1837 ; uncle of Queen Victoria.
William I. 1772-1843. King of the Netherlands. II., 1792-

1849. III., 1817-1890.
William I. 1 797-1 888. King of Prussia and emperor of

Germany. II., 1859 —

Williams, Eleazer. 1 787-1858. American clergyman, claim-
ing to be the son of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette.
Williams, Roger. 1 599-1683. English Puritan minister;

founder of Rhode Island colony ; born in Wales.

Willis, Nathaniel Parker. 1806-1867. American journalist
and poet.

Wilmot, David. 1814-1868. American statesman; author
of the Wilmot Proviso.

Wilson, Alexander. 1766-1813. Scottish-American orni-
thologist.

Wilson, Henry. (Jeremiah Jones Colbath.) 1812-1875.
American politician ; eighteenth vice-president.

Wilson, John. Christopher North. 1785-1854. Scottish

writer.

Windom, William. 182S-1891. Sec. of U. S. Treasury.

Wiseman, Nicholas. 1802-1865. Eng. Catholic cardinal.

Wittekind -807. Saxon warrior ; conquered by Charle-
magne.

Wolcott, John. 1738-1819. English satirist. Peter Pindar's
Odes.

Wolfe, Charles. 1791-1823. Irish poet. Burial 0/ Sir John
Moore.

Wolfe, James. 1726-1759. Eng. general ; fell at Quebec.

Wolseley, Garnet Jos., Viscount. 1833-. . . . British gen.

Wolsey, Thomas. 1471-1530. English cardinal and states-
man. Prime minister of Henry VIII.; deposed 1529.

Wood, Mrs. Henry. 1820-1887. Eng. novelist. East Lynne.

Woodworth, Samuel. 1785-1842. American poet. Old Oaken
Bucket.

Worcester, Edward Somerset, Marquis of. 1601 ?-i667.

English nobleman ; one of the inventors of the steam-engine.

Worcester, Joseph Emerson. 1 734-1866. Am. lexicographer.
Wordsworth, William. 1 770-1 850. English poet. Educated

at Cambridge ; with Coleridge produced Lyrical Ballads, 1798 ; settled
at Rydal Mount, 1803; Poems, 1807; The Excursion, 1814; The
White Doe of Rylstone, 1815; Peter Bell, i8:6. Ecclesiastical Son-
nets ; The Wagoner; Yarrtrw Revisited; The Prelude,

Wrangel, Karl Gustaf von, Count. 1613-1675. Sw. general.
Wrangell, Ferdinand Petrovitch von, Baron. i795?-i87o.

Russian explorer ; governor of Russian America.

Wren, Sir Christopher. 1632-1723. English architect. (St.
Paul's Cathedral, London.)

Wright, Silas. 1795-1847. American statesman.

Wycherley, William. i640?-i7i5. English comedy writer.

Wycliffe (or Wickliffe), John de. I324?-I384. English re-
former; translator of the Scriptures.

XANTIPPE. The wife of Socrates; notorious for bad
temper, but credited by her husband with many domestic virtues.
Xavier Francis, Saint. The Apostle of the Indies. 1506-
1552. French Jesuit missionary to India and Japan.

Xenocrates. 396-314 B.C. Greek philosopher.

Xenophanes. 6oo?-5oo? B.C. Greek philosopher.

Xenophon. 4457-355? B.C. Athenian historian and general.
Anabasis ; Cyroptedia.

Xerxes I. The Great. ....-465 B.C. King of Persia. In-
vaded Greece, but was defeated at Salamis.

Ximenes, Francisco, Cardinal. 1436-1517. Spanish prelate,
statesman and patron of literature. Published Polyglot Bible.

•Y^AKOOB IBN LAIS -879. Founder of the

,-•■» Persian dynasty of the Suffarides. Conquered Selstan and Fanistan.

Yale, Elihu. 1648-1721. Founder of Yale College.

Yancey, William Lowndes. 1814-1863. American politician.

Yonge, Charlotte Mary. 1823- English authoress.

Yorck von Wartenburg, Hans David Lud wig, Count. 1759
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York, Edmund Plantagenet, first Duke of. 1341-1402. Found-
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Yorke, Charles, Lord Morden. 1722-1770. English states-
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Young, Arthur. 1741-1820. English agricultural writer.

Young, Brigham. 1801-1877. President of the Mormon
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Young, Charles Augustus. 1834-.... Amer. astronomer.

Young, Edward. 1684-1765. English poet. Night Thoughts;
Love of Eame the Universal Passion ; The Revenge.

Yves, Saint. 1253-1303. French monk and jurist ; patron of
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JT"ALEUCUS. Fl. 7th century B.C. Greek legislator

.A-i a nd reformer ; first to make a written code of laws.

Zamoyski, John Sarius. 1541-1605. Polish general, states,
man and scholar.

Zechariah. Fl. 6th century B.C. Hebrew prophet.

Zelotti, Battista. 1532-1592. Italian painter.

Zeno (or Zenon). 3557-307? B.C. Greek philosopher ; founde
of the school of Stoics.

Zeno (or Zenon). 495-. . . .? Greek philosopher.

Zeno -49L Emperor of the East.

Zenobia, Septirnia -275. Queen of Palmyra. Beauti-
ful, learned, and possessed of a warlike and masculine temper. Her do-
minions extendedfromtheMeditcrraneanto the Euphrates, and included
a large part of Asia Minor. Defeated by Aurelian, she retired to Italy.

Zephaniah. Hebrew prophet, who flourished in the reign of
Josiah. Foretold the destruction of Jerusalem.

Zeuxis. 450-. . .'. ? Greek painter.

Zhukovsky, Vasili Andreevitch. 1783-1852. Russian poet.

Zimmerman, Johann Georg von. 1 728-1 795. Swiss physi-
cian and philosopher. On Solitude.

Zinzendorf Nicolaus Ludwig von, Count. 1700-1760. Ger-
man theologian ; restorer of the sect of Moravians.

Ziska, John, of Trocznow. 1360-1424. Bohemian general
and leader of the Hussites.

Zoega, Georg. 1755-1809. Danish archaeologist.

Zollicoffer, Felix K. 1812-1862. American general.

Zoroaster. Fl. 1500 B.C. Persian philosopher and founder ot

the Magian religion.

Zschokke, Johann Heinrich Daniel. 1771-1848. German

author.
Zuccaro, Federigo. 1 543-1609. Italian painter.
Zwingle, Ulrich. 1484-1531. Swiss reformer; killed IB

battle. Exposition of the Christian Faith.

<s »~

252

A PANORAMA OF HISTORY.

*^?*APHIC ACCOUNT &r!&S^

* Y Nation on the &*

BBBBBBBBBEBBBBBBBBBBMBBBBBBBBEBBKBBBBBBBBBBBBBB BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBK

©he United Stages.

; EFORE the occurrence of the events which awoke a
national feeling in the thirteen colonies, their history
was an uninteresting series of selfish bickerings and
quarrels. Only once or twice during this period did
~^$f^ any of the colonies form unions with one another,

and eve 1 then it was done solely for the purpose of mutual

protection against the

common enemy, the In-
dians, whose incursions

upon the settlements,

and the wars waged

against them, form the

most romantic pages of

this periodof American

history. The people

were too loyal to think

of separating from the

mother country, whose

utter disregard of her

alien children is alone

to blame for the loss

of the empire which

they deprived her of

when they united and

fought for and obtained

the glorious boon of

national independence.

It is with the events

which preceded this

con ummation that the

history of the United

States really begins.

Unacquainted at once

with the needs aod with

the spirit of the colo-
nists, the home Government brought to bear upon them several
res against which they entered more than one

gentle but decided protest. No taxation without representation

was the central idea of the) lolonial opposition to British rale, and

THE FALLS OF NIAGARA.

when, in 1765, the British Government passed what was known
as the Stamp Act, requiring the colonists to place the Gov-
ernment stamp upon all their legal documents, newspapers or
pamphlets, a general opposition to the law was aroused in
the colonies, which resulted in the calling of a Colonial Con-
gress, which entered a formal protest against the measure. Its

repeal was se.-ured by
this action, but the re-
lief was only tempo-
rary, as ten years later
the Government im-
posed a duty on tea,
glass, paper and other
colonial imports, which
was bitterly resisted.
In Boston the outcry
against it was especially
loud, and t here occurred
that very ominous affair
known as the " Bos-
ton Tea Tarty, " when
patriotic colonists, dis-
guised as Indians,
boarded the British
ships and threw into
the bay the tea which
constituted their main
cargoes. The British
Parliament closed the
port of Boston, and
these harsh measures,
unrelieved by any ef-
forts in the direction of
conciliation, drove the
colonists to rebellion.
War began April 19, 1775, when the Colonial militia and
I met at Concord. Common cause was at

made by the colonists, who raised troops and placed

them under the comm a nd of George Washington, a Virginian,

THE UNITED STATES.

2 53

who had served with credit as an English officer in the wars
against the French in the West. Boston was evacuated
by .the British March 17, 1776, and July 4th of the same
year Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence.
Reverses now befell the Colonial armies. New York was lost
to them, and this serious blow was hardly offset by the victories
of Princeton and Trenton. Philadelphia was abandoned in 1777,
the most important Colonial victory of that year being the one
gihed by General Gates at Saratoga, where he captured Gen-
en 1 Burgoyne and his army. Very serious was the drain upon
the population and resources of the Revolutionary Government
a,, this time, and during the winter of 1777-78, which the
American army passed in camp at Valley Forge, the fortunes
of the young nation seemed at a very low ebb. While the army
was suffering from cold and short rations during this season,
the American diplomat Benjamin Franklin was at the court
of France, successfully conducting negotiations which led to
the establishment of a defensive and offensive alliance between
that country and the Americans. F'rench money and men
proved a timely aid, though for two years the colonists made
no great headway. In 1781 the campaign in the South was
conducted with such vigor that the British forces there were
cooped up in Savan-
nah, Georgia, and
Charleston, South
Carolina. Successes
further north fol-
lowed, and the sur-
render of General
Cornwallis at York-
town, Virginia, proved
the ruin of the British
cause in America,
and the practical ter-
mination of the war.
In the following year
negotiationsfor peace
were begun, and a
treaty acknowledging the independence of the United States
was signed September 3, 1783.

It had been felt all through the war that the articles of con-
federation under which the different colonies co-operated were
altogether inadequate to the conduct of the young nation's
affairs, and the revision of the form of government was one of
the earliest matters to receive the attention of its leaders. A
convention was called at Annapolis in 1787, which framed the
Constitution of the United States, which was duly ratified by
the States and has remained, with the addition of sundry amend-
ments, the embodiment of the principles of government in this
country ever since. In 1789 General George Washington was
elected first President of the United States, and a second term of
office was accorded him in 1793, at the end of which he declined
to again accept the office, thus establishing the no-third-term
precedent, violation of which has not since been permitted by
the American people. Early in the political history of the
country party lines began to be sharply drawn, the adoption of
the Constitution causing the first clearly defined difference of
opinion, when those favoring it became known as Federalists

THE SUSPENSION BRIDGE, NIAGARA.'

and those opposed to it as Anti-Federalists, the latter party as-
suming the name Republican subsequent to the Constitution's
adoption. The presidential elections following those of
Washington, in which patriotic sentiment was allowed to over-
come party feeling, were purely partisan ; and while the Fed-
eralists succeeded in placing John Adams in the presidential
chair as Washington's successor, the Republicans elected Jeffer-
son, Madison and Monroe, each for two terms of office. With
the exception of wars with the Indians, who disputed the ad-
vance into their territories caused by the rapid growth of the
population, the country was at peace during the years subse-
quent to Washington's inauguration. In 1812, however, differ-
ences arose with Great Britain, then at war with France, the
most serious of which was her persistence in asserting the right
of searching American vessels and removing from them sailors
who she claimed were of British birth, but who really, in a vast
majority of cases, were American citizens, of whom not less
than 6,000 were so impressed in the year 181 1. The war was
conducted with varying success in different parts of the conti-
nent. In the operations against Canada, General William
Henry Harrison won a glorious victory near Detroit, defeating
a British army with which was allied a powerful force of In-
dians under the fa-
mous leader Tecum-
seh, who was slain-
General Scott secure d
successes at Lundy's
Lane and Chippewa,
while Commodor,
Perry, on Lake Erie,
and Commodore Mc-
Donough, on Lake
Champlain, swept
those waters of Brit-
ish war vessels and
greatly enhanced the
importance of thn
militaryvictories. In
the South, General Jackson defeated the British at the mem-
orable battle of New Orleans. The principal reverses sus-
tained during the war were the capture of General Hull
and his army at- Detroit, and of General Winchester and
the defeat of the Americans at Bladensburgh, which opened the
way to the British occupation of Washington. The war, which
came to an end December 24, 1814, was strongly opposed by
the Federalists, and led to the overthrow of the Republican
party. While it was in progress an uprising of the Creek In-
dians in Alabama caused considerable trouble, but they were
conquered by General Jackson. Further troubles with Indians
occurred in 1832, when the Sacs and Foxes, tribes living in the
Northwest, had to be quelled in what is known as the Black
Hawk war, and in 1835, when Osceola, a crafty leader of the
Seminole tribe, of Florida, began a war which lasted for four
years before they were brought under subjection. All of these
troublesome savages were removed to lands reserved for them,
and known then and since as the Indian Territory.

Although no foreign war occupied the public mind for
thirty years from the close of that of 1S12, important events

254

THE UNITED STATES.

at home caused great agitation. The question of perpetuating
the institution of slavery in the new States caused a long and
excited controversy, which ended temporarily in 1820 by the
admission of Missouri as a slave State, with a compromise
resolution providing that in future no slave State should exist
north of the parallel 36 degrees 20 seconds north latitude.
In 1832, the adoption of a high protective tariff by Congress
was resented by the Southern States, South Carolina declaring
it unconstitutional and threatening secession. Happily, when
a collision seemed unavoidable, a compromise, effected by
Henry Clay, providing for the gradual reduction of duties,
restored a peaceful condition of affairs. In 1837 occurred a
financial crisis attended with many serious commercial dis-
asters, the result of a period of over-speculation and expansion

defeated the Mexican General Santa Anna. In 1847, General
Winfield Scott captured the seaport of Vera Cni2, and, march-
ing up the valley of Mexico, fought and won the battles of Cerro
Gordo, Churubusco and Chapultepec, and captured the city of
Mexico. The war came to an end February 2, 1848, the
Mexicans ceding New Mexico and Upper California to the
United States.

No foreign war was conducted by the United States after
this, but within her boundaries a conflict of forces was going
on which was doomed to bring the country to internal strife.
The agitation of the slavery question continued, and, as years ■
went by, the discussion of its merits increased in bitterness.
Still the country continued to grow rapidly in wealth and
population, and many hoped that some compromise might yet

■■

fHE CITY OF BO.-

of the currency. During the administration of President
Tyler, the boundary question threatened a disruption of peace-
ful relations with Great Britain, but the arbitration treaty,
which was arranged by Daniel Webster, averted the threatened
disaster. In 1845, tne Mexican State of Texas, which had
been largely settled by Americans, and which had declared its
independence some years previous, was annexed by the United
States. A dispute with Mexico over the boundary question
followed, which led to war, and General Zachary Taylor, in
the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca tic la Palma, captured the
city of Monterey, and marched on to Bucna Vista, where he

preserve the national peace, which the more reckless support-
ers of both the Abolition and Slavery parties, judging by the
fierceness of their utterances, seemed to hold of much lighter
account than the respective principles they upheld. As each
election went by, the issue Iwcame more clearly that of slavery
or freedom, and in i860 Abraham Lincoln was elected Presi-
dent by the Republican party on a platform which, while leav-
ing to each State the right to order and control its own
domestic institutions, insisted that freedom was the normal
condition of all the territory of the United States. On the
other hand, the Southern States had made the declaration that

>!■»

THE UNITED STATES.

255

the election of a President pledged to oppose the extension of
slavery would be a violation of their constitutional rights and
a moral invasion of the Slave States. In adherence to this
declaration, in December, i860, South Carolina seceded from
the Union, and her example was followed by Mississippi,
Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia,
Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina. In April following
the Confederates opened hostilities by bombarding Fort
Sumter, near Charleston, S. C, and compelling the Union-

before General Grant, and, Port Hudson surrendering a few
days later, the blockade of the Mississippi was ended. The
battle of Gettysburg, at which General Meade defeated Lee's
splendid army, was another important Northern victory during
the year of Emancipation. In 1864, General Sherman cap-
tured Atlanta, and accomplished his march to the sea, which
ended with the fall of Savannah. The bloody victories of the
Wilderness and of Spottsylvania helped the Union soldiers in
their march south, and the siege of Petersburg was conducted

THE BROOKLYN SUSPENSION BRIDGE.

garrison to surrender. Both sides to the impending conflict
armed with haste, and the first serious clash of arms occurred
at Bull Run, where the Federal forces became panic-stricken
and suffered defeat. The Confederates gained but a slight
advantage and were driven back. In the West, where the
Confederates had closed up the Mississippi River, the Federals
captured Forts Henry and Donelson, and overran the State of
Tennessee. On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued the
Emancipation Proclamation. With varying fortunes the war
progressed until July 4th of that year, when Vicksburg fell

by General Grant in command of a line between thirty and
forty miles in length. The fall of Richmond and Petersburg,
April 2 and 3, 1865, brought the end near, and a week later
General Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court-house. The
war, in the conduct of which nearly 1,800,000 Union soldiers
had been enlisted, and a debt of $2,000, 000,000 incurred, called
for special financial legislation. In 1862, and on subsequent
occasions, were issued legal tender notes of the United States,
and interest -bearing bonds of various kinds. A national
bank system, which survives, was established. Customs duties

•

256

THE TNI I U> MATES.

were raised to an average of nearly 50 ]>cr cent, and a direct
tax and a large variety of internal revenue duties were ini-

■

COL. W. A. ROEBLING.

HI II IX H OF THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE.

posed. These impositions provided for the annual expendi-
tures of the Government, which were increased from $60,000,000
in i860 to $1,217,000,000 in 1865.

April 14, 1865, a few weeks
after his inauguration for the
second term, President Lincoln
was assassinated at Washington
by J. Wilkes Booth, who was
hunted down and killed a few
days later, four of his accom-
plices being convicted and exe-
cuted. Vice-President Johnson
became President, and the work
of political reconstruction was
begun. The Thirteenth Amend-
ment to the Constitution, abol-
ishing slavery within the United
States and places subject to
their jurisdiction, was duly rati-
fied and proclaimed. In April,
1866, Congress passed the Civil
Rights bill over the President's
veto, thus ensuring protection
to the freed slaves, and giving
to the Federal courts enlarged
jurisdiction in the matter. In
June was passed the Fourteenth
Amendment, whereby equal
civil rights were guaranteed to
all, irrespective of race or color. Hy this tirrie the breach
between President Johnson and the Republican party was
complete, and the antagonism grew until in March. 1867,
the Republican Congress passed, over the President's veto, the
tenure of office act, intended to contract the executive's power to
remove officials. Mr. Johnson deemed the act an unconstitu-

tional invasion of his rights, and defied it, which led to his
impeachment and trial by the Senate, who acquitted him, the
two-thirds vote necessary for a conviction not being secured.
Just before his retirement, the Fifteenth Amendment to the
Constitution was passed, which provides that the rights of citi-
zens of the United States to vote -.hall not be denied or abridged
by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color
or previous condition of servitude.

At the next presidential election General U. S. Grant re-
ceived the nomination of the Republican party and was elected.
Representation in Congress was restored to such States as had
not regained it since reconstruction commenced. In 1869 the
Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads were completed,
connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by rail.

The claims of the United States against the British Govern-
ment for the depredations of the Alabama and other Confed-
erate cruisers built by the English were referred to a tribunal
of arbitration, which met at Geneva, Switzerland, in Decem-
ber, 1871, and awarded the United States the sum of $15,500,-
000 damages, this being the first occasion in the world's history
in which an international difficulty of such gravity had been
disposed of in so peaceful a manner.

During General Crant'ssecondtcrm, which began in 1873, the
Indians gave trouble. The Apaches, in Arizona, were subdued
by General Crook. In 1873, General E. K. S. Canby and
some other officers were treacherously massacred by the

nit'

. «ho were destroyed after a hard struggle. In 1876,
the Sioux, in Montana, under Sitting Bull, rebelled against
United State* authority and were attacked by General George
A. Custer, who. with Ins immediate command, was surrounded
and slain, other companies of the cavalry regiment under him
being rescued by General Terry.

THE UNITED STATES.

In 1876 the convention of the Republican party nominated
Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President, while Samuel J.
Tilden, of New York, was put forward by the Democrats. The
ensuing election was extremely close, Mr. Tilden receiving a
majority of the popular vote, and the returns also giving him a
majority of the Electoral College. The returns from Florida and
Louisiana were disputed, however, on the ground of fraud.
Congress was unable to reach a decision, and an Electoral Com-
mission was appointed. Under its decision, by a vote of 8 to 7,
Mr. Hayes became President, the commission allotting him 185
of the electoral votes, one more than the number allotted Mr.
Tilden. During the administration of President Hayes a
great cause of irritation throughout the South was removed
by his aversion to the use of the military power of the
United States in controlling State governments. The decline of
values in all parts of the country, however, as the time for re-
sumption of specie payments approached, caused great distress.
Wages were lowered, and thousands thrown out of employ-
ment. In the summer of 1877 a great strike of men engaged
by the railroad companies stopped, for a time, all transporta-
tion of passengers and freight on many roads, and filled the
country with alarm. Riots occurred at Reading, Scranton,
Pittsburg, Chicago and St. Louis. At Pittsburg property to
the amount of several millions of dollars was destroyed. During
1878 and 1879 the lower Mississippi valley was ravaged by
yellow fever, and great numbers perished with the dread disease
in New Orleans, Vicksburg, Memphis, and smaller places,
although the Howard Association, as well as sisterhoods and
clergymen, nobly devoted themselves to the care and relief of the
sick. A majority of Congress, during Hayes' administration, was
elected by the Democrats, and many cases of disagreement
occurred between the legislative body and the executive, several
bills being vetoed by the President, who, in 1879, called an
extra session to pass the annual appropriation bills. One of the
bills vetoed by the President was that to prevent the further
immigration of natives of China. During the excitement on
this subject in California, many acts of violence were perpetrated,
and miny Chinese left the State and became scattered through
the country. A new treaty with China at last removed some of
the difficulties.

In 1880 the Republicans nominated and elected General
James A. Garfield, his opponent for the Presidency being General
Winfield S. Hancock. A strong effort had previously been made
in the Republican party to nominate General Grant, who had
made a tour of the world, and been received with great distinc-
tion in Europe. The election of 1880 was a close one, the vote
of New York, which had for years been Democratic, deciding
the contest in favor of the Republican candidate. The elections
for Congress also showed a reaction in favor of the Republicans.
The nomination of Garfield, however, had caused a split in the
ranks of the Republican party, the supporters of the third term
aspirations of General Grant, commoaly known as " Stalwarts,"
feeling deeply their failure to nominate him. This opposition to
the President reappeared after he had begun his administration,
and an open rupture between him and the Stalwart leaders fol-
lowed. While this was at its height, a political fanatic, named

Charles Jules Guiteau, conceived the idea that he would restore
unity to the party by removing the President, thus throwing
the administration into the hands of Vice-President Arthur, who
was a Stalwart, and had received the nomination as a concession
to that faction. July 2, iSSl, Guiteau lay in wait for the Presi-
dent at the railway station at Washington, and shot him as he
was on the point of departing from the city upon a vacation.
The wounded President died September 19, at Long Branch,
N. J., and was succeeded by Vice-President Arthur. The as-
sassin Guiteau was tried, convicted and sentenced to be hanged,
the execution taking place in the jail building at Washington.

After Mr. Arthur's accession to power the Democrats, in the
general elections of 1882, came to the front and carried so many
of the Congressional districts as to secure them a large majority
in the Forty-eighth Congress, which assembled in December,
1883. Interest in the final session of that Congress settled
largely upon their action n regard to the tariff, a modification of
which was very evidently looked for by the people. In 1884
an unsuccessful attempt was made to re-adjust the tariff, with a
view to reducing the surplus in the treasury and securing a more
equitable distribution of taxation. The defeat of the measure
was largely due to the Democratic majority in the House, who
desired to enter the Presidential campaign unfettered by prom-
ises. Two unsuccessful treaties were negotiated during the
*ame period. The first, with Mexico, was approved by the
Senate, but failed to go into effect because of the refusal of the
House to provide the legislative measures necessary to secure
its operation. The other treaty, with Spain, was killed in its
early stages. Negotiations for a new extradition treaty with
Great Britain and her colonies were also begun.

The Presidential campaign of 1884 was bitter and aggressive.
James G. Blaine, of Maine, the Republican candidate, was
defeated by Graver Cleveland, of New York, the nominee of
the Democratic party, who received the support of many dis-
satisfied Republicans; and in 1885, for the first time in twenty-
four years, a Democrat was installed in the White House.
President Cleveland took the helm of state with the
motto of l: Reform," and the conservative spirit displayed
in his administration of the office of chief magistrate of
the republic rendered it satisfactory to all classes.

General Benjamin Harrison was nominated by the
Republicans and elected to the presidency in 1S88. In
1889 North and South Dakota, Montana and Washington
were admitted into the Union ; Idaho and Wyoming
were admitted in 1890, and Oklahoma was opened to
settlers in the latter year. In 1890 the McKinley protec-
tive tariff bill was passed by Congress and signed by the
President. Active preparations are now in progress for
the opening of the World's Columbian Fair in 1893.

The country was never in a more prosperous condition
generally than at present. The statistical department of
this work speaks volumes for the growth and rank of the
Union in all those things which make a nation great.

V-

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260

THK DOMINION OF CANADA.

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'HE Dominion of Canada, now a semi-independent
confederation of provinces subject to the British
Crown, has an interesting history which reaches
back to within a very few years of the discovery of
America by Columbus. The French sea captain
Jacques Cartier, in 1534, planted the standard of Francis I.
of France upon the shores of New Brunswick, and in later
voyages he discovered the St. Lawrence River. Attempts
at colonization were made, but none were very successful
until the time of Samuel de Champlain, when the city of
Quebec was established, and the foundation laid of the
empire of New France. His explorations were ably followed
up by the Jesuit missionaries who were sent out later by the
French Government, and the names of Fathers Joliet, Mar-
quette, La Salle and Perrot, who first saw the Great Lakes and
the Mississippi River, are indissolubly linked with the story of
early discovery in North America. Cruel wars with the Indians
constitute the leading feature of interest in early Canadian his-
tory, each of the leading claimants of North American soil
— England and France — employing the willing savages tocarry
destruction into the settlements of the other. Directly result-
ing from this cruel policy was the massacre of Lachine, in
which the Iroquois, at the instigation of the English, fell upon
the French settlements in the neighborhood of Montreal, and
slaughtered their inhabitants, and which caused the cruel
reprisals of Schenectady and Salmon Falls. During the fre-
quent wars between England and France, tht latter's Canadian
colonies became more than once the object of English attack,
but it was not until September, 1759, that the citadel of
Quelx*c fell before the gallant English General Wolfe, and
with it the French tenure of Canada, which was called the
Province of Quebec, divided into three districts and placed
under the direction of a Governor appointed by Great Britain.
During the war of American Independence, the Americana,
finding that the Canadians would not join the revolution, in-
vaded Canada, but were unable to hold the country on account
of their failure to capture the city of Quebec.

After the close of the war a great many persons from the
English colonies settled in that portion of Canada lying north
of Lake Ontario, which, upon the separation of the province
in 1791, became known as Upper Canada, the cistern province
taking the name of Lower Canada, Dissen-ions arOK ill both
provinces over questions of government, but the war of 1812

united Canada in defence against a common invasion, in
which the Canadians showed a patriotism and valor very
creditable for so young a country. After the war, the same
causes of dissension still existing, the old quarrels were renewed
and the disaffection finally culminated in separate rebellions
in each of the provinces. In Upper Canada a popular agitator
named Mackenzie attempted to set up the republic, and in
1837 gathered a body of armed followers, who marched against
the capital, Toronto, where they were defeated. More serious
disturbances were caused in Lower Canada, when, under the
leadership of Louis Papineau, the French Canadian "patriots"
collected in masses on the Richelieu, and were not dispersed until
after severe conflicts, in which several hundreds were slain.
The union of the two provinces was decided upon by the home
Government as a remedy for the troubles complained of, and
this measure was accomplished in 1S41, the new Constitution
giving Canada one legislature instead of two. Under it the
country progressed rapidly in population, commerce and general
prosperity. About 1S61 a strong party feeling arose between the
two provinces over the claim for representation by population
made by the inhabitants of Upper Canada, who, having largely
outgrown the lower province in numbers, desired that their
representation in Parliament should be proportionately larger.
The Lower Canadians would not agree to any change of the
Constitution in accordance with this plan, and the political
struggle was growing dangerously bitter, when the confedera-
tion of the various British provinces in America, with local
government for each, was suggested as an available remedy.
The provinces of Canada, afterwards known as Ontario and
Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, accepted the pro-
posed union. Newfoundland and Prince Edward !
rejected it. The matter was left with the British Government,
which, in 1S67, conferred the Constitution under which the
Canadians now live, a- well as the name Dominion of Canada.
Since then the confederation has been enlarged by the admis-
sion of the Hudson Bay Company's Northwestern territories in
1870, now known as Manitoba and the Northwest Terri-
tories ; 01 British Columbia in 1871, and of Prince
l.luard Island in 1S73.

To the vast majority of Americans the country to the
north of the international lxmnd.iry line is a terra inttgnitm,
of which less is known than of the small revolutionary States
of Central America. Of Mexican affairs the people of the

»£.

THE DOMINION OF CANADA.

26l

United States have sufficient reminders to spur interest or
promote enquiry, in its biennial revolutions and military dicta-
torships, but of the quiet, progressive 5,000,000 of people
owning the 3,500,000 square miles comprising the Dominion
of Canada we know but little, and apparently care less.

However much it may be ignored, it is still an undoubted
fact that a great nation is rapidly assuming consistency and
form in that country. National sentiment and feeling have
been developed, and now the habitants and bourgeois of
Quebec vie with the agriculturists, manufacturers and trades-
men of Ontario and the Maritime Provinces in priding them-
selves upon being Canadians. Already they complain of being
held in leading-strings by Great Britain, and the wish is gen-
erally expressed that Canada should have the appointing of its
own Governor-General, the power of negotiating foreign com-
mercial treaties, and that the slight ties now binding the
Dominion to the Colonial Secretary's office in London be yet
further loosened, until the political connection, now merely
nominal, ceases to exist even in name. The very presence
of Sir Chas. Tupper as High Commissioner at the British
Court, with functions possessed by the representatives of
independent powers, is a tacit claim by the Dominion of
the privileges of a sovereign people.

ITS VAST AREA.

The Dominion, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific
oceans and from the United States boundary line to the Arctic
seas, has a larger area than Europe, and even exceeds the
United States exclusive of Alaska. Territory, however, does
not of necessity imply a correspondence in greatness, wealth
or power, and any speculations based entirely upon such data
must prove fallacious. In order to form anything like a just
estimate of the importance of the country the state of the
settled and cultivated portions must be considered.

Canada proper, consisting of the provinces of Ontario and
Quebec, containing more than three-fourths of the population
of the Dominion, is 1,000 miles long, with an average breadth of
230. It has an area of 450,000 square miles, or 310,000,-
000 acres. That portion of it included in Ontario may be
considered the garden of Canada, both as to climate, soil and
the variety 0*" productiveness of its agricultural exhibits.

POPULATION.

The people of Ontario are very different from their French
neighbors on the other side of the Ottawa, and are as noted
for real American enterprise, industry and progressiveness as
those are for the opposite. In 1825 the number of inhabitants
in Ontario (at that time Upper Canada) was 158,027. In 1852
the number had reached 952,004, and at the census of
1891 it was 2,112,989. The growth of the cities is also
remarkable. Toronto in 1826 had only 1,677 inhabitants,
and in 1854 it numbered 40,000, and now it contains 181,-
220 people. Hamilton, within ten years, from 1844 to
1854, quadrupled its population, and its increase since, if
less rapid, has been remarkable.

In 1875 the population of the entire Dominion was
4,000,000 ; in 1881 it was about 4,400,000, and now it num-
bers 4,829,41 1. The material progress of the country has

been on an equally rapid scale. Canada exports horses,
cattle, sheep, butter, cheese, poultry, eggs, fruit, wheat,
flour, barley, oats, beans, and other produce each year to
the value of $40,000,000 to $45,000,000. The money value
of the fisheries in 1889 was $17,655,256. The foreign
trade is largely with the United States and Great Britain,
the balance being exchanged with European countries,
the West Indies, South America, Australasia, China and
Japan. The exports for 1890 were as follows : To Great
Britain, $48,353,694; United States, $40,522,810; France,
$278,552: Germany, $507,143; Spain, $69,788; Portugal,
$207,777; I ta tyt $81,059; Holland, $1,042; Belgium, $41,-
814; Newfoundland, $1,185,739; West Indies, $2,719,141;
South America, $1,551,887; China and Japan, $61,751;
Australia, $471,028; other countries, $695,924. Total,
$96,749,149. Total imports for home consumption, $112,-
765,584, of which $77,106,286 were dutiable goods and
$35. 6 59.298 fr ee goods.

The revenue of the Dominion for 1890 was $39,879,925,
of which $23,968,954 was from customs; $7,618,118 from
excise; $2,357,388 from post-office; $2,357,388 from public
works, including government railways; $1,082,271 from
interest on investments, and $220,141 from Dominion
lands.

The expenditure on account of consolidated fund was
$35,994,031, of which $9,626,841 was for interest; $1,308,-
847 for civil government; $709,784 for administration of
justice; $932,187 for legislation; $466,115 for lighthouse
and coast service; $286,315 for mail subsidies and steam-
ship subventions; $1,107,824 for Indians; $328,893 for
fisheries; $120,548 for geological survey; $153,308 for
arts, agriculture and statistics; $1,287,013 for militia and
defence ; $1,972,501 for public works ; $3,904,922 for sub-
sides to provinces ; $3,074,470 for post-office; $4,362,200
for railways and canals ; $873,400 for collecting custom's
revenue; $164,047 for ocean and river service.

CANADA PACIFIC RAILWAY.

One of the most important factors in the prospective
future advances of the country to a high condition of
material progress and industrial wealth will be, undoubt-
edly, the Canada Pacific Railway. The route through
the Dominion is, in a certain sense, preferable to that
which connects the Atlantic and Pacific in our country.
It is said by competent authorities to be shorter by over
a thousand miles in connecting Europe with Asia. Pass-
ing close to Lake Superior and traversing the watershed
which divides the streams flowing toward the Arctic seas
from those which have their exit southward, the route,
though presenting serious engineering difficulty, was
more easy of construction than the Union Pacific. The
effect of the completion of this road can scarcely be esti-
mated at present, as it is opening up for settlement a vast
region abounding in valuable timber, coal and other ma-
terial products, and well suited for grazing and the growth
of grain. Construction on the Canadian Pacific was

262

THE DOMINION OF CANADA.

first commenced under the immediate supervision of the Gov-
ernment, but this plan was not found to work well, and
shortly after the change of Government, in 1878, the new
Ministry handed over the work of construction to a syndicate,
granting to them money and land bonuses and exclusive rights
on a monopoly of traffic for twenty years from the time of the
completion of the road. The road was opened for traffic
in 1886. In 1890, 12,821,262 passengers and 20,787,469 tons
of freight were carried ; the earnings amounting to
$46,843,826, and the expenses being $32,913,350.

The settlement of the Northwest Territory along the line of
the railway is proceeding at an unprecedented rate. Indeed,
there is nothing to be at all compared with it unless it is the
rapidity of opening up in some of the Western States. Free
grants are given to actual settlers, which, with an inexhaustible
soil, should be a sufficient attraction for emigrants from Europe.
But of this class the Canadian Northwest country has so far
attracted no considerable number. Of the 44,000 emigrants
arriving in Manitoba and the Northwest in one year fully
three-fourths were from Ontario and other parts of
Canada.

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.

There are extensive coal fields in the Valley of the Sas-
katchewan and at Edmonton, but so far they have not been
worked to any extent. When capital has been directed into
this channel, a cheap supply of coal can be secured, and one of
the principal defects of that section of the Dominion will be
removed.

The length and severity of the winter in Manitoba and the
contiguous territory is also a serious obstacle to their settle-
ment. Winter often begins in October, and continues until
about the end of April, after which the weather changes rap-
idly, and the chilling, freezing atmosphere becomes soft and
warm, with the southern winds sweeping over the interminable
plains. Vegetation after this becomes so rapid as to be almost
incredible, and in less than four, and occasionally only three,
months after the seed has been sown, abundant crops of
wheat, barley and oats can be harvested.

With all its defects, it is a magnificent country, and it
requires no great powers of prevision to foresee in it the home
of millions of free, prosperous and intelligent people.

Winnipeg, the leading city of the Northwest, has sprung
up as if by magic, and is a very different place from the hamlet
visited by General Wolseley and his troops, on the occasion of
the Riel disturbance, a number of years ago. It has now a
population of 25,642, and for some time the boom in real
estate was such that city lots were selling at a higher price
than in Toronto. Many other cities now exist in embryo in
that vast region, and with a liberal, wise policy on the part of
the Government, the success of the Northwest is certain.

In the other sections of Canada, Ontario especially, the
condition of the farming population has been entirely changed
within the past twenty years. The log shanties of the squatter
have been changed to elegant farm-houses of stone, brick and

frame. Frame barns have taken the place of the open log
structures that so poorly protected the crops of the pioneers,
and wire and picket fences surround the steadings instead of
rails. Farm-houses now contain all that is requisite for com-
fort, with many of the elegancies of life added, and in many
will be found not only a piano or parlor organ, but also a
young lady quite capable of rendering music by note. Educa-
tion has also become generally diffused, and it is but rarely that
a person can be met with who cannot read and write.

That the Dominion is more prosperous now than ever it has
been before, will scarcely be questioned by those familiar with
its present and past conditions, and that it has now entered
upon a new and vast phase of its progressive development,
under the most auspicious circumstances, cannot for a moment
be doubted.

GOVERNMENT OF THE DOMINION.

The executive power of the Dominion is vested in a Gov-
ernor-General, who is appointed by the British Government, and
exercises authority in the name of the Queen. His advisers
constitute the Privy Council, whom he appoints and removes,
subject to the convenience of the lower house of Parliament.
The military command is vested in the Queen. Parliament,
consisting of an upper and a lower house, known respectively
as the Senate and House of Commons, controls legislation.
Senators, who are appointed for life by the Governor-General,
on the recommendation of the Privy Council, are 80 in
number, apportioned as follows : Quebec and Ontario,
24 each ; Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 10 each ; Brit-
ish Columbia, 3; Manitoba, 3; P. E. I, 4; N. W. Ter, 2.
The House of Commons has 215 members — Ontario, 92 ;
Quebec, 65 ; Nova Scotia, 21 ; New Brunswick, 16; British
Columbia, 6 ; Manitoba, 5 ; P. E. I., 6; N. W. Ter„ 4.
A redistribution of memberships occurs after each decennial
census, with the understanding that Quebec shall never have
less than 65. All appropriation bills must originate in this
house, co which the Privy Council is responsible, it representing
the views of the political party which is in the ascendancy. Bills
passed by Parliament may be vetoed at any time within two
years. The seat of government is at Ottawa. The Dominion
Parliament controls exclusively the currency, postal service,
public debt, raising of money, regulation of trade and com-
merce, the militia, savings banks, marriage and divorce, crim-
inal law, navigation and shipping, bankruptcy, and all subjects
not specially assigned to the local legislatures. The latter have
the right to levy direct taxes, and to borrow money for provin-
cial purposes, the management of public lands, public works
lying within the province, municipal institutions, prisons,
hospitals, asylums and charities, and generally matters of a
local or private character. With a few minor exceptions, all
Judges are appointed by the Dominion Government. There is
a general court of appeal, possessing powers similar to that of
the United States Supreme Court, and which passes upon the
constitutionality of laws passed by the provincial legislatures.

4**

NORTH
AMERICA

Scale of Mile*.

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264

MEXICO.

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SO foreign country is attracting such close attention
from the people of the United States just now as
Mexico, sometimes familiarly alluded to as " the sister
republic." Bounded on the north by the United
States, on the south by Guatemala, on the east by
the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and on the west by
the Pacific, it occupies the tapering southern extremity of the
North American continent— a region of mountain table-lands,
rich in mineral wealth and agricultural resources, which, hav-
ing lain for ages comparatively undeveloped, are now begin-
ning to feel the impulse of a new civilization supplied from the
United States, whose capitalists are building railroads in differ-
ent parts of the country. The history of the country begins —
no one knows when. Ages before the coming of the Spanish
conquerors the settlement of the Mexican valley had been
accomplished by Indian tribes who are said to have come from
the north, the last of these being the Aztecs, who founded a
city, established a monarchial government, enforced civil and
criminal laws, kept a standing army, and cultivated the arts
and sciences, their skill in the working of metals and their
profound knowledge of astronomy being attested by venerable
relics which are extant at the present day. About the only
dark feature in this pleasing picture of prehistoric civilization
and culture is that provided by their religious observances,
which included human sacrifices, the practice being so common
that the observance of certain days caused the immolation of
thousands of victims. Such were the accomplishments of the
wonderful people whom De Cordova met in Mexico when he
discovered it in 1517. Two years later Fernando Cortez
effected a landing upon Mexican soil at a spot where the city
of Vera Cruz now stands. Here he burned his ships to give a
disaffected portion of his command to understand that nothing
was left them but obedience, after which he marched into the
interior. On his way he fought several engagements with the
natives, and finally arrived at the City of Mexico, where the
Aztec Emperor, Montezuma, received him with apparent
kindness. Fearing treachery, Cortez caused Montezuma to DC
seized and conveyed to the Spanish quarters. Cortez' con
were delayed by the opposition of the Governor of Cuba, who
sent a party to seize hii a and his .staff and send them back to
Cuba. The brave Spaniard turned the tables upon his pursuers,
vanquishing then and taking their leader, Narvacz, prisoner.
Montezuma, after a long imprisonment, consented to acknowl-
edge Spanish supremacy, but the Aztecs declined to submit so

easily, and, making a final effort, compelled Cortez to retreat.
He returned, however, a year later, and, after a series of battles,
reached once more the City of Mexico, which he captured,
August 13, 1521, after a siege of seventy-five days. The other
provinces fell in succession before the invader, and for nearly
300 years subsequently Mexico remained in subjection. The
government which the Spaniards first inaugurated was known
as " Audiencia," with a President and four Auditors, but the
measures of this body soon proved so harsh and arbitrary that
the colony complained loudly of their oppression. A vice-
regal government was inaugurated in 1535, which lasted undis-
turbed for nearly three centuries.

Events in Europe at the opening of the nineteenth century
shaped the history of Mexico. The uprising of 1S10 is thus
graphically described by Mr. John A. Dillon, a journalist
whose thorough knowledge of Mexican affairs, no less than his
eminent literary attainments, makes him peculiarly qualified to
treat the subject :

" The revolution was long in coming. Shut off as it was
from the world, Mexico could not help noting that the power
of Spain had grown weaker and weaker, until at last the rough
hand of Napoleon pushed the feeble Bourbon from the throne.
The latent fires of revolution broke forth on the 15th of Sep-
tember, 1810, in the village of Dolores, near Guanajuato,
where a curate named Manuel Hidalgo set up the Grilo dt
Dolores, as it is called in Mexican history, or the 'call of
Dolores.' What the call meant was little known, either to
him who started it or to those who heard it. It meant any-
thing but a republic to Hidalgo; it meant the cause of religion,
and loyalty to some Mexican sovereign. To the Indians who
heard it, it meant death to the strangers, the Gathupintt, as
they called the Spaniards.

" Then was started the most bitarre and motley revolution
in history, outshaming Jack Cade. Swarms of ragged and
swarthy Indians gathered around the priest, armed with sticks
and stones and knives anil clumsy pikes. They swarmed down
to Guanajuato in thousands and tens of thousands, and the
slaughter of Cortex was repeated on their defenceless bodies.
Cannon and musket tore their ranks in vain, for they rushed
up to the loaded cannon's mouth and stuffed in their battered
straw hats and ragged serafus, to keep the balls from coming
out. By sheer force of numbers they destroyed the troops,
and then in savage triumph sacked the city of their brothers.

MEXICO.

**5 \,

" Brief and sad was the career of the soldier-priest. Under
the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe he led his hordes from
Guanajuato down to Vallcdolid, and thence to Queretaro, and
in six weeks had reached the mountain of Las Cruces, within
thirty miles of the capital. Here the Viceroy gave him battle,
ami here again the ragged hordes rushed on the batteries and
killed, every man behind them, only three officers of the Vice-
roy's army of 3,000 escaping.

" Then fear came on the victor for the unknown power of a
city such as he had never seen the like of. He came within
sight of Mexico, lingered there for a month, and then turned
to retreat. A bloodhound was set on his trail in the person
of General Calleja. The fugitive rebels passed back through
Guanajuato, and the bloodhound Calleja followed them and
cut to pieces 14,000 men, women and children in the city. In
his report he said that he had them hacked with knives and
swords, because gunpowder was very dear, and he did not want
to put the Government to the needless expense of using ammu-
nition.

"On the 17th of January Hidalgo reached the place called
the Bridge of Calderon, and there his last battle was fought
and lost. He fled toward our frontier, but his commanders
rebelled, and one of them, Elizondo, delivered the whole band
up to the Government on the 21st of March, 181 1. It is
needless to say that they were shot, and their heads were after-
ward exposed in iron cages on the castle wall of Guanajuato. "

The population was made up of four classes — the Span-
iards of European birth ; the Mestizos, or half-breeds, the
result of union between the Indians and whites ; the Creoles,
who were the pure-blooded descendants of the original Span-
ish settlers, and the pure-blooded Indians. The last-named
had experienced but little change of condition under the Vice-
roys, and were still subject to the payment of tribute and held
in a sort of life-long tutelage. Degrading restrictions weighed
upon them from which only their nobles were exempted. The
Creoles, as proud of their origin as the native Spaniards were
of their birth, were treated contemptuously by the latter, and
denied all part in the government, or even high command
in the army. Many of them had amassed great wealth, and
while titles and other empty honors were conferred upon such,
the Government deemed it imprudent to allow them a share of
the administration of public affairs. This treatment was
resented by the Creoles, and open rebellion would have been
gladly availed of by them, had they not dreaded that, at such
a turn of affairs, an uprising of the Indians and half-breeds
would occur, and they and the native Spaniards be together
overcome and destroyed. While the revolution of 1820 was
going on in Spain, which lost Ferdinand his throne, the Mexi-
cans agitated in favor of a liberal government, and Don Au-
gustin Iturbide, a native Mexican officer of rank, who had
served with distinction in quelling the earlier uprisings, inaugu-
rated a second and successful revolution, which resulted in the
' declaration of Mexican independence, February 24, 1821. His
authority obtained the national recognition ; in August he
established a regency, and May 19, supported by his army and
his followers, in the City of Mexico, he was proclaimed Emperor.
December 2, 1822, Santa Anna, supported by other chiefs,
proclaimed the Republic at Santa Cruz, and March 19 Itur-

bide abdicated. Shortly afterwards he was ordered into exile,
and in May, 1823, he left Mexico for London.

The Constitution which Congress formulated October 4,
1824, was modelled after that of the United States, and estab-
lished in Mexico a republic with nineteen States and five
Territories. The first President was Don Felix Fernando
Victoria, during whose administration Iturbide returned to
the country and was arrested and shot. At the second presi-
dential election the candidates were Generals Padraza and
Guerrero. The former was elected, but Guerrero instituted a
revolt, and seized the presidency in 1829. That year the Re-
public received the recognition of the United States, and de-
feated an attempt of the Spaniards to recapture the country
with an army of 4,000, who were sent back to Havana. Gen-
eral Anastasio Bustamante, who had assisted in the expulsion
of the Spanish invaders, declared against Guerrero, and de-
posed him. Intrigues and revolts followed in quick succession,
Santa Anna coming to the front April 1, 1833, who, after
banishing Bustamante and several other political leaders, insti-
tuted an administration of sweeping reform. Laws were
passed suppressing the convents and abolishing the payment of
tithes, and measures discussed looking to the appropriation of
church estates and their application to extinguishing the
national debt. These failed to prove popular, going further
than the people cared to follow. Insurrections followed, and
troubles which led, in 1835, to the abrogation of the Constitu-
tion which had been adopted in 1824, and the formation of a
consolidated republic, which took the place of the confedera-
tion of States. Santa Anna possessed dictatorial power, and
the revolution was endorsed by the whole country except
Texas, whose citizens declined to accede to the centralization
of power. Santa Anna then invaded the State with an army,
which was destroyed, and Santa Anna was captured. Busta-
mante became President, but Santa Anna, after a trip to
Washington, where he conferred with President Jackson, was
released, and returned to Mexico. Another period of chronic
revolution soon set in, a dictatorship was established for a
while, and in 1844 constitutional government was resumed,
with Santa Anna at its head. He was banished, however, and
Herrara happened to be the President at the time war was de-
clared against the United States after the annexation of Texas.

The American arms were successful, and Mexico lost, in
addition to Texas, New Mexico and Northern California, when
peace was declared, in February, 1848. Santa Anna was re-
called in 1853, and for the fifth time elected President. He
attempted now to secure the position for life, with the right to
name his successor, and this led to another revolution in 1855,
when Alvarez deposed him and became President. He re-
signed in favor of Comonfort, who gained the opposition of
the ecclesiastical party by his promotion of a law, which was
adopted in 1856, for the sale of church lands and the freedom
of religious belief. Revolutions followed, and in 1857 Con-
gress promulgated, and the President was forced to accept, a
very democratic Constitution.

In the following year Benito Juarez, Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court, claimed the legal succession to the presidency,
but was defeated by the incumbent, Zuloaga, and driven to
Vera Cruz, where he established himself as Constitutional

Y-

fe=

266

CENTRAL AMERICA.

President. His claims were strengthened by their acknowl-
edgment by the United States, and, after defeating General
Miramon in several engagements, he entered the capital in
triumph, January II, 1861. His administration was noted for
the reforms which he carried out, and which gained him the
love of the Mexican people. Among the most important of
these were the appropriation of church property to the service
of the State, by which more than three hundred millions' worth
of real estate was saved to the people ; making marriage a
civil contract ; the abolition of ecclesiastical tribunals and per-
petual monastic vows ; and, finally, the complete separation of
Church and State. Much as the people enjoyed their liberties,
the Church party could not brook so great a curtailment of
their property and prerogatives, and they resolved upon the
destruction of Juarez' Government. Their opportunity was
not long wanting. Subjects of Spain, France and Great
Britain having sustained alleged losses and injuries in Mexico,
for which Juarez declined to give satisfaction, these three
powers, at a convention held in London, October 31, 1861,
decided to send a joint expedition to Mexico to demand it.
In December of that year, General Prim, commanding a
Spanish detachment from Cuba, landed at Vera Cruz, and a
month later French and British troops followed. A settle-
ment being effected with Spain and Great Britain, the forces
of these powers were withdrawn from the country. The
French army remained in Mexico, declared war against Juarez,
and captured the City of Mexico June 10, 1863, President
Juarez and his Ministers retiring to San Luis Potosi. June 24
a regency was formed, and July 8 an assembly of notables was
convened to decide upon Mexico's form of government and re-
solved that it should be a hereditary monarchial government
under a Roman Catholic Emperor. The Archduke Maximilian,
of Austria, accepted the crown. Juarez and his republican sup-
porters retired to El Paso, where they remained from Septem-

ber, 1865, to the beginning of 1866, when, the United States
having secured the withdrawal of French troops from Mexico,
they assumed the aggressive. Maximilian was captured and
sho;, together with his Generals, Miramon and Mejia, June 19,
1867, three days after Juarez had re-entered the City of Mex-
ico. The work of national reconstruction was at once com-
menced. An attempted revolution by Santa Anna was quelled
and its instigator captured and exiled. In 1871 Juaret was
again elected, his opponents being Porfirio Diaz and Sebastian
Lerdo de Tejada, the latter of whom, on the death of Juarez,
July 18, 1872, became President.

Although a brilliant scholar and statesman, Lerdo misun-
derstood the sentiments of the Mexican people, mistook the
spirit of the age, and seemed to oppose the material progress
of the country, endeavoring to stem the tide of reform and
advancement and opposing the railroad movement. General
Diaz seized this opportunity, and in 1876 organized a revolu-
tion. After a series of victories and defeats, the revolutionary
chieftains met the Government forces at Texcoac, and came
out victorious after a sanguinary conflict. During his short
administration Diaz began the work of regeneration, and initi-
ated the railroad movement, which was a*bly conducted onward
by his successor. General Gonzales, elected to the presidency
In 1880, and again by Diaz, elected 1884, re-elected 1888.
Mexico is a federal republic, and the General Govern-
ment is administered according to the provisions-of the
Constitution of 1857, which was twice overthrown and
restored, and which was considerably amended in 1873-87.
A President is chosen by indirect popular suffrage every
fourth year. Both houses of Congress and the Supreme
Judiciary are elected in like manner. The Senate and
Supreme Judicial y are elected for terms of six years, and
the Representatives for two years. The States have local
constitutions, with elective Governors and legislature?.

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R NDER the name of Central America are included the
republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador,
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and the territory known as
British Honduras. In 1502 Columbus discovered
the Eastern shore of Central America, and shortly
afterward the Spaniards took possession of it, retaining it
until 1820, when it rebelled and many of the States which
then composed it were annexed by Mexico. Three years
afterwards was formed the Central American Confederation,

V-

but in 1839 Nicaragua withdrew, as did also Costa Rica in
1840 and Guatemala in 1847. In 1872 Guatemala, Costa
Rica, San Salvador and Honduras became united, forming the
Central American L'nion, the object of the union being the
maintenance of peace in the several States and of the repub-
lican form of government. Since this was accomplished, the
several States have generally enjoyed an immunity from the
internal discords which frequently plunged them into civil

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CUBA— SOUTH AMERICA.

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||UBA, the greatest of Spain's colonial possessions, was
discovered by Columbus while on his first voyage, but
it was not until 15 11 that Velasquez conquered the
natives. Eight years later the present capital,
Havana, was founded, which in 1538 and 1554 was
destroyed by the French. Near the close of the sixteenth
century the cultivation of the sugar-cane was begun, and
slavery followed. In 1762 the English captured Havana,
and took possession of the island, but restored it to Spain
in the following year. Cuba's brightest and happiest era
began with the rule of Las Casas as Governor-General,
who arrived at the island in 1790. Under him the island's
resources were developed rapidly, old restrictions were re-
moved, and the natives, grateful for their new liberties, devel-
oped a strong affection for their foreign rulers. In 1808,
when Napoleon deposed Ferdinand of Spain, they remained
loyal to the Spanish crown. Since that time Spanish misrule
has caused Cuban discontent, and when the French republic
was proclaimed in 1848 the question of annexation to the
United States was openly advocated, and President Polk
offered Spain one million dollars for the island, which was
declined. Ten years later a proposition to purchase the island
for thirty millions was submitted to the United States Senate,
but nothing was done in the matter. Four years previously
the American Ministers at London, Paris and Madrid had
drawn up what is known as the Ostend Manifesto, which

urged that Cuba should belong to the United States, and that,
if Spain declined to sell it, it should be wrested from her. In
1868 the discontent of the natives culminated in open rebellion,
which soon spread over the entire island. In 1869 Cespedes,
who had headed the uprising, was elected President, and Man-
uel Quesada was given command of the forces. Offers from
the United States to settle the strife amicably, and for the ces-
sion of the island, were rejected by Spain, which continued to
mass troops upon the island to quell the insurrection. Peace
overtures were made to Cespedes in 1873, on the condition
that Cuba should become a Spanish republic, but they were
declined. Eventually the Spanish arms prevailed, but not until
over 13,000 Cuban soldiers had been killed in battle and over
43,000 prisoners slain, in accomplishing which horrible result
more than 150,000 men had been sent over from Spain and
over twenty millions of dollars expended. Peace has been
nominally restored, but the native Cuban still groans under the
foreign yoke, and sighs for the free institutions of the land
of the free, from which he is separated by a very few miles of
ocean.

As a province of Spain, Cuba is governed by a Governor-
General, who is appointed by the Crown for a period of from
three to five years, is subordinate only to the Spanish King,
and has despotic power as the head of the civil, military and
ecclesiastical jurisdictions. No municipal government is
allowed, although town councils prevail in the cities.

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■OR obvious reasons, no history of South America as a
■/ continent need be given. It will be readily gleaned
™ by the reader from the following histories of the vari-
ous countries contained within its boundaries. It
may be stated, however, that the table-land of Bolivia
was the nucleus of the earliest civilization in South America.
From there came the Inca rulers of Peru and Ecuador, which

places, together with Colombia, provided the Spanish ex-
plorers with the only evidences of culture and civilization.
These and the Portuguese made easy conquests wherever
they went in South America, and established colonies, which,
however, declared their independence early in the present
century, and obtained their freedom after fighting for it
bravely.

268

BRAZII^-CHILI

« MMIUMII II II III IH II II II I I IMI « M I M I

* BRAZIL. *

I I IIIIII I IIHIIII II I§

MIH i li l ll t 1 **i>i> ****

ROTABLE as the largest of the divisions of South
America; as the youngest of the republics of the
Western hemisphere, Brazil's history is of peculiar
interest to the historical reader. Pedro Alvarez de
Cabral, who had been sent out by King Emmanuel
of Portugal to follow up the discoveries of Vasco da Gama,
discovered the land in 1500, and the richness of its forests in
dye-woods soon attracted the attention of commerce. A Gov-
ernor of the territory was appointed in 1549, who founded the
present capital of Rio de Janeiro. Numerous attempts were
made by the Dutch and French to take the country, but it was
retained almost in its entirety by Portugal, whose King, on
the occasion of Napoleon's invasion of his country in 1808,
fled to Brazil, and virtually transferred the monarchy to his
colonial possession. Seven years later Brazil was made a king-
dom and its ports thrown open to the world, and in 1821 the
King went back to Portugal, leaving behind him his son, Dom
Pedro, as regent. A revolution, or rather a transition, occurred
in the same year, and in 1822 Brazil was proclaimed an inde-
pendent empire, and Dom Pedro was invested with the impe-
rial crown. A Constitution was granted in 1824, when the
home Government acknowledged the independence of the
young empire. In 1826 Dom Pedro became King of Portugal
by the death of his father, and he resigned the European
crown to his daughter. In 1831, after long and harassing
wars with adjacent countries, the Emperor abdicated in

favor of his son, Dom Pedro II., then but six yean old,
and the country was ruled by a regent until he came of
age, in 1841.

The imperial dynasty continued until November 15,
1889, when, by declaration of the principal citizens of the
national capital, the Republic of the United States of
Brazil was founded. The revolution was peaceful, the
Emperor was kindly treated, provision was made for his
support, and he was transferred to his kindred in Portu-
gal; he has recently died. A provisional government was
formed, upon the model of that of the United States of
America, under the presidency of Marshal Deodoro da
Fonseca, and on February 24, 1891, a new constitution
was voted by the Constituent Assembly, by which the
President's term of office is fixed at four years. Every-
thing went on much as usual; the Imperial officials
became Republican, most of the ambassadors who had
represented the Empire abroad continued at their posts
to represent the Republic. Some few important changes
were made ; the Church and the State were separated,
civil marriages only are recognized, and education is
secularized. A second revolution broke out in 1891, by
which President Fonseca was unseated; and on Novem-
ber 23, 1891, General Florlano Peixoto was elected
President.

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E N 1533 the Incas of Peru lost their control over Chili, and
a few years later the Spaniards occupied the country,
the city of Santiago being founded by them shortly after
their arrival. A treaty was established with the natives
in the early part of the eighteenth century, by which
boundary lines were established and the rule of the Spanish Vice-
roy acknowledged. A preliminary movement to the declaration
of independence was made in 1810, when the Chilians deposed
the Captain-General and placed the executive power in the
hands of a committee of seven. War between the mother
country and the colony commenced in the following year, and
two years later the latter was entirely under the control of the

[■

royalist troops. Nothing daunted, the colony, in 1817, rebelled
again, and, after a severe struggle, defeated the royalists and
secured their independence. At first the Government took the
shape of a directorship, but confusion prevailed until 1833,
when a new Constitution, whose formation was begun two yean
previously, was adopted. Under the amended form of govern-
ment ah improved condition of affairs was established, which
has endured up to the present day.

Allusion has been made, under the head of Peru, to the war
in which that country was conquered, but a fuller mention of
il may be afforded here, as the event is one of great impor-
tance in connection with South American history. Ii

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270

PERU.

hostilities began between Chili and the allied republics
of Bolivia and Peru, growing out of rival territorial
claims, and claims to guano beds and mineral deposits.
Chili insisted that, having done more than either of the
others to repel the enemy, she was entitled to generous
treatment. When the war came she had an army of
22,000 and a navy of ten small steamers and two powerful
iron-clads, which gave her a vast advantage over the
enemy. The war was conducted with great spirit and
intrepidity, the naval conflicts between the two powers
being especially remarkable for the ferocious courage
displayed on both sides. In the spring of 1881 Callao
and Lima were taken, and the Chilians were masters of
the situation. By the terms of peace Chili exacted from
the conquered countries the absolute annexation of the

territory containing all the nitrates and the great bulk of
the guano, the occupation of other territory for a period
of years, and of the Loblis islands as long as there if anv
guano on them ; also the payment of a monster war in-
demnity.

In 1891 a civil war resulted in the overthrow and death
by suicide of President Balmaceda. An incident of this
war was the escape from San Diego, California, with a
cargo of arms, of the Chilian steamer Itata ; which was
pursued and finally surrendered to the United States.
Shortly after this a murderous attack was made upon
unarmed American sailors in the streets of Valparaiso.
The .United States demanded explanation and repara-
tion, and the matter was left to diplomacy for settle-
ment.

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1524, Pizarro made a visit to the coast of Peru, but it
was not until 1531 that he returned with intention of con-
quest. His aim was aided at the time by the divided con-
dition of the country, for the possession of which rival
Incas were struggling. With less than 200 men in his
command, the Spanish adventurer made the friendship of one
of the Incas, whom he took prisoner. Promising to release
him for a ransom, he acquired from the natives metals and
valuables worth nearly eighteen millions of dollars, after which
he treacherously slew his prisoner. After subjecting the
country to misrule, accompanied by atrocious cruelties, Pizarro
was assassinated in 1541. Spanish rule became firmly rooted,
however, and in the early part of the eighteenth century the
colony of Quito was separated from Peru and added to the
adjoining colony of New Granada. Another partition of the
colony resulted in the formation of the separate govern-
ments of Venezuela, Guatemala, Caracas, Cumana and Chili.
Peru was the last of the colonies to rise against Spain, but in
1821 patriots from Chili and Buenos Ayres entered the country
and drove the Spaniards from the capital. In 1824 the dicta-
toiship was assumed by Bolivar, who, two years later, drove
the Spaniards from their last stronghold, after which be '
a republic called Bolivia of the southern and southeastern por-
tions of the colony, and resigned the dictatorship. Revolution
in Peru occurred in 1826, and in place of the Constitution pre-
pared by Bolivar, a new one, similar in form to that of the

United States of America, was adopted. Civil war followed,
but peace was finally brought about by General Castilla, who
became President in 1845 and ruled the country until 1851,
when, a vicious government succeeding him, another revolution
occurred. Complications with the United States arose in
1858, through the seizure of several American vessels by ships
belonging to the revolutionary forces, but in 1873 the
American claims for damages were settled. Castilla's star once
more shone in the ascendant, and the country enjoyed good gov-
ernment until 1862. In 1867 a Constitution was adopted and a
treaty of commerce and friendship was made with Chili. After
revolutions, assassinations and other exhibitions of anarchical
tendency, the country came, in 1879, into conflict with Chili.
With the Bolivians as allies, the Peruvians made a gallant stand,
but in 1881 the Chilians defeated and dispersed the Peruvian
army and drove the President from the capital.

After this disastrous war with Chili, which deprived
Peru of territory and the income derived from the guano
deposits, the Republic receded from public notice. Re-
cent surveys, however, show the existence of rich di
on the coast of the mainland, and in iSScjan arrangement
was concluded by the Government for the cancellation of
of its external debt, in pursuance of which the State rail-
ways, the guano, the celebrated silver mines of Cerro de
Pasco, and vast tracts of land are vested in the Peruvian
Corporation.

UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA.

271

»*^9(§^*-

She United States or (Colombia

COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA.

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jNE of the most enlightened and progressive coun-
tries in South America is the United States of
Colombia. In 1536-7 the country was con-
quered by the Spaniards, who held it until 1809,
when a war of independence, lasting eight years,
gave its inhabitants their liberty. At that time the country,
then known as New Granada, was united with Ecuador and
Venezuela, but a separation took place in 1829, and the
United States of Colombia, as at present organized, was
formed. Civil wars desolated the country from i860 to
1885, but peace has prevailed generally since then. A
Constitution was promulgated in 1S86 by which the ex-
ecutive authority is vested in a President elected for six
years, while the legislative power lies in a Senate consist-
ing of three members from each State, and a House of
Representatives, each of the nine States sending a mem-
ber for every 50,000 of its inhabitants. The States have
each their own legislature and executive officer.

Venezuela was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and a
settlement was effected by the Spaniards in 1520, who held the
country until 1823, when the Venezuelans, who had declared
their independence in 181 1, secured it after a severe struggle
of eleven years' duration. It separated from New Granada
and Ecuador in 1880. Many civil wars have devastated the
country, which has hardly yet settled down to the peaceful
enjoyment of the liberties guaranteed by the Constitution of
J864, by which Venezuela became a federal republic, whose
executive power is vested in a President holding office for
four years. Legislative power lies in a Senate and House of
Representatives, whose Deputies are named by corresponding
State bodies.

Ecuador was, many years previous to the coming of the
Spaniards, the seat of an Indian monarchy, whose King was
overthrown in the tenth century by Indians, who established a
government and ruled the country until it was conquered in
the latter part of the fifteenth century by Huaqua Capac,
Inca of Peru. His sons divided the country between them
and quarrelled, the war resulting in the victory of the one of
them to whom the province of Quito had fallen. He reunited
both countries, but in 1532 Pizarro seized and slew the Inca,
and Spanish rule prevailed until 1809, when the colonists arose

in rebellion and obtained their independence in 182a Ecuador
became an independent State in 1830, and civil war followed,
lasting twenty years, after which came war with Peru. Tran-
quillity followed, and prosperity has of late rewarded the coun-
try's efforts in the direction of commercial and social advance-
ment. The Government is a republic, with the executive in the
hands of a President, who is elected for four years. Legislative
power rests in a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, who have
respectively eighteen and thirty members.

Paraguay was discovered in 1530, and settled in 1536 by
the Spaniards, whose missionaries found the natives mild and
peaceful of disposition and well disposed to receive the truths
of Christianity. In 181 1 the country declared for independ-
ence, and was for twenty-nine years kept under the rule of
Jose Gaspar Rodriguez Francia, who sustained during the
whole period a policy cf non-intercourse with foreigners.
The country was accessible only by way of the river Parana,
and ingress and egress by it were so thoroughly stopped that
during the long period of his rule no foreigners whatever were
allowed to enter, and only half a dozen were permitted to
leave. Such shipping as was in the river at the time this policy
was inaugurated stayed there, rotted and fell to pieces. This
unique condition of affairs was only ended by Francia's death,
when the dictatorship was seized by Antonio Lopez, who held
it under the title of President until 1862, when he died, and
was succeeded by his ambitious son, Francisco Solano Lopez,
who set himself up as protector of the " equilibrium " of the
La Plata region. War with Brazil, Uruguay and the Argentine
Republic ensued, which lasted for five years, closing in 1870,
when Lopez was killed and peace restored. At the mercy of
its conquerors, Paraguay ceded a portion of its territory to
Brazil, and agreed to pay in all an indemnity so enormous that
it is now bankrupt and with no prospect of regaining the finan-
cial prosperity it enjoyed previous to the war. Executive
power rests in a Fresident, who is elected for four years,
and the legislative function in a Congress composed of a
Senate and Chamber of Deputies

Guiana, consisting of three divisions, belonging respect-
ively to Great Britain, France and the Netherlands, has no
specially interesting historical reminiscences. British Guiana,
the largest and most valuable of the three possessions, was

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272

EUROPE.

acquired by Great Britain in 1803. It u ruled by a Governor
appointed by the Crown. French Guiana was acquired in
1704. It is not a very valuable possession, and its main use to
France is as a penal settlement. Dutch Guiana, which lies
between the others, is a rich country, and is ruled by a Gov-
ernor-General and Council.

Formerly known as Buenos Ayres, the Argentine Repub-
lic was discovered in 15 12, and twenty-three years later its
settlement begin, as a part of the Peruvian domain. Such it
remained until the end of the fifteenth century, when the vice-
royalty of Buenos Ayres was formed by the consolidation of
the land now divided among the Argentine Republic, Paraguay,
Uruguay and Bolivia. War for independence from Spanish
rule began in 1809 and ended in 18 12, with the revolutionary
arms in the ascendant. In 181 7 a Dictator was elected, subject
to the limitations of a provisional constitution, and three years
later a democratic government was inaugurated. After a war
with Brazil the Argentine provinces in 1831 formed a confeder-
ation, and the power fell into the hands of General Rosas,
commander of the army, who exercised it despotically until
1852, when he was deposed, at which time the province of
Buenos Ayres seceded from the confederation. It returned,
however, later, and by a recent treaty the confederation was
increased by the acquisition of all of Patagonia, except a strip
along the Straits of Magellan, and all of the island of Terra
del Kuego east of the Andes. Subsequent to the deposition of
Rosas, the confederation engaged in a number of foreign wars,
and suffered many internal bioils; but since 1890 peace
has been enjoyed to a fair extent. A President, who is elected
for six years by the provincial representatives, holds the execu-

tive power. Legislative power restt in a National Congress,
which comprises a Senate of twenty-eight members and a
House of fifty-four Deputies. The provinces, fourteen in num-
ber, are ruled by Governors, who are elected for fourteen years.

Uruguay has a history even more bloody and bellicose
than any other of the South American dominions. It was
first settled by the Jesuits in the early part of the seventeenth
century, but Spain and Portugal both claimed possession of it
later, and after much fighting the former succeeded in making
its claim good in 1724. About a century later Brazil an-
nexed it, but it revolted and secured its independence in 1828.
Since that time until quite recently revolution continued to be
the normal condition of the country, and at times civil war
was conducted with such ferocity that the intervention of
foreign powers became necessary as an act dictated by feelings
of humanity. Although in theory a republic, with a President
and a Senate and House of Delegates, the real power lies with
whatever General happens at the time to have the control of
the military.

Bolivia, named after Simon Bolivar, sometimes called the
" Liberator of South America, " for the leading part which he
took in helping the efforts made by the different States in the
direction of independence, was held by the Spaniards until
1825, when it became independent. Since then revolt has
almost entirely occupied the attention of its people. In the
war with Chili it was virtually annihilated, the conditions ot
peace imposed being such as to keep the country in everlasting
subjection. A President enjoys the executive power, and legis-
lative functions are vested in a Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives, elected by the people.

REECE has the honor of being in the van of
European civilization and power, but in the seventh
century before Christ a rival sprang up in Italy,
which in the course of time attained such vigor
that Greece at last was humbled to the condition
of a Roman province. From 200 B.C. to 100 A.D. the
Roman Empire enjoyed its greatest glory, extending its power
until almost all Europe came under its rule. From the
unconquered portion to the north, however, poured legions
of barbarians, who overran the Roman Empire and laid
upon its ruins the foundations of modern Europe. What
are known as the dark or middle ages of European history

lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century, and these are
pregnant with historic interest, the extension of the Christian
Church, with the accompanying development of rational civili-
zation, being accomplished during those centuries. Many
valuable inventions made during this period assisted in the
beneficent work, among the most important of which was
that of printing. Among the most advanced of European
nations during this time were the republics of Italy, which
led the world in commerce, the arts and civilization. Such
is a general summary of the continent's history up to the end
of the middle ages. Fuller facts regarding individual national
progress during and subsequent to this period will be found
under the proper heads elsewhere.

GREAT BRITAIN.

273

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[HE island now known as Great Britain was known
to the ancients previous to the date at which its
written history begins, the Phoenicians, Carthagin-
ians and Massilians having visited its shores in their
trading vessels. It was not, however, until the year
55 B.C. that its real history commenced, with the conquest of
the country by Julius Caesar, and the establishment there of
the Roman rule, which lasted until A. D. 420, when the pres-
sure of Rome's enemies caused the withdrawal of the legions
from Britannia — the name which Ctesar gave to the island in
the stead of Albion, by which it had formerly been known.
The departure of the Romans left the British a prey to the
Picts and Scots, whose incursions, aided by internal dissen-
sions among the British chiefs, re-
duced the country to a condition of
anarchy. One of these chiefs, seek-
ing assistance to enable him to cope
with the northern invaders, effected
nn alliance, in A. D. 446, with Hen-
gist, a prince of the Jutes, who,
with Horsa, his brother, after driv-
ing back the Picts and Scots, turned
his arms against the Britons, whom
they overcame in a series of san-
guinary battles. In 457 Hengist
declared himself King of Kent,
and in the course of time the con-
quest of England was fully ac-
complished by the Saxons, Jutes
and Angles, who established three
Saxon, one Jutish and four Anglian
kingdoms. About the year 830 the

ruling power was consolidated, and Egbert, ruler of the Saxon
kingdom, Wessex, became King of all England. During his
reign began the invasions of the Danes, who, gaining increased
power after the death of Alfred the Great in 901 , held the country
from 1017 to 1041, when the crown reverted to the Anglo-Saxons
and to Christianity, which had already been introduced in the
person of Edward, surnamed the Confessor. His reign was
merely nominal, the country being governed by Danish and
English Earls, and when he died one of these, Harold, Earl of
Wessex, seized the throne, which was soon wrested from him
by William, Duke of Normandy, in France, who defeated him
in the battle of Hastings, and established the Norman line of
Kings. The Norman invasion was followed by the division of

QUEEN'S CASTLE, BALMORAL

the lands among William the Conqueror's followers, as feudal
lords, the foundation thus being laid of a rich and powerful
landed aristocracy, which has continued to successfully defend
its ascendancy in spite of all opposition. As years went by
the Normans and Saxons became merged into one people.

In the court, French manners and the Norman-French
language prevailed, while the Saxon tongue remained in use
among the laboring classes ; but the writings of Chaucer
fixed the English language, which, however, had received a
strong impression from the invaders. The reigns of the
Norman and Plantagenet monarchs were a series of contests
between the Kings and the Barons, and the concessions which
the latter wrung from royalty constitute some of the strong-
holds of British liberty. One of
the most important of these was
the Magna Charta, which the Bar-
ons forced King John to sign at
Runnymede in 1215, and which
secured to the English people two
great rights : first, that no man
should suffer arbitrary imprison-
ment ; second, that no tax should be
imposed without the consent of the
National Council. In 1265 King
Henry III. was imprisoned by the
Barons, and the first English Par-
liament was convened ; and though,
in the same year, his son Edward
defeated the Barons and restored
his father, the latter was glad to
conciliate his foes, and confirmed
the great charter. During Ed-
ward's reign Wales was conquered and annexed to England,
and Scotland was menaced, but preserved her integrity through
the skilful generalship of William Wallace and Robert Bruce.
The shaping of the English Parliament was greatly, advanced
during this reign, the National Council taking its moderrf
form by the separation of the greater Barons from the
tenants-in-chief, who thereafter took part in Parliament only
through representatives. In 1295 the first session of the
Commons in a separate chamber was held, and in 1296 was
passed the statute providing that no tax should be imposed
which was not sanctioned by the Barons, Bishops and Burges-
ses. Popular government made another step forward in the
reign of Henry IV., the first King of the house of Lancaster,

t£=

274

GREAT BRITAIN.

in the enactment of the statute granting the parliamentary
right of election for counties to all freeholders, and the recog-
nition of the two houses of Parliament as bodies possessing
distinct privileges, which were not to be interfered with by
each other. The reform of church abuses, which had been
inaugurated by Wycliff, was opposed by Henry IV., while
Parliament passed the act for the punishment of heretics,
which for two centuries, almost, was made the instrument for
the affliction of unutterable cruelties. The aspirations of the
house of York to the throne led to the sanguinary civil con-
flicts known as the Wars of the Roses. The Yorkists triumphed
in 1461, and in Henry VII. 's marriage the two houses were
joined together. The Tudor dynasty thus formed produced
some remarkable reigns. Henry VIII., who in the early part
of his reign earned the title of " Defender of the Faith," for his
loyalty to the Pope, broke with Rome later, and assumed the
title of " Head of the Church," and in 1535 the Papal authority
was set aside by act of Parliament. In the reign of his
daughter, Queen Mary, a devout Catholic, a strong effort was
made to undo the work of reformation in England. The
legislation of Henry VIII., and of the regency which suc-
ceeded him, was repealed, and many who opposed the new
deal were burned at the stake. Dying without issue, Mary
was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister, Elizabeth, who
restored the supremacy of the Church of England, which about
this time accomplished the reform of the service books of the
church, and of its doctrines, which resulted in the preparation
of the thirty-nine articles, in substantially the same form as
they exist at present. The nation was threatened in Eliza-
beth's reign by the Spanish Armada, which Philip II. of
Spain fitted out for England's invasion, but which, overtaken
by a storm, was dispersed, and its great vessels made an easy
prey for the lighter and more manageable English ships.
Under Elizabeth Ireland was subjected, commerce with India
established, and colonies planted in America.

The Stuart family of Scotland succeeded that of Tudor,
and with them culminated the struggle between royal preroga-
tive and popular right. The power of the feudal Barons had
already been destroyed, and the bulwark of British law and
liberty now was the middle class. The Stuart monarchs, James
I. and Charles I., by no means understood the spirit of their
age, and their constant exercise of despotic power brought
them in collision with the united trading and laboring classes.
King Charles attempted to dispense with the Parliament, and
ruled for many years without one, but in 1642 the people arose
against him, and in 1645 the Roundhead (Puritan) army, under
Oliver Cromwell, overthrew the Royalist forces. The King
was imprisoned and executed, and Cromwell, declining the
title of King offered him by Parliament, ruled the country as
H.ord Protector of the Commonwealth. Under this great man
the power of England increased greatly. At his death, in 1659,
his son, an amiable man of moderate capacity, succeeded him,
but resigned his power in the following year. This paved the
way for the return of the Stuarts in Charles II., a vicious
monarch, whose reign saw further conflicts between the King
and Parliament, which, however, in 1679, showed their oppo-
sition to his will, and passed the Habeas Corpus act. His
brother and successor, James II., worked persistently for the

overthrow of constitutional government and the establishment
of despotic regal power with the Roman Catholic Church as
the State religion, and fared no better than his predecessors,
being forced to abdicate to make room for William of Orange,
whose acceptance of the crown was made subject to limita-
tions inspired by Parliament, which passed an act arranging
for the succession, while the Bill of Rights guaranteed the lib-
erty of the country. Under Queen Anne, the English armies
under the famous Marlborough won splendid victories on the
continent against France. In 1707 the union with Scotland
was consummated. With George I., who succeeded her, came
in the Hanoverian dynasty, during the early years of whose rale
efforts were made to re-establish the Stuart line, whose hopes
were finally crushed at Culloden in 1746. The reign of George
II. was marked by the acquisition of India and Canada. En-
gland's colonial possessions were largely increased during the
earlier yearsof George III., but later on the persistent attempts
to tax the American colonists drove them to successful revolu-
tion and the formation of the United States of America. The
intellectual brilliancy of the Parliamentary leaders of this
epoch is one of its striking features, the destinies of the nation
being in the hands of such men as Pitt, Fox, Burke and Sheri-
dan. The successes of Napoleon in Europe alarming England,
she joined with the other powers in a war whose object was to
replace the Bourbons on the French throne. The prolonged con-
flict was ended by the battle of Waterloo in 1815, in which
Napoleon was defeated by a British army under Wellington
and a Prussian army under Blucher. During these wars En-
gland's victories at sea, under Admiral Nelson, constitute the
brightest page in her naval history. In 1798 the Irish, assisted
by the French, rebelled, but were subdued, and in 1801
occurred the passage of the act of union between Great
Britain and Ireland. George IV., a regal profligate, succeeded
him, and in the reign of William IV., who followed, was
passed the first reform bill, which placed the political power in
the hands of the people. Three years before his death, which
occurred in 1837, the decree was ordered abolishing slavery
from British territory. He was succeeded by the present sov-
ereign, Queen Victoria, whose reign has proved one of the
most remarkable, as well as beneficent, of all the British sov-
ereigns. Born in London, May 24, 1819, she was only 18
years old at the time of her accession. In February, 1840,
she was married to her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, with whom she sustained very happy conjugal relations
until his death, in 1861, since which time she has remained a
widow. The earliest event of importance in her reign was the
repeal of the Corn Laws in 1845. In 4847 a famine occurred
in Ireland, which was followed by a large emigration from that
country. The Chartist agitation followed in 1848, and in 1853
the Crimean war commenced, in which England and France
allied themselves with Turkey against the encroachments of
Russia. It lasted from January, 1854, until March, 1856,
when the Russians, having lost the fortress of Sebastopol,
which was the key to their position, consented to a peace.
The next serious employment of the English arms was that
provided in the suppression of the Indian mutiny, which
occurred in 1857-8, after which England assumed direct con-
trol of affairs in that country. In 1868 the supplementary

"7[

IRELAND.

275

reform bill was passed, and in 1870 the disestablishment
of the Irish Church was accomplished. In the year fol-
lowing, the peaceful negotiation of the differences be-
tween the United States and Great Britain, caused by the
acts of the rebel cruiser Alabama, resulted in an Alabama
claims treaty. Amongst the minor wars of her reign
were thoce against the Chinese, Abyssinians and Ashan-
tees, the Afghanistans, Zulas and Boers, Egyptians and
Mahdists, and Arabs. Great Britain is just now menaced
by the defiant attitude of her Irish subjects, who, seeking
to redress the wrongs which they have suffered, are in
quasi rebellion against the Government. Assisted by
political societies, whose ramifications extend to foreign
countries where expatriated Irishmen have found homes,
the plotters for Irish liberty are endeavoring, by acts of
violence organized and accomplished in secret, to terrify
the Government into granting the concessions they de-
mand.

The Government of Great Britain is a constitutional
monarchy. The executive function is vested in the
sovereign, and the legislative in the Imperial Parliament.
The succession to the throne is settled upon the descend-
ants of Sophia of Brunswick, and no change in the "Act

of Settlement" can be made without the consent of Par-
liament. The heir apparent assumes the title of "Prince
of Wales." The Parliament consists of the sovereign,
the House of Lords and the House of Commons, and an
act to obtain the force of law must be passed by all three.
Membership in the House of Lords is hereditary. There
are 537 members, including the two Archbishops and
twenty-four Bishops of the Established Church of Eng-
land. The House of Commons has 670 members — 495
for England and Wales, 103 for Ireland and 72 for Scot-
land. Of these, 9 represent the universities, 377 the
counties, and 284 the boroughs, The number of Parlia
mentary electors in 1891 was 6,173,668; being 36,176 for
the universities, 3,787,290 for the counties, and 2,350,202
for the boroughs. The members of the Cabinet Council
are appointed by the sovereign, but responsible to Parlia-
ment, and consequently their appointment is virtually
made by the party in the majority. The sovereign ap-
points the members of the Privy Council, the Lord
Mayor of London being the only ex officio member, but
public business is in reality conducted by the Cabinet
Council. In Ireland the Crown is represented by a Lord
Lieutenant.

•m-

*•- ICELAND. ■♦■

' T the present moment, on account of the strenuous
ra effort the Irish are making to effect the liberation of
their land, Ireland is commanding a great deal of
attention. Christianity was introduced into the
island in the fifth century, when St. Patrick, being
taken a captive in war, was sold into slavery in Ireland, where
he remained for five years. Twenty years later he returned
there as a missionary, and for thirty years preached the truths
of the gospel to its people, succeeding most remarkably in his
mission as a Christian propagandist. From the eighth to the
eleventh century was the period of Ireland's greatest compara-
tive civilization. During this period she was far more advanced
than England in learning and culture. Colleges flourished, and
the arts were carried to a high degree of perfection. Unfor-
tunately, while so well advanced in civilization, Ireland had not
achieved what was at that time necessary for her salvation — a
strong central government. On the contrary, it was divided
up into a number of petty kingdoms, which had no secure
bond of union. Hence, when the Plantagenet monarch of
England, Henry II., made his raids in 1172, his conquest of
the disunited country was a comparatively easy matter,
taking into consideration the really warlike qualities of the
Irish chiefs and Barons who ruled the land. The foothold
thus gained was in the province of Leinster, and from that
date England has asserted a fictitious claim to rule a people

persistently unreconciled to any interference with home rule.
It was under the Tudors, however, that the fate of the un-
happy island was settled. There was no centralization in
Ireland. Britain became great because the petty kingdoms
were consolidated into one nation, while Ireland dwindled
away and lost its splendid opportunity, through the calamitous
influence of the tribe and the clan, in distinction from the
country. For a long time the "English Pale," or the area
of actual British rule in Ireland, was very limited. Henry
VII. determined to extend it, but pursued his purpose only
feebly. Henry VIII. was more intently bent on Irish subju-
gation, and under his reign nobles and people felt the crushing
hand of a tyrant. In 1542 he assumed the title of King,
instead of Lord of Ireland, by virtue of an act passed by the
Anglo-Irish Parliament in 1541, and about the same time some
of the native princes were induced to acknowledge him as
their sovereign and to accept peerages. Since then his suc-
cessors have never ceased to hold fast both the shadow and
substance of Irish sovereignty. In order that the national
sentiment might be suppressed, the language, dress, customs
and laws of the country were prohibited. The fact that Henry
was at war with the Pope made loyalty to Rome an expres-
sion of patriotism in Ireland. Very little favor was extended to
the doctrines of the Reformation, either by the descendants
of the old English settlers or by the native Irish, and when

7-1

276

IRELAND.

the English Government sought to introduce it great dissen-
sions were stirred up. When Mary came to the throne, and
Protestantism lacked the support of the Government, it almost
immediately melted away. She was not disposed to abandon
the island to itself by any means, but her personal sympathies
were with the Irish in the matter of religion. Elizabeth was
in sympathy, of course, with the Protestantism of her father
rather than the papacy of her sister ; but she took a secular
view of the Irish question, and under her the power of the
British Crown was felt throughout the entire island. The old
Celtic Constitution was rejected ; the tribal authority of the
chiefs was taken from them, and the tribal system of property
set aside ; English judges and English law were substituted for
the old proceedings : the result of which, says Green, was that
" the evicted natives withdrew sullenly to the lands which had
been left them by the spoiler ; but all faith in English justice
had been torn from the minds of the Irishry, and the seed had
been sown of that fatal harvest of distrust which was to be
reaped through tyranny and massacre in the age to come. "
Very shortly before Elizabeth's death occurred the famous

insurrection of Tyrone,

who invited the Span- ,7

iards to assist him; but
they were all defeated in
1620. Repeated rebel-
lion tried the temper of
the Government, which,
in the reign of James I.,
seized the province of
Ulster and divided it
among such of his Scotch
and English subjects as
chose to settle there. In
1641 occurred More and
Maguire's rebellion, in
which an endeavor was
.made to expel the Prot-
estants from the island.
From 1649 to 1656 the
iron hand of Cromwell
was laid upon the land.
In the year of King
Charles' execution, the
Royalists being still' strong and rebellious in Ireland, Cromwell
went there in. person as Lord-Lieutenant and Commander-in-
Chief, and his measures were so cruel and sanguinary that the
Island was, in nine months, completely crushed. He left in charge
of it his son-in-law, Ireton, who completed the island's subjec-
tion, and no disturbance of its tranquillity occurred until the revo-
lution. The northern province, Ulster, was colonized by
Scotch shortly after Cromwell's invasion. At the time of the
revolution James II. received very generally the support of
the Irish, while the Scotch and English colonists took the
part of William and Mary. The struggle between oppressor
and oppressed lasted for four years, and was ended by the
bloody battle of the Boyne, fought July 1, 1690, and result-
ing in the overthrow of the Irish, who, two years later, were
again in utter subjection. From this time on the British

)

SACKVILLE STREET, DUBLIN.

Government systematically sought to destroy the Irish national
sentiment. Penal laws were passed which imposed terrible
restrictions upon the Roman Catholic population, and rebel-
lions were frequent. Backed by the "Volunteers," Henry
Grattan secured a free Parliament and the partial abolition of
the heavy restrictions on Irish commerce. It was mainly
through this patriot's exertions and influence that the stringent
pressure of the penal laws against the Roman Catholics
was relaxed. He steadily opposed the idea of a legislative
union of the countries, and in 1800 he was elected to fight
in Parliament for Irish liberty. Two years previous the
country, driven to desperation by oppression, had been in
revolt, and the year that saw Grattan's election saw also the
crushing out of the attempt to secure Ireland's liberty. Not-
withstanding his brilliant advocacy of the Irish cause, the
oppressors were in the preponderance in Parliament, and the
union was consummated January I, 1801. Since that time
Ireland has not lacked for agitators to keep alive the national
spirit and to fight for the amelioration of her condition. In
1829 the Catholic Emancipation act was passed, largely through
^^^__ the exertions of the great

Daniel O'Connell, and
later on a reform bill
and a poor-law were en-
acted. About the mid-
dle of the present century
a strong movement was
on foot for the repeal of
the union, and while it
was in progress famine
fell upon the land and
whole counties were de-
populated. In 1848 Smith
O'Brien's abortive revo-
lution was easily sup-
pressed. More formida-
ble since then have been
the alternately secret and
overt workings of the
Fenian Brotherhood.
Organized in 1859 m both
America and Great Brit-
ain, it held a congress at
Chicago in 1863 that attracted much attention. Two years
later another was held in Cincinnati, which represented a con-
stituency of 80,00a In 1866 an attempt was made to conquer
Canada, and in 1867 several Fenian riots occurred in Great
Britain. It has been urged that these aggressive movements
accomplished nothing. Directly they may have failed of great
success, but indirectly they proved of immense value to the
1 1 Mb 1 .iuse. By far the greater part of the population of Ireland
hold the Roman Catholic faith, and their taxation for the sup-
port of the State Church was one of the leading causes of
Irish discontent. It is not uninteresting to note that it was in
1869— two years after the first Fenian agitation — that the
Episcopal State Church was disestablished and disendowed, and
the endowment, except as used for annuities, dedicated to
educational and other secular purposes. Important as was the

IRELAND.

277

concession, it did not satisfy the Irish people, who had
placed national independence and autonomy as the goal
of their combined struggles, and a powerful movement
was inaugurated for securing reform in tenure of land
and the relations of landlord and tenant. Under the
lead of Mr. Parnell, Irish ideas as to the proper relation
of Ireland to Great Britain were brought nearer to reali-
zation than they ever before were within the last 600
years. His policy was to compel attention to Irish wants
by obstruction of parliamentary business. By speaking
on every topic before the House, he wearied the English
members into action on Irish affairs. His first demand
was for fixity of tenure for farmers, fair rent, and free
sale. This was secured in 1881. But having, in 1S79,
with Mr. Davitt, organized the Land League, with the
object of inducing the tenant farmers to take a greater
interest in the national movement, Mr. Parnell increased
his demands upon the English Government and declared
for Irish independence and a Parliament in Dublin. His
arrest and imprisonment in Kilmainham jail, the outlaw-
ing of the League, and the assassinations in Phoenix
■Park, in 1882, were striking events of this period.
Toward the close of 18S5 Mr. ParnelPs persistence was
rewarded by Mr. Gladstone's submission, and a Home
Rule bill was the result. The advent of the Tories to

power, in 1886, prevented the immediate realization of
Mr. Parnell's hopes, though he succeeded in extracting,
even from the victors, legislation which placed Irish
tenants in a position of advantage over other tenants in
any part of the world. An alleged fac-simile letter, pub-
lished by the London Times, representing Mr. Parnell as
consenting to the Phoenix Park murder, was shown after
a protracted trial to be a forgery. It was at this period
that he reached the top of his career and the height of
his popularity. The cloud thrown upon the Irish
patriot's life by a divorce in 1890, in which Mr. Parnell
figured as co-respondent, had important results for the
Irish party, introducing dissension and causing ulti-
mately Mr. Parnell's expulsion from the leadership at
Mr. Gladstone's demand. Mr. Parnell died Oct. 6, 1891.
In 1892 the party in Parliament numbered 30 Parnellites,
against 54 anti-Parnellites led by Justin McCarthy.

Ireland is represented in the British House of Com-
mons by 103 members, and in the House of Lords by 28
representative Peers, who are elected and hold office for
life. Its executive consists of a Lord Lieutenant and
Privy Council, nominated by the Crown. English rule
is enforced throughout the country with the assistance of
an armed military constabulary numbering over 12,000

-M

278

-7

SCOTLAND

-f4DI» n» i i«i* t tniim ' H"t»«i*« *> n B g ? ■ , » '

^^1 # Scotland. #

[REVIOUS to the union with England, Scotland, as
an independent country, had attracted considerable
attention. In the middle of the ninth century the
Scots acquired a predominance in North Britain
by revolution. A lineal descendant of Ardan, a
powerful prince who more than once successfully invaded the
English borders, named Kenneth, claimed the British realm.
Under his son, Malcolm II., the Scotch acquired the Merse and
Teviotdale from the Earl of Northumbria. Malcolm III., who
succeeded, had a long and prosperous reign, in which Scotland
made great strides
forward, both polit-
ically and socially.
English customs were
introduced, owing to
his long residence in
England and his mar-
riage with an English
princess, and the En-
glish language began
to make headway on
account of the large
immigration from
England which took
place. During the
succeeding reigns of
Edgar, Alexander I.,
and David, who was
a great reformer in
both clerical and sec-
ular affairs, the En-
glish influence in-
creased. One of the
ablest and best of
Scottish kings was

indei 111., who, oy a treaty with Norway, added the
Isle of Man to bit dominions, together with other
of the Western Sea. A dispute over the crown followed the
death of his granddaughter in 1290, and the decision l>etween
the claimants, Jialiol and Bruce, was left to Kin;; Edward I.
of England, who entered the country with an army, deposed
Baliol and instituted English government. A prolonged strug-
gle for Independence followed, in which the heroic deeds of

Wallace and Bruce gained for the Scotch a deathless reputation

VIEW OF 1 DINBt

for valor and patriotism. During succeeding generations the
history of Scotland was one prolonged story of interminable
civil and border warfare, and of occasional invasions from
England. Amicable relations between the Crown and the
nobles were first accomplished during the reign of James IV.,
whose gay and elegant court seduced the warriors from the
field and left the peasantry to attend undisturbed to the peace-
ful and profitable occupation of husbandry. Fisheries were
encouraged, a navy built and commerce promoted, while the
King's marriage with Margaret, daughter of the Tudor

Henry VII., laid the
foundation of the
union of the two
kingdoras. Henry
VIII. sought to con-
quer the country, and
in the war v
James IV. was pro-
voked into declaring
against him the Scotch
navy was destroyed,
and its armies de-
feated on Flodden
Heights. The King
niong the slain.
. isequently
James V., was then
a minor, and during
the regency which en-
sued the countr-
into a wretched

«. Hemarrieda
dauglneroftlie French
Duke of Guise, the
fruit of which mar-
is the unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots, whose son,
James VI. of Scotland, became Jan .-and, thusuniting

the two countries. The overthrow of the Stuart family and other
events v hich happened from the accession of James VI. to the
'1 throne, down to ratification of the act of union by the
Scottish Parliament in 1707, are told in the history of Great
Britain given elsewhere. Scotland retained, on its admisa
the union, its church system and its laws. It is governed by the
Imperial Parliament, to which it elects 72 commoners.

_-'

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GERMANY.

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respect.

HEN Julius Caesar was on his way of exploration
through Europe, which led him through Gaul
and into Great Britain, he avoided rather than
sought to measure arms with the Germans,
whose fighting he tasted of and then learned to
A conflict between the Romans and Germans was,

KINO'S PALACE, BERLIN.

however, inevitable, and the freedom and independence of the
nation was firmly established by Arminius, who crushed the
invaders in the historic battle of Teuto-
berger, which occurred B.C. 9. About
500 years later, Clovis, moving westward,
established the Frankish Empire, which,
under the famous Charlemagne, reached
from the Raab, in Hungary, to the Ebro,
in Spain, and from the Eider, in the north,
to the Tiber, in the south. The division
and subdivision of the empire created
numerous duchies and principalities, and
the ruler over all was generally the one
who was able to secure the influence of the
clerical leaders. Wars for the possession
of the imperial crown and changes of dy- B|
nasty were frequent. The empire lasted
until 1273, when Count Rudolph of Haps-
burg began his reign as King, destroyed the power of the
nobles and laid the foundation of the family which still reigns
over Austria. In the reign of Charles V. the power of Ger-
many was extended so that it included Belgium, Spain, the

Netherlands, Austro-Hungary and Italy, and she became the
ruling power in Europe. This reign was also remarkable for
the beginning of the Reformation. In 1521, at the Diet of
Worms, Luther made his famous defence ; at the Diet of
Speyer was made the formal protest of his supporters against
decisions unfavorable to them, while at the Diet of Augs-
burg their creed was publicly announced. Religious dis-
sensions occupied the country for about fifty years after the
retirement of Charles V., in 1556, and in 1618 the Thirty- Years'
War broke out. At first the Protestants were defeated, but
under Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, they rallied, and
Germany was secured forever in her religious freedom by the
peace declared at Westphalia in 1648. In 1675 the Elector of
Brandenburg vanquished the Swedes at Fehrhellin and laid
the foundation of the Prussian monarchy, the name of Prussia
being assumed when Frederick I. was crowned King in 1701.
Numerous wars occurred in the next one hundred years, aad
constant mutations occurred in the map of Germany. The
young kingdom of Prussia, under the famous Fredericks,
developed rapidly into a first-class power, and in the great
wars, especially that which led to the downfall of Napoleon,
her generals and soldiers gained many important victories.
During the Napoleonic wars Germany lost a large portion of

y '-:*m

HEIDELBERG,
her territory, fully half of it being lost by the Peace of Tilsit
in 1806, when Napoleon formed the Rhenish Confederation
under French protection, and the German Empire was for-
mally dissolved. Subsequent to the return of the Bourbons

280

GERMANY

the affairs of Germany were regulated in accordance with a
plan drawn up by Metternich, whose influence then predomi-
nated throughout Europe. In 1833 the Zollverein was estab-
lished, an important event as being in the direction of a united
Germany. The confederation of the German States was alter-
nately swayed by Austria and Prussia. In 1849 Frederick
William IV. of Prussia was tendered the imperial crown by
the Diet of Frankfort, but declined to accept it. His succes-
sor, William I., early evinced a desire to rule in accordance
with constitutional views, but when, in 1862, the Government
declined to pass certain laws relating to the army, he created
Bismarck Minister of State and instituted a violent reaction.
In the following year Prussia laid claim to the Danish duchies
of Schleswig and Holstein, which Denmark disputed, and,
war following, the Prussian arms were victorious and the two
countries were annexed. This action was opposed by Austria,
who sought to have them placed under the rule of a branch of
the Danish royal family, and in June, 1866, war was declared
against Prussia, whose splendidly organized army, armed with
the needle-gun, which was at that time a novelty in warfare,
completely routed the Austrians at Sadowa. Austria with-
drew entirely from the German confederation and acknowl-
edged the political and other changes which Germany had
undergone at Prussia's hands. The work of German unifica-
\k>n was now further advanced. The North German Confed-
eration was formed, its Constitution, modified in parts, was
made to cover the whole German Empire, and treaties were
effected with the South German States. France, jealous of
the growing power of Germany, became alarmed when she saw
that the unity of her traditional foe in the East was fast
being realized, and the relations of the two countries became
day by day more strained. A conflict was inevitable, and the
issue was furnished by the question of supplying a ruler for
Spain, whose throne was at that time tenantless. The crown
was tendered by the Spaniards to Prince Leopold of Hohen-
zollern, who declared his willingness to accept it. The French
Government, hoping to gain a diplomatic victory of great
political consequence, demanded of King William that he
should command the Prince to withdraw his acceptance of the
Spanish crown. This the King declined to give, and when
the Prince himself renounced the crown the French Govern-
ment demanded of William a declaration that he approved of
the renunciation and that he would not in the future permit of
the Prince's candidature. This William declined to give, and
on July 19, 1870, France declared war against Prussia. In a
very few days it became apparent that the haste with which
the French diplomats had brought about the war was not war-
ranted by the condition of the country's military and naval
affairs. From the beginning it was apparent that, while the
Prussian armies were in a high state of efficiency, those of
France existed to a large extent only on paper, were poorly
equipped and very defectively organized. The fight opened at
Saarhruckcn, where the French gained a slight advantage, but
the defeats of Weissenburg and Worth completely changed
the aspect if affairs. The French armies withdrew into

France, and the German battalion! streamed over the fron-
tier, following up eagerly the advantages they had secured
Bazaine, the French commander-in-chief, after conducting
several unsuccessful battles, was locked up in Metz with a
large army. The main body of the French army, led by
Napoleon III. and commanded by Marshal MacMahon, sought
to relieve Bazaine, but were checked at Sedan and over-
thrown. Napoleon surrendered and was sent in captivity to
Wilhelmshohe.

The war should have ended here, as the German hold upon
France was so complete that no hope was left to her. The
Parisians, however, would not accept the situation. A pro-
visional government was formed and the defence of the capital,
pending the formation of a new army, decided upon. The
Empress Eugenie escaped to England. September 19 the
German armies invested Paris, the idea being to starve the
city out, and January 26 the siege was raised and the Germans
took possession. At Versailles, February 26, a preliminary
peace was signed, by which Alsace and Lorraine were to
be ceded and a war indemnity paid to the Germans. The
peace was ratified by the French National Assembly, and
Paris was evacuated. Thus it will be seen that the war which
France waged against the unification of Germany resulted in
its accomplishment. The treaties by which the unity was
secured were concluded between Northern and Southern Ger-
many in December, 1870, and January 18, 1871, while the
victorious German armies were thundering at the gates of
Paris, the King of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of Ger-
many as Kaiser Wilhelm I.

The Government of Germany is a limited monarchy. The
German Empire is a confederation of sovereign States, with
largely representative governments. Although the Emperor
is limited in certain relations, he is given large power in
others. By the terms of the Constitution, which bears date
April :o, 187 1, all the States of Germany form an eternal union
for the protection of the realm and care of the welfare of the
German people. In the King of Prussia, who bears the title
of Deutscher Kaiser (German Emperor), is vested the supreme
direction of the military and political affairs of the Empire.
The Kaiser "represents the Empire internationally," and can
declare war, if defensive, and make peace ; can enter into
treaties with other nations, and can appoint and receive em-
bassadors. To declare war, if not merely defensive, he must
have the consent of the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, in
which body, together with the Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm,
are vested the legislative functions of the Empire. The Reichs-
tag represents the German Nation, and its members, 397 in
numl>er, are elective by universal suffrage and ballot for terms
of three years. The Bundesrath represents the individual
States, and its members, numbering 58, are appointed
for each session by their respective governments. The Bun-
desrath and Reichstag meet in annual session, convoked by
the Emperor. All laws must have a majority of both houses,
and niust be approved by the Emperor and promulgated by
the Chancellor of the Empire.

^5U/F0Rl*N>

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

28l

USTRIA'S early history will be found under the head
of Germany. The Government under which the Aus-
tro-Hungarian Empire now exists will receive at-
tention here. About the end of the eighth century
Charlemagne founded a Margraviate in Lower Austria
which, in 1156, became a Duchy, and three centuries later
an Arch-Duchy. Maximilian II., son of Emperor Charles
V., of Germany, became Emperor in 1564, with a dominion
over Austria, Hungary and Bohemia. It was not until the
eighteenth century that Austria came to the front as one of
the great European powers, and attained a preponderating
influence in the conduct of German affairs. In the year 1806
the reigning Emperor, Francis, renounced the title of Emperor
of the Romans and became the first Emperor of Austria. In
the seven years which followed, Napoleon worried the country,
but he was courageously resisted, and the territories which he
took from her were restored in 181 5 by the Congress of Vienna,
together with the Tyrol, Dalmatia, Lombardy and Venice,
and the Illyrian provinces. Several insurrections in the Austro-
Italian provinces occurred during the last year of Emperor
Francis' reign, and the maintenance of the confederation was
shown to be a very difficult matter, far beyond the ability of
his son, Ferdinand I., who succeeded in 1835. The crafty
Metternich almost entirely dictated the national policy during
his reign, which ended by his abdication in 1848, when the
thione was given to his nephew, Francis Joseph. During this
.year occurred the Hungarian revolution, led by Kossuth. In
1859 t ne relations of Austria and France were broken off, but
after a warfare of two months the two Emperors, Francis
Joseph and Napoleon III., consummated a peace by which
Austria surrendered Lombardy, Italy was made a confedera-
tion under the Pope, and Tuscany and Modena were restored
to their rulers. The Constitution which Kossuth and his com-
patriots struggled for in 1848 was granted in 1867. In i860
the first Constitution of Austria was promulgated, which was
followed by a patent in 1S61, upon which was based a charter
that went into effect in 1867. Hungary's independence was
acknowledged, and July 8, 1867, the Emperor was crowned
King of Hungary, vhich countr; pledged itself to contribute

to the national revenues. In 1864 Austria combined with
Prussia in the occupation of the Danish provinces of Schleswig,
Holstein and Lauenburg, which terminated in their acquisition;
but, quarrelling afterward with Prussia over the question of their
disposition, she went to war with that power. This adventure
was freighted with disaster, and the peace which followed was
only purchased at the cost of Venetia, the fortresses of the
Quadrilateral, the recognition of the dissolution of the German
Confederation, and the payment of a large indemnity. After
the close of the Turko-Russian war of 1877-8, the Austrian
Empire was enlarged by the acquisition of Bosnia, Herze-
govina and Novi-Bazar.

By the present Constitution each of the two countries, Aus-
tria and Hungary, has its own parliament, ministry and govern-
ment, the connecting links being a common sovereign, army,
navy and diplomacy, together with a controlling body known
as the Delegations. The latter form a parliament of 120 mem-
bers, equally divided between the two countries, the delegates
being chosen by the local legislatures, the latter bodies having
two branches, substantially the same as the Senate and House
of the United States Congress. The local legislature or diet
is called Reichstag in Hungary, Reichsrath in Austria. The
delegations of each country sit in a body by themselves, possess-
ing co-ordinate authority and power; but if they cannot agree
upon measures while thus acting separately, they meet as one
body, and the final vote is binding upon the entire empire.
This imperial diet is confined in its jurisdiction to foreign
affairs and war. There are three Ministers for the whole em-
pire, namely, the Ministers of War, of Foreign Affairs and of
Finance. There is a ministr) in Austria and another in Hun-
gary. The former consists of v'e Interior, Public Education,
Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Finance, Agriculture, Com-
merce, and National Defence. The Hungarian departments
or executives are: Presidency of the Council, Finance, National
Defence, Ministry near the King's Person, Interior, Educa-
tion and Public Worship, Justice, Communications and Public
Works, Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, and the Ministry
of Croatia and Slavonia. The Imperial Cabinet is responsible
to the Delegations, the local cabinets to their respective diets,
the Reichstag and Reichsrath, as the case may be.

V-

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Belgium.

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' "TC^P^ST* " '

' ELGIUM, the most densely populated country in Eu-
rope, was in its earlier days a favorite bone of con-
tention for the European powers, and frequently be-
came the battle-field upon which their claims were
settled. The Burgundians, the Austrians and the
Spaniards successively ruled it, and in Napoleon's time it came
under French rule. In 1S14 a union between Holland and
Belgium took place, which proved very unpopular with the
Belgians, and shortly after the Paris revolution of 1830 they
rose against the Government in such force that the troops
ordered to quell the uprising found themselves unable to do so.
Brussels, the capital, and other large cities fell into the hands
of mobs, who destroyed much valuable property. A separa-
tion of the States followed, and the differences between them
were finally settled by a convention of the great powers in
London. The dissolution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
was proclaimed, and in 1831 Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg
entered Brussels as the Belgian King; but the kingdom was
not recognized by all the States of Europe until 1839, when
the treaty was signed which established peace between Leopold
and the King of the Netherlands. Leopold I. died in 1865, and
was succeeded by his eldest son, Leopold II., who still reigns.
Belgium has long been the scene of a struggle between the
priests a"" 1 <cr» , »liig liberalism. In 1850 the educational ques-

tion, which had occasioned a long and fierce dispute, was sup-
]>osed to be settled on liberal principles, but since then there
has been another keen struggle between the Progressionists
and the Ultramontanes, and in 1875 Belgium was the scene of
serious religious riots, in which many persons taking part in
processions were injured by mobs which attacked the demon-
strations.

The Government of Belgium is a limited constitutional
monarchy, which was established in its present form by the
revolution. The broadest principles of freedom and liberality
are its foundation; power comes from the people, and is re-
strained by law. Republican equality and simplicity pervade
all institutions. No act of the King is valid unless it has the
approval of one of his Ministers. The law-making power is
vested in the Legislature, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber
of Representatives, who are elected in the proportion of one to
every 40,000 inhabitants. The law is administered by local
and provincial tribunals, with courts of appeal in the principal
cities. The provinces, each of which has a Governor who is
named by the King and a Provincial Council, are divided for
civil purposes into arondisscments, justice of peace cantons,
and communes. The provincial councils guard the interests of
the different provinces, direct taxation, superintend public
improvements and prepare budgets.

*8*

I7OLLAND.

(THE NETHERLANDS.)

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FTER being ruled for four centuries by a number of
princes who were subject to either France or Ger-
many, the Netherlands, in the fourteenth century,
came almost entirely under the rule of the Duke of
Burgundy. At that time the country Ml rich,
prosperous and happy, the controlling interest of the State
resting in the great commercial cities, which were in the enjoy-
ment of almost republican freedom, and renowned for the
splendor and wealth which they acquired under the Bnrgundian

rule. About the middle of the sixteenth century an attempt
to bring under the power of the Inquisition the Netherland
Protestants, who had taken early a part in the Reformation,
was stoutly resisted. Concessions were made which produced
I temporary quiet, but Philip II., who was King at the time,
entered upon the work of crushing Protestantism, and carried
it 011 with mere i' his ferocious policy entailing the

execution of large Dumber! of the aristocracy who had aided
the rebellion. The Prince of Orange, having made alliance

» J-

HOLLAND.

285

with the Protestant powers, waged war against the oppressor.
However, the assassination of the Prince in 1584 for the time
being dashed their hopes of success, and the war ended. His
son, Prince Maurice, carried on the war later with success.
In 1648 war with Spain ended, and the Netherlands achieved
their independence. Foreign conquest occupied the attention
of the Dutch even when occupied with domestic troubles, and

they have advanced greatly in prosperity. The colonial
possessions of the country are very important, consisting
mainly of islands in the East Indies ; portions of Borneo,
Celebes and Sumatra, in Asia; and Dutch Guiana and
Curacoa and several islands in America. Like Belgium,
the Government of the Netherlands is a limited constitu-
tional monarchy, with the executive vested in the King,

CITY OF AMSTERDAM.

their standard was planted on several of the East India
Islands and on the American continent. A great naval power,
they for many years disputed with England the supremacy of
the seas. The events which led to the separation from Bel-
gium are described in the history of that country. Since that
occurrence the Netherlands, with the exception of wars with
her colonies, have enjoyed a prolonged peace, during which

w ith a Council of State nominated by him, and the Minis-
ters of the Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, War, the
Colonies, Marine and Justice. Legislative authority rests in
a Parliament, consisting of two chambers, known as the
States-General. The governors of the provinces, the burgo-
masters of cities, towns and villages, and many other officials,
are appointed by the King.

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NORWAY AND SWEDEN.

«1 H

Roi^way and Sweden.

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jORWAY was a collection of petty tribes up to the
time of Harold Harfager, who, in 863, began the
work of unification. Attempts to introduce Chris-
tianity met with little success up to the time of
Olaf Skatkonung, who inaugurated a crusade against
the Pagan Finns, destroyed the Pagan temples, and laid the
foundations of the city of Trondhjem. In the early part of the
eleventh century Canute, the Danish King of England, con-
quered Olaf and assumed the C: jwn. Wars with Britain fol-
lowed, and Ireland was invaded. On the water the prowess of
the Norsemen was remarkable, and for years they scourged
the seas, but the defeat of Haco V. off the west coast of
Scotland, and his death later in the Orkney Islands, were fol-
lowed by a period of national depression. National industries
were checked, foreign wars exhausted the exchequer, and in
two years following 1347 the plague prevailed through the
land, carrying off more than half the people. Not only its
nationality, but also its language, passed away during this
period, and when, in 1380, the crown descended to the son of
Olaf III., a union of the two countries was accomplished
which lasted for over four centuries. Near the close of
the fourteenth century Margaret effected the conquest of all
Scandinavia, and the three kingdoms became one under the
treaty of Calmar, which remained in force until 1523, when
Sweden emancipated herself from the union with Denmark,
and gave to Gustaf Vasa, who helped on the deliverance, the
crown. For more than two centuries thereafter Norway was
merely a province of Denmark, but about the beginning of this
century the national prospects brighto.ied, M,ien Charles XIV.
of Sweden was on the throne. ne Danes acknowledged
Norway as a Swedish dominion, and the two countries were
united August 14, 1814. In 1818, Napoleon's General, Berca-
dotte, was elected to the throne, and under him and the succeed-

ing generations of his dynasty, which still rules, great advance-
ment has been made in the direction of liberal government.

SWEDEN'S modern history is almost indissolubly connected
with that of Norway. During the rule of Gustaf Vasa, who
headed the successful revolt against Denmark, the country
enjoyed great prosperity. In succeeding reigns the country
was at war almost constantly, and the successes of the great
Gustavus Adolphus are among the most glorious of the nation's
annals. In 1743, in a war with Russia which had lasted two
years, Sweden lost Eastern Finland to that power. A new con-
stitution was decreed in 1809, when Gustavus IV. was forcibly
deposed in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. The union
with Norway, in 1814, which has already been mentioned, ends
the distinctive histories of both countries. In 1855 Russian
encroachments were threatened, but an alliance which Norway
and Sweden effected with Great Britain and France, by wnich
the former engaged themselves never to cede < r sell territory
to Russia, secured the guarantee by the two utter powers of
their future territorial integrity

Yhougn naving a common ruier, the treaty of union between
Norway and Sweden leaves each of them free, independent,
indivisible and inalienable. The Government, of which Oscar
II. is now the head, is a constitutional hereditary monarchy.
Legislative authority lies in the Storthing — an assembly of
deputies which meets annually, and whose members are chosen
by indirect election. It meets of its own authority and
divides itself into two chambers — the Lagthing, practically
a Senate, and consisting of about two-fifths of the entire
Storthing, and the Odelsting. A Council of State gives con-
sent to the declaration of war, making of peace or conclusion
and abrogation of treaties by the King, who is required to
pass some months of each year at Norway and to be crowned
at Trondhjem.

■+-*«-

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Denmai^.

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*N the days of the Norsemen Jutland was occupied by a
number of sea-faring chieftains, who divided their time
between war among themselves and piracy upon out-
siders. In the tenth century these bold marincr-war-
riors had made their way as far as the coasts of Scotland
and Normandy, carrying terror into such places as they vis-

ited. After having paid England one or two fixing visits, thej
came to stay in ioiS, when the Danish King Canute added
that country to his dominions in the east. The Danish tenure
was of short duration. Anarchy arose in Denmark afl

departure, and in 1042 his dynasty became extinct, and
his sister's son, Bvend I.stiidscn, succeeded. Foreign war*

■_

FRANCE.

289

and internal dissensions enfeebled the land, and a powerful
aristocracy arose who oppressed the people, reducing them
almost to a condition of slavery. In the reign of Canute VI.
and Valdemar II. the power of Denmark grew until its regal
authority extended over Holstein, Pomerania and a large por-
tion of North Germany. The Baltic became little more than
a 1 tanish inland sea, and heavy tolls were exacted of all for-
eign vessels which entered it. After the death of Valdemar,
in 1241, internal disquietude possessed the country, which rap-
idly lost its possessions and prestige. The third Valdemar,
however, retrieved the nation and regained many of its pos-
sessions. Dying in 1375, he was succeeded as regent by his
daughter Margaret, who had married the King of Norway and
was at this time his widow. Her rule, by the treaty of Cal-
mar, was also extended to Sweden and Norway, and the union
of the three countries lasted until 1523, when the Swedes arose
in insurrection against Erick, and the two crowns were sepa-
rated. Up to the year 1660 the crown was, to a large extent,
elective, but in that year Frederick III., aided by the people,
who arose against the nobles, assumed the supreme power,
forming an absolute monarchy with right of succession. For a
century the peasantry were kept in a condition of serfdom, but
its abolition was accomplished by Christian VII. in the eight-
eenth century. Wars on her own account or in alliance with
other nations kept Denmark busy until 1848, when an insur-
rection arose in Holstein which brought the country to the
verge of ruin. Prussia lent the insurrectionists a portion of
her army, but the revolution was put down and a peace was
concluded in Prussia in 1850, and in 1852 a protocol was drawn

up in London returning the duchies of Holstein and Schles-
wig to Denmark. A final settlement of the question was not
yet reached, however, and when, in 1863, the King died sud-
denly, the Duke of Augustenberg laid claim to the throne,
supported by Prussia, Austria and other German States. The
duchies were occupied by their troops, and in the war which
Denmark brought to expel them her armies were defeated,
and in 1864 King Christian IX. surrendered Holstein, Schles-
wig and Lauenberg to the conquerors.

The despotic form of government which was established in
1660 lasted until 1S49, when Frederick VII. signed a charter
acknowledging the principle of limited monarchy, and made the
future government dependent upon the Rigsdad (Congress),
consisting of two elective houses, the executive power resting in
the King and his Ministers. The Rigsdad consists of two
houses — the Landsthing, corresponding to the United States
Senate and having the privilege of discussing the budget, and
the Folkething, similar to the United States House of Repre-
sentatives, which administers local affairs. Certain members
of the Landsthing receive their nomination from the Crown
for life, the remainder being elected indirectly by the people
for eight years. The members of the Folkething are elected
directly for a term of three years. All male citizens over 30
years of age who are not paupers enjoy the privilege of vot-
ing. With the King as its presiding officer, the executive body
comprises the President of the Council, who is also the Minis-
ter of Finance, and the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Inte-
rior, Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Justice, and
for Iceland, War and Marine.

FLANGE.

^OUR centuries after the invasion of Julius Caesar,
which made ancient Gaul a Roman province, the
country, being deserted by its conquerors, was invaded
by the Franks, whose leader, Clovis, in the sixth
century, established the French monarchy. The Mero-
vingian dynasty, which he founded, was succeeded by the Car-
lovingian, whose greatest ruler, Charlemagne, extended his
empire until it included Italy and a large portion of Ger-
many. The House of Capet succeeded, and ruled from 987 to
1328, and that of Valois, which followed, from 1328 to 1589,
and during all these years, while the power of the nobles was
checked by the growing wealth and influence of the burghers,
the monarchy gained in strength. In 1589 the Bourbon dynasty
was founded by Henry IV., who wassucceeded by Louis XIII.,
an indolent monarch, who left the conduct of affairs to his
powerful Minister, Cardinal Richelieu. The reign of Louis

XIV., which followed, was in many respects a brilliant one,
but freighted with misfortunes which did not appear until after
its close. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes, by which
religious freedom had been secured, led to banishments and
persecutions, which cost the country many of its leading indus-
tries. The court's reckless prodigality in the erection of mag-
nificent buildings and the conduct of gorgeous spectacles,
together with more or less successful wars, swelled the national
debt to an enormous extent, and this burden crushed the
French people during the succeeding reigns, and was a potent
cause of the revolution of 1788. The reign of Louis XV.
added to the national burden, and the evil influences of his
mistresses led to a foreign policy which cost France her colonial
possessions and the loss of her fleets and armies abroad. His
successor, Louis XVI., an amiable but weak monarch, lacked
the ability to cope with the difficulties of his position, and, after

292

FRANCE.

he had reigned for fourteen years, in 1788 was begun a revolution
by which the whole framework of society in France was over-
turned. The bourgeois, or commoners, finding their powers
checked by the combined clergy and nobility, in 1789 consti-
tuted themselves as the National Assembly, and proceeded to the
formation of a Constitution. Troops being ordered to oppose
them, in Paris, July 12, an insurrection broke out. A national
guard and revolutionary municipal boards were formed, and
July 14 the Bastile was stormed. August 4 the National
Assembly abolished manorial and feudal rights, whereupon the
aristocracy began to emigrate. The King and Queen were
taken prisoners. A Constitution was prepared by the Assem-
bly, to which the King gave his
assent, as he did also to another
which was formed later. The
opposition of foreign courts to
the revolution aroused the pop-
ular anger, and the King and
Queen were executed. The Reign
of Terror succeeded, the absolute
power being placed in the hands
of a Committee of Public Safety,
whose excesses were terrible.
Worship in accordance with the
Christian religion was abolished,
and that of Reason substituted.
This caused dissensions within
the convention itself, and when
the last of the Jacobin leaders,
Robespierre, perished upon the
scaffold to which he had sent
hundreds of victims, they were
without a leader. In 1795 the
convention adopted a new Con-
stitution, which placed a Direc-
tory of five in charge of the
national executive. The radical
Democrats, combining with the
Royalists, organized an insurrec-
tion against the new Constitution
which was quelled by General
Napoleon Bonaparte, whose qual-
ities had already, at the early age
of 26, brought him rank and dis-
tinction. The mob of Paris was
subdued, but the Directory had a
difficult task before it. England,
Austria and Prussia were com-
bined against the Republic, whose

armies, however, achieved victories for it in foreign countries
and made its name dreaded as well as respected. At home the
Royalist interest made headway, and in 1 797 they gained a major-
ity in the representation. The Directory took severe mi
surrounded the Tuileries with troops and ordnance, arrested
the Royalist members, declared their election illegal, and ban-
ished them from the country. Financial difficulties also adder!
to the burden of the Directory. The public debt was more
than the nation could pay, and the State was declared bank-

NOTRE DAME, PARIS.

rupt and two-thirds of its obligations repudiated. Internal
dissensions among its members lessened the prospect of the
Directory's accomplishing any marked improvement.

'In this emergency Napoleon, who had secretly left Egypt,
where the English fleet had nullified his Eastern victories, ap-
peared suddenly in Paris, and, effecting an alliance with one
of the disaffected parties in the Directory, secured its over-
throw November 9, 1799, December 27, a new Constitution
was offered to the people, which they sanctioned, and Napoleon,
as First Consul, was entrusted with the administration of
civil and military affairs, with the appointment of all public
officials and with the proppsition of all public measures.
Early in 1800 he occupied the
Tuileries with his wife, Josephine,
whom he had married in March,
1796, and he established a court,
whose extravagance was hardly
likely to incur the popular dis-
pleasure as long as his adminis-
tration continued to be marked
by such wise measures as were
passed during the earlier part of
his rule. The re-establishment
of the church, in accordance with
a Papal concordat ; the founda-
tion of the Bank of France, with
the restoration of financial order;
the return of the emigrants ; the
establishment of a sound system of
popular education, and the codi-
fication of the laws, were hailed
with joy by the people, who saw
their wisdom and appreciated the
good results to follow.

At the head of the Empire he
aspired to the control of Europe.
One after another Italy, Spain,
Portugal, Switzerland and Ger-
many came under his control.
He dictated terms of peace to
the Emperors of Russia and
tria and to the King of Pn
For ten years his star ruled in the
ascendant. The decline came in
1S14. when Paris was entered by
the allied enemies of France, and
Napoleon was forced to Elba in
exile. The Bourbon dynasty was
restored, and a year later '
Icon reappeared and gathered around him an army of enthu -
followi -.s attended him at first, but, June iS, im;.

lie wis thoroughly defeated at Waterloo, and the Bourbon
restoration was finally accomplished. In 1830 war was com-
nuiHul with Algeria, which country was, after some J
fighting, ceded to France. In 1848 the Bourbons were again
driven out and a Republic established, with Napoleon III.,
a nephew of the Emperor, as President. This lasted less
than three years. In December, 1S51, Napoleon, by the

RUSSIA.

293

infamous coup J'ctat, seized the absolute power, setting aside
institution, and shortly afterward was crowned Emperor.
The imperial prestige was sustained by the wars with Russia
and Austria, which last secured France the Italian provinces
of Savoy and Nice, but the ill-fated attempt to establish an
empire in Mexico, and other failing enterprises, caused it to
wane. The plebiscite ui 1S70, which was intended to secure
the popular endorsement of the Napoleonic policy, was not flat-
tering to the Empire, which found itself in 1S70 forced into a
war with Prussia, the leading events and results of which will
be found in the history of Germany. This last experiment of
imperial government, which cost France millions of money,
thousands of lives and two provinces, has, for the time being,
overcome the French admiration for centralized power, and
the Republic which was established after the war is still a
stable and popular government.

The legislative power in France is vested in a Legislative
Corps, consisting of a Senate and a House of Deputies. The
Senate consists of 300 members; 225 of whom are chosen for
terms of nine years by the departments and colonies, and
seventy-five for life by the National Assembly. The members
of the Chamber of Deputies number 532 — one to every 100,000
inhabitants — and are elected by universal suffrage. The ex-
ecutive power is vested in a President, elected for a term of
seven years by a joint vote of the Senate and the Chamber of
Deputies. He has power to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies
on the advice of the Senate. The Secretaries of State, or
Ministry, nine in number, are responsible to the Chambers for
the political conduct of the Government. The President is
responsible in cases of high treason only. Every Frenchman
twenty-one years of age has a right to vote..

"* "Is"''**

Russia.

f HE Greeks and Romans, as is evidenced in the writ-
ings of some of their best known authors, had
gained some knowledge of the Sarmatians and
Scythians, who occupied the rivers Don and Dnieper.
Shortly after the commencement of the Christian
era the native inhabitants were carried before the invasion of
Goths and Huns from the East. The Slavonians are recorded as
having driven the scattered Finns northward and settled down
to the establishment of the Russian people. The country for
a long period remained subdivided into provinces, each of
which was practically independent of the remainder. Cen-
tralization of power was accomplished from time to time, but
only to be again broken up, until in 1462 Ivan I. began to
reign, and in the forty-two years in which he held the sceptre
succeeded so ably in throwing off the Tartar yoke, and in unit-
ing the principalities under his sway, that he must be regarded as
the founder of the Russian nation. His successor, Ivan II.,
sometimes called the Terrible, or the Cruel, on account of the
massacre which he ordered, in which 60,000 inhabitants of
Novgorod, suspected of treason, were slain, advanced the
work which his father had inaugurated, finally broke the power
of the Tartars, and cultivated commerce and the arts as well
as warfare. Perhaps the greatest of his peaceful achievements
was the effecting of a commercial treaty with Queen Elizabeth,
by which the English merchant marine, who had discovered
the sea passage to Archangel, instituted trading relations with
the northernmost parts of the Russian dominions. Under
Peter the Great, Russia threw off her barbarism and took her
place among the civilized nations of Europe. Though lacking
education commensurate with his position, he had the sense to
see the shortcoming and to remedy it, and his studies taught
him the lesson of his country's greatest needs. On assuming

£=

the government he had the army reorganized in accordance
with European military tactics. Seeing the necessity of naval
power, and lacking a seaboard, he wrested the Sea of Azof
from the Turks. Travelling incognito in foreign lands, he
studied their arts and sciences and learned their trades, putting
his knowledge to good use when he returned home again.
Upon a site located on a strip of land he took from the Swedes,
he laid the foundation of the modern capital, St. Petersburg,
which he passed the last years of his life in beautifying. Dy-
ing in 1725, he was succeeded by his Empress, Catherine, who
continued his policy. During the reign of Catherine II. the
first partition of Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia
took place. She was succeeded by her son Paul, who still fur-
ther advanced the interests of his country, now acknowledged
to be one of the great European powers. In the reign of
Alexander I. Russia was the balance of power in Europe. He
was the father of the Holy Alliance — the compact entered
into at Paris September 26, 1815, by the sovereigns of Russia,
Austria and Prussia, joined by most of the European powers,
which bound them to exclude forever every member of the
Bonaparte family from any throne in Europe; also to stand by
each other in the maintenance of their royal prerogatives and
the general peace. It was during his reign that the inhabi-
tants of the city of Moscow destroyed it by fire rather than
have it give shelter to the invader Napoleon. His successor,
Nicholas I., saw the nation engaged in a struggle with the
combined armies of Great Britain, France, Italy and Turkey.
Sebastopol, the stronghold of the Russians in the Crimea, was
taken, and the Russian ambition to control the whole of the
Black Sea checked for the time being. Under Alexander II.,
who succeeded him, was accomplished the liberation of the
serfs in 1861 , the humane policy being dictated rather by reasons

<s ^

296

ITALY.

of expediency, imperialism at the time being threatened
by the progressive nobility and feeling the need of the good
will of the fifty million working people. Twenty years later —
years that were marked by cruel oppression and despotism —
the Czar was slain by the hands of assassins, who had previously
made repeated unsuccessful attempts to kill him. This oc-
curred shortly after the war with Turkey, in which Russia
overcame her foe, but without securing any distinct advantages
from the victory. Notwithstanding she is jealously watched
by the other powers, Russia continues to approach the ac-
complishment of her great aim — the possession of the Black
Sea. In the East, too, her power is felt, and England's Indian
border and China's western boundary are closely pressed by
the Russian soldiery, and this, too, although the Government is
threatened by conspiracies on every side, a majority of the
peasants and laboring classes holding extreme communistic
views, while the doctrine of Nihilism is said to permeate the
whole Russian social fabric, and even among the nobility to
possess its adherents by the thousands.

The Government of Russia is an absolute monarchy, heredi-
tary in the house of Romanoff, which was founded in the
seventeenth century, whose head rules by the title of Cur.
The State Council, which is the highest consultative body in
the State, is composed of the heads of departments and
others selected by the Emperor, and is divided into the legis-
lative, administrative and financial departments. The promul-
gation and execution of the law is left with the Senate, which
is the court of last appeal. There is no representative body,
and the power of the ministers hardly extends beyond render-
ing clerical assistance to the Czar, who makes all appoint-
ments. Trial by jury has been in vogue since 1866. Estab-
lished by law and partially supported by the Government, the
Russo-Greek Church is almost a part of it. It has a member-
ship of over 5o,ooo,orx> souls in European Russia. The Rus-
sians have always maintained the national credit. The main
portion of the revenue comes from excise duties on beer, spirits
and salt ; in addition to this there are a light poll-tax and a pro-
tective customs tariff.

<**-£

> i « # ■ — *>

:£"

-#—*<-

— 5*i

Italy.

-:-:::-:-

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—

- ^<-

pTALY, the successor of the r.ncient Roman Empire, has
a history which runs back into the ages whose events are
only matters of tradition. The Virgilian poem which tells
of the founding of the Roman State by a band of Trojan
refugees, and the story of the wolf-suckled twins, Romulus
and Remus, are delightful legends. However, the foundation of
the city is generally conceded to have occurred B.C. 753, when
the kingdom was established which lasted until B.C. 509, when
it was overthrown in the reign of Tarquin the Proud, and a
republic established which lasted for nearly five centuries.
During these eventful years the kingdom of Tarquin had
grown into a mighty empire, yet not without suffering great
national disasters. In the year 390 B.C. occurred the Gallic
invasion, with the burning down of Rome by that terrible foe ;
from 343 to 290 B.C. raged the wars with the Samnites, who
threatened the Roman power, but were finally subjugated ; in
275 B.C. occurred the battle of Beneventum, by which the
previously victorious Pyrrhus was overcome ; in 216 B.C. was
fought and lost the battle of Canna;, by which the Cartha-
ginian General, Hannibal, after destroying 80,000 of the
Roman troops, came in sight of Rome's conquest, but lost his
opportunity through delay; in 186 B.C. the enmity between
Rome and Carthage culminated in the destruction of the latter
city; in ill B.C. began the Jugurthine war, in which the
powerful Numidian was overthrown after a five years' struggle ;
in 88 B.C. began the Milhridatic war, which ended five years
later in the overthrow of the King of Pontus, who sued for
peace Such were a few of the leading events which occurred

between the regal and imperial eras 01 Roman history. They
bring the reader to a period when Scylla, overcoming his rival,
Marius, in civil war, seized the government and reigned as
Dictator for three years. In the year 60 B.C. was formed the
first triumvirate, when Julius Caesar, Pompey and Cr.wus were
invested with the government. Caesar's wars of discovery in
Gaul and Britannia followed, and then came the battle of
Pharsalia, in which he defeated Pompey. Two years later
Caesar assumed the dictatorship, and in 44 B.C. he was slain in
the Senate house by the assassins, Brutus, Cassius and others.
Then followed the second triumvirate, and then the battle of
Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated ; then
the love episode between Cleopatra and Marc Antony, who,
frittering away the opportunity to win the imperial prize at
Rome, suffered defeat and death at Actium. In 27
Octavius established the Empire, under the title of Augustus
Caesar, at which time the city of Rome is supposed to
have had about 700,000 population, while that of tlii
pim is believed to have been not less ihan 100,000,000.
Tliaii followed a line of Emperors, some of them wise and
benevolent, others of them rapacious and cruel. Of the
latter was the famous Nero, who proved the most bloodthirsty
of tyrants. Under him began the persecutions of the 1
ti.ins. lie was accused of having set the city on fire for the
pleasure to be derived from witnessing the conflagration. Of
the former was Trajan, under whose lieneficent administration
iiuu h wis dime to civilize the ruder portions of the Empire,
while the condition of the city and its inhabitants was ,;■

ameliorated. In the reign of Constantine the Great the Chris-
tian religion was first acknowledged. He made himself a
champion of the church by issuing the decree of Milan, in
w*"'"h he gave it imperial license and avowed himself a believer
in ns doctrines. Entering Rome in triumph in A.D. 312, he
became the first Christian sovereign of the world, and after
defeating the Pagans in their fortress of Byzantium he became
sole Emperor of the entire Roman Empire He transferred
his capital from Rome to Constantinople, where he reigned
until the year 337. His son Julian, who succeeded him, had
been educated a Christian, but reverted to the old Pagan faith ;
but the next Emperor Jovian, restored the Christian faith.
In 3S3 the Roman Entire had three Emp*erors, who soon
were at war, and the victor, Theodosius, divided the Empire
into Eastern and Western at his death, in 395, putting one of
his sons at the head of each. From this division resulted the
Roman and the Greek churches. Roman imperialism reached
its last stages in the fifth century. Alaric with his Northern
hosts marched into Rome, wrought his pleasure there, and
retired from it after twelve days of sack. Rome had fallen,
and such events as are further mentioned may be regarded as
belonging to Italian history proper. In the fifth century
Venice was founded by fugitives fleeing before Attila. In
the eighth century a Germanic tribe threatened Rome. In
the ninth Charlemagne conquered Lombardy and assumed the
title of Roman Emperor, the control of the city, however,
being taken by the Pope. The German Rings conquered the
northern portion of Italy, while the Byzantine Emperors and
the Saracens ruled the southern portion until the uprising of
the Xormans. Several of the Italian cities, however, increased
so in strength and riches as to be able to achieve their inde-
pendence, and chief among these was Venice, which com-
manded the Adriatic Sea and kept back the Turks from the
invasion of Western Europe. In the eighteenth century
Austria obtained large portions of Italy's northern territory,
while the republics of Venice and Genoa dwindled away.
The remainder of the land was divided among petty sover-
eigns, who enjoyed life until the terrible days of the French
revolution, after which Napoleon divided Italy into four
republics, next establishing it as a monarchy, placing first
his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, and then Murat, over it.
After the battle of Waterloo the final reconstitution of

Italy was decreed by the Congress of Vienna Almost all the
old boundaries and the old tyrannies were restored, followed by
the outbreak of the Carbonari, whom the Austrians subdued.
In 1848, by a simultaneous insurrection in Lombardy and
Venice, the great revolution was inaugurated. Supported by
the Pope and the King of Sardinia, it was successful, and Lom-
bardy wasannexedtoSardinia. In the yearfollowing.however,
Austria regained that territory. After an unsuccessful revolt
in Milan in 1853, and in Sicily in 1856, the French effected
an alliance with the Sardinians in 1859, and Austria was
defeated in the great battles of Magenta and Solferino, which
were followed by the hasty and inconclusive peace of Villa-
franca, which left Venetia to Austria, gave Lombardy to
Sicily, and left unsettled the question of the Grand Duchies.
Savoy and Nice were ceded to France, which still holds them,
while Parma, Modena and the Sicilian provinces were incor-
porated with Sardinia. March 17, the law by which Victor
Emmanuel assumed the title of King was promulgated. May
6, Garibaldi joined, with 1,000 men, a revolution which had
broken out in Sicily. Declaring himself Dictator, he headed
the revolt and speedily conquered the Two Sicilies. March
14, 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared King of Italy by
the first Italian Parliament. In the same year, on June 6,
occurred thedeath of Cavour, who was the originator as well as
the director of the Sardinian policy which resulted in Italian
liberation. In 1866 Italy and Prussia united their forces
against Austria, and Venetia was ceded to the Italians.
Attempts were made by Mazzini and Garibaldi to drive the
French from Rome, but they remained there until the war
with Prussia. In 1867 the French army began to be with-
drawn from Rome, and three years later the last detachment
had left the Pontifical territory. September 20, 1870, the
Italian army entered Rome, and October 9 the Papal States
were declared part ot the Kingdom of Italy. King Vic-
tor Emmanuel strengthened and consolidated the king-
dom, and, dying in 1878, was succeeded by his son Hum-
bert, who still reigns. Italy is a limited monarchy, with
a Senate appointed by the King for life, and a Chamber
of 508 Deputies, elected by popular suffrage for a term of
five years. The lynching of eleven Italian members of
the Mafia in New Orleans was the cause of a diplomatic
controversy between Italy and the United States in 1891.

K-

30 Longitude

East 3ft from Greenwich 40

vvn>\A %, w, v t»\tvtd.

300

SPAIN.

+K*-gHM

ECORDED history gives the Phoenicians the credit
of having first established colonies upon the shores
of Spain, which at that time was occupied by Celtic
[ tribes. Later appeared the Greeks, who called the
country Iberia, which name gave way to that of
Hispania, from which the modern name is derived, when the
Romans took possession of the country. After them the
Carthaginians appeared, conquering a stronghold upon the
country and establishing cities, one of which, Cartagena,
situated upon the Mediterranean coast, is now a handsome
city of 80,000 inhabitants. After the Punic wars the Romans
again obtained possession of Spain, which readily improved the
opportunity offered of advancement in civilization. In the
reign of the Emperor Constantine, Christianity, which was
introduced earlier, became the general religion. In the
year 409 the country was overrun by vast hordes of barbarians
who crossed the Pyrenees and made a clean sweep of the
country, and in 412 the Visigoths invaded it, and a Gothic
monarchy was established by their King, Athaulf, in Catalonia.
Its first written laws were given to Spain by one of the Gothic
dynasty of kings. In 711, the Moors subjugated a large por-
tion of the country, and held the southern part of it as a
dependency of their North African dominions. From A. D.
717, their Spanish territory was governed by Emirs, appointed
by the Caliph of Damascus. Under the independent dynasty
which the Moors established Southern Spain flourished in
agriculture, commerce and the arts and sciences. Wars oc-
curred constantly between the Moors and the Gothic princes,
who had maintained possession of the Cantanabrian territory,
but the Christian kingdoms continued to grow in power, and,
uniting at last, they succeeded in driving the intruders from the
country. In the Kingdom of Granada the Moors made their
final stand, but at last they succumbed to the troops of Ferdi-
nand and Isabella. Of the Christian States at this time Arragon
and Castile were by far the most powerful, and in time their
sway extended all over the country. Ferdinand II., the last of
the Arragon sovereigns, by his marriage with Isabella, Queen
of Castile, followed by the conquest of Granada in 1492, and
of Navarre in 1502, accomplished thus the unification of Chris-
tian Spain, which now entered upon its most glorious epoch.
Spanish discovery gave America to the civilized world, and,
Spanish conquest extending her rule over Naples, a large
portion of North, Central and South America, the new
Kingdom at once attained rank as one of the great powers of
the world. New riches were secured by Cortez' conquests in
Mexico, and Pizarro's in Chili and Peru, but in the reign of

the Philips the decline of Spanish power began and accelerated.
Portugal had been conquered in 1581, but in 1640 she obtained
her independence, and during this period Spain suffered other
serious diminishments of power and resources. The reign of
Charles III. promised to bring the country back to something
like its old glory, but his successor embroiled the country in
inglorious wars which cost it its valuable possession of Loui-
siana, in America, ceded to France in 1800, while England
destroyed the Spanish navies. Ferdinand VII. was removed
from the throne by Napoleon, who placed his brother Joseph
in his stead. England, at that time at war with Spain, ac
knowledged Ferdinand as King, and joined the Spaniards in
their endeavors to drive out the Bonaparte, and lent the sup-
port of its armies under Wellington. Ferdinand's rule was
re-established, but his reign was marked by insurrections which
cost the country very dearly. His daughter, Isabella II., suc-
ceeded him, but her political and personal misconduct brought
about many rebellions, that of the Carlists in 1834-9 ^'"C ,ne
most serious. In 1868 she was driven from the throne and
forced to fly to France, and two years later Prince Amadeo
of Italy, the second son of King Victor Emmanuel, was elected
by the Cortes and declared King. A year later he abdicated,
whereupon Don Carlos, a grandnephew of Ferdinand VII.,
claimed the throne, and made an unsuccessful attempt to gain
possession of it. A democratic federal republic was then
declared and a President elected, who had two successors within
three months. Castelar, who had been elected in September,
1873, resigned in 1874. The Cortes dissolved, and General
Serrano was charged with the duty of forming a new ministry.
He coped successfully with the Carlists, who were then making
strenuous efforts to gain a foothold, and retained executive
power until Januarv, tb>7<;, when Alfonso XII., son of the
ex-Queen Isabella, who had been declared King at SantaiuUr
the month previous, landed in Spain and took the field against
Don Carlos. He was finally victorious. Don Carlos surren-
dered his claim to the throne, and the young King at once
devoted his attention to the work of reorganizing the Govern-
ment and the development of the country. He died in 1885.
In June, 1876, a Constitution was proclaimed, which pro-
vides that the Government shall be a constitutional monarchy,
giving the executive authority to the King and placing the
lative power in theCortcswith the King. The Cortes comprises
a Senate, which is divided into three classes, and a Congress,
consisting of Deputies, one of whom is allowed to every 50,-
000 inhabitants. Spain is now under the repen
Queen Maria Christina, widow of Alfonso XII., their
son, Alfonso XIII., being a minor.

M^^^^^^^ ^.*^^\*^ Z

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IKE Spain, Portugal was early inhabited by the Celts,
I ^ who were succeeded in turn byJ'Phcenicians, Cartha-
ginians and Greeks, who built cities along the coast
which formed the nuclei of cotonies. Like Spain,
too, it suffered from Vandal and Visigothic invasion.
In the eighth century the Moors conquered the country, which
they held until about the end of the eleventh century, when
Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon drove out the invaders.
It was the son of Henry of Burgundy, Don Alfonso Hen-
riques, who established the Portuguese monarchy, after defeat-
ing the Moors at the battle of Ouriquein 1139. Eight years later
the Moors were deprived of Lisbon, and a century later they
were entirely driven from the country. Alfonso's successors
proved able monarchs, and under their rule the country advanced
rapidly. During the reign of King John I. began the era of
Portugal's superiority in seamanship, which made Lisbon a city
of such vast commercial power. In 141 5 the country gained
its first foothold abroad, when the sea-captain Zarco discov-
ered the island of Madeira. Later on, Portuguese sailors discov-
ered the Azores and Cape Verde. In i486 Bartholomeu Dias
discovered, and in the following year Vasco da Gama doubled
the Cape of Good Hope, and pursuing his journey reached
Malabar. Still more important for Portugal, as events turned
out, was the discovery by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, in 1500, of
Brazil, which was followed by the formation of a colony which

has since developed into the Empire of Brazil. A dispute with
Spain over a question of succession brought about a war
with that power, and for sixty years thereafter Portu-
gal remained in subjection to her neighbor on the Iberian
Peninsula. In 1640, however, the Duke of Braganza headed
a Portuguese revolution, was successful, and ascended the throne
as John IV. In 1S07, the Government havingtaken sides against
Napoleon, the latter invaded the country, declaring it part of
France, and the throne vacant. When the French soldiers
arrived, the Regent, John Maria Joseph, Prince of Brazil, who
ruled in the place of Queen Maria, who was insane, sailed for
Brazil. At Napoleon's downfall he appointed his son, Dom
Pedro, Regent of Brazil, and returned to Portugal. In 1822
Dom Pedro became Emperor of Brazil, the succession being
accomplished without bloodshed, and a few years later he came
into possession of the crown of Portugal also, which he surren-
dered to his daughter, Donna Maria, preferring to remain at
Rio Janeiro. Civil war arising not long afterward, the British
interfered, and since then they have held the country in a con-
dition of semi-subjugation.

The Government is a hereditary constitutional monarchy,
with the legislative power vested jointly in the sovereign and a
Cortes which comprises a Chamber of Peers and a Chamber of
Deputies, of which the King nominates the former for life and
the people elect the latter.

***

+ Switzerland. *

^RIGINALLY occupied by Celts, Switzerland became
a Roman province and was held as such for several
centuries, until successive invasions of German tribes
occurred. In the fifth century the Burgundians,
Goths and Allemanians divided the province among
but in the century following the Franks captured
it. Christianity was introduced in the seventh century by
Irish monks, and monastic institutions were founded. In
the latter part of the ninth century Switzerland was taken

them,

•c s •-

19*

from the Franks, Germany gaining the northern and Bur-
gundy the southern portion of the land. An alliance was
formed later by Zurich, Berne and Basle against the neighbor-
ing powers which held the country, and a brave endeavor in
the direction of independence was made. Attempts by Aus-
tria to incorporate the Swiss Cantons with her domain were
nobly opposed, and the war which followed, lasting 200 years,
sundered the relations of Germany and Switzerland. Imperial
power was assumed in 1273 by Rudolph of Hapsburg, a Swiss

S*v*

3°4

TURKEY.

nobleman, and in 1291 the Cantom of Uri, Unterwalden and
Schwyz formed a league against foreign oppression. In 1315
this was established as a perpetual confederacy, and in the
course of time other Cantons joined them. Lucerne, Zurich,
Giants, Zug and Berne by 1353 had become members of " The
Perpetual League of the Old Places of the Confederacy,"
which was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation. In
1415 the inhabitants of the Cantons invaded and annexed parts
of the Austrian territory, and three years later they annexed
Ticino. In 1481 Solothurn and Freiburg were admitted, which
was followed by internal dissension, lasting until 1499. Two
years later Basle and Schauffhausen were admitted, as was also
Appenzell in 1513. There were now thirteen Cantons, and the
true independence of the State was established. In 1531 war
broke out between the Catholics and the Protestants, and the
former were victorious. Berne and Zurich managed to main-
tain the neutrality of Switzerland during the Thirty Years'
War, and in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 Switzerland
was acknowledged as an independent State. At the time of
the French Revolution Switzerhnd was invaded by two French
armies, which captur .d the city of Berne and proclaimed the
Helvetic Republic, designating Aarau as the capital. In 1S02,
civil war dividing the Cantons, Napoleon undertook to reor-
ganize the country, and the people accepted his suggestions,
but in 1809 a new Constitution was formed which added three
new Cantons — Geneva, Vallais and the Prussian principality
of Neufchatel — to the nineteen which had been framed by

Napoleon. The European powers ratified this change and
declared the perpetual neutrality and inviolability of the Con-
federation. During the excitement aroused by the French
Revolution agitations in the direction of liberty resulted in
the reorganization of cantonal constitutions, which were made
more liberal and democratic. Religious troubles reappeared
in 1S34 and lasted for some years, finally resulting, in 1S47, in
the expulsion of the Jesuits and the suppression of the monas-
teries, which excited the anger of some of the powers which
attempted to intimidate Switzerland. In 1848 Neufchatel
declared her independence of Prussian control, which nine
years later was acknowledged. Switzerland made, in 1S60,
an unavailing protest against the annexation of Savoy to
France.

By the revised Constitution of 1874 it is provided that all the
rights of sovereignty not transferred to the Confederation shall
be exercised by the twenty-two Cantons. Every Canton's
Constitution is guaranteed if it is republican in form, if it has
been adopted by a majority of the people, and if it can be
revised on a demand of the majority of the voters. There is
a Federal Assembly which comprises a National Council and
' a Council of States. The executive authority is exercised b_v «
Federal Council, which has seven members, each of whom has
a department. The President and Vice-President of the Fed-
eral Council, also President and Vice-President of the Con-
federation, are chosen for one year only and are selected from
the Council by its members.

•^

T<^-3— <S

I (SUI^EY.

fg>— ;s— a) -1 »

! N 1330 begins the Ottoman career of conquest. About
that time Orcan, leader of a tribe inhabiting the Altai
Mountains, led his hardy Janizaries against Nicomedia
and Nicola. He called the gate of his palace the Sub-
lime Porte, and himself Padisha, both of which expres-
sions are still extant. His successor located his capital at
Adrianople, and during his rule the Turks fell "under the relent-
less hand of Tamerlane, who, in 1402, routed them in battle,
but effected no permanent occupation of their territory. Re-
covering from the rude assault, the Turks, in less than a gener-
ation, greatly humiliated the Byzantine Empire, which ceased

to exist later, giving way before the irresistible Mohammed II.,
who transferred the seat of empire from Adrianople to Con-
stantinople. The capture of Constantinople was followed by
other important cities in Eastern Europe, and during the next
century the Turkish Empire constantly grew in power. Greece
and Arabia were added to the domain of the Porte. The glory
of Islam culminated in the reign of the third Sultan of Stam-
boul, Solyman the Magnificent, which lasted from 1520 to
1566. His ambition was to conquer Western Europe jnd
establish the Crescent throughout the continent, and for many
years it looked as though he would succeed. He did extend

ik.

TURKEY.

305

his empire considerably, but his grand hope was destined for
non-fulfilment. He died in Hungary, where he was conduct-
ing a victorious campaign, in 1481, and with his death began
the decline of the Ottoman Empire. It was by no rapid
national decay that the Turk fell from his high estate under
Solyman to his lowly condition under Abdul Hamid, the pres-
ent ruler. For centuries Turkish incursions carried terror into
the lands of Russia, Hungary, Poland and Italy, while the
whole of Europe felt apprehensive of Ottoman supremacy.
It was not until near the close of the eighteenth century that
the tide set in steadily against the Turk. Catherine of Russia
was the first to bring
the Crescent low,
but England and
France objected to
the partition of the
empire between
Russia and Austria,
and obtained for
the Sultan terms of
peace which secured
the autonomy of the
Ottoman Empire.
This has been main-
tained since by the
friendly interposi-
tion of the anti-
Russian powers,
who see that so long
as the Sultan of a
people who have
lost all aggressive
ambition rules at
Constantinople the
"balance of power"
is safe. In the war
with Russia in
1877-8 Turkey
suffered a very seri-
ous loss of terri-
tory, the treaty of Berlin reducing her area from 1,742,874
square miles to 1,116,848 square miles, and her population
from 28,165,000 to 21,000,000. Turkey in Europe was re-
duced more than one-half in both territory and population,
the cessions under the treaty being as follows : Bulgaria,
Eastern Roumelia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Roumania, Ser-
via, etc., and parts of Thessaly and Epirus. In the same

VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE.

year, too, the island of Cyprus .vas placed under British con-
trol.

As to the Government of the Ottoman Empire, it can
generally be said that the precepts of i.he Koran are the foun-
dation of its fundamental laws. Absolute power is vested in
the Sultan, as long as his acts remain in conformity with Mo-
hammedan doctrine. Forms of constitutional limitation upon
the arbitrary authority of the Sultan have been adopted
recently, but in point of fact the legislative and executive
departments of the Government are in the hands of his Sub-
lime Highness, and the functions of law are directed by two

officers, the Grand
Vizier, who looks
after secular affairs,
and the Sheik-ul-
Islam, who is the
head of the church.
There is a body or
class known as the
Ulema, which com-
prises the " Mufti,"
or interpreters of
the Koran, the
judges and high
functionaries of the
law. " Bey " is a
general term, apply-
ing to all important
civil officers, while
" Pasha " is the de-
signation of tax-
gatherers and other
officers who are
both military and
civil in ' function.
A ministerial coun-
cil, or cabinet, called
the" Divan, "which
is presided over by
the Grand Vizier,
exists, comprising eight ministerial departments, namely, War,
Finance, Marine, Commerce, Public Works, Police, Justice
and Education. The empire is divided into vilayets, under
Governors, of which there are four in European Turkey,
exclusive of the district of Constantinople. Cruelty and ve-
nality are the main qualities of the Governors, whose rule is
very arbitrary.

<a »_

Ts"

306

7(\

kOUMANIA.

■ m *•** •••••••• * +**

# I^OUMANIA.

HtHIIH.HI ' *l « iniU «*»»

<-»SH-l-fr^ ^3 I. | W !•

MONG the minor States of Europe, those which
received their autonomy at the treaty of Berlin are
worthy of close attention. Roumania is the name con-
ferred upon Moldavia and Wallachia when they be-
came united under one prince and one administration
as a province of Turkey, in December, 1861. The represent-
atives of the people met at the capital, Bucharest, May 21,
1877, and proclaimed absolute independence of Turkey, which
the treaty of Berlin confirmed the following year. The Gov-
ernment is an elective and strictly limited constitutional princi-
pality. Karl I, is the present Prince.

-: o. :-

Bulgaria.

Bulgaria, an autonomous principality tributary to Turkey,
constituted previous to 1878 the Turkish Danubian vilayet.
Her subjection to the Porte dates from 1392, but nearly five
centuries of Moslem misrule and oppression have not deprived
the people of their national pride and desire for independence.
In 1876 they rose against their oppressors, but were unsuc-
cessful, and the atrocities which the ferocious Bashi-Bazouks
committed in suppressing the revolt, together with the lament-
able condition of other Turkish provinces, led to the Turko-
Russian war. At the treaty of Berlin, the erection of a
Bulgarian principality was not permitted, but the province was
granted its autonomy. Eastern Roumelia was incorpor-
ated with the principality in 1885 under the name of
South Bulgaria.

-: :o :-

Sei^via.

Servia gained independence of Turkey at the same time and
in the same way as Roumania. It was virtually free, however,
as early as 1829. Under the present King, Alexander,
the fifth of his dynasty, a government similar to that of
Roumania is carried on.

Bosnia and Herzegovina, according to the same treaty,
were to have their administration conducted by Austria-Hun-
gary.

pNDOI^A.

In the Eastern Pyrenees, nestling among the high mountains,
is the tiny European republic of Andorra, which has main-
tained its independence since the days of Charlemagne. lis
area is 175 square miles, and the burden of its government
rests lightly upon no less than twenty-four Consuls.

-: :-

San CQap^ino.

Of all the republics in the world that of San Marino enjoys
the double distinction of being the oldest and the smallest.
Situated in Eastern Central Italy, it has an area of thirty-
three square miles, and a population of 8,000, an army of
819 men, 131 officers, while the Government consist* of a
Council of 60 members (20 nobles, 20 townsmen, and 20
peasants), of whom two act jointly as Regents.

CQONAGO.

Still smaller than San Marino is the principality .1
Monaco, whose ruler conducts the affairs of a population
Of a little over 12,000 within an area of 8 square miles.
It is a favorite resort for invalids, but its chief notoriety
comes from its legalized gambling-houses, and patron-
ized by European tourists. From this source a revenue
of $350,000 per annum comes to the Prince of Monaco,
who spends it in Paris, where he has his residence.

-. 9

GREF.CK.

3«>7

f ■$• Gl^BEGE. #

[UT little remains to-day of the glories which once
belonged to this most remarkable and interesting
country. Of the early history of Greece but very
little authentic knowledge is available. Hellen was
claimed by the Greeks as their common ancestor, the
popular belief being that from his sons, Dorus, .<Eolus, and his
grandsons, Ion and Achaeus, sprang the four different branches
of the nation : the Dorians, from whom the Spartans were
descended ; the Ionians, from whom sprang the Athenians ; the
jEolians, whose dialect developed itself into the songs of
Sappho ; and the Achaeans, who occupied Mycenae, Argos and
Sparta. Previous to the Hellenic inhabitants of Greece were
the Pelasgians, who had a different language. Many indica-
tions go to show that Egyptian and Phoenician immigration
had a large influence upon Grecian civilization, whose alphabet
is apparently of Phoenician origin. What is known as the
heroic age of Greece is a fragment of the poetic imagination
of such minds as Homer and other great poets, who told the
story of the great deeds of heroes, who, descended from the
gods, performed deeds of supernatural valor and strength.
Still, modern research has shown that much which has been
gravely condemned as fiction has been actual occurrence, the
persistent spade of Schliemann even establishing the fact that
the siege of Troy was no myth, and that the story of Achilles'
wrath may to-day be read in the ruins of the ancient city.

From first to last Greece was divided into numerous inde-
pendent States, whose union was confederate rather than
federal. Authentic history dates from 776 B.C., when the first
Olympiad was held. Sparta at this time was the smallest and
least important of the States, but the genius and valor of her
citizens made her famous and strong, and by the sixth century
before the Christian era foreign conquest and internal advance-
ment had placed her in the lead as to power and wisdom of
administration. Greece was at this time the acknowledged
centre of European civilization. Persia now began to dispute
the Hellenic advancement, and the battles of Marathon, Salamis
and Thermopylae were among the most famous encounters
'between these powerful nations. In B.C. 431 began the Pelopon-
nesian war, the great civil war of Greece, which continued with
hardly any cessation of hostilities for twenty-seven years. In
344 began the interference by Macedon in Peloponnesian affairs,
which led to the wars which ended with the supremacy of the

Macedonians, whose rule lasted until 325 B.C., when the
Athenians accomplished temporarily their independence. In
B.C. 214 occurred the first collision between the Greeks and
the Romans, who in B.C. 200 invaded the country, and three
years later conquered the Macedonians. About twenty years
later war arose again between the Romans and Macedonians,
who were defeated and their country made a Roman province.
In B.C. 146 occurred the battle of Leucopetra, which completed
the dissolution of the last of the Greek leagues, the Achaean,
and henceforth Greece was under the Roman yoke. The Roman
Senate, and afterward the Emperors, treated the fatherland of
their own civilization with kindness, and it was not until the
Byzantine Empire placed its cruel foot upon the Greek neck
that all free institutions and popular rights were disregarded.

Though conquered in war, Greece still remained the leader
of the world in literature and the arts. Her temples and
statues, her schools of philosophy and rhetoric, still maintained
her dignity among the nations. After the Byzantine invasion
the adherents of the ancient religion only retained the name of
the ancient Hellenes, and in the reign of Justinian, in the sixth
century, the teaching of doctrines opposed to Chistianity was
forbidden. From the fifth to the eighth century Slavic and
other foreign people appeared in Greece, but they were finally
expelled. Its ancient inhabitants regained the country, though
the Slavic influence is still evident in certain parts of it,
especially the Southern Peninsula. In the eleventh century,
the Normans appeared from Sicily and plundered and ravaged
the cities of Thebes, Athens and Corinth. In 1203 the Latin
Princes appeared in the Crusade, conquered Constantinople,
and divided Greece among them, establishing a number of
principalities, which Frankish governments were swept away
by the Turks in 1453, when they captured Constantinople and
extended their conquests in a few years over the whole country,
which they made a portion of the Turkish Empire. Abject
misery was the condition of the country under the Turks. In
1687 the Christian League, under Venetian leadership, besieged
and took Athens, but a few years later the Venetians were ex-
pelled, and the Moslem once more ruled Greece, keeping it in
a most deplorable condition of subjugation. Toward the
close of the eighteenth century the national spirit again began
to assert itself, and secretly the preparations were begun for
throwing off the Ottoman yoke. They were completed in 182 j,

,_ il

^~ ^ ;r

308

when the Greeks arose in insurrection against the oppressor.
On their side was the sympathy of the whole civilized world,
and money and men were supplied the struggling State from all
directions. In 1822, the Moslems increased the execration in
which they were held by massacring over 100,000 of the inhabit-
ants of the island of Scio, reducing the population from 120,000
to 16,000. Four years of heroic war found the Greeks ex-
hausted and at the mercy, if such existed, of the conqueror, but
the diplomatic interference of England, France and Russia
stayed the ferocious hand of the Turk, and proposed that Greece
should be constituted as a tributary province, with the right to
choose its own government. Greece was willing to accept the
terms ; the Ottoman Empire rejected them. War was declared
by the allied powers against Turkey, whose fleet was almost de-
stroyed, and in 1828 they decided to create Greece an independent
kingdom. The crown was offered to two foreign princes and
was declined by the first, while the second was assassinated.
In 1833 Otto, son of the King of Bavaria, assumed the reins
of government, and in 1835 the capital was established at
Athens. In 1844, in recognition of a popular clamor, a Con-
stitution was granted to the people, and after a stormy reign

of nearly thirty years he was requested to abdicate, and
accepted the invitation. An election by universal suffrage
resulted in the choice of Prince George of Denmark, who
accepted the throne on condition that England surrender the
protectorate of the Ionian Islands, against which the people
had rebelled, which was granted by that power. In 1863, the
new King was crowned as George I., whose reign has since
proved acceptable to the people. In 1866, a revolution in
Crete strained the relations of Greece and Turkey, but the
danger was finally averted.

Greece is governed in accordance with the Constitution
elaborated by the constituent assembly in 1863 and adopted in
1864. A single chamber of representatives, known as the
Boule, hold the legislative power. Annual meetings are held
by the Boule, whose members are elected by manhood suffrage
for a term of four years. Executive power is vested in the
King and his responsible Ministers, the heads of the following
departments : Presidency of the Council, Interior, Finance,
Justice, Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, War, Marine and
Foreign Affairs. A Council of State is provided for, with power
to review or amend bills passed by the Deputies, but of late
years its services have not been employed.

<«#*»•<#->-

^aAPAN.W

.o*o-

^LTHOUGH containing a vastly larger population
than any other of the continents — its inhabitants
in fact outnumbering those of the remainder of
the earth — Asia, on account of her not having
come to any great extent under the influences of
modern civilization, is as weak in power as she is strong in
numbers. In ancient days this was different: the world's his-
tory was then largely framed by its Asiatic sons, who contended
successfully against Egypt and Greece, and later on helped to
build up the glory of the Macedonian and Roman Empires.
It was from the regions north of the Caspian Sea that the Huns
came, and, following the star of empire, marched westward
and settled down in various parts of Europe. Over the plains

of the Slav swept the victorious armies of Timour and Genghis
Khan, and later the Caliphs, at the head of their Arabian
troops, carried the Koran and the sword throughout Asia,
Europe and Africa, and established religious nationalities which
are, to a certain extent, formidable even in this day of their
decadence. Before their march the Roman Empire gave way,
and the Turkish dominion raised, which for so many yean
held other European powers in awe. With a imputation of
825,0,54,000, as compared with that of Europe, 357,379.000, it
MM as though the day must come when Asiatic supremacy
will exist as a fact. Asia has a great deal to learn, however, of
the modern spirit and system of government, before it can hope
to cope with the more persistent, audacious and intelligent
continent to the west of it

?r?

3f-

CHINA— JAPAN.

309

4HHHHHHH

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«M ml ). > ? i- n -i ? > <l > «o»

MYTHOLOGY, rather than history, must be cred-
ited with the earlier chronicles of the Chinese,
whose actual record, however, extends back
2,400 years previous to the Christian era, and
contains the record of a great flood, which
many have supposed to be identical with the deluge of the
Pentateuch. Certain it is that the Great Wall, which extends
1,250 miles along the northern boundary of China, was erected
250 years before the Christian era, when the Tsin dynasty was
founded by Chwang-Siang. In the thirteenth century a Mongol
dynasty was formed by Genghis Khan, after his capture of
Pekin. European visits began in this century, when Marco
Polo reached China by the overland route. Portuguese and
Dutch traders followed, and in the seventeenth century En-
gland visited the country, and after several unsuccessful negotia-
tions the East India Company was allowed, in 1684, to trade
with the natives. But little was done, however, until the
opium trade set in, at the beginning of the present century,
and soon attained enormous proportions. An attempt was
made by the Chinese Government to exclude the pernicious
drug, but the traders of the East India Company evaded the
restrictions placed upon its entry, and this led to the Anglo-
Chinese war, known as the opium war, which closed with the
treaty of Nankin and the opening of five ports — Canton,
Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai — to the British in
1842. American trade with China was inaugurated in 1784,
when the ship Empress made a successful voyage from New

York to the Celestial Empire. In 1844 the first American
treaty of amity and commerce between the United States and
China was negotiated at Macao, and in 1867-8 a more impor-
tant one was negotiated by the Hon. Anson Burlingame, which
was revised in 1880, in order that an understanding might be
reached with the Chinese Government in relation to the emi-
gration of its subjects to this country, where opposition to
Chinese cheap labor had been aroused in California and other
sections. Such treaties as the Europeans have with China
have been wrested from that country by force of arms, and
during a war in i860 the French troops captured the Em-
peror's summer palace, at Pekin, and carried off several
millions of dollars' worth of booty. The most important
event of modern domestic Chinese history was the Taeping
revolution, which lasted from 1851 to 1864, and had for its
object the overthrow of the Manchoo or foreign dynasty.
Serious anti-Christian riots occurred in 1891, in which
many missionaries and other foreigners were killed and
their property destroyed.

An Emperor rules China, aided by the Interior Council
Chamber, which is mainly composed of high nobles. The
provinces are governed by Imperial Governors and Executive
Boards. Bribery and corruption prevail throughout the civil
service, which is a monstrous institution. Competitive exam-
ination is the basis of the service, the intention being to secure
for official positions the most intelligent and best educated
men of the empire.

5apan.

f-g*.*

ORIGINALLY inhabited by a race known as the Ainos,
who had a written language and were fairly advanced
in civilization, the island of Japan subsequently fell
into the hands of the Mongols, the present occupants
being akin to the Chinese, whom they resemble in
appearance. According to Japanese history, the ruling dynasty
claims twenty-five centuries of unbroken succession, descent
being claimed from the first Mikado, Timmu Tenno, who was

reputed to have been of divine descent. Buddhism was intro-
duced into Japan in the sixth century. Marco Polo was the
first European to write of Japan, and the first Europeans to
land upon its shores were Portuguese mariners. About the
middle of the sixteenth century one of the smaller islands was
visited by Fernam Mendez Pinto. In 1549 St. Francis Xavier
landed and introduced Christianity, and he was followed by
many others. In 1615 the priests were exiled, and nine years

310

BRITISH INDIA.

later all foreigners except the Chinese and the Dutch were
expelled from the island, and the emigration of natives was
prohibited. In 1637 the massacre of the Christians began, and
for over two centuries Japan was left to itself. In 1854,
however, Commodore Perry, of the United States Navy,
effected a commercial treaty with Japan, which resulted in
opening Japanese ports to American ships, and after a struggle
with the old court party the civilization of the West began to
grow in popular favor, liberal ideas struck root, and national
progress was evidenced in a number of valuable reforms. In
1868 the executive power of the Japanese Government was

concentrated in the Mikado, and since then the work of ad-
vancement has gone on very rapidly, promising to open up to
American enterprise a large field for the exportation of her
machinery and other manufactures.

Absolute power in temporal and spiritual affairs is vested in
the Mikado. He is assisted in government by an Executive
Ministry and a Privy Council ; and, since 1890, by a Na-
tional Parliament of two Houses. The House of Peers
consists of 10 life members, 139 elected nobles, 59 im-
perial nominees, and 44 elected men of mark : the House
of Representatives contains 300 elected members.

■ fr* 'I' i * 3 »-

Bi^ish India. cgp=^

ARLY Indian history, extending back millions of
years, is composed of a confused mass of fabulous
chronicles. Research by careful historians leads to
the belief that the Aryan Hindoos settled the coun-
try some fifteen centuries before the Christian era, at
which time the Brahminical religion and the social institution
of caste are believed to have been in existence in undeveloped
shape. About five centuries before Christ the northwestern
provinces of the country were conquered by the Persian mon-
arch Darius, and later Alexander the Great invaded India and
conquered some of its provinces. In the eighth century the
province of Scinde and the Southern Punjaub were invaded by
the Mohammedans, who were later expelled by the Hindoos.
In the beginning of the eleventh century they returned and
conquered all Northern India. At the close of the sixtceenth
century occurred the invasion of Tamerlane. In 1526 Baber,
the Mogul Sultan of Cabul, invaded India, and established the
Mogul dynasty, whose strength culminated with Aurungzebe,
who subdued almost the entire peninsula, and Mohammed
Shah. In 1739 occurred the invasioa of Nadir Shah, King
of Persia, who overcame the empire and occupied Delhi, from
which city he removed enormous stores of precious stones and
metals. The restoration of the Mogul dynasty was followed
by'another incursion of the Mahrattas, who in the eighteenth
century were entirely overthrown by the Afghans. European
attention was at last called to the country, and in the sixteenth
century settlements were made upon the coast by Portuguese
explorers whom the Dutch expelled later. Great Britain, rep-
resented by the East India Company, effected settlements
during the seventeenth century, and in the middle of the
eighteenth came into conflict with the French, who had also
gained a foothold, and after a hard struggle overcame them.

Under Lord Clive the British troops vanquished the Emperor
of Delhi and the King of Oude, and gained possession of
Bengal, Berar and other provinces, which acquisitions were
added to as years went by. For many years British rule was
quietly submitted to by the natives, its enforcement being
accomplished by the army of native troops, under English offi-
cers, armed by the East India Company.

In 1857 a revolt occurred, and the Kings of Delhi and Oude,
at the head of the rebellious Sepoys, threatened for eighteen
months to wrest the mastery of India from England. Fright-
ful massacres, attended with indescribable atrocities, were per-
petrated by the rebels, and the measures of reprisal adopted
by the English were hardly less terrible. After the rebellion
had been crushed the British Government assumed direct con-
trol of the country, the East India Company being deprived of
a monopoly which had brought in an annual revenue of many
millions. Since then the British have largely advanced their
Indian frontiers. In 1876 Queen Victoria was proclaimed
Empress of India.

The Government, which regulates the affairs of about
300,000,000 of people, is practically a military despotism,
which is made possible by the division of the native popula-
tion into Hindoos and Mohammedans. A Governor-General,
appointed by the ruler of Great Britain, holds the executive
authority and acts under the English Secretary of State for
India, who is advised by a Council, a majority of whom are
appointed by the Crown. Lieutenant-Governors of the prov-
inces and minor officers are appointed by the Governor-General.
The officials are almost all Englishmen. Self-government pre-
vails in the villages and townships, which lev)' and expend their
own taxes under a system which has prevailed in India forages,
and wliicli provides the only exception to the rule that all power
rests in the hands of the resident Europeans.

AFGHANISTAN AND I3ELOOCHISTAN— PERSIA.

.3"

^BxaBxg(xaxi^xax)S/ii(xisxaxaE(xaxg&xisxgByii(xsx)BX)$ixgBxa<x>

Afghanistan and Beloochistan. m

xaxaxaxa&xaxisxisxaxaxaxisxiBxiSxaxsxgBxaxgsxaxa x*g

— #>•■

' S a nation, Afghanistan, although only dating from
' 1747, when the successful soldier Amhed Khan
assumed regal power, and possessing but a small
territory and population, has, by her wars with for-
j^ 3 - ' eign powers, so impressed the world with the warlike
character of her people, that her history possesses a unique
interest. Amhed Khan's most important war was with the
Mahrattas, whom he overthrew in 1761, and when he died,
twelve years later, he left to his son, Timour, an empire reach-
ing from the Indus to the Oxus, while Khorassan, Beloochistan
and Scinde acknowledged his rule' as tributary provinces. After
Timour came anarchy, and the Punjaub and Scinde were lost,
while Persian encroachments endangered the country. Diplo-
matic relations with the English, who regard Afghanistan with
peculiar interest, as being the "key to India," were opened
in 1809, and a permanent English resident at the Ameer's
court was appointed in 1837. The relations of the two coun-
tries failed to remain friendly, and in 1838 Lord Auckland,
the Governor-General of British India, declared war against
the Ameer, Mohammed Khan, who was defeated. Satisfied
with the invasion they had accomplished, the English with-
drew, leaving an army of occupation behind them. In 1841
Akbar Khan, son of the deposed Ameer, organized a con-
spiracy against the English occupants of the country, which
resulted in the murder of the British Resident and Envoy,
after which the invaders promised to leave the country, Akbar
Khan agreeing to provide them with an escort. This promise
was not kept, and the army, together with camp-followers,
the whole amounting to about 26,000 people, while leaving

the country by way of the Khyber Pass, in the depth of
winter, were attacked by the fanatical tribes of the districts,
who killed men, women and children. Of the whole host
only one man escaped to convey the tidings to the nearest
British port, Jelalabad. An expedition was immediately fitted
out in India, and the country was desolated, the fortresses of
Ghurzee and Cabul being taken. Notwithstanding this terri-
ble lesson, the Afghans, in 1846, allied themselves with the
Sikhs against the British, and raised a revolt in the Punjaub,
which was quelled only after severe fighting. The present
Ameer, Abdur Rahman Khan, maintains the throne amid
vicissitudes caused by the insurrections led by his own rela-
tives. In 1879 the inhabitants of Cabul arose in revolt, and
assassinated the British Resident and a large number of other
foreigners, which led to a war in which the British arms, after
desperate fighting, were successful, and British influence in the
national policy was firmly established. The Government of the
country is a monarchy. The natives are divided into clans,
ruled over by chiefs. Revenue is raised by taxation, an officer
collecting it in each province^ Justice is administered in the
towns by the Cadis.

Beloochistan, a country lying to the south of Afghanistan,
is not considered of strategic value by either British or Rus-
sians. In 1839 the British stormed the capital and killed the
ruler, after which they occupied the country for several years.
In 1854 a treaty was formed between England and Beloo-
chistan, and another in 1876, by which Beloochistan be-
came a British protectorate, the Khan binding himself to
oppose all the enemies of Great Britain, and to have no
relations with other foreign States.

'c++

* E?EI^SIA. * -^

UTHENTIC Persian history begins with the revolt
under Cyrus against Astyages, the Median King,
which resulted in the foundation of the Persian
Empire. Joining with Cambyses and Darius, Cyrus
subdued Lydia and Asia Minor, and crowned his
career by the capture of the city of Babylon, the metrop-
olis of Assyria. Darius carried the Persian arms to the bor-

ders of Thrace, but was defeated at Marathon, and his son
Xerxes was not less unfortunate. About 330 years before the
Christian era Persia was invaded by Alexander the Great, of
Macedon, who extinguished the empire, which up to his com-
ing had ruled the world. After Alexander's successors came
the Parthian dynasty, which was overthrown in the third cen-
tury, when the ancient laws and religion were re-established

.}I2

ARABIA— PALESTINE.

under a descendant of the famous Cyrus, and the Sassanidae
dynasty thus formed ruled with great energy until 628 A. D.,
when its last representative was slain, and the country fell a
prey to the Mohammedan Arabians until 868, when a native
dynasty was established. A Mongol invasion occurred in the
thirteenth century, and in the fourteenth Tamerlane swept the
land with his Tartar followers. Of the Suffavean dynasty which
succeeded, the most famous representative was Nadir Shah,
who invaded India and carried away $100,000,000 worth of
spoils from the city of Delhi. Of late years Persia has not
been able to do anything worthy of her ancient glories. Rus-

sian encroachments havedeprived her of important provinces. In
1 856-57 sheengaged in war with England and was defeated, w hich
event led to a friendly feeling towards that country which, doubt-
less, prompted the Shah, Nasr-ed-Din, in 1874* to visit Europe.
The Government of Persia is an unlimited despotism, the
Shah being absolute in his monarchial powers. Direct taxa-
tion defrays current expenses, and the country is free from
national debt. Law, as laid down in the Koran, is adminis-
tered by mollahs (judges), whose decisions are given in accord-
ance with the side of the case which possesses the greater
power to bribe the court.

• <£>«"*

pI^ABIA.

-^^

MiLAIMING descent from Ishmael, the Arabs have
L always been and still are a wandering, wild, uncon-
trolable peop:e, whose career and present condition
I seem to fulfil the angelic prophecy. The aborigines
of Arabia were p-obably the Cushites, who passed
into Africa and were succeeded by a race descended from
Abraham. After the destruction of Jerusalem large num-
bers of Jews entered Arabia, which subsequently welcom-
ed the doctrines of Mohammad, with whose coming the
history of the country really begins. Becoming united, they
grew in power until in Europe, Asia and Africa empires
were brought under their dominion. While producing impor-

tant changes in the destinies of other nations, Arabia her-
self underwent no great improvement, and when her day of
conquest was over the Turks found her an easy prey, and in
the sixteenth century captured Yemen, which they lost a
century later. The Portuguese, too, conquered Muscat, while
the Russians gained some temporary advantages in Arabia. In
the eighteenth century the Wahabees made their appearance,
and, though Mehemet Ali checked their progress, their in-
fluence is still felt throughout the land. Hedjaz and
Yemen are now under Turkish rule; while much of the
remaining country is under British influence, exercised
in the case of Oman through the Sultan of Muscat.

*W*

* Palestine. *

f RIGINALLY inhabited by distinct nations, of whom
the Canaanites, Amorites, Jebusites, Kenites and
Perizites were the principal, and whose origin is not
known, the land of Palestine was Invaded by the
Israelites after their escape from the hands of their
Egyptian masters and their wanderings in the wilderness.
Acting under the divine command, as interpreted to them by
their leaders, they entered upon a merciless war of extermina-
tion of the idolatrous tribes who inhabited the land, which they
partitioned off as follows: The tribes of Reuben' and Gad
and one-half the tribe of Manasseh took the territory east of
the Jordan ; Judah, Simeon, Dan and Benjamin occupied the
southern portion ; Zebulon, Asher and Naphtali obtained the

northern division ; while the other half of the tribe of Manas-
seh, together with Issachar and Ephraim, secured the central
portion. Being provided for by tithes, the I.cvitcs in their
priestly function, were not given any separate territory, but
were scattered among the various cities of the other tribes.
For over three centuries the tribes were ruled by Judges raised
to that dignity by the people for valorous deeds in war or
display of qualities of statesmanship, and during this time the
nation was practically a confederation of republics, their bond
of union being made up of their common origin, language and
religion, and the twr-pWBnl danger of invasion by external
foes. Among the most famous of the fifteen Judges who ruled
the land were Gideon, Jcphtha, Barak, Samson, Deborah,

PALESTINE.

3'3

Eli, and Samuel, who was the last of the Judges and the first
of the Prophets, but the two latter exercised also priestly
functions. Although their rule was satisfactory, the people
clamored for a King, and the monarchy was established with
Saul, a Benjaminite, as ruler. A great warrior, he led the
hosts of Israel in a succession of victories, but his merciful
treatment of a conquered people brought about the opposition
of Samuel. The King's son-in-law, David, having slain the
Philistine giant Goliath in battle, became suddenly popular,
and, as he was taken up by the priestly party, he first aroused
the jealousy and then incurred the enmity of Saul, who caused
him to flee from the country. With an army of brother out-
laws David made war upon the Philistines, who had befriended
him in his hour of need, and on the death of Saul and his son,
Jonathan, his tribe of Judah proclaimed him King. Saul's
son, Ishbosheth, was acknowledged by the remainder of Israel,
and a civil war followed, which was ended by the death of
Ishbosheth, and the assumption of the sovereignty by David.
Under KingDavid war was actively pursued against the natives.
Jerusalem was wrested from the Jebusites, and the Israelitish
domain extended south and west to Egypt and north to the
land of the Phoenicians. With the last-named people, who
had attained a high degree of civilization and were learned in
the arts and sciences, the Hebrews remained on terms of
friendship. David's successor, Solomon, raised the power of
Israel to its pinnacle of glory. Under his rule commerce and
trade were cultivated, the country was fortified, profitable
foreign alliances were made, and the beautiful Temple of Jeru-
salem was built. Great attention was paid to the military arm
of the government ; the army was enlarged and strengthened,
and with its aid neighboring nations were kept in subjection
and forced to pay heavy tribute. Internal disorder followed the
death of Solomon, whose last days were not marked by the wise
and strong government which preceded, and under the rule of
his son, Rehoboam, the heavy taxation of the people induced, a
revolt of ten tribes, who proclaimed Jeroboam King in
Israel, which comprised the land beyond Jordan and that to
the north of Benjamin. Judah and Benjamin alone remained
loyal. Many wars between the rival nations followed.
Under licentious Kings the people of the ten tribes waxed in
wickedness, until about 700 years B.C. the Assyrians swept
down upon them, destroyed their capital of Samaria and car-
ried the people into captivity. No record of their fate exists.
They disappeared entirely from history, though every now and
then some one or other of the nations of the earth is recog-
nized, according to Biblical prophecy, as being the identical
" ten tribes " of Israel. In Rehoboam's reign Judah was
invaded by the Egyptians, who pillaged the temple. Wars
with the bordering nations occurred from time to time, and
civil war was frequently aroused by the misrule of wicked
Kings, whom even the fierce denunciations of the great Prophets
could not entirely restrain. Weakened by these causes, the

country came under tributary subjection to the Babylonian
Empire, and the downfall of the people was brought about by
the revolt of Zedekiah, who declared the nation independent,
and defended gallantly but unsuccessfully the capital, Jerusa-
lem, against the Babylonian armies. In 588 B.C. the city
was captured, its walls and temple destroyed, and its citizens
carried into Babylon, where they remained captive for seventy
years. Their return to their native land was permitted when
the Babylonians were vanquished by the Medo-Persians, and
Darius, Ahasuerus and other Kings allowed them to rebuild
their city and temple, and granted them many additional privi-
leges. Under these favorable conditions they increased in
strength and numbers, and when, about two centuries before
Christ, the Syrians sought to prohibit the Hebrew religion,
they arose in arm's and fought for their religious liberty with
such courage and vigor that the period of these wars, extend-
ing from 167 B.C. to 105 B.C., is looked upon as the heroic
era of Jewish history. Forty years later, however, the Romans
conquered the country, and Judea became a province of that
great power. Native rulers, known as tetrarchs, were given
slight local power, but they were powerless to check the
oppressions of the conquerors, and sixty-six years after the
birth of Christ, whose earthly ministry was made while the
people were in the depths of misery, the Jews rebelled and
brought upon their country a scourge in the shape of Roman
armies under Vespasian and Titus. After a four years' siege,
during which the inhabitants endured indescribable sufferings
with unparalleled fortitude, Jerusalem fell ; the temple was
once more abased ; such of the inhabitants as survived were
sold into slavery ; the Hebrew nation as such passed out of
existence. After the Roman rule passed away the Byzantine
monarchs held the country. Christianity becoming wide-
spread, Palestine became a centre of religious interest as the
birthplace and scene of the ministry, death and resurrection of
the Savior. Thousands of pilgrims visited the " Holy Land,"
and the rebuilding of Jerusalem was commenced. In the
earlier half of the seventh century Palestine was conquered
by the Mohammedan Arabs, but in 1099 the warriors
of the first Crusade captured the sacred city, and made
Godfrey of Bouillon King of Jerusalem, who extended
his territory until it comprised the whole of Palestine.
This lasted twenty years only, and after further crusades
against the Saracens, in which the Christians were more or less
successful, the latter were, in 1 291, expelled by the Mame-
lukes, who ruled the land until 15 17, when it fell into the
hands of the Turks, who still hold it. Several efforts have
been made to have the European Jews return to their father-
land, but they have declined to abandon the profitable occupa-
tions elsewhere to become the agricultural colonists of a not
very fertile land. Under Turkish rule Palestine is part of the
province of Syria, and comprises the sub-pashalics of Acre and
Jerusalem.

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3»4

SIAM— AFRICA.

;if t f •••••••*

HM€- Si AM. *MH

♦n i m i

N«

_ JlARLY in the seventeenth century the Spanish, Portu-
\M*! i guese, Dutch and French obtained admission to the
3L a Siamese ports, and England shared their privileges
about half a century later. Each of these nations
made strenuous endeavors to gain the preponderating
influence over the Siamese, and the French seemed for many
years the favorites ; but in an outbreak which occurred several
of their missionaries and traders were slaughtered, and this
event was followed, on the part of Siam, by the inauguration

of a policy of exclusiveness, which lasted until about
fifty years ago, when Great Britain, France and the
United States made treaties with Siam. The rotal dignity
is nominally hereditary ; but each sovereign appoints his
own successor; and besides, about the court is the Coun-
cil of State, which, when the King dies, may defeat his
will about the succession of the throne. There are
laws to which the King must conform, and which render
the Government, in effect, a constitutional monarchy.

aJSMl ECOXD only to Asia in point of size, the continent
Tlkl^l of Africa, including the islands contiguous to its

shores, has an area of 11,854,000 square miles, yet
is the least important of all the great divisions of
the globe, judged by the standard of civilization and
commercial prosperity. It is only within a few years past that
the true quality of the interior of Southern Africa has
become known, through the researches of European and
American explorers in the "dark continent." Attempts to
colonize were begun by the French, on the west coast, in the
seventeenth century, and. at the Cape of Good Hope (the
southern extremity of the continent, which was first doubled
by Vasco da Gama) the Dutch established a port in 1650.
An English trading company, a century later, also located
here. The earliest explorers were James Bruce, who in 1772
visited Abyssinia and discovered the sources. of the Blue Nile,
and Mungo Park, who ascended the Niger in the earlier years
of the present century, and was killed in 1806 in the kingdom
of Houasa by the natives. The desire to discover the source
of the Great Nile has impelled several explorers to pierce
Central Africa. Up to his time, the most successful of these
was Dr. David Livingstone, who travelled in 1849 through the
country watered by the Zambesi, and made a vast number of

important discoveries. Burton, Speke and Baker, in their
hunt fur the Nile's headwaters, discovered lakes Tanganyika,
Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyanza, which were also visiied
by Livingstone, who defined the great water system of the
Luala.be or Chambexe. Henry M. Stanley, an American
journalist, acting in the capacity ef special correspondent of
the New York Herald, visited Africa on a commission to find
Livingstone, who had not been heard from for some years,
and in 187 1 he discovered him at Ujiji in great destitution,
but still anxious to prCM forward into the continent, for which
he had organized a new expedition. In iS73 Livingstone died,
and in the following year his body was brought home and
interred in Westminster Abbey. Stanley, after parting with
Livingstone, explored the Congo and has since made
discoveries which place him In the front rank of African
travelers. Commerce is following fast in the footstep* of
these adventurous men, and the colonization of the fer-
tile territories they have visited and described is only a
matter of time. In 1890 France owned 2,300.34s square
miles; Germany, 1.035.7:0; Great Britain, 1,909,445;
I tnlv, 360,000; Spain, 310,000; Portugal. 774,993; while
the Congo Free State comprised 1.000.000, and Liberia
about 14,30a

•-

EGYPT— UPPER AND LOWER NUBIA.

315

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Ggypt.

(

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JiGYPT is another of those countries whose prehistoric
E&J. I ages are wrapped in mystery as impenetrable as the
sources of her Nile, whose exact location long
baffled the most enterprising of explorers. Great
interest attaches to the country's early annals, but
the stories of the dynasties which
succeeded Menes, the founder of
Memphis, of the rule of the Pha-
raohs, and the Ptolemies and thr
Cleopatras, though pregnant with
true historical interest, cannot here
be told, and it will suffice to quote
the language of a graceful historian,
who wrote : " It (Egypt) attained
a high position for wealth and the
institutions of civilized society when
all the surrounding countries dwelt
in the darkness of barbarism. It
had a well organized and efficient
government long before the na-
tional greatness of the Hebrews."
Moslem rule prevailed in the country
after their conquest of it in 639.
The Caliphs were expelled by the
Turcomans, who gave way before
the Mamelukes in 1250, whose rule
continued until 1517, when Selim,
Sultan of Turkey, put an end to
their dominion and organized the
land as a dependency of Turkey.
For over two centuries the descend-
ants of the vanquished Mameluke
chieftains opposed the Turks. A
descent upon Egypt was made by
the French under Napoleon in 1798,
but they were obliged to withdraw,
and the Mamelukes were not over-
come until the treacherous massacre

of their leaders established the Pasha in quiet upon his vice-
regal throne. Mehemet Ali, from an obscure position as an
Egyptian villager, rose to the position of Viceroy, after a
severe conflict with the Ottoman forces, and under him the
country made great advancement, and, while nominally tribu-
tary to Turkey, Egypt enjoyed nearly all the attributes
of an independent nation. He died in 1849, and in 1863

BBBBBBBBEBBBBBBBBBBBEBBBEBB

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Ismail came to the throne, a man of such Oriental extrava-
gance, both in public improvements and personal expenditures,
that he became bankrupt, and his abdication was brought about
by the combined pressure of his English and French creditors.
His son, Mehemet Tewfik, succeeded him, but the actual
control of the nation was placed
in the hands of an International
Commission of Liquidation. The
burden of paying the interest on
the enormous national debt which
Ismail rolled up, amounting at the
close of 1890 to about $535,000,-
000, rests heavy upon the Egyp-
tian people, and the rebellion against
Tewfik, under Arabi Bey, and the
war which England waged against
the Egyptians, in support of the
Khedive, are of too recent occur-
rence to require more than a passing
mention. Of late years the influ-
ence of England and France- —
Egypt's largest creditors — has alter-
nately predominated in the manage-
ment of Egyptian affairs, but the
success of the English arms in the
late war, in which the French de-
clined to participate, has made the
country virtually a protectorate in
the hands of England, whose con-
trol of the Suez Canal is a matter
of vital importance to that power.

*3H

A STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT

In 1820 the Egyptian Viceroy
Mehemet Ali pursued the Mam-
elukes southward and into Nubia, where they took
refuge. In the following year he conquered the country
and made it an Egyptian province. By the rebellion in
the Soudan, Nubia was brought under the sway of the
Mahdi ; it is now subject to his successor, Khalifa
Abdullah el Taashi.

316

ABYSSINIA— CAPE COLONY.

>••••••>••••• • •!•■#»••••••• t M t U t If

pBYSSINIA.

M>m « llll l liM I MI I I II

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||ARLY tradition says that the famous Queen of
Sheba included part of this country within her
realm, and that its subsequent rulers were descended
from her. Fabulous as is the early history of the
country, there is no doubt that its people had,
even in remote antiquity, made great advancement in civiliza-
tion. In the middle of the fourth century Christianity was
introduced and made great headway. A couple of centuries
later the Abyssinians invaded Arabia and conquered a portion
of the southwestern province of Yemen. In the tenth century
the reigning dynasty was overthrown by a Jewish princess,
after which the country remained in anarchy for three cen-
turies, when the restoration of the empire, under Icon Amlac,
brought about an improved condition of affairs. In the
fifteenth century friendly relations were cultivated with the
Portuguese, under the influence of whose missionaries the
royal family adopted the Roman Catholic religion. In 1541
the Turks threatened the country, and the Portuguese assisted

the Abyssinians, but were defeated ; and in 1542 it was invaded
by the Gallas, a race from the south, who conquered and held
a great part of it. Although fairly well received at first, the
Roman Catholic religion failed to gain a strong hold upon the
people, who, in 1632, arose against the priests, and, after killing
many of them, expelled the remainder. Theodore, who became
King in 1855, proved a sagacious and energetic monarch, and
under him Abyssinia was extended over several adjacent prov-
inces, which had for years maintained their independence. A
misunderstanding occurring between him and Great Britain in
i860, he imprisoned the British Consul, with some missionaries,
and treated them cruelly for some years. In 1868 a British
army, under Lord Napier, invaded the country, captured
Theodore's stronghold, Magdala, and released the prisoners.
Theodore, when the battle turned against him, committed
suicide, and the country broke up into various petty
States; which, however, under Menelek of Shoa, are
being again brought together.

. =?f&

^l_

(§APE (sOLONY.

-:\

IM*

i486 Bartholomeu Dias, a Portuguese navigator, discov-
ered the Cape of Good Hope, which Vasco da Gama
sailed round in the following year. About the middle of
the seventeenth century the Dutch planted colonies near
the Cape, conquering and enslaving the natives. Increas-
ing in numbers and growing in strength, the colonists, in 1795,
rebelled against the mother country, whereupon the Prince of
Orange sent an English fleet which established British rule.
In 1802 the colony was restored to the Dutch, who, by 1806,
had extended their domain eastward to the Great Fish River

V-

and westward nearly to the Orange River. In that year the
ISritish again took possession of the colony, which they have
since retained, though not without great difficulty and expense,
the native Kaffirs, a handsome and warlike race, proving a
stubborn enemy, in the attempted subjugation of whom several
sanguinary wars have been waged. Government at the Cape
w.\> established, as it now exists, in 1853, when the authority
was vested in a Governor and an Executive Council approved
by the Crown, while a Legislative Council of t w enty- two
members and a House of Assembly represent the people.

MADAGASCAR— THE BARKARY STATES.

317

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^ADAGASCAR became known to commerce in
the early part of the present century, at which
time the greater part of the island was under the
rule of King Radama I., with whom England
formed a treaty in 1816. From the English
Radama learned the European art of war, and his drilled troops
easily accomplished the subjection of the whole island. Dying in
1828, he was succeeded by Ranavala I., who used her power to
crush out the Christian religion, which had been readily received
by the natives. Europeans were banished from the island and
the missionary schools were closed. Her cruelties at last
aroused the Europeans to action, and in 1845 a combined En-

glish and French force made an attack upon the port of Tam-
tave, but were unsuccessful. Ranavala died in 1862 and was
succeeded by her son, Radama II., who ceded territory to
France. He was assassinated in 1863, and his wife, Rasua-
herina, succeeded him. At her death a dispute between the
natives and Europeans over the succession was ended by the
elevation of Rainitaiarivoy to the throne as Ranavala II.
She became a Christian and was baptized, together with her
husband, the Prime Minister and several of the native nobility.
Kalimalaza, the chief idol, and the temple which contained it,
were destroyed, and, stimulated by these acts of devotion, the
people rapidly became converted to Christianity.

©he Barbary Stages. ' :

THE region in North Africa known as Barbary com-
prises the countries of Algeria, Morocco, Tunis and
Tripoli. Algeria's history runs back to the time
of Carthage. Moors and Numidians at this time
C1 ^ J ^ occupied it ; later it became a Roman province, and
after them the Vandals and Arabians held sway over the
land. In the tenth century the Moors organized an independ-
ent State, but for several centuries Algeria was nothing else
than a nest of pirates, whose vessels swept the seas as far as the
North Sea, and forced tribute from all countries which carried
on commerce by water. In 1655 the capital, Algiers, was at-
tacked by the English, and in 1682 and 1683 by the French,
but no great impression was made. A Spanish expedition
against the city in 1775 was signally defeated. In 1815 Com-
modore Decatur, of the American navy, after defeating an
Algerian squadron off Carthagena, threatened to bombard
Algiers, and secured the release of American prisoners held by
the Dey and his abandonment of a claim he had made for trib-
ute. In 1816 a British Admiral bombarded the city and re-
leased all Christians held in bondage. In 1830 France sent an
expedition of 100 ships-of-war and 357 transports to Algeria,
and July 4 of that year Algiers surrendered, and the French

took possession of it and established a military regency. A
holy war was declared against the invaders, which, under the
Emir Abd-el-Kader was carried on until 1847, when he
surrendered to General Lemonciere. The Frencli proclaimed
Algeria a permanent possession, but the people were restless
under the French yoke, the Kabyles rising in insurrection in
1851 and 1857, and several revolts having occurred since. At
present the country is in quiet submission to France, where it
is represented in both houses of the National Assembly.
The military rule was abandoned in 1871, and a civil
Governor-General and a Colonial Council administer the
affairs of State.

Morocco, not having enjoyed the blessing of occupation by
foreigners to any very great extent, does not show the same
promise of advancement which Algeria at present affords. Its
early history consists of a succession of wars and invasions. In
the eighth century the Arabs conquered the country, and since
then they have ruled it. In 147 1 the seaport of Tangier was
captured by the Portuguese, who ceded it to the English in the
seventeenth century. They held it for only a brief period, and
in 1844 it was bombarded by the French. In 1859 the Span-
iards declared war against Morocco and captured Tetuan, these

!«T

3i«

REPUBLICS IN SOUTH AFRICA.

visitations all resulting from the piratical habits of the mari-
time Moors and their enslavement of Christians who came
within their power. A Sultan rules over the country, but his
control over the interior is slight.

In the palmy days of its great commercial city, Carthage,
Tunis was one of the most important countries of the world.
Its inhabitants, descendants of the Phoenicians, conquered
Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and part of Spain, and visited the
Scilly Islands and Albion in their trading vessels. Its famous
generals, Hamilcar, Hannibal and Asdrubal, threatened the
Roman power, but the victory of Scipio brought the proud city
low, and the country was made a Roman province. Later
on the Vandals and Mohammedans overran it, but in the
thirteenth century its people obtained their independence.
Charles V. of Spain reduced Tunis in the sixteenth century
and made it subject to that country, and in 1575 the Turks con-
quered it. Like the inhabitants of the other Barbary States,
the Tunisians practiced piracy and enslaved Christians, which
led them into conflicts with various European powers.
Tunis may now be considered an informally annexed de-

pendency of France, nominally under the dominion of
the Bey, but in reality under the control of a French
Resident, The late rulers — Achmet, Mohammed, Sadyk
and Sidi Pasha — have proved enlightened sovereigns,
and under their rule the country has made considerable
advancement.

Tripoli, the least populous of the Barbary States, be-
came subject to Rome during the Punic wars, fell into
the hands of the Vandals in the fifth century, and was
conquered by the Turks later. Its capital, Tripoli, was
bombarded by the French in 1683, and early in the pres-
ent century Commodore Decatur punished the inhabit-
ants for injuries their pirates had inflicted upon American
commerce. From 1815, the time of Decatur's last visita-
tion, piracy and Christian slavery have not existed in
Tripoli. It is a Vilayet or Province of the Ottoman
Empire ; its government is administered by a Governor-
General ; and the revenue is chiefly raised by tribute.
The dominant religion of all the Barbary States is Mo-
hammedanism,

*m Republics in South ^f^iga.

&. • > >••'

JARTLY from national sentiment, but more as a matter
of interest, the Dutch settlers at the Cape of Good
Hope, after the acquisition of their country by Great
Britain in 1806, emigrated in large numbers and,
moving north and east, conquered from the warlike
Zulus the country which is now known as Natal, and
settled there. More than 10,000 of the Boers, as they were
called, had thus wandered away when the British colonists
made claim to the territory which they had occupied, and in
1842 took possession of it. Others of the emigrant Boers set-
tled on the table-land region to the north of the Orange River
and founded 1 the Orange Free State, whose President, in
1848, made an attempt to drive out the British residents, but
was defeated and driven from the country. In 1851 the British
organized a colony of the Free State, but in 1854 they aban-
doned the enterprise and permitted the Boers to organize a
government and guaranteed them complete independence. A
third attempt by the Boers to establish a republic resulted in
the colonization of the Transvaal, whose independence was
acknowledged in 1852. Success crowned this effort until the
year 1877, when, the republic becoming bankrupt, annexation
to Great Britain was suggested as a remedy. A vote was taken
which resulted in the British taking possession of the country.
Many of the resident Boers claimed that only a minority of the
inhabitants voted upon the annexation question, and an emigra-
tion westward began, which resulted in the settlement of the
Great Namaqua land, on the Western Coast north of the
Orange River, a movement which was checked by the British,

who claimed that the land was under their jurisdiction. In
1880 the Transvaal Boers, who had had enough of British rule,
attempted to re-establish the republic. War ensued and an army
which the British sent from Natal to quell the uprising was
defeated with great loss. Further engagements with the Boers
proved disastrous to the British, who finally abandoned the
attempt to crush the republic

Among the minor countries of Africa is Liberia, a negro
republic on the grain coast of Upper Guinea. Liberia is the
original accomplishment of an association known as the Ameri-
can Colonization Society, of which Henry Clay was President,
and whose object was the foundation of a colony of emanci-
pated American slaves. Failure attended the earliest attempt
of the society, but, having obtained a suitable location in i>_m,
operations were commenced which resulted sua
town, which was called Monrovia, after the President of the
United States then in office, was started, and a lot of land was
given to each settler. In 1847 Liberia declared an independent
republic, which in the following year was recognized by Great
Britain and, later on, by others of the European p
Although the prime object of the founders of the republic has
never been realized, comparatively few emancipated slaw
ing left America to settle there, Liberia has enjoyed great
prosperity and a healthy growth. Contiguous negro trilK>
have been included within its territories, which contain
about 18,000 Americo-Liberians and 1,050,000 aborigines.
A President, Senate and House of Representatives are
charged with the government of the republic.

OCEANICA.

319

Sierre Leone, a British colonial settlement adjacent
to and north of Liberia, was settled in 1787 by a body of
several hundred destitute negroes who had been removed
from London by a society of philanthropists. Three
years later they were joined by over a thousand negroes
from Nova Scotia. Although so near to the negro re-
public founded under American auspices, the latter is far
healthier than Sierre Leone, which, perhaps, accounts
for its falling far short of the progress accomplished in
Liberia.

The Congo Free State has sprung out of the dis-
coveries of Stanley and the explorations of the Interna-
tional Association, founded at Brussels for the opening

up to civilization of the Congo and its tributaries. Its
autonomy was recognized during 1884 and 1885 by the
leading powers of Europe, and by the United States,
conditioned upon its maintaining the principles of free
trade. There are twelve territorial divisions, the capital
being Boma. The central government is at Brussels, and
consists of the King of the Belgians as sovereign, and
three departmental chiefs. On the Congo there is an
Administrator-General and several European adminis-
trators of stations and districts. The rest of West Africa
is variously "protected" by England, France, Germany
and Portugal.

sCEANICA, sometimes called Oceania, is the name
applied to the fifth division of the globe, which com-
prises the Australian Continent and a majority of the
islands lying between the Indian Ocean and the
r^° China Sea on the west, and the American Continent
on the east. So vast is the number of these islands that only the
historical facts relating to the largest of them can be mentioned.
Australia comes under its own head. New Guinea was
discovered by the Portuguese in 1 5 1 1 . It is now divided
between Holland, England and Germany ; the German
portion is called Kaiser Wilhelm's Land.

Borneo, which, until the naturalist Wallace's explorations
proved that New Guinea had the greater area, was believed to
be the largest island in the world except Australia, was discov-
ered in 1578 by the Portuguese. In 1690 they effected a settle-
ment, but were soon driven out from it. In 1702 and 1774
England made unsuccessful attempts to colonize the island, but
of late years she has managed to acquire a controlling influ-
ence over the northwestern coast of the island.

Sumatra, Java, Celebes ate among the larger single islands,
while among the most important groups are the Malay Archi-
pelago, in which these are included, and almost all of which
have been subjugated by the Dutch, the Spaniards, the Portu-

guese and the British ; the New Hebrides and Polynesia, which
general terms include, among others, the Hawaiian, which is one
of the most important in the Pacific Ocean. In 1829 the inde-
pendence of these islands was acknowledged by the United
States, who were followed in 1843 by the British, and in 1844
by the French. Queen Liliuokalani, who succeeded
Kalakaua, and is in many respects a progressive ruler, is
the present sovereign of the islands.

New Caledonia, an island lying to the east of Queensland,
was taken possession of in 1853 by the French, who established
there a naval station and a penal colony, which are still main-
tained.

New Zealand was first visited by the Dutch navigator Tas-
man in 1642. A colony was first established in 1840. Gold
fields were discovered in 1857 which brought a large immigra-
tion. Executive authority is vested in a Governor appointed
by the Crown ; there is also a General Assembly consisting of
a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives.

Tasmania, formerly known as Van Dieman's Land, ceased
being a penal colony in 1853, since which time its population
and prosperity have largely increased. A Governor appointed
by the Crown holds the executive; there are also a Legislative
Council and a House of Assembly.

>&^^'&^m®> l

320

AUSTRALIA.

-<32==5

# pUSTI^ALIA. #

<g"^

NOTHING was known of this vast island until 1606,
when a Dutch sea-captain, sent from Java in the
yacht Duyfen on a voyage of exploration of the New
Guinea coast, viewed its northern shores. A Portu-
guese navigator the same year passed through Torres
In 1619 the western coast was seen by a Dutch captain,
who gave it the name of Endracht's Land, and in 1622 the south-
west coast was discovered. Tasmania was, in 1642, visited by
Tasman, who, a month afterwards, visited New Zealand. Fre-
quent new discoveries were made from time to time, and in 1770,
Captain Cook, then on his first voyage, explored nearly the
whole of the eastern coast, which he called New South Wales.
Passing through the strait which bears his name, Dr. Bass, a
navy surgeon, ascertained the separation of Australia and Tas-
mania. In 1788 the English established a penal station at
Botany Bay, New South Wales, which was afterwards removed
to Sydney. The existence of a convict colony in their midst
did not harmonize with the spirit of those who formed a free
colony in New South Wales, and the station was removed to
Tasmania, where it remained until its abolition, in 1853.
Strenuous efforts were made to induce immigration to the
colony, but up to 1850 only 50,000 Europeans had settled
there. A year later, however, the discovery of gold in a dis-
trict of New South Wales induced thousands to go to the
mines, and within a year the population had increased by
200,000. All ordinary occupations were given up, the gold
fever became epidemic, business was abandoned, values were
inflated, and when the inevitable crash came, a large amount of
suffering occurred. At last the crisis was passed, and, settling
down to the development of the country, the peoole soon found

that it had vast natural resources which outweighed in impor-
tance even the gold mines in productiveness. A Governor,
nominated by the Queen, holds the executive power in New
South Wales, and all enactments passed by the lower Legisla-
ture require royal sanction before becoming law.

Queensland, the colony which occupies the northeastern
portion of the continent, was established in 1859, It hasa Par-
liament of two houses, the Legislative Council and Legislative
Assembly. A Governor appointed by the Queen holds the
executive power.

South Australia was first colonized in 1836 by British
emigrants, who suffered greatly during the earlier years of their
settlement. Copper mines of great richness were discovered in
1843, which gave impetus to the colony. Executive power is
vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown, and an Execu-
tive Council composed of the responsible Ministers and mem-
bers especially appointed. Legislative power is vested in a
Parliament elected by the people.

Victoria was settled in 1835, and in 1840 an attempt was
made to form a Government distinct from that of New South
Wales, which was unsuccessful In 1851 the colony became
independent, and, the rush to the mines occurring in that year,
arrivals at the rate of from twenty to thirty thousand a month
began to swell its population. The Government is similar to
that of the other colonies.

Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and its devel-
opment was slow for many years. Lately, however, there has
been an increase of agricultural prosperity. The colony
is ruled, since 1890, by a Governor and a Parliament

AUSTRALASIAN FEDERATION.

In 1889 the premier of New South Wales advised "a
national convention for the purpose of devising and re-
porting upon an adequate scheme of Federal Govern-
ment." The matter was taken up by the Australasian
governments and a conference met in Melbourne in 1890
and adopted an address to the Queen embodying resolu-
tions in favor of federation. The Australasian Federal
Convention, which nssembled at Sidney in 1891, passed a
bill by which, subject to consent of the Imperial Parlia-
ment and of the colonies themselves, a Federal Constitu-
tion comes to pass for the Commonwealth of Australia ;

over which a Governor-General, appointed by the Sov-
ereign, is to hold sway; each "State" to contribute to the
Commonwealth Parliament representatives from its indi-
vidual Legislature — this Parliament comprising a directly
elected House of Representatives and a Senate composed
of delegates from all the States. The Constitution pro-
vides for seven Ministers' to assist the Governor-General,
to be known as "the Queen's Minister- of State for the
Commonwealth of Australia;" for a Supreme Court,
whose functions render unnecessary the Privy Council;
and for interstate free trade.

'■

MAPS OK

States and Territories,

With Comparative Statistics, Area,
Population, Railroads, Etc.

ALASKA was purchased from Russia in 1S67 for $7,500,-
;»o, and the United States Government has long ago re-
,1 that sum from the seal fisheries.

Fishing, 1 inning, trapping and mining are the princi-
pal Industries.

Population in 1S90, 4,303 whites, 23,274 Indians, i.SiQ
mixed and 2,399 Mongolians and others.

Climate modified by Pacific Gulf stream and long
summer days.

The winter temperature at Sitka averages about the
as Washington, D. C.

MAINE (Pine Tree State)— Settled by French at Bris-

15; admitted to the Union, 1820. Ranks fifth in

heat and copper; eighth in hops and potatoes;
eleventh in hay; twenty-first in wealth; twenty-seventh
in population; thirty-third in miles of railway; thirty-
sixth in square miles.

Industries. — Extensive lumber and ship-building trade, fisheries, cotton, woolens, tanned and curried leather, boots and shoes, lime, etc. The

1 agricultural portion of the State lies in the valley of St. John and between the Penobscot and Kennebec Rivers.
Salaries of State Officers— Governor, $2,500; Secretary of State, $1,500; Treasurer, $2,000; Attorney General, $1,500; Adjotnnt General. $1,500; Sup.
Common Schools, $1,500; Sec. Board of Agr., $1,500; State Librarian, $600; Chief Justice, $3,500; 7 Associated Justices, $3,000; Senators and Representatives,
1150, mileage, 20 cents; District Judge, $3,500; Col. Int. Rev., $2,500; Collector of Customs, $6,000; Surveyor of Customs, $4,500; Pension Agent, $4,000.

NEW HAMPSHIRE (Granite State)— First settlement by the English at Little Harbor, 1623. Ranks third in manufacture of cotton goods; fifteenth in
Mtatoes; twenty-second in wealth; thirty-first in population; thirty-seventh in miles of railway; forty-first in square miles.

INDUSTRIES — Largely engaged in manufacturing; the abundant water power affords great advantages. Agriculture, pasturage and drainage occupy a
arge number.

Salaries of State Officers — Governor, $2,000; Sec. of State. $Soo and fees; Treasurer, $1,800; Attorney General, $2,200; Supt. Pub. Ins., $2,000; 3 R.
ft. Commissioners, $2,000 to $2,500; Adjutant General, $1,000; Sec. Bd. Agriculture, $1,000; Librarian, $Soo; Chief Justice, $3,500; 6 Associated Justices, $2,700;
is. Representatives, $3 a day and mileage; District Judge, $3,500; Pension Agent, $4,000; Collector Internal Revenue, $3,125.
VERMONT (Green Mountain State) — First settled by the English, Ft. Dummer, 1764. Ranks fourth in copper; seventh in hops and buckwheat;
;wentv-six in wealth; thirty-second in population; fortieth in square miles; forty-first in miles of railway.

Industries. —

The State is no*
.ted for its rich
quarries of mar-
ble, so a p stone
and slate, which
arc worked a t
several points.
It is also, noted
as a good graz-
ing country. The
dairy products
are extensive
and valuable.
Stock raising is
carried on to a
considerable ex-
tent.

Salaries of
State Officers
(Vermont) Gov-
ernor, $1)500;
Lieut. Gov., $6 a
day; Secretary of
State, $1,700;
Trtasurer,$i,7oo;
Auditor, $2,000;
Insp. Finances,
$500; R. R. Com.,
$500; Adjutant
General, $750;
Supt. Public In-
struction, $1,400;
Chief Justice, $2,-
500; 6 Asso. Jus-
tices, $2,500;
Senators, Repre-
sentatives, $3 a
day; Dist. Tudjge,
$3,500; Col. Int.
Revenue, $2,650;
Collector of Cus-
toms, $1,000 and
fees.

305*

Map of *v£ts\ ^

NEW HAMPSHIRE ./^^Sr \ //'

and -.p&^TyI V-i/

VERMONT syr

Arrt

' New Hampshire *.BU» J / M

Vermont »,f?6 IVrf. I

Alrtefcd HennikeX

BfiMJntrtMi^&attLei

^bQrgjSfr' Vernon'

„JHD

r Co2W.kY. So**"*! .

>.^.„.-.. v Utaiv Mills DAT

™*\\\\V.,lpoW N.VEfrno, HoofcSl .
fiuip I/'., , , 1 DeerirtK

isneeck

I WiirrfBtfrfj { B*

Iff fil.-ftabl^ S *^|

Mi/ft-attleb.
t&g Vem

-JH Vgf™ ±JW<*to/l\ A A -.

V ,-simoreiand
^Harris %^*f^X\
Teterlwro. '

WtpH'

MASSACHUSETTS (Bay
State) — First settled by Buff*
lish at Plymouth. Hanks
first in cotton, woolen and
worsted goods, cod and
mackerel fishing; second in
commerce; third in manufac-
tories, printing and publish-
ing; fourth in silk goods;
fifth in soap and in wealth;
sixth in iron and steel;
seventh in population; ninth
in agricultural im piemen! |*
twenty-fifth in miles of rail-
way; forty-second in square
miles.

Manufactures leather
and morocco, bleaching and
dyeing, fiour and meal, lum-
ber and furniture, mol
and sugar refining, machiu-
ery, ship building, animal
and vegetable oils, fish in-
dustry.

Industries. — M anufac-

tures and commeref
engage the attention
inU. The State
second in commerce,
third in manufacturing
middle and western
are fertile. Farms are
cultivated. The cod
mackerel fishing is
portent industry, the
ranking first in this indt

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor t&jHH

I.t Governor a^Oflfl

f State S JSM

arer &■!■■■

Auditor

Attorney Gen

Chief Justice T &M

6 Asso. Justices..

District Judge 4.'»0

Senators and / $050 pctfl

Representath 1

i * *

3 Col. Int. Rev.,$:

Col. of Cus.. I

Naval Officer

RHODE ISLAND (Little Rhody)— First settlement by the English, Providence, 1636. Ranks second in cotton, flax and linen goods; twentieth in weattfcfl
thirty-third in population- forty-sixth in square miles; forty-seventh in miles of railway.

" Industries — The State is largely engaged in manufacturing, cotton and woolen goods being the largest. It has considerable commerce. Farming is

done to some little extent; the chief productions are grains, fruit, butter and cheese.

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor S31 000 Commissioner of Public Schools

Lieutenant Governor 600 Chief Justice

tary of State _ 2,500

General Treasurer 2,500

State Auditor Insurance Commissioner 2,500

Railroad Commissioner 1,000

Attorney General . 3,500

Adjutant General (500

CONNECTICUT (Nutmeg State)— First settlement by the English, at Windsor, 1635. Ranks first in clocks; third in silk goods; fourth in cotton
eighth in tobacco; fourteenth in wealth; twenty-third in population; thirty-ninth in miles of railway; fortv-fourth in square mile*.

Manufactures cotton and woolen goods, hardware, worsted, bleaching and dyeing, jewelry, plated ware, leather goods.

4 Associated Justices 4jb^H

is and Representatives $1 per day; mileage g <

District Judge

Appraiser of Customs.

Clerk

3 Collectors.

Industries. —
Agriculture and
manufact u ring
ate carried on to
a considerable
extent by its in-
habitants. Sev-
eral extensive
granite and free-
st on e quarries
are successfully
worked, as are
also mines of sil-
ver, lead, copper
;uul iron. Many
of t he towns
SO exten-
sive coasting
trade and for-
eign commerce
with the West
Indies,

Salaries or
State Offi-
j, — Gover-
nor, ?4,ckx>; l.t.
(iovernor, $500 ;
Scc'y of S
$1,500; Trcasur-
«r, $1*500; Comp-
troller, $1,500;
Bd. of
Kducat'n, $3,000;
Adjutant I ■ ■

$1,200; Ins. 1
«'5°°i 3 *h •*■;

f3yooo;Cbiei

$4,000; Sen

Kept.

$300 a n d niile-

ag«; I>ist. Judge,

$3,500; 1 CoL. Int.

. $3,000; 13

Dspuj

»Soo to $!,•

775; Stmpd
Agent, $1,500.

306*

NEWYORK (Empire State)
— First settlement by the
Dutch at New York (New
Amsterdam), 1614. Ranks
first in valu e of manufacto-
ries, population, soap, print-
ing and publishing, hops,
bay, potatoes, buckwheat,
milch cows, and wealth ;
second in salt, silk goods,
malt and distilled liquors,
and barley; third in agri-
cultural implements, iron
ore, iron and steel, oats and
rye; fourth in wool and
miles of railway; twenty-
seventh In square miles.

Industries. — In popula-
tion, wealth and commerce
New York is the first in the
Union. The commerce ex-
tends to all parts of the
world. Manufacturing is
large, and constantly in-
creasing. Agriculture is one
of the chief pursuits, wheat

and corn being the staple
productions. The. develop-
ment of the salt springs of
the interior is also one of
the industries of the State.
Its magnificent system of
canals and railroads has
done much to increase its
domestic trade.

Salaries of State Of-
ficers — Governor, |io,ooo
and house; Lieut. Governor,
l5,ooo; Secretary of State,
$5,000; Treasurer, $5,000;
Comptroller, $6,000 ; Attor-
ney General, $5,000 ; Chief
Justice, $10,000; Senators and
Representatives, $1,500 and
10 cents mileage; 3 District
Judges, $4,000; Pension Ag't,
$4,000; Postage Stamp AgH,
$2,500; Division Superinten-
dent Railway Service, $2,500;
12 Collectors Internal Reve-
nue, $2,750 to $4,000; Collector
Customs New York, $12,000;
Superintendent Assay O.,
$4,5°°-

NEW JERSEY (Jersey Blue)— First settlement by the Dutch at Bergen, 1620. Ranks first in fertilizing marl, zinc, and silk "goods; fourth in iron ore;
•fifth in iron and steel; sixth in buckwheat, manufactories, and soap; seventh' in rye; twelfth in wealth; nineteenth in population; twenty-sixth in miles
of railway; forty-third in square miles. Manufactures: molasses and sugar refilling, flour, machinery, leather and leather goods, hats, caps and clothing,
woolen arid cotton goods, bleaching and dyeing, glass. Industries: The commerce of the State is small, its manufactures large and various. Its shad and
oyster fisheries are extensive. Mining is also a leading industry. But its chief industry is agriculture and market gardening, the State being one immense
garden, the, mildness of its climate being such that small fruits are very productive, and being adjacent to the markets of New York and Philadelphia, farmers
and fruit raisers find large profits from their labor. Salaries of State officers. Governor, $10,000; Secretary of State, $6,000; Treasurer, $6,000; Comptroller,
Jj6,ooo; Atty. Gen., $7,000; Supt. Pub. Inst., $3,000; Adjutant Gen., $1,200; Librarian, $2 000; Chief Justice, $[0,ooo; 8 Asso. Justices, $7,000; Chancellor, $10,000;
Senators and Representatives, $500 a year; District Judge, $3,500; Superintendent Lite Saving Service, $1,800; 39 Keepers, $700.

PENNSYLVANIA (Keystone State)— First settlement, English, Philadelphia, 16S2. Ranks first in rye, iron and steel, petroleum and coal; second in
wealth, population, manufactories, buckwheat, potatoes, printing and publishing; third in miles of railway, niilch cows, hay, soap; fourth in oats and tobacco;
fifth in silk goods, wool, malt and distilled liquors; sixth in salt, copper, and agricultural implements; eighth in horses and sheep; thirtieth in square miles.
Industries: Pennsylvania ranks next to New York in wealth, population and manufactures. The people are largely engaged in agriculture, mining and

£ MAP OP

NEW JERSEY

Area Sq mlles7,45_5

manufa c tu r e s ;
wheat, corn, or-
chard fruits, pota-
toes, butter and
wool are the chief
prod ucts. The
farms are gener-
al 1 y large and
well conducted.
The manufacto-
ries are very ex-
tensive, and com-
prise a great va-
riety of articles;
iron, cotton and
woolen goods be-
ing the leading
articles. In the
production of coal
and iron Pennsyl-
v an i a surpasses
all other States.

Sal ar 1 es of
State Officers
— Governor $ 1 o,-
000; Lieut. Gov.,
$3,000; Secretary
of State, $4,000;
Treasurer, $5,000;
Auditor General,
$3,000; Attorney
General, $3 ,500;
Chief Justice, $8,-
500; 6 Associate
Justices, $ 8, o 00;
Senat'rs and Rep-
resentatives, $ 1,-
000 for 100 days,
$10 per day, mile-
age 5 cents; 2 Dis-
trict Judges, $4,-
000; 2 Pension
Agents, $4,000; 10
Collectors Inter-
nal Revenue, $2.-

375 to $4.5°°; Co '-
lector Customs
Philadelphia, $8,-
000.

307*

DELAWARE mine Hen
State)— Fir ut by

Swtdc a Capo Ilenlopcn,
J627. Ranks twenty-first in
orchard products; t h i rt y-
third in wealth ; thirty-
seventh in population; forty-
fifth in square miles; forty-
sixth In miles of railway.
Industries — The principal
pursuits are agriculture and
mining-. Fruit jjmws in
. Consider*
manufacturing- is done
In the northern part of the
State.

SALARIES of State Offi-
( i HS-(iov., $2,000; Sec'y of
State, $1,000; Treasurer, $i,-
700; Auditor, $1,200; Adjt.
General, $200; Attv. Gen.,
$1,500; Supt. Public Ins., In-
state Librarian, J550;
Chief Justice, $3,000; Chan-
cellor, $3,000; 3 Asso. Jus-
tices, $2,5005 Senators and
Kenresentati ves, $3 per day
and mileage; District Ji dge,
$3,500; District Attorney,
$200 and fees; Collector of
Internal Revenue, $2,875.

Salaries of State Officers — Governor, $4,500;

Ranks first in peanuts; second in tobacco; eighth in salt and iron ore, fourteenth
-st in square miles. Industries: Agriculture is the leading industry; tobacco,
re vast; the mountains containing rich deposits of coal and iron, valuable marble.

MARYLAND.- I
t bv the E:

Hanks ftfltj^^H
in fisheries; fourth in c
Seventh in I
in copper; ninth i
thirteenth in wcalth;tw.
third in populati
first in miles ol
thirty-ninth in sq

Manufactures: F I
and meal, cooper smell
sugar and molasses reri;
cotton goods, Inmber
furniture, malt and di>:
liquors, tobacco and cigars,
canned oysters, fish and
tables,
ing, printing and nublis;

Fniu sthiks. — The c
industry is agriculture:
wheat and tobacco being the
leading product^

large qnantitil
other cereals are prod
Manufacturing is la
Mining of coal is extent
The foreign commerce 1 ■
State is carried on chiefly
through the city of Balti-
more, which has all th-
vantages of a seaport. The
chief exports are tobacco,
flour, canned fruits and oys-
ters.

Secretary of State, $2,000; Treasurer, $2,500; Comptroller, $2,500; Attorney General, $3,000; Chief
lusticc, $3,500; 7 Associate justices, $3,500; District juo'ge, $4,000; Senators and Representatives, $5 per day and mileage; 2 Collectors Internal Revenue, 1
to $4,500; Collectors of Customs, $7,000; 2 Collectors, $250 to $1,200 and fees; Auditor, $2,500; Naval Officer, $5,000; Surveyor, $4,500.

VIRGINIA (Old Dominion)— First settlers, English, Jamestown, 1607.
in population; sixteenth in wealth; eighteenth in miles of railway; thirty-first

wheat, corn and potatoes being the great staples. The mineral resources are vast; the mountains containing i.„_

slate and stone quarries, with important salt springs. The leading manufactures are prepared tobacco and flour. The unlimited water power with rich mineral
deposits must sooner or later make Virginia a great manufacturing State.

Salaries of State Officers— Governor, $5,000; Lieutenant Governor, $000; Secretary of State, $2,000; Treasurer, $2,w. Auditor, $3,000; Sec.
Auditor, 2,000; Attorney General, $2,500; Superintendent Public Instruction, $2,500; Adjutant General, $600; Commissioner of Agriculture £300; ^""^"fl
ent of Land Office, $1,300- President Supreme Court, $3,250; 4 Judges Supreme Court, $3,000; 2 District Judges, $3,500; Senators and Representatives, $540 per
year; 5 Collectors Internal Revenue, $3,000 to $4,500.

WEST VIRGINIA (Pan Handle State)— First settlers English, Wheeling, 1774. Admitted to Union, 1863. Ranks fifth in salt and coal; eighth in buck-
wheat, iron and steel; twenty-ninth in population; thirty-fourth in miles of railway; thirty-eighth in square miles.

Industries —
Agricu 1 1 u r e is
the leading in-
dustry, the prin-
cipal staples be-
Ing tobacco,
wheat and corn.
The mountain
pastures are well
adapted to stock
raising. Its min-
eral resources are
rich deposits ot
coal, iron and
numerous oil
wells and salt
springs.

Sala ries of
State Officers
— Governor, $2,-
700; Secretary of
State, $1,000 and
fees; Treasurer,

$1,4 00 ; Auditor,

$ 2, 000 and fees;

Superintendent of

Schools, $1,-
500; Attv. Gen.,
$1,300; Presiding
J u d g e Supreme
Court, $2,250: v _
so, iate Judges,
$2,250; Senators
and Representa-
tives, $4 p< 1
mile.!-

District J u d g c,
$3,500:

1 titer. ltev«

908*

NORTH CAROLINA (Old
"North State)— First settlers,
dish. Cowan river, 1650.
Ranks tirst in tar and tur-
pentine; second in copper;
third in pea nuts and tobacco;
fourth in rice; ninth in cot-
ton; fifteenth in population;
twentieth in. miles of rail-
way; twenty -third in wealth;
twenty-sixth in square

Industries — Agriculture
is the leading industry, the
thief articles being corn,
wheat, tobacco, sweet pota-
toes, oats, rice and cotton.
Vast forests furnish three
times as much pitch, tar and
resin as all the other States
together. Valuable go) d
mines are extensive;
wrought iron, copper and
coal also abound.

Salaries of State
Offic e r s — Governor, $3,-
000; Secretary of State, $2,-
000; Treasurer, $3,000; Audi-
tor, $1,500; Attorney Gener-
al, $2,000; Superintendent
Public Instruction, $1,500;
Adjutant Gen., $600; Com-
missioner of Agriculture,
$1,200$ State Librarian, $750;
Chief Justice, $2,500; 2 Asso-

ciatc Justices, $2,500; Sena-
tors and Represents
$4 per day, mileage 10 cents;
4 Collectors Internal Reve-
nue, $2,500 to $3,750; 64 Depu-
ty Collectors, $300 to $1,700.

SOUTH CAROLINA (Pal-
metto State) — First settlers,
English, Ashley river. 1
Ranks first in phosphates
and rice; fifth in cotton;
twentieth in population;
twenty-eighth in miles of
railway; thirtieth in wealth;
thirty- seventh in square
miles.

Industries — Agriculture
is the principal industry, the
State producing a larger
amount of rice than any
other State. "Sea Island Cot-
ton" is of the finest quality,
and superior to all other,
and is raised on several isl-
ands along the coast of this
State and Georgia. Corn,
oats, wheat, sweet potatoes
and tobacco are extensively
raised. The export of rice
and cotton is large. But few
manufactures are as yet es-
tablished in the State,though
considerable attention is be-
ing given to them.

Salaries of State Officers— Governor, $3,500; Lieut. Governor, $1,000; Secretary of State, $2,100: Treasurer, $2,100; Comptroller General, $2,100;
Attorney General, $2 ; ioo; Superintendent Public Instruction, $2,100; Commissioner of Agriculture, $2,100; Adjutant and Inspector General, $1,500; Chief Justice,
$4,000; Associate Justices, $3,500; Clerk of Supreme Court, $1,000; Senators and Representatives, $5 per day, mileage 10 cents; District Judge, $3,500; Collector
of Internal Revenue, $3,250.

GEORGIA (Empire State of South) — First settlement, by the English, Savannah, 1733. Ranks second in rice and sweet potatoes; third In cotton and
molasses; fourth in sugar; seventh in mules; tenth in hogs, thirteenth in population; fifteenth in miles of railway; nineteenth in square miles; twenty-fifth in
wealth.

Industries— The leading industry is agriculture, the products being corn, rice, cotton and sweet potatoes, and manufacturing, in which it leads all other
Southern States, having fine facilities. Gold, iron, marble and slate abound.

Salaries of State Officers— Governor, $3,000; Secretary of State,$2,ooo; Treasurer, $2,000; Comptroller General, $2,000; Attorney General, $2,000; Com-
missioner of Agriculture, $2,500; Chief Justice, $2,500; Associate Justices, $2,500; Senators and Representatives, $4 per day and mileage; 3 District Judges,
43,500; Div. Supt. Railway Service, $2,500; Collectors Internal Revenue, $2,500 to $3,125; 24 Deputy Collectors, $300 to $1,700; Customs Surveyor, $1,000 and fees.

Admitted to the Union, 1845. Ranks third in sugar and molasses;
vay; thirty-fourth in population; thirty-sixth in wealth.

FLORIDA (Peninsula State) — First settlement, by the Spaniards, at St. Augustine, 1565.
tixth in rice; tenth in cotton; twenty-first in square miles; twenty-seventh in miles of railv

Indus t rif. s —
The inhabitants
confine the m-
selves to agricul-
ture. The chief
products are cot-
ton, sugar cane,
rice , corn and
sweet potatoes,
and tropical fruits
of great variety.
There is consid-
erable trade also
in lumber.

Salaries of
State Officers
— Gov'nor, $3,500;
Lieutenant Gov-
ernor, $500; Sec-
retary of State,
$1,500; Treasurer,
$2,000; Comptrol-
ler, $2,000; Attor-
ney General, $1,-
500; Superintend-
ent Pub. Instruc-
tion, $1,500; Adju-
tant General, $1,-
t;oo; Land Com-
nfissioner, $1,200;
Chief Justice, $3,-
[00; 2 Asso. Just's
13,000; Senators
and Representa-
tives, $6 per day
and 10 cents mile-
a g e ; 2 District
Judges, $3,5°° \
Collector Internal
Revenue, $3,000;
Surveyor Gen'ral,
$1,800; Chief C'k.,
$1,600.

309*

ALABAMA-First settle-
ment, by the French, at Mo-
bile, 171 1 . Admitted to the
' T ni'>n, 1819. Ranks fourth
in cotton, fifth in mules and
I lata, sixth in sugar,
t.cvcnth in rice and iron ore,
tenth in bituminous coal,
uteenth in population,
nineteenth in miles of rail-
way, twenty-sixth in square
miles and twenty-eighth in
■wealth.

I j rsxRiES — The com-
merce of the State is consid-
erable, its manufacturing in-
terests are increasing rapid-
ly, chiefly cotton ana cotton
(roods, yarn, thread, iron,
eather and lumber. Its min-
ing interests are very COD*
siuerable; but the principal
industry is agriculture, cot-
ton and corn being the lead-
i n g productions; other

? grains, sugar cane, rice and
obacco are also produced.
Salaries ok State Offi-
cers — Governor, $3,000; Sec,
State, $1,800; Treasurer, $2,-
100; Auditor, $1,800: Attor^y
Gen., $1,500; Supt. Pub. Ins.
$2,250; Librarian, $1,500; 3
K. K. Corners, $2,000 to $3,-
500; Chief Justice, $3,000; 2

per day and 20 cei
age; 3 Dirt. Judfft
2 Collectors !

■

C. llJQOOtot

Admitted to the 1
Ranks Mrcond in-
in rice, sixth in
molasses, seventh in m
eighteenth in pnpul.
- -fnurth in mi!'
railway and twenty-ninth in
square miles and wealth.

IlfDUSTKIfta— Mississippi
is aJiit ■ ly am ag-

ricultural State. Great «,
tities of rice, corn and 1
and sweet potatoes are
duccd. Many tropical fruita
grow in abundance. The la-
bor is largely performed by
colored persona. Horses,
mules, swine and cattle are
extensively raised.

Salaries or State Offi-
cers — Governor, $4,000; Lt.
Governor, $800; Scc'y State,
$2,500; Treasurer, $2,500: Au-
ditor, $2,500; Attorney Gen-
eral, $2,500; Supt. Pub. Edu-

cation, $2,000; Commissioner Agriculture, $1,000; Land Commissioner, $1,000; Adjutant General, $500; Librarian, $Soo; Chief Justice, $3,500; 2 Associate Justice*,
$3,500; Senators and Representatives, $400 a year; 2 District Judges, $3,500; Collector Internal Revenue, $2,750.

KENTUCKY (Corn Cracker State) — First settled by English, Boonesboro, 1775. Admitted to Union, 1702. Ranks first in tobacco, fourth in malt and
distilled liquors, sixth in hogs, seventh in corn, eighth in rye, coal, mules and population, fifteenth in wealth, twenty-third in miles of railway and thirty-fourth
in square miles. Industries: Agriculture is the main pursuit. Wheat, con, hemp, flax and tobacco are the staple productions. Fruits of an excellent quality/
abound. Horses and cattle are reared in grea,t numbers. Thousands of swine fatten in the woods. Mining is carried on to a large extent. Manufacture*
and commerce receive much attention. Kentucky produces nearly one-half the tobacco raised in the United States. Salaries of State officers: GoTernor. $cjooo;

TENNESSEE (Rig Bend State)— First settlers, English, Fort London, 1757. Admitted to Union, 1796. Ranks second in peanuts, third in mule-:, sixth in
tobacco, seventh in copper and hogs, ninth in corn, twelfth in population, eighteenth in wealth, twentv-hrst in miles of railway and thirty-second in square
miles. Industries: Agriculture is the most important industry, the great staples being wheat, cotton, corn, hemp and tobacco. In the production of
the State ranks third. The iron and coal interests are growing rapidly, and will in time prove one o< its richest resources. The marbles ol the State are

esteemed for their
color and variety.
Immense numbers
of swine and
mules are raised
in the State. The
manufac tu r 1 n g
Industries are
more developed
than in any of the
Southern central
A large
Internal com-
merce is carried
on through the
ids and riv-
ers of the State.

Salaries of

State Officers

■ rnor, $4,000;

S< 1 n t;iry State,

$1,800 and fees;

Treasurer, $2,700;

Comptroller, $2,-

OO; Att'v Gen'l,

13,000; Supcrin-

t Public

Instnicti'n.$i,coo;

Adjutant (ien'l,

$1,200; Committer

■ $-.-

500; 3 Rat!

iissi o ners,
$2,000; Librarian,

Chief Jus-
tice, flLf.cxm; Sens-

1 1 1

I ives, $4 per
day ami to cents a

m lie; ]D

> * 3*5 °° »

I LT *■ I» t .

; I rn.il Krv-
enue, $2,250 to $4,-

375*

310*

LOUISIANA (Creole Stata]

— First settlement, by the
Fremh, at Iberville, 1699.
Admitted to the Union, 1S1*.
Ranks first in sugar and mo-

third in rice; ninth in
salt; twenty-second in popu-
lation ; twenty-seventh in
wealth; twenty-eighth i n
square miles; twenty-ninth
In miles of railway.

IXDUSTR IBS— H Ol dl n (J, as
, the outlet to the

tppi Valley, the State
to control both the
forti^n and domestic trade
of this large and rich section.
Hence commerce is large and
important. The manufactur-

' rests are compara-
tively small, except in sugars
and molasses. Agriculture
is the chief pursuit. This
I lie only part of our
country producing sugar in
large quantities. Cotton is

largely cultivated, Louisiana
ranking fourth in its produc*
tion. The rice crop is also
large. Indian corn and other
cereals are also produced to
a considerable extent. Tha
tropical fruits arc abundant.

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor $4,000

Lieut. Governor,. $8 per day

Treasurer 82,000

Sec'y of State 1,800

Auditor 2,500

Attorney General 3,000

Adjutant General 2,000

Supt. Pub. Ins 2,000

Com. Ag. and Immig, 2,000

Chief Justice 5,000

4 Associate Justices 5,000

Senators and Represen-
tatives, $4 per day & mil'ge
2 Dist. Judges, $3,500 to $4,500
Col. of Customs New
Orleans 7,000

TEXAS (Lone Star State) — First settlement, by the Spaniards, at San Antonio, 1692. Admitted to the Union, 1845. Ranks first in cattle and cotton and
square miles; second in sugar, sheep, mules and horses; sixth in miles of railway; seventh in milch cows; eighth in rice and hogs; eleventh in population; nine-
teenth in wealth. Industries: Stock raising is the leading industry, Texas ranking first in this production. Agriculture extensively engages tne attention of
its inhabitants; corn, wheat and the other cereals are raised in the northern part; sweet potatoes, sugar cane, tobacco and tropical fruits in the southern part.
Its commerce consists of exports of cotton, hides and live stock. The State has vast resources that have not, as yet, been fully developed; an abundance of most
valuable timber, large deposits of coal, iron and salt, and other useful minerals.

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor $4,000

Lieutenant Governor $5 per day

Secretary of State 2,000

Treasurer 2,500

Attorney General. 4.000

Adjutant General 2,000

Land Commissioner 2,500

Railroad Commissioner $3,000

Chief Justice 3,500

2 Associate Justices 3,500

Senators and Representatives $5 per day and mileage

3 District Judges 3,500

Collectors Internal Revenue $2,500 to 2,750

17 Deputy Collectors $300 to 1,850

ARKANSAS (Bear State)— First settlement, by the French, at Arkansas Post, 16S5. Admitted to the Union in 1836. Ranks fifth in cotton, ninth in

n 12/ £ \

mules, twenty-
second in miles of
railway, twenty-
fifth in population
and in square
miles, thirty-first
in wealth.

Industri es —
The mineral re-
sources f t h e
State are very
large, and receiv-
ing much atten-
tion. Stock rais-
ing is extensive.
Agriculture is the
chief industry:
corn, cotton ana
wheat being the
leading produc-
tions. Oats, tobac-
co, sweet potatoes
and fine fruits are
also produced to
a considerable ex-
tent.

Salaries of
State Officers
—Governor $Z,W0
Sec. State, $i,Soo;
Treasurer, $2,250;
Auditor, $2,250;
Att'y Gen. $1,500;
Sup. Public Inst.,
$1,600; La'dCom.,
$i,Soo; Chief Jus.,
$3,000; 2 Associate
justices, $3,000;
Senators and Rep-
resentativeSj $6 a
day; 2 Distr*ct
Judges, $3, 500 ;
District Attorney,
$200 and fees; 2
Asst. District At-
torneys, $1, 200,
$1,000 ; Collector
Internal Rev'nue,
$2,750; 10 Deputy
Collectors, £1,200
to $1,500.

311*

OHIO (Buckeye State) —
First settled, by the English,
M Marietta, 1788. Admitted

to Union, 1803. Ranks iirst
in agricultural implements
and wool, second in petro-
leum, iron and steel, third in
population, wheal, sh ee p,
COal, malt and distilled li-
quors, fourth in printing and
publishing, salt, soap and
wealth, fifth in milch cows,
hogs, horses, hay, tobacco,
Iron ore and miles of rail-
way, thirty-third in square
miles.

In-oustkiks— The agricul-
tural interest is very large.
Cnat crops of wheat, corn,
oats, barley, hay, potatoes,
garden ana orchard products
are raised; also flax, tobacco
and grapes. Coal and iron
mining are extensively car-
ried on in the eastern and
southern parts, and large
numbers of live stock are
sent to the Eastern markets.
It is the foremost State in
sheen raising, the wool pro-
duction being more than
20,000,000 pounds a year. In
manufacturing it ranks as
the fourth State in the Union.

Its commerce by lake, river,
canal and railroad traaJ^^H
tation is very large. (J
wealth, population and pt*M
gressiveness the State tsfcoJ
front rank, being the third
in population.

Salaries of State Officer*.

Governor $8jMM

Secretary of State ftjNN

Treasurer SJMM

Auditor SjMH

Attorney General &>MM

School Commissioner. UHV
Supt. Ins. Department. UHH

Railroad Com SJQtl

Secretary Board Agr. . l^M
Com. Labor Statistics. :.v<j
Judge Supreme Court. 4,000
Senators and Repress,

$600 a year and iac. a miles
2 District Judges, $3,500 4,00*1

Pension Agent AMti

8 Col. In. Rev. $2^00 to 4.500

Governor $5,000

Lieut. Governor 1,000

Secretary of State 2,000

Treasurer 3,000

Auditor 1,500

Industries

Senators and Rcpres'tatives, j6 a dav, »

District Judge $3. : d0

Pension Agent

6 Collectors Internal Revenue $„

Surveyor of Customs $1,000 ai

products are verv
large. The State

INDIANA (Iloosier State) First settlement, by the French, Vincennes, 1730. Admitted to the Union, 1816. Ranks second in wheat, fourth in com, h<
and agricultural implements ; sixth in coal and population, seventh in horses, oxen and other cattle, malt and distilled liquors and wealth, eighth in
railway, ninth in hay and milch cows, thirty-fifth in square miles. Industries: The inhabitants are largely engaged in agriculture; large quantit:
wheat, oats, pork and beef being exported. Its mining and manufacturing are considerable, and constantly increasing.

Salaries of State Officers.

Attorney General $2,500

Superintendent Public Instruction 2,500

Sec'y Board of Agriculture 1,200

Librarian 1,200

5 Judges 4,000

ILLINOIS (Prairie or Sucker State)— First settled, by the French, Kaskaskia, 1682. Admitted to the Union, 1S1S. Ranks first in corn, whea
packing, lumber traffic, malt and distilled liquors and miles of railroad; second in rye, coal, agricultural implements, soap and hogs; third in wealth, I
population, manufactories, hay, potatoes, iron and steel, mules, milch cows and other cattle; twenty-secona in square miles.

gricultural State, surpassing all others in the production 01 wheat and corn, and second to none in the

extent of stock
raising. It ranks
the fourth in pop-
ulation, and next
t o Missouri 1 n
manufact u r i n g,
and the sixth in
the Union. Its
fruit and orchard
nr,
lai

abounds in min-
eral productions,
COal, lead and
■ alt being the
chief. Its great
rivers and lakes
present natural
Facilities t t U
extensive c o m-
merco. The rail-
roads of the State
are greater in the
number of miles
within the State
than any other.

Salarii
State Officers
rnor, $6,000;
Sec. State, 13*500;

'irer, $3,500;
Auditor, J; v :

Atfv ( ten. ,13,500;
Chief Jus., >,.
Sector* ami Rep-
resentatives, $5 a
day, ralli

■ d; -• District
..

$4,0 o o ; Pension

■
Collectors Inter-
nal Hev'ue, $i,i25
to $4.5"

I ■istotns, $7,-
OO 1] Auditor, $i,-

200; Appi

miner,

$J,00O.

81*1

MICHIGAN (Wolverine
State)— First settled, by the
French, ;it Detroit, 1650. Ad-
mitted to the Union, 1837.
Ranks first in copper, lum-
ber and salt, second in iron
ore, third in buckwheat and
wool, fifth in hops and pota-
toes, sixth in wheat, barley
and wealth, seventh in agri-
cultural implements, ninth
in oats, population and miles
of railway and twentieth in
square miles.

IXDUSTRXSS — Agriculture,
mining, lumbering, manu-
facturing and commerce
command the attention of
the inhabitants. Large crops
of wheat, corn, oats and po-
tatoes are produced, as also
treat quantities of wool,
utter and cheese. Fruit
raising is extensively fol-
lowed, the value of the or-
chard products exceeds that
of New Jersey or California.
The copper mines of the
State are the richest known
and are extensively worked.

The production ot hawed
lumber is greater than that
of any other State. The value
of manufacturing exceeds
$100,000,000. The fisheries
form one of the secondary,
yet important sources of
wealth, large quantities be-
ing taken for home use and
export.

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor $1,000

Lieut. Gov $3 a day

Sec'y of State $ 800

Treasurer 1,000

Auditor Gen 2,000

Sunt. Pub. Inst'n 1,000

Adjutant Gen 1,000

Sec'y Board Agr 1,500

Insurance Com 2,000

Railroad Com 2,500

Immigration Com 2,000

Chief Justice 4,000

Senators and Repre-
sent, $3 a day, 10c. a mile

2 District Judges $3,500

Pension Agent 4,000

4 Col. In. Re v. $3,875 to 2,625

third in barley

WISCONSIN (Badger State)— First settlement, by the French, Green Bay, 1660. Admitted to the Union, 184S.
and potatoes, fourth in rye and buckwheat, fifth in oats and agricultural implements, seventh in iron, steel and wool, eighth in nay ana miicn cows, ntntn in
copper, tenth in wealth, eleventh in miles of railway, sixteenth in population and twenty -third in square miles. Industries: The chief industry is agriculture,
with large crops of corn, wheat, oats, barley, hay, potatoes and hops, as the staple productions. Live stock is largely raised. In the production of wool and
cheese it is among the leading States. The manufacturing interests are large and increasing. The great pine forests in abundance, and the most valuable
timber, lead, iron, zinc and marble mines are extensively worked. Lakes Michigan and Superior and the Mississippi afford great natural highways for commerce.

Salaries of State Officers.

Chief Justice 5,000

4Associate Justices 5,000

2 District Judges 3,500

Senators and Representatives, $500 per year

[and 10 cents mileage
MINNESOTA (Gopher State)— First settlement, by Americans, Red River, 1812. Admitted to the Union, 1S58. Ranks fourth in wheat
eighth in oats and hay, twelfth in miles of railway, thirteenth in square miles, seventeenth in wealth, twenty-sixth in population.

Governor $5,000

Secretary of State 5,000

Treasurer 5.000

lev

>ad

Railroad Commissioner $3,000

Pension Agent S4.000

Indian Agent 1,500

4 Collectors Internal Revenue $2,750 to 4,500

23 Deputy Collectors $300 to 1800

Collector of Customs $1,000 and fees

nd barley,

Industri e s —

The leading in-
dustries are: 1.
Agriculture, the
staple produc-
tions being corn,
wheat and oats,
while other ce-
reals are largely
raised. 2. Lum-
bering, great
quantities of lum-
ber are sawed in
this State, and
immense rafts of
logs are floated
down the Missis-
sippi to be sawed
in other States. 3.
Manufactu ring,
the principal arti-
cles being sawed
lumber and flour.

Salariesof
State Officers
— Gov'or, $5,000;
Lieut. Governor,
$600; Sec'y State,
'3,500; Treasurer,
3,500; Auditor,
l,ooo; Attorney
eneral, $3,500;
S u pe ri ntendent
Public Instruct'n,
$2,500; Adjutant
General, $ 1,500;
Public Examiner,
$3,000; Insurance
Commis'r, $2,000;
Commissioner of
Statistics, $2,000;
Railroad C o m-
missioner, $3,000;
St ate Librarian,
$2,000; Chief Jus-
tice, $4,500; Sena-
tors and Repre-
sentatives, $5 per
day and 15 cents
mileage; District
Judge, $3,500.

313*

IOWA (Ilawkcyc State)—
First settlement, by the
French Canadians, Burling-
ton, 17S8. Admitted to the
Union, 1S46. Ranks first in
hogs, second in miles of
railway, milch cows, oxen
and other cattle, corn, hay
and oats; third in horses,
fifth in barley, sixth in pota-
toes and rye, seventh in coal
and wheat, tenth in popula-
t i o n, eleventh in wealth,
twenty-fourth in square
miles.

Industries — Agriculture
and mining are the leading
pursuits. The State takes a
leading position in the pro-
duction of wheat, corn and
cattle. The manufactures
are important, and show
great progress annually.

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor «

Lieut. Governor 1#M

Sec'y of State 2J0O

Treasurer 2J0O

Auditor 2^10

Attorney General

[and |B t isfll
Superintendent Public
Instruction $2^00

3 Railroad Com'rs ;

Librarian 1.500

Chief Jastice 3,000

4 Associate Justices... 3jtw
Senators and Represen-
tatives $550 per year

a District Judges $3,500

Pension Agent...
4 Collectors Internal
Revenue.... $2^00 to 4,500

NEBRASKA— First settlement, by Americans. Admitted to the Union in 1867. Ranks eighth in corn and barley, ninth in rye, fourteenth in miles ot
railway, fifteenth in square miles, thirtieth in population, thirty-second in wealth.

Industries — Beef cattle and other live stock are raised in great numbers upon the grazing section. Corn, wheat and other cereals and fruit growing
are carried on extensively and with great success. The cheap and fertile lands offer great inducements for settlement to emigrants.

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor $2,500

Lieut. Governor $10 a day

Secretary of State $2,000

Treasurer 2,500

Auditor Public Accounts 2,500

Attorney General 2,000

Superintendent Public Instruction 2,000

Secretary Board of Agriculture 1,000

THE DAKOTAS— Settlement, by Americans, at Pembina. Organized as a Territory, 1861. Admitted into the Union as two States, North and South

Commissioner of Public Lands $2,000

Chief Justice 2^00

Senators and Representatives $3 a day and 10 cents mileage

District Judge $3,500

Collector Internal Revenue

Surveyor General

3 Indian Agents $1,2* to LflOO

Dakota, 1 885).
Ranks third in
gold and square
miles, ninth in
silver, thirteenth
in miles of rail-
way, thirty-ninth
in pop illation.

Special census of
Dakota in 1885,
showed a popula-
tion of 415.610. In
1800 the popula-
tion of N. Dakota

was 1S/.71.J; and

the population of
S. Dakota was
328,808. The total
assessment of
property in 1886
was $106,400,549,
and in 1SS7, $157,-
084,365.

Salaries op
State Officers
—North Dakota—
Governor, $3,000]
I-ieut. Gmernnr,

$1,000; Secretory
of State, I •

Auditor, . ia,ooo;
Treasurer,ia,ooo;
Com. Ins., $.
Att*y General,
$0,000; Bapt, Pub.

lnstruc'n, $

See H. EL Corns.,
$j,ooo; Chief Jus-
tice, $4,500; Asso.
Justice, $4.v

South Dakota—
Governor, | .

Lieut. Gov,, $ooo\

I ' v of State,

$1,8001 Auditor,

Si ,8oo;Treasarer,
$ 1, Son; Bapt Poo.
lnstruc'n, S .

PUD. I. and,
lljBOO; Attornty-
Gi'tht.iI, f\ £0O|
Com, Labor, $1,-
o<«o; Tub. Exam*
iner, $1,^00,

•814

MISSOURI (Pennsylvania
pf the West)— First settle-
ment, by the French, at Stc.
Genevieve, 1764. Admitted
to the Union, 1S21. Ranks
first in mules, third in oxen,
bops, corn and copper; fifth
In population, sixth in iron
Ore, wool, milch cows and
horses ; seventh in oats,
eighth in wealth, wheat and
tobacco, ninth in sheep and
potatoes, tenth in miles of
railway, sixteenth in square
miles.

Industries — Agriculture
Is the leading occupation.
Mining is extensively car-
ried on in the section south
Of St. Louis. The iron re-
sources of the State exceed
that of any other. The man-
ufacturing interests are large
and increasing. The chief
agricultural products are

KANSAS (Garden of the West)— Settled by Americans. Admitted to the Union, 1861. Ranks fifth in cattle, corn and rye,
railway, ninth in hogs, horses, wheat and coal, fourteenth in square miles, twenty-first in population, twenty-fourth in wealth.

Industries — Agriculture and stock raising form the chief pursuits of the inhabitants. Every variety of cereal and farm
quantities. Nearly 2,000,000 acres are mineral lands. Three-fourths of the State is suited for agriculture.

Salaries of State Officers.

great crops of corn, wheat,
rye, tobacco, hemp and
grapes.

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor $5,000

Sec'y of State 3,000

Treasurer 3,000

Auditor 3,000

Attorney Gen 3,000

Adjutant Gen 2,000

Supt. Public Schools.. 3,000

3 Railroad Com'rs 3,000

Supt. Ins. Dep't 4,000

Chief Justice 4,500

Senators and Repre's,

$5 a day, mileage and $30

2 District Judges 83,500

5 Col. In. Rev. $2,250 to 4,500
Surveyor of Customs,

St. Louis 5,000

seventh in hay and miles of
products is raised in great

Governor $3,000

Secretary of State 2,000

Trt :;isin er 2,500

Auditor 2,000

Attorney General , 2,500

Superintendent Public Instruction 2,000

Secretary Board of Agriculture 2,000

Insurance Commissioner , 2,500

COLORADO (Centennial State) — First settlement, by Americans, near Denver, about

Ranks first in sil-

3 Railroad Commissioners

State Librarian

Chief Justice... . ,

2 Associate Justices ,

Senators and Representatives.

District Judge

Pension Agent

Collector Internal Revenue. . . . ,

.S3

Organized as a Territory, 1861

$3,000

1,500

3,000

per dny and 15 cents mileage

$3,500

4,000

2,750

Admitted to the Union, 1S76.

v e r, fourth i n
gold, eighth i n
square miles,
seven tee th in
miles of railway,
th irty - fifth in
population and
wealth.

Industries —
About one-third
of the State is
good agricultural
land and easy of
irrigation, bring-
ing fourth bounti-
ful harvests of all
the cereals. As a
grazing and dairy
country it is un-
surpassed, its nu-
tritious grasses
h a v i ng peculiar
advantages for
herding. Its chief
production is min-
ing; in its yield
of gold and silver
it is the leading
State of the Un-
ion.

Sa laries of
State Officers
Govern'or, $5,000;
Lieut. Governor,
$1 ,000; Secretary
of State, $3,000 ;
Treasurer, $3,000;
Auditor, $2,500;
Attorn -y Gen'ral,
$2,000; Chief Jus-
tice, $5,000; 2 As-
sociate Justices,
$5,000 ; Senators
and Representa-
tives, $4 per day,
15 cents mileage;
Dist. Judge, £5,-
500; Collector In-
ter'l Rev., $2,875;
Sur. Gen., $2,500;
Ute Indian Agt.,
$1,400.

315*

NEVADA(Sage Hen State)
,-First settlement, by Amer-
icans, ir. 1850. Admitted to
the Union, 1864. Ranks
second in gold, fourth in sil-
eventh in square miles,
thirty - seventh in wealth,
thirty-eighth in population,
fortieth in miles of railway.

Industries— The leading
industry is mining. The
mines of the State yield over
three-fifths of all the silver
produced i n the United
States. Stock raising is also
largely followed, having a
large amount of fine pasture
land.

Salaries of State Officer**

Governor IVJOt

Lieut. Governor 2,509

Sec'yof State X009

Treasurer . 1,099

Comptroller

Attorney General 3.009

Superintendent Public

Instruction -/JQO

Chief Justice <.JX*

iate Justices... 6/309
- 1 and Represen-
ts a day, 40c. mileage

District Judge 3,509

Surveyor Gen

Chief Clerk 2.009

Draftsman 1,909

Collector Inte'nal'Rcv
enue 2,375

CALIFORNIA (Golden State) — First settlement, by the Spaniards, 1769, at San Diego. Admitted to the Union, 1S50. Ranks first in barley, grape cultoftjfl
gold and quicksilver, second in wool and square miles, third in hops, fifth in wheat and salt, seventh in silk goods, eighth in soap and silver
sixteenth 111 miles of railway, twenty-fourth in population. Industries: Mining, manufacturing, stork raising and agriculture form the principal indu-'
the State. Commerce is extensive with China, Japan, the East Indies and Australia, and with other States and Territories. The State ranks first in the
culture of the grape, and one of the foremost in wheat raising. No State in the Union has developed so rapidly.

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor $o,000

Secretary of State 3,000

Treasurer 3,01 a t

Comptroller 3,000

Superintendent Public Instruction 3,000

Attorney General 3,000

Surveyor General 3,000

State Librarian 3,000

District Judge i$|^|

Senators and Representatives 98 a day, 10 cents mileage and $3

3 Collectors Internal Revenue $3,125 to

Collector Customs, San Francisco

Pension Agent

Superintendent of Mint

yer 3.UU9

OREGON— First settled, by Americans, 1811

MAP OP
CALIFORNIA

Arw nq.mllw l»,»w

Territory organized, 1848. Became ■ State in 1S59.
fifteenth in wheat,
thirty-second i n

miles of railway,
thirty-fourth i n
wealth, thirty-six
in population.

iNDL'STRI E S —
Agriculture, stork
raising and lum-
bering are the

chief pursuits;
wheat being the
.ii tii H 1 4
the former, while
must of the ce-
reaif of the Mid-
dle States flour-
ish. Cutting tim-
ber from the im-
mense pine for-
t the State

gives employment
:it munbera

of inhabitants.

s a l aries op
State Offii

— Gov'nor, \ 1
Secret "

Auditor ,V Comp-
troller, $ 1, <; 00 ;
I teasurer, $8 O O;

Superintendent 01

PoDllc Instruct*!).

$i*S°p; st.it. 1 I

l'r;iriaii,(ii .*-

Justice, Jj.ooo; -*

\ ■ 1 1 . I

and Re]

tiv.s, f$ a da

t J II d g e.

$ 3, 5 00; Dl

$ a 00

ami fees; (. t)

or Int.

■

■
1 at, |-\5oo.

316*

Ranks seventh in fisheries, tenth in sqi

MONTANA
Ranks fourth in silver
»nd square miles, fifth in
gold, fifteenth in cattle,
thirty-sixth in miles of rail-
vnv and forty-fourth in pop-
ulation. The population of
Montana, according to cen-
sus of 18S0, was 39,159, but in
1884 the total vote cast for
delegate to Congress was
26,otK,, and in 1886, 32,26:!.
In 1890 the population num-
bered 132,159. First settle-
ment, by Americans, 1852.
Organized as a Territory,
1864 Admitted to the Union
in 1S89.

I £^£5 2L- _JJU3K> a .p_a.

Fl<,t!,r,).l

:■„ Martina

<-■>■.

waAtagtai

MAP OF 1

MONTANA

Area ■ij.infTes 145,310

Salaries of State Officers.

Governor $5,000

Secretary 3,000

Treasurer 3,000

Auditor 3,000

Supt. Public Inst'n . . . 2,500

Chief Justice 4,000

2 Asso. Justices,, 4,000

Senators and Repre'es

[$4 per day, 20c. mileage

Surveyor Gen $2,500

ChiefClerk 1,800

Chief Draftsman 1,600

Collector Int. Rev 2,500

5 Deputy Collectors In-
ternal Revenue 1,600

Assayer 2,500

Melter 2,250

IDAHO— Ranks sixth in gold, seventh in silver, twelfth in square miles, forty-third in miles ot railway, forty-fifth in population.
84.3^5. First settlement, by Americans. 1S42. Organized as a Territory, 1863. Admitted to the Union in 1890.

Salaries of Territorial Officers.

Population, lSoo,

Governor $3,000

Secretary 1,800

Treasurer 1,000

Auditor 1,800

Librarian 250

Chief Justice 3,000

2 Associate Justices 3,000

WASHINGTON— Ranks eighth in gold, seventeenth in square miles, forty-first in population, forty-second in miles of railway.

to territorial cen-

Senatorsand Representatives $4 per day and 20c. mileage

2 District Attorneys $ 2 5° and fees

Collector Internal Revenue $2,250

3 Deputy Collectors $1,400 to 1,600

Assayer , 2,000

Assistant Assayer 1,440

Population, according

sus in 1085, 127,-
292; U. S. Census
1890,349,300. First
settle ment, by
Americans, at
Astoria, 181 1. Or-
ganized as a Ter-
ritory, 1853. Ad-
m i 1 1 e d to the
Union, 1889.

Salaries of
State Officers
Gov'nor, $4,000;
Secretary, $2,500;
Treasurer,$2,ooo;
Auditor, $2,000;
Su peri ntendent
Public Instruct'n,
$2,500; Librarian,
$400; ChT Justice,
$3,000; 3 Asso'ate
Justices, $ 3,0 o o;
Senat'rs and Rep-
resentatives, $4 a
day and 20 cents
mileage; Survey-
o r General, $2,-
500; Chief Clerk,
$1,800; C'f Drafts-
man, $1,700; Col-
lector of Customs,
$1,000 and fees;
Collector Intern , l
Revenue, $2,250 ;
3 Deputy Collect-
ors Internal Rev-
enue, $1,200 to$i,-
600.

317*

ARIZONA

Ranks fifth in silver, sixth
in square miles, eighth in
sheep, ninth in gold, thirty-
eighth in miles of railway,
forty-third in population.
First explored, by the Span-
iards, in 1526. Organized
as Territory, 1863.

Salaries of Territorial
Officers.

Governor $2^50

Secretary lfW

Treasurer 1,000

Auditor i.rjoo

Supt. Public Iost-n 2Mfl

Librarian tjQO

Chief Justice 3.0W

2 Asso. Justices 3,000

Senators and Repre-
sentatives. .$4 per day

[and 30 cents mileage

3 District Judges $3,000

Collector Int. Rev.

2 Deputy Collectors...

[•1,600 to 1,700
Clerk 1,100

UTAH— Ranks third in silver, tenth in gold, eleventh in square miles, fifteenth in coal, thirty-fifth in miles of railway, thirty-eighth in population.
First settlement, by Americans, at Salt Lake City, 1S47. Organized as a Territory, 1850.

Salaries of Territorial Officers
Governor $2,000

6ccrctar y 1,800

Treasurer cqq

Auditor 1,500

Superintendent Public Instruction j 50Q

Librarian 250

Chief Justice 3(00o

NEW MEXICO

2 Associate Justices $3,000

Senators and Representatives , ..$4 per day and 20 cents mileage

District Attorney , . .$250 and fee*

1 1 United States Commissioners fee*

Collector Internal Revenue $2,500

2 Deputy Collectors $1,600 to 1.800

Ranks fifth i n
square miles,
eighth in silver,
eleventh in gold,
nineteenth in
• be« p, twenty-
second in cattle,
thirtieth in miles
of railroad, for-
tieth in popula-
tion. First settle-
ment, by the
Spaniards, at
Santa Fe, 1537.
Organized as ter-
ritory, 1850.
Salaries of
Ter ritorial
Officers —
Governor, $2,600;
Secretary, $1,800;
Treasurer,$2,ooo;
Auditor, $2,000;
Com. Immigra'n,
$900; Librarian,
$600; Ch'f Justi. e,
$3,000; 2 Asm
1 .[slices, $3,000 ;

Senttori and

Keprescntatlv r s,
$4 a day and 20c.
mileage; Collect-
or Internal Kive-
nue, $2,500; 2 Dep-
uty Collectors In-
ternal Revenue,
$1,200 to $ 1,700;
Surveyor Gener'l,
$2,500; Translator
and Chief Clerk,
93,000,

318*

WYOMING

Ranks ninth in square miles,
twelfth in cattle, fourteenth
in gold, sixteenth in coal,
forty-fourth in miles of rail-
way, forty-sixth in popula-
tion. First settlement, by
Americans, 1867. Organ-
ire il as a Territory,
Admitted to the Union in
iSoa.

Salaries of State
Officers.

Governor $2,600

Secretary 2,000

Treasurer 2,000

Auditor , 2,000

Supt. Public Instr'n.,,. 2,000

Librarian 400

Chief Justice 3,000

2 Associate Justices... 3,000
Senators and Repre*s,

[$4 a day, 20c. mileage

Zo\. Inter. Rev 82,000

2 Deputy Col. Int. Rev.

[$1,400 to 1,500

Surveyor Gen 2,500

Chief Clerk 2,000

Chief Draftsman 1,800

THE INDIAN TERRITORY was originally set apart as a reservation for peaceful tribes. Organized in 1834, Dut not und er tne same forms of govern-
ment as the other Territories. The lands are held in common by the Indians, each being allowed to cultivate as much as desired, and whites can hold land
only by marrying an Indian. Grazing and agriculture are the leading industries. Oklahoma was opened up to white settlers in 1889. Ranks eighteenth in
square miles and forty-fifth in miles of railway.

Indian Agencies.

ARAPAHOE.

Agent $ 900

CHEYENNE.

Agent «. $2,200

Physician 1,200

KAW.

Superintendent $1,600

Physician 1,200

KIOWA AND COMANCHE.

Agent : $1,000

Physician 1,000

OAKLAND.

Superintendent $1,000

3 Teachers 600

MEXICO AND
CUBA.

The Republic of
Mexico comprises
twenty -seven
States, a Federal
District and the
territory of Low-
er California.

Agri culture,
mining and stock
raising constitute
the principal in-
dustries. The cli-
mate in the ele-
vated interior is
mild and health-
ful, but along the
coast it is very
hot and pestilen-
tial. The Mexi-
cans are a very
mixed race, about
one - tenth being
Creoles, descend-
ants of Spanish
colonists.

319*

ONTARIO

Is the most important Province of Canada. Principal
products, grain, fruit, lumber, petroleum, copper and
Iron. The population of Ontario is one-third of the
whole Dominion. Toronto, the capital, is the nana*
factoring and educational center. The population of
this Province is largely of British descent.

W3j£~T Nort r. h „ w r er

" ""<__ ONTARIO

"^ MAP OF

ONTARIO

^ YfTOWVlVV^-

QUEBEC

was originally settled by the French, and the present
population is largely composed of descendants
Voyagers. The capital, Quebec, is the oldest city in
the Dominion. Its fortifications were at or
considered, next to Gibraltar, the strongest in the world.
Nevertheless, the fortress was captured by General
Wolfe. The metropolis, Montreal, is noted fur its
churches.

MANITOBA

Is a great wheat-growing country, and furs are also a
leading product. The first settlers, 1731, were French,
and Kn^Iish traders first made their appears
1767. The Province is now traversed by the I
Pacific Railway. 1 erj Mvarc in winter, but

n.illy hoi in 'iiiniiuT. The soil is such that wheat
ripens in no days. Winnipeg is the capital.

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POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES.

Popular Vote.

nsfc-The Eighteen Decisive Battles of the World. 2S

(.Name of Victorious Nation Appears First.)

Conquest

ence
Invasion resisted
International and poli

iVSC

l±t

MILITARY and NAVAL STRENGTH of VARIOUS GKINTRIES.

Based on the numerical strength of the respective armies on a war footing; where more than one number is given, besides
the number of war vessels, the first represents the standing army.

NORWAY

and
SWEDEN
64,000
War footing^
5^9.510
116

Vessels

COMPARATIVE AREA IN SQUARE MILES I STATES * FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

A DICTIONARY OF DATES.

337

rMMM^»^^l'«

n mCTIONRKY DF- DRIES,

i^^&^^X^%^^\^k^&^^

Th rt World's Progress as shown in an Alphabetical Record of Notable Events and Discoveries.

<> ■ * — <>

Air-Balloons invented by Gusmac, a Jesuit, in
1729. Revived in France by M. Montgolfier, in
1783-

Air-Guns invented by Guhr, of Nuremberg, in
1656.

Air-Pumps invented in 1650.

Algebra, known in Europe in 1300; in general
use in 1590.

Almanacs 6rst published in 1470, by Martin
Hku.-,, at Buda. The first almanac in England
was printed at Oxford, in 1673.

Alien and Sedition Acts passed by Congress
in 1793 ; expired, by limitation, Jan. 26, 1801.

Alphabet. The Ionic alphabet was introduced
399 years before Christ. Before this time the
Greek letters were but sixteen in number.

Anaesthesia discovered 1844.

Anchors invented in 587.

Anti Slavery Society (American) organized
Dec. 6, 1833, at Philadelphia.

Argand Lamps invented by Aime Argand, of
Geneva, about the year 1782.

Arquebus introduced about 1520, and remained
in use until after 1567, when the matchlock sup-
planted it. In 1630 the flint lock was invented,
and the musket was introduced.

Ban kin g. The first bank in Europe was the
Bank of Venice, 1171. The Bank of England
was established in 1694, the Bank of North
America, 1781.

Barometers invented in 1626; wheel barometers
in 1668, phosphoric in 1675, pendant in 1695, and
marine in 1700.

Battering-Ram invented 441 years before
Christ.

Bayonets invented at Bayonne in 1670. First
used in England in 1693. At first these had
wooden handles fitting into the guns, but in 1699
the socket bayonet was introduced.

Bellows. — Strabo informs us that the invention
of bellows is due to the Scythian philosopher,
Anacharsis, who lived in the time of Solon.

Bells invented by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, in
Campagnia, in or about the year 400. They were
first used in France in 550, in Greece in 864, and
in the churches of Europe in 900. In Switzer-
land they first appeared in 1020.

Blankets first mads in England in 1340.

Blood, circulation of, discovered in 1619.

Blue (Prussian) first made in Berlin, in 1704.

Bombs invented at Venlo, in 15S8, and used first
in the service of France in 1634.

Books, in thctr present form, were invented by
Attalus, king of Pergamus, in 887.

Boots invented 907 years before Christ.

Boston Fire Nov. 9, 1872. Loss, $73,600,000.

Bread first made with yeast by the English about
1650.

Bricks first used in England by the Romans. In
1625 their regular size was fixed by Charles I.

Bridges. The first bridge of stone in England
was ihat built at Bow, near Stratford, in 1087.

Buckles invented about 1680.

Bullets of stone used in 1514. Iron bullets first
mentioned in 1550.

Bullion (Assaying of) introduced in 1354.

Butter. — The first mention of butter is that of
Herodotus, who, in describing the Scythians,
says : " These people pour the milk of their mares
into wooden vessels, cause it to be violently
stirred or shaken by their blind slaves, and sep-
arate the part that arises to the surface, as they
consider it more valuable than that which is col-
lected below it." Soon after the death of Hippoc-
rates, we read that the Greeks thought the but-
ter which the Thracians ate a wonderful kind of
food. The ancient Ethiopians appear to have
used butter as food. The ancient Germans were
butter-makers.

Calico-Printing and the Dutch-loom engine
first used in 1670.

Camera Obscura invented by Baptista Porta,

in 1515.

Canal. — The first English navigable canal was
finished in 1134.

Candles of tallow took the place of prepared
splinters of wood in 1290.

Cannon invented in 1130. First used by the

English in 1346; used first in England in 1445;

in Denmark in 1354; by the Spaniards in 1406.

The first iron cannon were made in England, in

1 547 '
Caps first worn in 1449.

Cards invented for the amusement oi Charles VI.,
in 1380.

Carriages introduced in England in 1580; in
Vienna in 1515.

Chain Shot invented by De Wit, Dutch Ad-
miral, in 1666.

Chess invented 608 years before Christ.

Chicago Fire, Oct. 8-n, 1871. Loss, $290,-
000,000 ; about 250 persons perished, and 98,500
rendered destitute ; 25,000 buildings destroyed.

Chimes on Bells invented at Alvest in 1487.
Chimneys first introduced in England in 1200,

but at first only in the kitchen or large hall.
China made at Dresden, in Saxony, in 1706 ; at

Chelsea (England) in 1752; by Mr. Wedgwood

in 1762.

Civil Bights Bill passed by Congress 1866.

Civil Service Reform Bill introduced in
congress Jan. 20, 1867. Act for rules to be pre-
scribed by the President for civil service exam-
inations passed March 3, 1871, and commis-
sioners for that purpose appointed June 28, with
G. W. Curtis as chairman.

Clay's Compromise, tariff, 1833; slavery, 1850.

Clocks, called water-clocks, were first used in
Rome 158 years before Christ. Clocks and dials
were first put up in churches in 913. In 801
clocks were made to strike the hours by the
Arabians, and by the Italians in 1300. A strik-
ing-clock was used at Westminster in 1368. The
first portable striking-clock was made in 1530.
Richard Harris, of London, invented clocks
with pendulums about 1641 . To distinguish
these from dials, they were first called sun-
" nocturnal, or night-dials." Repeating clocks
and watches were invented by a maker named
Barlow in 1676.

Coaches. Covered carriages appear to have
been used by the old Romans. In the year
1588, Duke Julius of Brunswick published an act

against riding in coaches. Philip II, of Pomtr-
ania-Stettin, published a similar document in
1608. Coaches appear to have been used in
France very early. An ordinance of Philip the
Fair, issued in 1294, for suppressing luxury, for-
bids citizens' wives to ride in coaches. Coaches
were first used in England in 1565, the first being
that made for the Earl of Rutland. In 1601 an
act was passed to prevent men riding in coaches,
on the scoreof its effeminacy. Coaches began to
be common in 1605, and were petitioned against
by the saddlers and others. Hackney coaches
introduced in 1634. In 1661, a stage coach was
two days going from London to Oxford, and the
"Flying Coach" was thirteen hours, even in
summer weather, when the roads were at their
best.
Coal first dug for fuel in 1234.

Coin. Silver was first coined by Phidon, King
of Argos, 869 B.C. In Rome, silver money was
first coined .269 B.C. Gold and silver coins first
used in the East. Coin first used in Britain 25
B.C., and in Scotland not until 248 years later.
In 1101, round coins were first used in England.
Silver halfpence and farthings were coined in the
reign of John, and pence were the largest cur-
rent coins. Gold was first coined in England in
1087; in Bohemia in 1301. In 1531, groats and
half-groats were the largest silver coin in Eng-
land. Gold was first coined in Venice in 1346.
Shillings were first coined in England in 1068.
Crowns and half-crowns were first coined in
1551. Henry III introduced copper money into
France in 1580. Copper money introduced into
England by James I in 1620. The process of
milling coin introduced in 1662. The mint of
the United States of America was established in
1793-

Coining with a die first invented in 1617, and
first used in England in 1620,

Compass (Mariner's) invented in China 1120
B.C.; used in Venice 1260 ; improved at Naples
in 1302. Its variations observed in 1500; its
dipping in 1576.

Copyright. The copyright law was first passed
by Congress in 1791, the term being made four-
teen years ; amended, and term extended to 28
years, with renewal for 14 more, in 1831.

Cotton. The first raised in the United States
was in 1621, in Virginia ; first exported from U.
S. in 1747.

Cotton Gin invented in 1793, by Eli Whitney.
Culverins first made in England in 1534.

Daguerreotypes first made in France, 1839.
Declaration of American Independence, 1776;

recognition, 1782.

Delf (or Delft) earthenware invented at Firenze

in 1450.

Diamonds first cut and polished at Bruges in j 489.

Dice invented 1500 B.C.

Dinning Needle invented by Robert Norman,

Distilling first practiced in 1150.

Diving-Bell. This machine appears to have
been known in 1509, and repeated mention of its
use occurs in historical chronicles from that date.

Electric Light. Invented at London, in 1874,
by two Russians, Lodyguiu and Kosloff. The

4v H

338

A DICTIONARY OF DATES.

Tablochkoff candle proved successful in 1878 in
lighting the streets of Paris. In the United
States, the Sawyer-Man light appeared in 1878,
and Ldison began his expenments in electric
lighting in the same year.

Emancipation Proclamation. January i,

i86j.

Engraving* on metal invented in 1423 ; on cop-
Mf la iui. Improved process introduced by
Prince Rupert ot Palatine in 1648. Engraving
process for tints invented by Barablc, a French-
man, in 1 761. Engraving on wood invented at
Fl.im.lers in 1423, and revived in 1511 by Albert
Durer. Engraving on glass invented at Paris in
1799, by Uondicr.

Envelopes for letters were first used in 1839.

Etching' on copper with aqua fortis was intro-
duced in 151a.

Ether was first used in surgical operations in
1844.

Express. The first American express was ope-
rated between New York and Boston, in 1821, by
W. F. Harnden.

False Hair introduced by the courtesans in
Italy, and first brought into England from
France in 1572.

Fenian Raids into Canada, May 31. 1866; re-
sumed February 3, 1870.

Filibustering- raids of Wm. Walker, 1853-60.

Fire Engines, to force water, existed in very
ancient times. The first of the kind now in use,
but of a vastly inferior character, was invented
by two Dutchmen, each named Jan van der
Hcide. at Amsterdam, in 1518. In 1657 an im-

5 roved engine was introduced at Nuremberg by
ohn Hantsch. Fire-engines were first known
at Paris in 1699. The first volunteer fire com-
pany in America was the Union of Philadelphia,
about 1736.
Flag. The American flag was first used by
Washington at Cambridge, January 1, 1776.

Fortification. The present mode introduced
about 15^0.

Forks are, comparatively speaking, quite a
modem invention. They were first known in Italy
toward the end of the 15th century. They
began to be known in France by the end of the
i6tli century. Introduced in England in 1608.

Free Soil Party. The first national conven-
tion was held at Buffalo, Aug. 9, 1848.

Fugitive Slave Law passed by Congress,
Sept. 12, 1850.

Gamut in music invented by Guy L'Aretin in
102 s.

Gas was first evolved from coal by Dr. Clayton in
1739. Its first application, as an illuminating
medium, was made by Mr. Murdoch, in Corn-
wall, England, in 1792. Sir H. Davy, before a
committee of the House of Commons, declared it
was not practicable to light London with gas.
The first display of gaslight was in Birmingham,
on the occasion of the peace rejoicings 0*1802.
It was introduced for lighting the shops and
streets of London, generally, in 1814. In the
United States it was introduced in 1822, in
Boston.

Gilding, with gold leaf, invented in 1273.

Glass introduced into England, by Benedict, a
monk, in 674. First used in England, for bottles,
etc., in 1557. The first plate-glass, made at
Lambeth, In 1673. Window glass first made in
England in 1557.

Grist Mills invented in Ireland in 314.

Gunpowder was invented by the monk Schwartz
in 1310, although used by the Chinese A.D. 80.
The Byzantines used Greek fire AD. 668.

Guns invented in 1330; used by the Moors at the
siege of Algcciras, in Spain, in 1344 ■ at the battle
of Crccy in 1546, and at the siege of Calais in
the year following. Adopted by Denmark in
1354; used by the Venetians, at se», against the
Genoese, in 1377. First used by the Spanish in
1106. The early English guns were first made
ot brass In 1635 ; in : 547 they were made of iron.
Bombs and mortars were invented in 1543.

Hartford Convention (anti-war), Dec.15,1814.
Handkerchiefs were first manufactured at Pais-

lejTj In .->■■, lund, in 1743.

Heraldry originated in the year 1100.

Homoeopathy was introduced into the United
btaUj in 1825.

Horseshoes- Although the ancients protected
the hoots of their horses with some covering,
horseshoes, of the kind now known, were not in
general use until the ninth century.

Hour-Glasses invented in Alexandria 240.

Hydrometer. The oldest mention of this in-
strument belongs to the 5th century, but its
invention has been attributed to Archimedes.

Infallibility. The dogma of Papal Infallibility
promulgated^ 1870.

Inoculation for small-pox, first tried on crimi-
nals in 172:. Vaccine discovered by Dr. Jcnner
in 1796,

Insurance. The first fire insurance office in
America was in Boston, 1724. The first for Ufa
insurance in London, 1772 ; the first American, in
Philadelphia, in 1812. Marine insurance dates
back to 2598 in England, and to 1721 in
America.

Interior Department established March 3,
1849.

Jesuits. The order was founded by Ignatius
Loyola in 1541.

Judiciary Act passed by Congress Feb. 13,
1801.

Knitting: Stocking's invented in Spain about

>55o.
Knives were first used in England about 1550.
Know-Nothing" Party (American) arose in

New York in 1853. National platform adopted

and candidate for the Presidency (Fillmore) in

1856.

Lace. The knitting of lace is a German inven-
tion, first known about the middle of the 16th
century.

Lamp (Sir Humphry Davy*s safety) for pre-
venting explosions by fire damp in coal mines,
1815.

Lanterns invented by Alfred the Great 800.

Leyden Jar invented in 1745.

Liberty Party, national convention at Buffalo,
Aug. 30, 1843.

Library. The oldest American library is that of
Harvard College, Cambridge. 1638. The first
subscription library was established at Phila-
delphia in 1731.

Lig'htning'-rods were first used by Benjamin
Franklin about 1752.

Life-Boats invented by Greathead, who received
a premium from Parliament in May, 1802.

Linen when first made in England was regarded
as a great luxury, and was very costly. A com-
pany of linen-weavers from the Netherlands was
■Ji.shcd in London in 1386.

Lithograph) j Printing* first brought into Eng-
land in 1S01 .

Magic La .items invented in 1253.

Magna Charta signed 1215.

M agmify in g- Glasses first made in England
by Roger Bacon 1260.

Maps and Globes invented by Anaaimandcr
600 B.< I

Marble Paper. A German invention belonging
to the 17th century.

Matches. Friction matches first used in 1839.

Mecklenburg* county, N. C, Declaration of
Independence issued May 31, 1776.

Medicinal Simples first brought Into Europe,
from the but, in 1200.

Microscopes BrW u*ed in Germany in 16.11 . lm
proved by Torricelli in 1624.

Military Academy, West Point, founded by
Congress March 16, leot.

Missouri Compromise passed March 3, iftso,
and rep 1, 1854- It restricted slavery

to south of 36 jo\

Mirrors (Silvering) invented by Praxiteks aaS
years I

Monroe Doctrine declared in the iniwg.i of
President Monroe, Dec. 2 # 1825.

Mormons arrived at Salt Lake V-Ocy, Utah,
July 24, 1847.

Musical Notes invented in 1070 ; iraprovedi j3 o ;
printed 1502.

Nantes, Edict of, tolerating Protestants, issued
April 13, 1598; revocation, Oct. 33, 1665.

Needles first made in England by a native of

India in 1545; re-invented by Christopher Green-
ing in 1560.

Netherlands, revolt of, 1565 to 1580.

New Orleans, Battle of, Jan. 8, 18x5, Jackson
defeating the British. Captured by Farragut
April 26, 1862.

Newspaper. The first authentic newspaper
was printed in 1404; first daily, Franltfort
Gazette, 1615. The first English was the Weekly
Arutes, 1622; the first in France, Gazette at
France, 1631 . The first advertisement appeared
in 1648. The first American newspaper was
printed in Boston, Sept. 25, 1690, and was called
Publick Occurrences, Foreign and Domestic.
The first continuously printed in America was
the Boston News Letter, 170a; first daily, The
Pennsylvania Packet, 1784.

Nullification Ordinance passed by South
Carolina Nov. 19, 1832, The proclamation of
Presi lent Jackson denouncing the same was
issued Dec. 10, 1832.

Omuibuses were first used in New York in 1830.

Organs were invented in 750.

Ostend Manifesto, issued Oct. 21, 1854.

Paper Hang-ins*. The invention of hangings
of paper to take the place of other more costly
hangings, has been attributed to a manufacturer
of paper hangings, named Breitkopf, of Leipsic.
That kind known as velvet-paper is said to have
been invented by Jerome Lanyer, an English-
man, who received a patent tor it in 1634, al-
though the invention has also been claimed for
Francois, a Frenchman, who is asserted to have
introduced it at Rouen in 1620.

Paper made of cotton, in use in 1000. Made of
linen rags in 1319. First introduced in FjfjyM*
in 1588. White paper first made there in 1690.
Paper was made from straw in 1800.

Paper Money first used in America in 1740, and
revived in 1788.

Parchment invented by King Attalus, of Per-
gamus, 807 B.C.

Patent Big-ht Law first enacted in U. S., April
1 5 . ' 79°-

Paving with Stones first introduced at Paris
in 1 186.

Philadelphia was founded by William Penn in
1682. Kiou., native American and Irish, May 6
to 8, 1844.

Penny Post introduced for London and its sub-
urbs by an upholsterer named Murray in 1681.
Adopted by the government in 1711. First set
up in 1774 in Dublin. Carried out on an enlarged
scale in 1794, and made a twopenny post in 1801.

Pens. The style, or point or bone and metal,
which was used for writing on tables coated with
wax, gave place to the reed, pointed and split,
and used as a pen with some colored liquid*.
These were gradually abandoned in favor of
quill* The first known record of quill* being
used for pens is that of Isidore, who died in 630*
but supposed to have been introduced at an
earlier date. The substitution of steel for quill
pens took place early in the present century, yet,
strange to say, nothing is known with certainty
of the person who first invented the metallic pen

Phonograph Invented in 1877 by T. A. Rdfooa.

Phosphorus bsl made in 1677.

Photographs were first produced in England in
1803 ; perfected in 1841.

Pianoforte invented about 1710 in Italy.

Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, Mass., Dec si,
iteo, although the date is commonly gives as
Dec. 22.

A DICTIONARY OF DATES.

339

Pins were brought from France, and first used in
England by Catherine Howard, Queen of Henry
VIII. Before that time both sexes used ribbons,
loop-holes, laces with points and tags, hooks and
eyes, and small skewers made of gold, silver, and
brass. Pins were first made by machinery in
America in 1832.

Pii>6S Of Lead, for water, first cast in 1539.

Pistols first used by the cavalry in 1544.

Pitch, and tar first made from pit coal at Bristol
in 1779.

Plaster of Paris. Casting with it from the
face invented in 1470.

Porcelain of Saxony greatly improved in 1767.

Port- Holes introduced for ships of war in 1545.

Post-Office first established between Vienna and
Brussels in 1516. Posts established regularly
between London and all the principal towns
throughout England in 1635. Postage stamps
were introduced in England in 1840; in the
United Stales in 1847.

Pottery improved greatly by Wedgwood in
1763.

Printing- The Assyrians and Babylonians
used clay tablets, and wooden blocks were used
by the Chinese as early as 952. Printing from
movable types was invented by Faust in 1441,
and made public by Gutenberg m 1454, although
the invention is also claimed for L. Koster of
Haarlem as early as 1423. The first Bible was
printed by Faust and Schoffer in 1456, and they
also printed the first book with date, a Latin
Psalter, in 1457. Wooden type first introduced
into England, by William Caxton, a London
merchant, in 1477. The first English press was
set up in Westminster Abbey, where it remained
until 1494. The first American book, " Escala
Espiritual," was printed by Juan Hablas, Mexico,
about 1535. The first press in the United States
was that of Stephen Daye, at Cambridge, Mass. ,
1639. Printing in colors was first introduced in
1626.

Pyramids first erected about 2170 B.C.

Quicksilver first used for refining silver ore in
1540.

Railroad. The first passenger railroad was
opened in England Sept. 27, 1825; the first in
America, Baltimore and Ohio, 1828, although
freight was moved by rail at the granite quarries
of Quincy, Mass., as early as 1826. The first
steam railroad was operated in the United States
in 1830, from Albany to Schenectady — 16 miles.

Reformation in Germany, 151 7; in England,
1532-

Republican Party. The first convention was
held at Pittsburgh, Feb. 22, 1856. '

Resumption of Specie Payments in the United
States — Act approved 1875; took effect Jan. 1,
1879.

Ribbon Looms. It has been asserted that
these looms were first known to the Swiss, but
others claim their invention for a German in the
town of Dantzic in the 16th century.

Ruling 1 -Machines invented by a Dutchman
in London in 1792.

Saddles. Pliny informs us that one, Pele-
thronius, was the first to introduce a piece of
leather fastened to the back of a horse for the
accommodation of its rider. For a long time
these cloths and pieces of leather were regarded
as unmanly, ana were, therefore, regarded by
soldiers with great scorn. The old German
races despised the Roman cavalry for riding on
such effeminate contrivances. Saddles of the
kind now used appear to have been in use in
385. Side-saddles first used in 1380. Previous
to their introduction women always rode astride.

Sailcloth, first made m England In 1590.

Salting* Herrings after the Dutch method first
used in 1416.

Saltpeter first manufactured in England, in 1625.

Saws. The inventor of the saw is said, by the old
Greek writers, to be Talus or Perdox. Pliny
ascribes the invention to Dcedalus,but Hardouin
affirms that the passage in which he does so refers
to Talus, and not to Daedalus. Talus was the

son of a sister of Doedalus, and the invention is
said to be due to his using the jawbone of a snake
to cut through a piece of wood. His master
grew jealous of the honor Talus won by this in-
vention, and caused him to be privately put to
death.

Sedan Chairs introduced into England in 1734.

Sewing 1 ^Machine first patented in England, in
1755. The first complete machine was con-
structed by an American, Elias Howe, in 1846.

Sextant invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg,
in 1550.

Shay's Rebellion, in Massachusetts, 1786-87.

Sleeping 1 - Cars were first used in 1858. Pull-
man's patent dates from 1864/

Soap first made in London and Bristol in 1524.
The first express mention of soap appears in
Pliny and Galen. The former speaks of it as an
invention of the Gauls.

Speaking-Trumpets invented by Kircher, a

Jesuit, in 1652.

Spinning*- W heel invented at Brunswick, 1530.

Spectacles invented by Spina, a monk, of Pisa,

in 1299.

Stamp Act enacted March 22, 1765; repealed
March 19, 1766.

Statutes of the United States first revised and
codified in 1873.

Steam. The steam engine boilerwas discovered
by the Marquis of Worcester, in 1663. New-
commen's engine was patented in 1 705, and the in-
vention was perfected by James Watt, in 1773.
The high pressure engine was invented by an
American, Oliver Evans, in 1779. The first
steam vessel of which there is any record was
that of Papin (France), in 1707. Then follow
those of Jonathan Hulls (England), 1736; Will-
iam Henry (Conestoga river, Pa.), 1703; James
Rumsey (Md.), 1786; John Fitch (Delaware
river), same year. In 1806 Robert Fulton con-
structed the Clermont, which plied regularly be-
tween New York and Albany, at a speed of five
miles per hour. The first steamer crossing the
Atlantic made the voyage from Savannah to
Liverpool in twenty-five days, A.D. 1819.

Steel. The invention of steel is of very great an-
tiquity.!; the Jtcocss of hardening iron is de-
scribed inthe Old Testament (Isaiah xliv, 12).
The helmet of Hercules, described in Hesiod,
appears to have been of steel. Homer refers to
the process of hardening steel by immersing it,
while red hot, in cold water.

Stereotype Printing: invented by William
Gid, agoTdsmiih, of Edinburgh, in 1735.

Stirrups, according to a statement made by the
Emperor Mauritius, were first used in the 6th
century. Hippocrates and Galen speak of a
disease which, in their time, was occasioned by
long and frequent riding, because the legs hung
down without any support.

Sugrar is first mentioned in 625 by Paul Eginetta,
a physician. It came originally from China and
the East; was produced in Sicily in 1148, in
Madeira in 1419, in the Canary Islands in 1503.
and in the West Indies by the Portuguese ana
Spaniards in 1510. In 1641 it was cultivated at
Barbadoes. Sugar-refining was first carried out
by a Venetian in 1503, and this process was
adopted in England in 1569. Sugar cane was
first cultivated in the United States in 1751, near
New Orleans, the first sugar mill being con-
structed in 1758.

Sunday Schools were first established by
Robert Raikes, Gloucester, England, in 1781.

Sun-dials invented 558 B.C. The first in Rome,
308 B.C., was that erected by Papirius Cursor,
when time was divided into hours.

Tanning: Leather. A new and more expedi-
tious method than that previously in use was
invented in 1795.

Tax. The first tax levied on the people was by
Solon, 540 B.C.

Tea first known in Europe in 1610, being brought
from India by the Dutch.

Tel etrraphs (mechanical) invented in 1687. First
used by the French in 1794, and by the English
in 1 796. The first electric telegraph was operated

from Paddington to Drayton, England, in 1835,
the same year in which Morse's telegraph was
invented. The first telegraph line in operation
in America was between Baltimore and Washing-
ton in 1844. The first submarine cable was laid
in 1851, between Dover and Calais, and the first
Atlantic cable was operated in 1858.
Telephone. A. Graham Bell first presented a
speaking telephone at the Centennial Exposition,
Philadelphia, in 1876.

Telescopes. The first reflecting telescope made
on the principle discovered by Sir Isaac Newton
in 1692.

Thread first made at Paisley in 1732.
Thermometers first invented by Drebel, a
Dutchman, in 1620 ; improved by Reaumur in

1730, and by Fahrenheit in 1749.

Tobacco was first introduced into England, from
Virginia, in 1583.

Union of England and Scotland, 1707; Great
Britain and Ireland, 1801,

Vaccination. See Inoculation.

Ventilators first introduced by the Rev. Dr.
Hales in 1740,

Violins of the modem kind invented about 2477.

Introduced into England by Charles II.
"Wall-papers first used in Spain and Holland in

1555. Flock or velvet wall-papers were first used
in 1620.

War Ships. In 1814 Sir Robert Seppings in-
troduced various most important improvements
for the construction of war ships. The lower
parts of the frames of ships of war were then,
for the first time, filled in, a system of diagonal
trussing was introduced, the stern was altered in
form, so that it no longer remained open to the
fire of an enemy, and the upper decks were en-
larged. Sir W. Symonds altered them so as to
decrease the quantity of ballast required in 1832.
In the International Exhibition of 1851 various
improvements in this direction were shown, but

freat iron-cased ships were not then thought of.
n July, 1854, the first of a new class of screw,
fin vessels was launched for use during the
ussian war. To operate with these, vessels of
iron were constructed to bombard the fortresses
in the Baltic. The first French iron-cased ship
was a frigate called the"Gloire," and this was
quickly followed by the first English ship of
that kind, the " Warrior." Since then vessels of
this kind have been subject to a variety of alter-
ations and experiments tending to improve both
their strength and their sailing qualities. The
first battle between iron ships of war occurred in
the war for the Union, the Merrimac and Mon-
itor being the contestants.

Watches were invented at Nuremberg in 1477,
and were first introduced into England from
Germany in 1577.

Water Mills for grinding corn are said to have
been invented by Relisarius when Rome was be-
sieged by the Goths in 555. Pliny, however,
mentions wheels turned by water.

Weather-Cocks. The earliest mention of a
weather-cock is that made by Vitruvius, con-
cerning that on the tower built at Athens by An-
dronicus Cyrrhestes.

Wild-Fire invented by a Greek in 663.

Wilmot Proviso, to restrict slavery, offered in
the House of Representatives, Aug. 8, 1846, by
David Wilmot, of Pa.

Wire invented at Nuremberg in 1351.

Wire-Drawing'. The first record we have of
this art is probably that contained in Holy Writ,
where we are told that gold was beaten and cut
to threads, so that it could be interwoven in
cloth. The present mode of forming metallic
threads, that known as wire-drawing, was first
known in the 14th century.

Woolen Cloth. Although the making of
woolen cloth is one of the most ancient arts, its
manufacture was not known in France until
1646, when it was made at Sedan. It was first
made in England in 1331, but was not dyed or
dressed until 1667.

Yellowstone National Park established by
Act of Congress, Feo. 28, 1871.

"* a >

34©

SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT.

=7?F

|E are all children of one Father, and
His works it should be our delight
to study. As the child, standing by
its parent's knee, asks explanations alike of the
simplest phenomena and of the most profound
problems, so should man, turning to Nature, the
living, visible oracle of his Creator, continually
ask for knowledge.

In scientific language, Nature is defined as
"the united totality of all that the senses can
perceive ; " in the language of theology, it
"embraces everything that cannot be made by
man," hence is synonymous with " God's crea-
tion."

In Nature there is no such thing as chance.
Every effect has its cause, as Nature herself is
but a name for an effect whose cause is God.
When Newton observed an apple fall to the
ground he asked the cause, and in answer to his
inquiry came one of the grandest discoveries of
science — a discovery which let in a flood of
light upon the human mind, and led the way to
the true knowledge of many things theretofore
shrouded in error or mystery. Montgolfier first
conceived the idea of air-balloons while watch-
ing fogs floating in the atmosphere, and all the

wonderful discoveries of science may thus be
traced to simple phenomena, carefully pondered
and diligently studied in all their bearings as to
cause and effect.

" Nature," says Whipple, " does not capri-
ciously scatter her secrets as golden gifts to lazy
pets and luxurious darlings, but imposes tasks
when she presents opportunities, and uplifts him
whom she would inform. The apple that she
drops at the feet of Newton is but a coy invita-
tion to follow her to the stars." The greatest
philosophers have been those who have clung
to the demonstrative sciences, and have held
that a simple truth, well ascertained, is greater
than the most ingenious theory founded upon
questionable premises. The discoveries of
Newton have borne the searching test of time
because he snatched at nothing, leaped over no
chasm to establish a favorite dogma, but learned
to read Nature correctly by regarding the
merest trifles as well as the highest phenomena.
Thus he discovered a letter in each atom, a word
in each blade of grass, a sentence in each phe-
nomenon, and in the volume thus composed he
read the wisdom and the power of the Almighty.
Every flower, every ray of light, every drop of

*7 *

-'-.

SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT.

i£

34i

dew, each flake of snow, the lowering cloud, the
bright sun, the pale moon, the azure of the
heavens by day and the twinkling stars of night,
all are eloquent of the great Hand that made
them.

From the earliest ages man has sought to
read the open leaves of the book of Nature, but
even now, after centuries of research and dis-
covery, he does not grasp it all, cause and effect
being followed up step by step until the mind is
lost in the search. One discovery only leads to
another, and the scientist of twenty centuries
hence will be compelled to acknowledge that
one-half of the wonderful book is still a mys-
tery. However, all may peruse its pages, and
all will find pleasure and profit in observing
what is daily going on around them in earth,
sea and sky. It is, indeed, only by a study of
the material world that discoveries are accom-
plished. Let an attentive observer watch a ray
of light passing from the air into the water, and
he will see it deviate from the straight line by
refraction. Let him seek the origin of a sound,
and he will discover that it results from a shock
or a vibration. This is physical science in its
infancy.

In the pages following it is purposed to pre-
sent in brief and entertaining form much useful
as well as practical scientific knowledge. It has
been sought to convey to the mind of the un-
initiated, in as simple and practical a way as
possible, a general idea of the various branches
of science, as well as to state scientific facts
briefly and in proper consecutive order, in such
a manner that the advanced student may freshen
his memory and revive his interest. Technical
terms have been avoided as much as possible,
and where they are used of necessity the con-
text will furnish ample explanation.

When a person who is a stranger seeks to be

directed to some point in a large and poorly
laid-out city, whose streets, courts and places
start from everywhere and end nowhere, cross-
ing each other in a perverse and confusing man-
ner, it were worse than useless to attempt to.
give him all the directions at once. The better
way would be to point out to him the general
direction, and then let him inquire as he pro-
gresses on the journey. In this connection it
may be said that there is nothing so conducive
to loss of time as short cuts to those who are
not familiar with them. They generally verify
the axiom that " Haste makes waste." With
these introductory remarks we will take the
reader to the broad fields of Science, and point
out to him the general direction of the respec-
tive paths, noting in our way the most promi-
nent turns, and if our readers desire more spe-
cific information we will refer them to the
writings of those great men who have devoted
their lives to the solution of Nature's problems,
and have enabled us to give the reason for many
things which, but for their genius and unremit-
ting labors, would still be shrouded by the veil
of ignorance.

Among the various works that have aided in
the familiar exposition of science presented in
this work may be mentioned the following :
" Les Recreations Scientifiques," by Gaston
Tissandier ; " Astronomy," in the series of New
Works on Physics by J. A. Gillet and W. J.
Rolfe ; " Physik und Meteorologie," by Dr. E.
Lommel; "The Teacher's Examiner," by A. H.
Thompson ; " Guide to Familiar Science," by
Rev. E. C. Brewer ; " Lockyer's Solar Physics,"
Newcomb's " Popular Astronomy," etc., etc.
We desire in an especial manner to thank Pro-
fessors Rolfe and Gillet for the use of a number
of beautiful and accurate astronomical illustra-
tions from their excellent work.

342

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS.

THE FORCES OF NATURE, AND THE LAWS WHICH GOVERN THEM.
THE ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

■"

nATURE is revealed to us by objects and by phenomena.
An object is a thing which occupies space and which is
susceptible to feeling and to sight. The heavenly bodies
may also be classed as objects, although we cannot touch them.
Phenomena include those results which are perceptible by only
one sense, as thunder. Light and sound may also be classed as
phenomena. A stone is a natural object. We take it up, open
our fingers, and it falls. The motion of that object is a phe-
nomenon. We know it falls because we see it fall, and it
possesses what we term weight ; but we cannot tell why it
possesses weight. A cause of a phenomenon being independent
of human will is called a force, and the stone falls by the force
of gravitation, or that natural law which compels every material
object to approach every other material object. A single force
may produce a great number of phenomena.

Nature being revealed to us by objects, and by means of
phenomena, we have two branches of science extending from
such roots, namely, Natural History, the Science of Objects;
and Natural Philosophy, the Science of Phenomena.

Both of these branches have been subdivided thus :

ZoSlogy, referring 10 Animals. 1 B l logy.

Botany, referring to Plants. )

M ineralogy, 1 refcrring to Mineralj# etc .

Geology, J

Physics. Phenomena without essential change

of the objects.
Chemistry. Phenomena with change of the

objects.
Physiology. Phenomena of animated objects.

The two great divisions comprehend, in their extended senses,
all that is known respecting the material world.

We have spoken of objects. Objects occupy space. What is
space ? Space is magnitude which can 1* conceived as extend-
ing in three directions — length, breadth and depth. MATTER
occupies portions of space, which is infinite. Matter, when

Natural History.

Natural Philosophy.

finite, is termed a body or object. A molecule is the smallest
portion of a body which we can conceive of as retaining it;
identity. An atom is a division of a molecule.

Suppose we take a quantity of water and conceive it to be
divided until we reach a limit. The last particle which we could
call water would be a molecule. Now let a current of elec-
tricity be passed through a quantity of water, and it is separated
into two gases, essentially different from each other, and differ-
ent from water. A given quantity of water will produce a
certain quantity of gas, the proportion in volume of the two
kinds being as 1 to 2. If one pint, say, of water produces
one volume of one gas, and two of the other, one-half pint
would produce one-half the arount of one gas and one-half
the amount of the other, and so on down until we have made
the ultimate division, which, for convenience, we call a molecule.
Then we can truly say that the molecule is composed of fwt
parts of one gas and one part of the other, and for convenience
we call these parts of the molecules, atoms.

Physics deals only with masses and molecules. Chemistry
deals with atoms. When we tear a piece of paper in pieces, or
grind it to a pulp, we separate molecules and have effected a
physical change only. When we burn the paper in the fire we
lepanta atoms and have effected a chemical change. In the
first case we have effected a change of form, but the matter is
identically the saaie. In the second case, the gases and ashes
produced by the burning are totally different, and the paper has
lost its identity.

The sounding of a bell and the falling of a stone axe physical
phenomena, for the object which causes the sound or the fall
undergoes no change. Heat is set free when coal bums, and
tins disengagement of heat is a physical phenomenon; but the
change during combustion which coal undergoes is a chemical
phenomenon.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS.

343

The General Properties of Matter

Are magnitude, impenetrability, inertia, divisibility, porosity,
elasticity, compressibility, expansibility and indestructibility.

Magnitude is the property of occupying space. Size is the
amount of space a body fills. Every body has three dimensions
— length, breadth and thickness; and, in order to measure
these, some standard of measurement is required.

Impenetrability is the property of so occupying space as to
exclude all other bodies ; for no two bodies can occupy the
same space at the same time. We sometimes speak of one sub-
stance penetrating another. Thus, a needle penetrates cloth, a
nail penetrates wood, etc. ; but on a moment's reflection it will
be plainly seen that they merely push aside the fibers of the
cloth or wood, and so press them closer together.

Inertia is the property of passiveness. Matter has no power
of putting itself in motion when at rest. A body will never
change its place unless moved, and if once started will move
forever unless stopped. It is difficult to start a wagon because
we have to overcome its inertia, which tends to keep it at rest.
When the wagon is in motion it requires as great an exertion to
stop it, since then we have again to overcome its inertia, which
tends to keep it moving.

Inertia causes the danger of jumping from cars when in
motion. The body has the speed of the train, while the motion
of the feet is stopped by contact with the ground. One should
jump as nearly as he can in thg direction in which the train is
moving, and with his muscles strained, so as to break into a run
the instant his feet touch the ground. Then with all his strength
he can gradually overcome the inertia of his body, and after a
few feet can turn as he pleases.

Divisibility is that property of a body which allows it to be
separated into parts. It would be impossible to find a particle
so small that it still could not be made smaller. Practically
speaking, there is no limit to the divisibility of matter; but
philosophers hold that there is in theory. When we attempt to
show how far matter can be divided, the brain refuses to grasp
the infinity. A pin's head is a small object, but it is gigantic com-
pared to some animals, of which millions would occupy a space no
larger than the head of a pin. These tiny animals must have
organs and veins, and those veins must be full of blood globules.
Prof. Tyndall says a drop of blood contains three millions of
red globules. But there is something even more astonishing than
this. It is stated that there are more animals in the milt of a
single codfish than there are men in the world ; and that one
grain of sand is larger than four millions of these animals,
each of which must be possessed of life germs of an equal
amount, which would grow up as it grew to maturity. This
carries us back again, and

" Imagination's utmost stretch
In wonder dies away."

Porosity is the property of having pores. By this is meant
not only such pores as are familiar to all, and to which we refer
when, in common language, we speak of a porous body, as bread,
wood, unglazed pottery, a sponge, etc., but a finer kind, as in-
visible to the eye as the atoms themselves. These pores are

caused by the fact that the molecules of which a body is com-
posed are not in actual contact, but are separated by extremely
minute spaces.

Elasticity is classed both among the general and the specifis
properties of matter. It is thought that all bodies have elas-
ticity, yet some have it in such a degree that it serves to dis-
tinguish them from other bodies.

Compressibility is that property of matter by virtue of which
ifmay be made to occupy less space. It is a result of porosity,
the molecules being pressed closer together.

Expansibility is the opposite of compressibility.

Indestructibility is the property which renders matter inca-
pable of being destroyed. No particle of matter can be annihi-
lated, except by God, its creator. We may change its torm, but
we cannot deprive it of existence.

The Specific Properties of Ivj't.er

Are those which are found only in particular kinds of matter.
The most important are ductility, malleability, tenacity, elas-
ticity, hardness and brittleness.

A ductile body is one which can be drawn into wire. Some
of the most ductile are gold, silver, and platinum.

A malleable body is one which can be hammered or rolled
into sheets. Gold is the most malleable or all metals, and can
be beaten into sheets 1315^ of an inch in thickness. Copper is
so malleable that it is said that a workman, witn his hammer,
can beat out a kettle from a solid block of the metal.

A tenacious body is one which cannot be easily pulled apart.
Iron is the most tenacious of the metals.

There are three kinds of elasticity — elasticity of compression,
elasticity of expansion, and elasticity of torsion.

Solids — Liquids — Gases.

Matter is present in Nature in three conditions. We find it
as a solid, a liquid, and a gas. To test the actual existence of
matter in one or other of these forms our senses help us. We
can touch a solid, or taste it and see it. But touch is the test.

A solid is a body whose molecules cohere so that their rela-
tive positions cannot be changed without the application of con-
siderable force. A solid will retain any shape given it.

A liquid is a body whose molecules cohere so slightly that
their relative positions may be changed on the application of
slight force. A liquid will assume the form of the vessel con-
taining it, and the free surface will always be horizontal, each
molecule seeking its lowest level by the force of gravity.

A gas is a body whose molecules separate almost indefinitely
from each other. Essentially there is no difference between a
gas and a vapor. The term gas is generally applied to those
bodies which are ordinarily in a gaseous state, and the term
vapor to that which is formed by heating a liquid or solid.
Steam is the vapor of water, but it is a gas as much as oxygen
or hydrogen.

The Forces of Nature.

Force is a cause — the cause of motion or* of rest. It requires
force to set an object in motion, and this object would never
stop unless some other force or forces prevented its movement

344

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- PHYSICS.

beyond a certain point. Force, therefore, is the cause of a
change of *' state " in matter. The forces of Nature are three in
number — gravity, cohesion, and affinity, or chemical attraction.

Gravity.

Gravity, or gravitation, is the mutual attraction between dif-
ferent portions of matter acting at all distances — the force of
attraction being, of course, in proportion to the respective mass
of the bodies. The greatest body, so far as our purposes are
concerned, is the earth, and the attraction of the earth is gravity,
or what we call weight If we jump from a chair we shall
come to the floor, and if there were nothing between us and the
actual ground, sufficient to sustain the force of the attracting
power of the earth, we should fall to the earth's surface. In a
teacup the spoon will attract air-bubbles, and large air-bubbles
will attract small ones, till we find a small mass of bubbles
formed in the center of the cup of tea. Divide this bubble, and
the component parts will rush to the sides of the cup.

Two balls of equal magnitude will attract each other with
equal force, and will meet, if not opposed, at a point half-way
between the two. But they do not meet, because the attraction
of the earth is greater than the attraction they relatively and
collectively exercise toward each other. If the size of the
balls be different, the attraction of the greater will be more
evident.

FALLING BODIES.

Gravity is the cause of the phenomena of falling bodies, be-
cause every object on the surface of the earth is very much
smaller than the earth itself, and, therefore, all bodies fall toward
the center of the earth. On the earth a body, if let fall, will
pass through a space of sixteen feet in the first second ; and as
the attraction of the earth still continues and is exercised on a
body already in rapid motion, this rate of progress must be pro-
portionately increased. The space a falling body passes through
has been calculated, and found to increase in proportion to the
square of the time it takes to fall. For instance, suppose you
drop a stone from the top of a cliff to the beach, and it occupies
two seconds in falling. If you multiply 2 by 2 and the result by
16, you will find how high the cliff is — 64 feet. The depth of
a well can be ascertained in the same way, leaving out the effect
of air resistance.

But if we go up into the air, the force of gravity will be
diminished. The attraction will be less, because we arc more
distant from the center of the earth. This decrease is scarcely,
if at all, perceptible, even on very high mountains, because their
size is not great in comparison with the mass of the earth's sur-
face. The rule for this is that gravity decreases in proportion to
the square of the distance. So that if at a certain distance from
the earth's surface the force of attraction be I, if the distance be
doubled the attraction will be only one-quarter as much as be-
fore — not one-half.

Gravity has exactly the same influence upon all bodies, and
the force of the attraction is in proportion to the mass. AH
bodies of equal mass will fall in the same time in a given dis-
tance. Two coins, or a coin and a feather, in vacuo, will fall
together. But in the air the feather will remain far behind the

coin, because nearly all the atoms of the former are resisted by
the air, while in the coin only some particles are exposed to the
resistance, the density of the latter preventing the air from reach-
ing more than a few atoms, comparatively speaking.

Drops of water falling from the clouds do not strike with a
force proportional to the laws of falling bodies. This is because
they are so small that the resistance of the air nearly destroys
their velocity. If it were not for this wise provision, a shower
of raindrops would be as fatal as one of minie bullets.

The weight of a body varies on different portions of the
earth's surface. It will be least at the equator : (1 ) because, on
account of the bulging form of our globe, a body is there
pushed out from the mass of the earth, and so removed from the
center of attraction ; (2) because the centrifugal force is there
the strongest. It will be greatest at the poles : (1) because, on
account of the flattening of the earth, a body is there brought
nearer its mass and the center of attraction ; (2) because there
is no centrifugal force at those points. At the center of the
earth the weight of a body is nothing, because the attraction is
there equal in every direction.

THE CENTER OF GRAVITY.

The center of gravity is that point on which, if supported, a
body will balance itself. In our daily actions are found many
physiological applications of the center of gravity. When we
wish to rise from the chair, we bend forward, in order to bring
the center of gravity over out feet, our muscles not having
sufficient strength to raise our bodies without this aid. And
when we walk, we lean forward, so as to bring the center of
gravity as far in front as possible.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

Specific gravity is the weight of a substance compared with
the weight of the same bulk of another substance. It is really
a method of finding the density of a body. Water is taken as
the standard for solids and liquids, and air for gases.

THE TENDULUM.

The pendulum consists of a weight so suspended as to swing
freely. Its movements to and fro are termed vibrations or
oscillations. The path through which it passes is called the arc,
and the extent to which it goes in either direction is styled its
amplitude.

As " heat expands and cold contracts," a pendulum increases
in length in summer and shortens in winter. Therefore, a
clock loses time in summer and gains in winter.

CENTRIFUGAL AND CENTRIPETAL FORCE.

Centrifugal force, which means "flying from the center," is
the force which causes an object to describe a circle with uni-
form velocity, and fly away from the center. The force that
counteracts it is called the centripetal force.

To represent its action, an ordinary glass tumbler may be
used. The tumbler should be placed on a round piece of card-
board, held firmly in place by cords. Some water is then
poured into the glass, and it can be swung to and fro and round,
without the water being spilt, even when the glass is upside
down.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY -PHYSICS.

345

Cohesion.

Cohesion is the attraction of particles of bodies to each other
at very small distances apart. Cohesion has received various
names in order to express its various degrees. For instance, we
say a body is tough or brittle, or soft or hard, according to the
degrees of cohesion the particles exercise. We know if we
break a glass we destroy the cohesion ; the particles cannot be
reunited. Most liquid particles can be united, but not all. Oil
will not mix with water.

The force of cohesion depends upon heat. Heat expands
everything, and the cohesion diminishes as temperature in-
creases.

There are some objects or substances upon the earth the
particles of which adhere much more closely than others, and
can only be separated with very great difficulty. These are
termed solids. There are other substances whose particles can
easily be divided, or their position altered. These are called
fluids. A third class seem to have little or no cohesion at all.
These are termed gases.

ADHESION.

Adhesion is also a form of attraction, and is cohesion existing
on the surfaces of two bodies. When a fluid adheres to a solid
we say the solid is wet. We turn this natural adhesion to our
own purposes in many ways — we whitewash our walls, and
paint our houses ; we paste our papers together, etc.

On the other hand, many fluids will not adhere. Oil and
water have already been instanced. Mercury will not stick to a
glass tube, nor will the oiled glass tube retain any water. We
can show the attraction and repulsion in the following manner :
Let one glass tube be dipped into water and another into mer-
cury; you will see that the water will ascend slightly at the side,
owing to the attraction of the glass, while the mercury will be
higher in the center, for it possesses no attraction for the glass.
If small, or what are termed capillary (or hair) tubes, be used,
the water will rise up in the one tube, while in the other the
mercuiy will remain lower than the mercury outside the tube.

The law of adhesion is what necessitates the spout on a
pitcher. The water would run down the side of the pitcher by
the force of adhesion, but the spout throws it into the hands of
gravitation before adhesion can catch it.

Affinity, or Chemical Attraction.

Affinity, or chemical attraction, is the force by which two
different bodies unite to form a new and different body from
either. This force will be fully considered in Chemistry.

It is needless for us to dwell upon the uses of these forces of
Nature. Gravity and cohesion being left out of our world, we
can imagine the result. The earth and sun and planets would
wander aimlessly about ; we should float away into space, and
everything would fall to pieces, while our bodies would dissolve
into their component parts.

Motion.

Motion is a change of place. Absolute motion is a change
without reference to any other object. Relative motion is a
change with reference to some other object.

Rest is either absolute or relative. Velocity is the rate at
which a body moves. Force, as has been said, is that which
tends to produce or destroy motion.

The principal resistances to motion are friction, resistance of
the air, and gravity.

Friction is the resistance caused by the surface over which a
body moves. If the surface of a body could be made perfectly
smooth, there would be no friction ; but in spite of the most
exact and complete polish, the microscope reveals minute projec-
tions and cavities.

Momentum is the quantity of motion in a body.

Two laws of motion : I. A body once set in motion tends to
move forever in a straight line. 2. A force acting upon a body,
in motion or at rest, produces the same effect, whether it acts
alone or with other forces.

Circular motion is a variety of compound motion produced
by two forces, called the centrifugal and the centripetal. The
former tends to drive a body from the center ; the latter tends to
draw a body toward the center.

Reflected motion is produced by the reaction of any surface
against which an elastic body is thrown.

Curved motion. — Whenever two or more instantaneous forces
act upon a body, the resultant is a straight line. When one is
instantaneous and the other continuous, it is a curved line. And
when a body is thrown into the air, unless it be in a vertical
line, it is acted upon by the instantaneous force of projection and
the continuous force of gravity, and so passes through a line
which curves toward the earth.

Machines

Enable us to apply and direct the forces of nature. The lever
and the inclined plane, and their modifications, the screw, the
wedge, the wheel and axle and the pulley, constitute the elemen-
tary forms of machinery.

Power or energy, multiplied by the distance through which it
moves, equals the weight, load or resistance multiplied by the
distance. The fundamental law is, that what is gained in power
is lost in time or distance. Thus, two pounds of power moving
through ten feet equals twenty pounds moving through one foot.

A lever is an inflexible bar capable of turning on a fixed
point. The force used is called the power, the object to be
moved, the weight, and the fixed point or pivot, the fulcrum.
There are three kinds of levers, as follows: I. Power at one
end, weight at the other, fulcrum between them. 2. Power at
one end, fulcrum at the other, and weight between them. 3.
Fulcrum at one end, weight at the other, and power between
them.

The compound lever consists of several levers connected
together in such a way that the short arm of one acts upon the
long arm of the next, and so on.

The wheel and axle is a modification of the lever in which
the center of the axis of the wheel is the fulcrum, the distance
from the rim of the wheel to the axis, or the length of the crank,
the long arm, and the distance from the circumference of the
axis to its center, its short arm.

Theputley is a modification of the lever in which the distances

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346

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- PHYSICS.

from the axis to the circumference represent equal arms of the
lever. No advantage is gained in a fixed pulley except change
of direction. By means of a number of movable pulleys the
power distance is increased, the cord having to pass through a
greater distance to gain greater power.

The inclined plane is a smooth, hard surface inclined so as to
make an angle with direction of the force to be overcome.
Comparing it with the lever, the length corresponds to the long
arm and the height to the short arm.

The wedge is simply a movable inclined plane, its power
depending upon friction as well as upon its form.

The screw is an inclined plane wound around a cylinder.

Perpetual Motion.
Nothing can be more utterly impracticable than to make a
machine capable of perpetual motion. No machine can pro-
duce power ; it can only direct that which is applied to it. We
know that in all machinery there is friction ; hence, this must
ultimately exhaust the power and bring the motion to rest.
These principles show the uselessness of all such attempts.

HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRAULICS.

Hydrostatics treats of liquids at rest. Its principles apply to
all liquids, but water, on account of its abundance, is taken as
the type of the class, and all experiments are based upon it.

Liquids transmit pressure in all directions. Pascal's law is
as follows : Pressure exerted anywhere upon a mass of liquid is
transmitted, undiminished, in all directions, and acts with the
same force upon equal surfaces, and in a direction at right
angles to those surfaces. A necessary inference from this law
is that surfaces of vessels sustain a pressure proportional to their
area.

A practical application of Pascal's law is the hydrostatic
press, more generally called the hydraulic press. This is a very
powerful machine, by means of which a pressure of several hun-
dred tons may be obtained.

Artesian wells are so named because they have been used for
a long time in the province of Artois, in France ; they were,
however, employed by the Chinese, from early ages, for the pur-
pose of procuring gas and salt water. These are on the principle
above stated, that liquids press equally in all directions — that
water " always seeks its level." By boring through strata of
rocks, or earth impervious to water, and striking a basin of water
which has descended from a greater height, through a porous
strata, a well is formed which throws water to almost the height
of the fountain head, being retarded only by friction and resist-
ance of the air.

The surface of standing water is said to be level ; this is true
for small sheets of water, but for larger bodies an allowance
must be made for the circular figure of the earth.

The spirit level is an instrument used by builders for leveling;
it consists of a slightly curved glass tube, so nearly full of alco-
hol that it holds only a bubble of air. When the level is hori-
zontal, the bubble remains at the center of the tube.

Modern engineers carry water across a river by means of
pipes laid under the bed of the river, knowing that the water

will rise on the opposite side to its level. The ancients appear
to have understood this principle, but were unable to construct
pipes capable of resisting the pressure.

Hydraulics treats of liquids in motion. In this, as in hydro-
statics, water is taken as the type. In theory, its principles are
those of falling bodies, but they are so modified by various
causes that in practice they cannot be relied upon, except as
verified by experiment. The discrepancy arises from changes of
temperature, which vary the fluidity of the liquid, from friction,
the shape of the orifice, etc.

A fall of only three inches per mile is sufficient to give motion
to water, and produce a velocity of as many miles per hour.
The Ganges descends but 800 feet in 1,800 miles; its waters
require a month to move down this long inclined plane. A fall
of three feet per mile will make a mountain torrent

Barker's Mill consists of an upright cylinder with horizontal
arms, and with apertures in the opposite sides, the cylinder being
so arranged as to turn easily. When water is poured into
the cylinder, the pressure being equal in all directions, it would
remain at rest, did it not flow out at the orifices, thus relieving
the pressure on the one side, causing the arm to move in the
opposite direction and the cylinder to revolve. The Turbint
water-wheel is a practical application of this principle.

PNEUMATICS

Treats of the general properties and the pressure of gases.

Gases have weight, compressibility, expansibility and elas-
ticity, and the principles of transmission of pressure, specific
gravity and buoyancy of liquids apply to them as well. The
pressure of the air has l)ecn several times referred to. The force
of air can very soon be shown as acting with considerable pres-
sure on an egg in a glass. By blowing in a small wine glass,
containing a hard-boiled egg, it is possible to cause the egg to
jump out of the glass, and with practice and strength of lungs it
is not impossible to make it pass from one glass to another. The
force of heated air ascending can be ascertained by cutting a
card into a spiral and holding it above a lamp or a stove. The
spiral, if lightly poised, will revolve rapidly.

The barometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure of
air, and consists essentially of an apparatus, first used by Torn-
celli, who took a glass tube about a yard in length, closed at one
end, and filled it with mercury. Placing his thumb over the
closed end, he immersed it in a vessel of mercury. Removing
his thumb, the mercury sank until it stood at the height of 30
inches. The space above the mercury was as nearly a complete
vacuum as has ever been attained. By this experiment he
proved that the pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the
weight of a column of liquid which it will sustain.

The barometer is used to indicate the weather, and to
measure the height of mountains.

Three opposing forces act on the air, viz.: gravity, which
binds it to the earth, and the centrifugal and the repellant (heat)
forces, which tend to hurl it off into space. Under the action of
the latter forces, the atmosphere, like a great bent spring, is ready
to bound away at the first opportunity ; but the attraction of the
earth holds it firmly in its place.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS.

347

"7[

h4r

The rise and fall of the barometric column shows that the air
is lighter in foul and heavier in fair weather. In fair weather,
the moisture of the air is an invisible vapor, mingled with it, and
adding to its pressure, while in foul weather the vapor is sepa-
rated in the form of clouds.

The common pump is an application of air pressure. The
piston, or sucker, being raided, the water is forced up the tube
by the pressure of the air on the surface of the water in the well,
there being no resistance in the tube, for the piston lifts out the
air. As the piston descends, the valve in it opens upward and
allows the water to pass through above the valve, which, closing
as it rises again, the water is lifted out and more is forced into
the tube below. Owing to the necessary imperfection of the
parts, water cannot be raised by atmospheric pressure more than
about 27 feet.

The air-pump is a machine for removing the air from within
a vessel. It consists of a cylinder supplied with a valve open-
ing inward and one opening outward, and a piston fitting accu-
rately. When the piston is raised, the air rushes into the cylinder
through the first valve to fill the vacuum. As the cylinder
descends, the air closes the first valve and opens the second, and
is driven out, every stroke of the piston thus removing a portion
of air. The escape valve may be in the side of the cylinder or
in the piston itself.

The siphon consists of a tube, bent in the shape of a letter U,
with unequal arms. Fill the siphon with water, closing both
ends with the fingers. Insert the short arm in a vessel of water,
with the long arm on the outside, with its end lower than the
end of the short arm. The column of water in the long arm
will run out by its own weight, and the tendency would be to
produce a vacuum in the bend of the tube, but the water is
forced up by the pressure of air through the short arm, and thus
the stream is kept up so long as the outside arm is lower at its
orifice than the orifice of the inside arm. The flow may be
started by exhausting the air from the long arm by suction, and
then it will not be necessary to fill the siphon with water.

ACOUSTICS.

Acoustics treats of the doctrine of sound. The term sound is
used in two senses — the subjective, that which has reference to
our mind ; and the objective, that which refers only to the objects
around us.

In the subjective sense, sound is the sensation produced upon
the organ of hearing by vibrations in matter. In this use of the
word, there can be no sound where there is no ear to catch the
vibrations.

In the objective sense, sound is those vibrations of matter
capable of producing a sensation upon the organ of hearing. In
this use of the word, there can be a sound in the absence of the
ear. An object falls and the vibrations are produced, though
there may be no organ of hearing to receive an impression from
them.

The velocity of sound depends on the elasticity and density
of the medium through which it passes. The higher the elastic-
ity, the more promptly and rapidly the motion will be trans-
mitted, since the elastic force acts like a bent spring between the

molecules. The greater the density, the more molecules to be
set in motion, and hence the slower the transmission.

Sound travels through the air (at the freezing point) at the
rate of 1,090 feet per second. A rise in temperature diminishes
the density of the air, and thus sound travels faster in warm and
slower in cold air. Through water sound travels at the rate of
4,700 feet per second. Water is denser than air, and for that
reason sound should travel in it much slower; but its elasticity,
which is measured by the force required to compress it, is so
much greater that the rate is quadrupled. Sound travels through
solids faster than through air ; and the velocity in iron is nearly
ten times greater. Under ordinary circumstances, all sounds
travel with the same velocity.

When a sound-wave strikes against the surface of another
medium, a portion goes on while the rest is reflected. The law
which governs reflected sound is that of reflected motion — the
angle of incidence is equal to that of reflection.

The air at night is more homogeneous than by day ; conse-
quently, sounds are heard more clearly and farther than in the
daytime.

If two sounds meet in exactly opposite phases, and the two
forces are equal, they will balance each other, and silence will
ensue. Thus, a sound added to a sound will produce silence.
In the same way, two motions may produce rest ; two lights may
cause darkness , and two heats may produce cold.

The difference between noise and music is only that between
irregular and regular vibrations. Whatever may be the cause
which sets the air in motion, if the vibrations be uniform and
rapid enough, the sound is musical. If the ticks of a watch
could be made with sufficient rapidity, they would lose their
individuality, and blend into a musical tone.

Wind instruments produce musical sounds by means of in-
closed columns of air. Sound-waves run backward and forward
through the tube, and act on the surrounding air like the vibra-
tions of a cord.

The Telephone is an instrument which has, in a few years,
come into almost general use, and which is beginning to rival
the electric telegraph as a means of rapid communication. By
means of it articulate speech or other sounds are reproduced at
great distances. In the acoustic, or string telephone, it is only
necessary to have a membrane which can be set in vibration by
the impulses of the air made by the voice on an instrument, and
a string or wire attached to it to carry the vibrations to a similar
membrane at the other end. This second membrane gives
back to the air the same kind of vibration received at the other
end. In the electric telephone the vibrations of the membrane
cause changes in the electric current, produced by a battery,
these changes being capable of reproducing the same kind of
vibrations in the membrane at the opposite end.

The Microphone is an instrument which, in its main features,
consists of a carbon " pencil," so suspended that one end rests
upon a carbon " die." The instrument, being connected with a
telephone by the circuit wires, will reproduce faint sounds very
distinctly. The upright carbon is thrown into vibrations by the
impulse of the sound, which alternately lengthens and shortens
it. This, by impairing or strengthening the connection of the

Y-

348

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS.

circuit, alternately lessens and strengthens the force of the cur-
rent. Corresponding to these electric changes, the membrane
of the telephone vibrates and gives out sound. It is so sensitive
that the walking of a fly on the sounding-board may be dis-
tinctly heard at the telephone, and the ticking of a watch sounds
like blows of a hammer.

The Phonograph is an instrument which registers the differ-
ent vibrations produced by sound, and reproduces them in cor-
respondence with this registration. It consists of a mouth-piece
and vibrating membrane, the same as the telephone, with a
needle attached to the center of the membrane, the vibrations of
which cause the needle to make impressions on a strip of tin foil,
rolled on a grooved revolving cylinder. By so adjusting the
machine that the needle may retrace its path on the tin foil, the
membrane is set in vibration again and the sounds are given
back exactly as they were received. Articulate speech, as well
as all other noises, is reproduced with wonderful distinctness.

With the Photophone, sounds may be heard at a distance by
means of light. Changes are produced in the electric current
by the light falling on a plate of "selenium." With this excep-
tion the principle is the same as in the ordinary telephone.

The Audiphont is an instrument to convey sound to the ear,
to supplement it when partial or temporary deafness has occur-
red. The instrument has the appearance of a large, black fan,
is made of vulcanized rubber, and consists of a long, flexible
disc, supported by a handle. To the upper edge of the " fan "
are attached cords, which pass through a clip on the handle.
If the person who wishes to hear by means of the audiphone
will hold the fan against the upper teeth — the convex side of the
fan outward — he or she will hear distinctly, for the vibrations
of sound are collected and strike upon the teeth and bones, and
act upon the auditory nerves from within, precisely as the vibra-
tions act from without through the auricle.

The Topophone, an apparatus for discovering the position of a
sound, is based upon the well-known theory of sound-waves. It
is claimed for this apparatus that it stands in the same relation
to the sailor as his old and trusty friends the compass and
sextant, as it will tell him whence a sound arises, and this in a
fog is no mean advantage. The whole theory of the topo-
phone, however, depends for its usefulness upon the same note
being sounded by all horns and whistles. The note C treble,
caused by about 260 vibrations per second, has been found
most applicable, and if all whistles and fog-horns can by law be
compelled to adjust themselves to this note, the topophone will
prove a real and lasting benefit.

OPTICS

Is the science which treats of light and vision. Light is a
vibratory motion, like sound and heat, transmitted through a
medium called tthtr. This medium is a very elastic substance
surrounding us, and constituting a kind of universal atmosphere,
diffused throughout all space. It is so subtle that it fills the
pores of all bodies, eludes all chemical tests, passes in through
the glass receiver and remains even in the vacuum of an air-
pump.

A luminous body is one that emits or sends forth light. A
non-luminous body is one that reflects light, and is visible only
in the presence of a luminous body. A medium is any sub-
stance through which light passes. A transparent body is one
that offers so little obstruction to the passage of light that we
can see objects through it. A translucent body is one that lets
some light pass, but not enough to render objects visible through
it. An opaque body is one that does not transmit light.

The three great laws governing light are : I. Light pastes off
from a luminous body equally in every direction. 2. Light
travels through a medium of uniform density in straight lines.
3. The intensity of light decreases as the square of the distance
increases.

The velocity of light is about 185,000 miles per second. This
is so great that, for all distances on the earth, it is practically in-
stantaneous.

When a beam of light from a luminous body falls upon the
surface of an opaque body a portion is reflected and a portion
absorbed. When light passes from one medium to another of
different density it is refracted, that is, bent out of its regular
course.

Diffraction of light is caused by a beam of light passing along
the edge of some opaque body. As the waves of ether strike
against it, they put in motion another set of waves on the oppo-
site side which interfere with the first system.

The rainbow is formed by the refraction and reflection of the
sunbeam in drops of falling water. Halos, coronas, sundogs,
circles about the moon, the gorgeous tinting at sunrise and sun-
set, are all produced by the refraction and reflection of the sun's
rays when passing through the clouds in the upper regions of
the atmosphere. The phenomenon familiarly known as the
" sun's drawing water" consists merely of the long shadows of
broken clouds.

The mirage is fully explained under the nead of Physical
Geography.

If a sunbeam be passed through a prism the light is decom-
posed and appears as a band of seven colors, viz.: violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange, red. These are called the colors of
the solar spectrum.

A lens is a transparent body, generally of glass, having one or
two curved surfaces. A convex lens converges the rays of light,
or brings them to a focus at a point, varying in distance, accord-
ing to the degree of convexity. A concave lens causes the rays
of light to diverge. If the eye be placed at the point where the
rays from an object are brought to a focus by a convex lens, the
object will appear magnified, while the same object seen through
a concave lens will appear diminished. A " burning glass " is
a convex lens, converging the rays of the sun.

Rays which pass through a lens near the edge are brought to
a focus sooner than those near the center; therefore, when an
image is clear around the edge, it will be indistinct at the center,
and vice versa. This wandering of the rays from the focus is
termed spherical aberration.

Chromatic aberration is caused by the different refrangibility
of the several colors which compose white light. The violet,
being bent most, tends to come to a focus sooner than the red,

V-

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS.

349

which is bent least. This causes the play of colors seen around
the image produced by an ordinary glass. It is remedied by
using a second lens of different dispersive power, which counter-
acts the effects of the first.

Microscopes are of two kinds — simple and compound. The
former consists of a double convex lens ; the latter contains at
least two lenses.

Telescopes are of two kinds — reflecting and refracting. The
former contains a large, metallic mirror, which reflects the rays
of light to a focus ; the latter, like the microscope, contains an
object-lens which forms an image.

The opera-glass contains an object-glass and an eye-piece.
The latter is a double concave lens. This increases the visual
angle by diverging the rays of light, which would otherwise
come to a focus beyond the eye-piece.

The camera used by photographers contains a double convex
lens, which throws an inverted image of the object upon the
ground glass screen. -

The three kinds of mirrors are plane, concave and convex.
The first has a flat surface; the second, one like the inside, and
the third, one like the outside of a watch crystal. The general
principle of mirrors is that the image is always seen in the direc-
tion of the reflected ray as it enters the eye.

HEAT

Is now known to be a series of vibrations, or vibratory motions,
as sound vibrations, which we cannot hear nor see, but the
effects of which are known to us as light and heat. In other
words, heat is now believed to be the effect of the rapid motion
of all the molecules of a body. If this motion be increased the
body is said to be heated ; if decreased, it is cooled. Cold is a
merely relative term, indicating the absence of heat in a greater
or less degree.

The sources of heat are the sun, moon and stars, mechanical
and chemical action. The greater part of the heat of our globe
comes from the sun, and only a very minute quantity from the
other heavenly bodies. Great heat may be developed by
mechanical action, as friction and concussion. Count Rumford
caused water to boil by the friction of metals. A blacksmith
can make a piece of iron red hot by hammering. The flint
strikes fire from the steel, particles of the metal being torn off
and heated to redness. Chemical action is seen in the combus-
tion of fuel, the union of oxygen with carbon and hydrogen.

All bodies expand under the effects of heat, for by its addi-
tion the molecules are urged into swifter motion, and therefore
pushed further apart, increasing the size of the body. Hence
the law, " Heat expands ; cold contracts."

If heat be applied to a liquid, the temperature rises until the
boiling point is reached, when it stops. The expansion, how-
ever, continues until the motion is so violent as to overcome the
cohesive force and to throw off particles of the liquid. When we
heat water, the bubbles which pass off first contain merely the
air dissolved in the liquid ; next bubbles of steam form on the
bottom and sides of the vessel, and, rising a little distance, are
crushed in by the cold water and condensed. In breaking they

produce that peculiar sound known as "simmering," and ascend
higher and higher as the temperature of the water rises, until at
last they break at the surface, and the steam passes off into the
air.

Any substance which increases the cohesive power of water
elevates the boiling point, and for this reason salt water boils at
a higher temperature than fresh water.

Evaporation is a slow formation of vapor, which takes place
at all ordinary temperatures. It is hastened by an increase of
surface and a gentle heat. This principle is made useful in the
arts for separating a solid from the liquid which holds it in
solution.

Vacuum pans- are largely employed in condensing milk, in
the manufacture of sugar, etc. ; and are so arranged that the air
above the liquid in the vessel may be exhausted, and then the
evaporation takes place very rapidly, and at so low a tempera-
ture that all danger of burning is avoided.

Absorption and reflection are intimately connected with radi-
ation. A good absorber is also a good radiator, but a good
reflector can be neither. Snow is a good reflector but a poor
absorber or radiator. Light colors absorb less and reflect more
than dark colors. White is the best reflector, and black the best
absorber and radiator.

On the Desert of Sahara, where " the soil is fire and the wind
is flame," the dry air allows the heat to escape through it so
readily that ice is sometimes formed at night. The dryness of
the air at great elevations accounts, in part, for the coldness
which is there felt so keenly.

The thermometer is an instrument to measure the tempera-
ture by means of the expansion of mercury. The principal
scales used are : Fahrenheit's, in which the space between the
two fixed points, boiling and freezing, is divided into 180
degrees ; the Centigrade, in which this space is divided into loo
degrees; Reaumur's, in which it is divided into 80 degrees.
Mercury freezes only at 39 Fahr. below zero, and consequently
it is most generally used in thermometers. Alcohol is used only
for very low temperatures.

Water changes from the liquid to the gaseous state, or boils,
at the level of the sea, at a temperature of 2 1 2° F. As we ascend
above this level the pressure of the atmosphere is less, and it
boils at a lower degree.

The steam engine is a machine for using the elastic force of
steam as a motive power. There are two classes of engines —
the high-pressure and the low-pressure. In the former the
steam, after being employed to do its work, is forced out into
the air; in the latter it is condensed in a separate chamber by a
spray of cold water. As the steam is condensed in the low-
pressure engine a vacuum is formed behind the piston, while
the piston of the high-pressure engine acts against the pressure
of the air. The governor is an apparatus for regulating the
supply of steam. When a machine is going too fast, the balls
fly out by centrifugal force and shut off a portion of the steam ;
when too slowly, they fall back, and, opening the valve, let on
the steam again. The fly-wheel, by its inertia, serves to render
the movement of the machinery uniform.

35°

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS.

-~A

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY.

Magnetism is that branch of science which treats of the
properties of the magnet. Certain specimens of iron ore have
the property of attracting iron and some of its ores, and are
called natural magnets or loadstone. When freely suspended
they will point to the poles. An artificial magnet is a magnet-
ized piece of steel, either straight or bent in the form of a
horseshoe.

The production of magnetism by induction is a curious
phenomenon. If a permanent magnet is brought near a hand-
ful of iron nails it will attract them to it, and as soon as a nail
becomes attached to the magnet it becomes a magnet itself and
attracts another nail, which in turn becomes a magnet and
attracts another, and so on, the magnetic power of each new
nail attracted becoming constantly less than that of the preced-
ing one. It is not even necessary that the nail should absolutely
touch the magnet in order to assume this magnetic power, for it
will be transmitted through short spaces from one to the other.
This power which a body acquires by being brought near a
magnet is called magnetic induction. An important fact in
this connection is that when a coil of iron wire is made to sur-
round a permanent magnet it becomes magnetic itself by induc-
tion, and is capable of inducing magnetism in another bar of
iron surrounded by it. This principle is made practical use of
in the construction of the telephone and magnetic telegraph.

The greatest electric power of a magnet is at its ends, which
are called poles. The end pointing to the north, when sus-
pended, is the north or positive pole, the other being the south
or negative. Like poles repel, and unlike poles attract each
other.

The compass is a magnetic needle used by mariners, survey-
ors, etc. It is very delicately poised over a card, on which the
" points of the compass " are marked. The needle does not
often point directly north and south. The "line of no varia-
tion," as it is called, runs in an irregular course through the
United States from Cape Lookout, across Lake Erie to Hudson's
Bay. East of this the variation is toward the west, and west of
it it is toward the east. The earth itself is a great magnet, and
this explains why the needle points north and south.

A dipping needle is one which is free to turn in a vertical
plane. At the equator it is horizontal, but as it is carried
toward the north it dips, or inclines toward the center of the
earth. At a place near Hudson's Bay it stands vertical. This
is called the north magnetic pole. It does not coincide with
the geographical pole.

Electricity is that science which unfolds the phenomena tad
laws of the electric fluid. Electricity may be generated by
means of friction, percussion, heat, chemical action, cleavage,
and by magnets. The effects of electricity in its various forms
are manifested as attraction, repulsion, light, heat, violent com-
motions and chemical decomposition.

The first method of producing electricity, discovered in the
earlier ages, was by rubbing amber, and so the term electricity
was derived from the Greek word elektron, signifying amber.
It was afterward found that certain other substances, when
rubbed, assumed electrical properties, and would attract or repel

other materials. This electricity produced by rubbing or fric-
tion can be held for a considerable length of time, and hence it
has received the name of stationary or statical electricity. This
is the only form of electricity that we can store up and keep for
a time. What is known now as the storage battery does not
really store up electricity, but only energy, which can be trans-
formed into electricity at will.

Dynamical electricity, or electricity in motion, circulates only
in a conductor or along a wire, and cannot be held. It was first
discovered by Galvani in experimenting on frogs' legs, and
hence it is often called galvanic electricity. It is now ordinarily
produced by means of galvanic batteries and dynamo machines.

The third form of electricity is called magnetic electricity, or
magnetism.

According to the generally accepted theory, there are two so-
called electrical fluids, and these two are commingled in equal
proportions in all bodies ; and hence all the processes for
getting electricity must result in pulling these two electrical
fluids apart, and in taking a portion of one away from a body.
These two fluids are called, one positive and the other negative
electricity. It is found that when two bodies are electrified
with the same kind of electricity they repel each other; but
when the two bodies are charged with opposite kinds of elec-
tricity, or when one body is charged with either kind while the
other is left in its normal condition, then the two bodies attract
each other.

When a piece of sealing-wax is rubbed it manifests electrical
properties for some time, but certain other substances, like
metals, for instance, after being rubbed in the same manner,
show no electrical properties, and this is because the electricity
easily gets away from them. Thus we find that while certain
substances remain electrified for some time, others do not, and
hence these bodies are named conductors and non-conductors.
These terms are not absolute, but only comparative. The
metals, carbon, gypsum and acids are called good conductors,
while amber, glass, sulphur and silk are poor conductors. If
we want to insulate electricity and keep it from running off into
surrounding objects, we surround the object containing it with a
poor conductor. Thus, the glass insulators on telegraph poles
prevent the electricity from leaving the wires and running off
into the ground, and the non-conducting materials placed around
the wires of the Atlantic cable so protect it that a small charge
of electricity will carry a message from here to Europe.

Great difficulty is experienced in experimenting with statical
electricity, because it so easily gets away. All substances are
conductors to a greater or less degree, including the dust in the
air and the moisture in the atmosphere. Perfect insulation and
a warm, dry air are, therefore, favorable conditions for holding
statical electricity. The rexson it was not used earlier for prac-
tical purposes was because it was so difficult to manage. The
electricity which is produced on glass by friction is called vitreous
or positive, while that produced in the same manner on shellac
ur sealing-wax is called resinous or negative electricity.

All bodies are, as has been said, charged with an equal amount
of the two electrical fluids called positive and negative, but when
a body is electrified these two fluids are separated so that one

—

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS.

351

remains in excess of the other. There is always a passage of the
electrical fluid in two directions, along a conductor, but when the
direction of the current is spoken of, it is the direction of the
positive current that is always meant. Statical electricity can
also be produced by pressure, as when certain crystals are firmly
pressed together ; by cleavage, as when two layers of mica are
split apart; and by heat, as well as by friction. It may also be
produced by torsion. It is found that the charge of electricity,
if collected in a spherical body, is on the outside, and not within
the body; and if it is not a spherical body, the electricity collects
chiefly at the part most nearly pointed.

Electrical Machines.
Machines for producing statical electricity are usually based
on the friction method. The old-fashioned machine consisted of
a circular glass plate, which was rotated between two cushions,
and the electricity thus produced was taken off and carried to a
metallic cylinder, called the prime conductor, by means of metal
points. Silk and glass as insulators prevented the electricity
from running off into neighboring objects. More recently
machines have been constructed on the principle of induction, as
illustrated in the electrophorus.

The Leyden Jar.

The condensation of electricity is illustrated in the Leyden jar.
This is a sort of bottle, lined up to a short distance from its top,
both inside and outside, by tin-foil, and in the stopper is a brass
knob, which is connected with the tin-foil on the inside of the
jar by a chain. When the knob is charged with positive elec-
tricity from a machine, it collects on the tin-foil inside the jar,
while a corresponding amount of negative electricity collects on
the outside of the jar. By this means a large amount of elec-
tricity may be collected and held by the jar until discharged, by
making connection between the tin-foil on the inside and that on
the outside of the jar. The electricity is held, not on the tin-foil,
but on the surface of the glass. This is proved by means of a jar
that can be taken to pieces after being charged. Although the
two pieces of metal which lined the inside and outside are now
brought in contact, yet when the whole is put together again,
the charge is found to remain, and it is discharged by connecting
the knob with the metal lining of the outside. All that these
metal linings accomplish here is to make a large conducting sur-
face over the whole of the glass upon which the electricity collects.

The discharge of electricity from such a jar, or a battery of
several of them connected, produces a variety of results. The
spark will pass through a thin plate of glass or a card, and make
a hole in them by disrupting them ; or, in passing through points
of metal, it heats them to a high temperature and vaporizes them,
so that we get luminous effects from them.

Lightning
Is only the discharge of a Leyden jar on the grand scale upon
which Nature performs her operations. Two clouds charged
with opposite electricities, and separated by the non-conducting
air, approach each other. When the tension becomes sufficient
to overcome the resistance, the two forces rush together with a
blinding flash and terrific pea!. The lightning moves along the

line where there is the least resistance, and so describes a zig-zag
course. If we can trace the entire length, we call it chain light-
ning ; if we only see the flash through intervening clouds, it is
sheet-lightning ; and if it is the reflection of distant discharges,
we term it heat-lightning. The report of thunder is caused by
the clashing of the atoms of displaced air. The rolling of the
thunder is produced by the reflection of the sound from distant
clouds/ Sometimes the clouds and the earth become charged
with opposite electricities, separated by the non-conducting air.

Lightning-rods are based on the principle that electricity
always seeks the best conductor.

Providence has provided a harmless conductor in every leaf,
spire of grass, and twig. A common blade of grass, pointed by
Nature's exquisite workmanship, is three times more effectual
than the finest cambric needle, and a single pointed twig than
the metallic point of the best constructed rod.

The duration of the lightning flash has been estimated at one-
millionth of a second. Some idea of its instantaneousness can
be formed from the fact that the spokes of a wheel, revolved so
rapidly as to become invisible by daylight, can be distinctly seen
by a spark from a Leyden jar. Wheatstone considered the ve-
locity of lightning through a copper wire to be 288,000 miles per
second.

Lightning sometimes passes upward from the earth, both
quietly and by sudden discharge.

Dynamical Electricity.
Now, a few words in regard to dynamical electricity. Galvani
discovered, in experimenting on frogs, that when two pieces of
metal, like copper and zinc, were placed in contact with the
frog's leg and their ends connected, a movement of the leg
would take place. Volta developed the voltaic pile, which at
first consisted of alternate layers of zinc, wet paper, and copper,
piled one on top of the other in varying numbers. It was found
that when the top layer was connected with the bottom one, by
means of wires, a current of electricity was set up. It became
understood then, that the electricity was produced by the chem-
ical action of the water in the paper on the zinc, and so more
solvent fluids came to be used instead of water, and cloth was
substituted for the paper.

The Galvanic Battery
Is simply a combination by which we produce this chemical
action, and zinc is the metal acted upon. If a piece of copper
and a piece of zinc be placed in water, containing a little sul-
phuric acid, and the ends of the copper and zinc be brought
together, or connected by wires, a current of electricity will be
established between them. A spark may be seen in the dark if
the two wires are brought near together, but not in actual con-
tact. This electricity is produced by the chemical action of the
acid on the metal, and is called voltaic or galvanic electricity.
A glass vessel containing the metals and acid is called a cell,
and several cells connected together constitute the battery. The
metal plate in which the chemical action is greatest is called the
positive plate, and the other the negative plate. The free ends
of the wires are called electrodes. The one attached to the posi-
tive plate is the negative electrode, and vice versa.

Q k.

K -

35 2

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS.

While zinc is universally used for one element, the second
element in the battery may be composed of different kinds of
metals, according to convenience.

A difficulty in using zinc as the positive element was soon
found in the fact that little local currents were set up between
it and the impurities contained in it, and this caused an unneces-
sary waste of the zinc. So it became customary to amalgamate
the zinc in order to prevent this local action of the fluid upon it.
The next improvement made was to prevent the little bubbles
of hydrogen from collecting on the surface of the copper, thus
keeping the liquid from coming in contact with it in all parts —
that is, to prevent the "polarization" of the copper. For this
purpose certain substances came to be used to absorb the
hydrogen. The first of these substances was the sulphate of
copper as used in the Daniells battery. This consisted of a
copper vessel containing a porous cylinder in which was sus-
pended a rod of zinc. Dilute sulphuric acid was contained in
this cylinder, and in the copper vessel outside of the cylinder
was placed a solution of the sulphate of copper. In this battery
the hydrogen set free decomposes the sulphate of copper, form-
ing with it sulphuric acid, and sets free copper which collects
on the copper element.

Grove's battery consists of a glass vessel containing a porous
cup, surrounded on the outside by a coil of amalgamated zinc,
and on the inside is suspended a rod of platinum, instead of
copper. The vessel outside of the porous cup is filled with
dilute sulphuric acid, and inside with strong nitric acid. The
nitric acid absorbs the hydrogen set free by the sulphuric acid
and zinc. In the bichromate battery, the bichromate of potash
dissolved in sulphuric acid is used to absorb the hydrogen, and
chromic acid is formed. So the three substances in use for
absorbing the hydrogen in different kinds of batteries are sul-
phate of copper, nitric acid and bichromate of potash. Bunsen
suggested the use of gas carbon to take the place of the copper.
His battery consists of a cylinder of carbon immersed in a vessel
containing nitric acid, and within this cylinder is a porous cell
containing sulphuric acid, in which the zinc is suspended. To
avoid using the porous cups, the force of gravity has been
brought into play in the construction of the so-called '* gravity
battery." This consists of a glass vessel with plates of copper
at its bottom, and upon this crystals of sulphate of copper are
scattered, while over all is poured pure water, in the upper por-
tion of which is suspended a plate of zinc. A very little
sulphuric acid is added to start the battery, mid then its action
will keep up. Gravity here keeps the two liquids apart — the
solution of sulphate of copper at the bottom, and the dilute
solution of sulphuric acid at the top. This battery produces a
constant current, and will run for a very long time. The
Leclanche battery consists of a porous cup containing sal ammo-
niac, in which is suspended a rod of zinc, and this cup is
surrounded by the oxide of manganese as a depolarizer,
immersed in which is the carbon. This battery is used when a
current of electricity is desired for a very short time at once, as
in striking burglar alarms, signal bells, etc. The galvanic bat-
tery is now being replaced for many purposes by dynamo-electric
machines.

Electrolysis and Galvanoplasty.

A current of electricity passed through certain substances will
decompose them, and this process is called electrolysis. Water
may, for example, lie thus separated into two gases, oxygen and
hydrogen. The process of depositing metals by means of elec-
tricity is known as galvanoplasty.

Electroplating, sometimes called galvanizing, is the process
of coating one metal with another by means of a galvanic
battery. Gold and silver are deposited most readily on German
silver, brass, copper, or nickel silver, the last mentioned being a
composition of copper, zinc and nickel. Vessels to be plated
with silver, for example, are thoroughly cleansed, and then hung
in a solution of silver from the negative pole, while a plate of
silver is suspended on the positive pole. In about fire minutes
a mere " blush" of the metal will be deposited, which perfectly
conceals the baser metal and is susceptible of a high polish.

A vessel is gold-lined by filling it with a solution of gold, sus-
pending in it a slip of gold from the positive pole of the battery,
and then attaching the negative pole to the vessel; while the
current passing through the liquid causes it to bubble like soda-
water, and in a few moments deposits a thin film of gold.

Electrotyping is a process much used in copying medals,
wood cuts, type, etc. An impression of the object is taken
with gutta-percha, or wax ; the surface to be copied is brushed
over with black-lead to render it a conductor. The mold is
then suspended in a solution of sulphate of copper, from
the negative pole of the battery; a plate of copper is hung
opposite on the positive pole. The electric current decomposes
the sulphate of copper ; the metal goes to the negative pole and
is deposited upon the mold, while the acid, passing to the
positive pole, dissolves the copper, and thus preserves the
strength of the solution.

The Electric Light, Telegraph, Etc.

If a strong current of electricity is sent along a good con-
ductor, it passes very easily ; but if passed along a poor con-
ductor, it makes it hot. This is the principle upon which is
based the incandescent electric light. A current sent over a fine
thread of carbon heats it to a white heat, and thus produces a
brilliant light. The same principle holds in the arc light, where
the air acts as the poor conductor. Here two pointed sticks of
carbon are placed in contact until a current is started through
them, and then they are gradually separated for a short distance,
when the resistance offered by the air to the passage of the elec-
tricity from one point to the other heats them to incandescence,
and small particles of carbon in a state of combustion are broken
off and carried through the air, thus causing an arc of light
between the carbon points. The incandescent electric light and
the arc light form two systems of electric lighting.

The galvanometer is the most convenient method of measuring
a current of electricity. This is a rotating needle, around which
the current is passed.

The electric telegraph is an arrangement for sending messages
by means of signals made by breaking and closing a voltaic
circuit.

The telephone, microphone, etc., have been explained under
the head of Aeon ■■■.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — CHEMISTRY.

353

-E^EK

CHEMISTRY.

Ij^^F

-*£3-*H=&-

/YHEMISTRY is the science of atoms. It detects their rela-
l/j tive power, their laws of combination and their means of
' decomposition. It enables us to understand the construc-
tion of bodies, and is one of the most instructive and useful
studies. As astrology preceded astronomy, so alchemy paved
the way for chemistry. For centuries learned but misguided
men sought in vain the " elixir of life," a universal medicine to
enable man to attain the longevity of the antediluvians, and
groped for the "philosopher's stone," which, it was believed,
could turn the baser metals into gold and silver. Gradually,
however, the fallacy of alchemy was revealed, until Chemistry
enlightened the world and demonstrated that it is impossible to
change one element into another.

In nature we have simple and compound bodies, and the
former are called elements. These must not be confounded
with the so-called elements — earth, air, fire and water, which
are really compound bodies. An element in chemistry is any
substance which cannot be separated into two or more distinctly
different substances. The number of these simple elements at
present recognized is 65, divided into non-metallic and metallic.
The non-metallic elements are called "metalloids." The list of
the elements is as follows :

Non-Metallic
Elements.

O
H

s
p

Oxygen

Hydrogen*!

Nitrogen > Gaseous

Chlorine J

Iodine

Fluorine

Carbon

Phosphorus

Arsenic*

Silicon

Boron

Silenium

Tellurium

Bromine Fluid

Metals.

Aluminium Al

Antimony (Stibium) ... Sb

Barium Ba

Bismuth Bi

Cadmium Cd

Caesium Cs

Calcium Ca

Cerium Ce

Chromium Cr

Cobalt Co

Copper Cu

Didymium D

Erbium E

Gallium Ga

Glucinum Gl

Gold Au

Indium In

1- be ■
o c «

...16

.. 14

- 35
..127
..19
. . ia

.. 32
•• 3i
•• 75

.. 28
.. 11
•• 79
..129
.. 80

• 27
.122

•137
.210
.112

•133

. 40
.141

• 52

• 58

• 63

• M7

• 7°

• 9
.197
.113

Metals.

(continued.)

Iridium

Iron

Lanthanum ,

Lead

Lithium

Magnesium

Manganese

Mercury ,

Molybdenum

Nickel

Niobium (Cdlumbium).

Osmium

Palladium

Platinum

Potassium (Kalium) . . .

Rhodium ,

Rubidium

Ruthenium

Silver (Argentum)

Sodium (Natrium)

Strontium

Tantalum

Terbium

Thallium

Thorium

Tin (Stannum)

Titanium

Tungesten (Walpam). .

Uranium ,

Vanadium

Yttrium

Zinc

Zirconium

..198

.. 56

•■*39
.'.207

• 7
.. 24

Ir .

Fe .
La .

Pb ,
Li .
Mg..
Mn ..
Hg .. .200
Mo ... 96
Ni ... 58
Nb ... 94
Os . 199
PI ...106
Pt ...197
K ... 39
Rh . . . 104
Rb ... 85
Ru . ..104
Ag ...108
Na ... 23
Sr ... 87
Ta ...182

Tr ...

, .204
,.230
..118
.. 50
..184
..240
i. 51
■ • 93
Zn ... 65
Zr ... 80

* Sometimes considered a non-metallic and sometimes a metallic sub-
stance.

The term "combining weight" requires a little explanation.
Water, for instance, is made up of oxygen and hydrogen in
certain proportions. The proportions are in eighteen grains or
parts of water, sixteen parts (by weight) of oxygen, and two
parts (by weight) of hydrogen. These are the weights or pro-
portions in which oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water,
and such weights are always the same in these proportions.
Chemical combination always occurs for certain substances in
certain proportions which never vary in those compounds, and
if we wish to extract oxygen from an oxide we must take the
a gg re g a te amount of the combining weights of the oxide, and
we shall find the proportion of oxygen; for the compound
always weighs the same as the sum of the elements that compose
it. To return to the illustration of water. The molecule of
water is made up of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of
hydrogen. One atom of the former weighs sixteen times the
atom of the latter. The weights given in the foregoing table are
atomic weights, and the law of their proportions is called the
Atomic Theory.

An atom in chemistry is usually considered the smallest
quantity of matter that exists, and is indivisible. A molecule is
supposed to contain two or more atoms, and is the smallest por-
tion of a compound body. The standard atom is hydrogen,
which is put down as 1, because we find that when one part by
weight of hydrogen is put in combination, it must have many
more parts by weight of others to form a compound. Two grains
of hydrogen, combining with sixteen of oxygen, makes eighteen
of water, as we have already seen.

The red oxide of mercury contains sixteen parts by weight of
oxygen to two hundred parts by weight of mercury (we see the
same numbers in the table); these combined make two hundred
and sixteen parts of oxide. So, to obtain sixteen pounds of
oxygen, we must get two hundred and sixteen pounds of the
powder. It is the same all through, and it will be found by
experiment, that if any more parts than these fixed proportions
be taken to form a compound, some of that element used in
excess will remain free. Lime is made up of calcium and oxy-
gen. We find calcium combining weight is forty, oxygen
sixteen. Lime is oxide of calcium in these proportions (by
weight).

When we wish to express the number of atoms in a compound,
we write the number underneath when more than one; thus
water is H 2 O. Sulphuric acid, H 2 S0 4 .

In chemistry we have acids, alkalis and salts, with metallic
oxides, termed bases, or bodies that, when combined with acids,
form salts. Alkalis are bases.

<S ^

354

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— CHEMISTRY

Acids are compounds which possess an acid taste, impart red
color to vegetable blues, but lose their qualities when combined
with bases. Hydrogen is present in all acids. There are insol-
uble acids. Silicic acid, for instance, is not soluble in water,
has no sour taste, and will not redden the test litmus paper. On
the other hand, there are substances, not acids, which possess
the characteristics of acids, and most acids have only one
or two of these characteristics. Thus it has come to pass that
the term " acid " has, in a measure, dropped out from scientific
nomenclature, and salt of hydrogen has been substituted by
chemists. For popular exposition, however, the term is re-
tained.

Alkalis are bases distinguished by an alkaline taste. The
derivation is from the Arabic, al-kali. They are characterized
by certain properties, and they change vegetable blues to green,
and will restore the blue to a substance which has been red-
dened by acid. They are soluble in water, and the solutions
are caustic in their effects. Potash, soda and ammonia are
alkalis, or, chemically, the oxides of potassium ; sodium, ammo-
nium, lithium and caesium are all alkalis. Potash is sometimes
called " caustic " potash. There are alkaline earths, such as
oxides of barium, strontium, etc. Bases may be defined as the
converse of acids.

Acids and alkalis are then evidently opposite in character,
and yet they readily combine, and we find that unlike bodies are
very fond of combining (just as opposite electricities attract each
other), and the body made by this combination differs in its
properties from its constituents.

Salts are composed of acids and bases, and are considered
neutral compounds, but there are other bodies, not salts, which
likewise come under that definition — sugar, for instance. As a
rule, when acids and alkalis combine salts are found.

Chemical phenomena are divided into two groups, called in-
organic and organic, comprising the simple and compound
aspects of the subject, the elementary substances being in the
first, and the chemistry of animals or vegetables, or organic sub-
stances, in the latter. In the inorganic section we become ac-
quainted with the elements and their combinations so often seen
as minerals in nature. Chemical preparations are artificially pre-
pared. To consider these elements we must have certain appli-
ances, and indeed a laboratory is needed. Heat, as we have
already seen plays a great part in developing substances, and

by means of heat we can do a great deal in the way of chemical
decomposition. It expands, and thus diminishes cohesion; it
counteracts the chemical attraction. Light and electricity also
decompose chemical combinations.

The earth, and its surrounding envelope, the atmosphere, con-
sist of a number of elements, which in myriad combinations
give us everything we possess. The air we breathe, the water
we drink, the fire that warms us, are all made up of certain ele-
ments or gases. Water is hydrogen and oxygen ; air, oxygen
and nitrogen. Fire is combustion evolving light and beat.
Chemical union always evolves heat, and when such union pro-
ceeds very rapidly fire is the result.

But in all these combinations not a particle or atom of matter
is ever lost. It may change or combine or be " given off," but
the matter in some shape or way exists still. Wc may bum
things, and rid ourselves, as we think, of them. We do rid our-
selves of the compounds, but the elements remain somewhere.
We only alter the condition. During combustion, as in a candle
or a fire, the simple bodies assume gaseous or other forms, such
as carbon, but they do not escape far. True, they pass beyond
our ken, but nature is so nicely balanced that there is a place
for everything, and everything is in its place, under certain con-
ditions which never alter. We cannot destroy and we cannot
create. We may prepare a combination, and science has even
succeeded in producing a form like the diamond — a crystal of
carbon which looks like that most beautiful of all crystals, but
we cannot make a diamond after all. We can only separate the
chemical compounds. We' can turn diamonds into charcoal, it
is true, but we cannot create " natural " products. We can take
a particle of an element and hide it, or let it pass beyond our
ken, and remain incapable of detection, but the particle is there
all the time, and when we retrace our steps we shall find it as
it was before.

This view of chemistry carries it as a science beyond the mere
holiday amusement we frequently take it to be. It is a grand
study — a study for a lifetime. The more we inquire, the more
we shall find we have to learn. In this work it was only pos-
sible to give a brief introduction. There are numerous excellent
treatises on chemistry, but, exhaustive as they are, they do not
tell us all. Nature, however, is always willing, like a kind,
good mother, to render up her secrets, if we inquire respectfully
and lovingly.

£\

ASTRONOMY.

"7T

355

The Wonders of the Heavens as Revealed by the Telescope.

A History of the Progress of Astronomical Science.

ASTRONOMY is the science which treats of the heavenly
bodies and the laws which govern them. The space in
which the celestial orbs are set is infinite and known as
the " firmament " or " heaven." We can see a few stars, com-
paratively speaking, but
there are numbers whose
light has never yet reached
the earth. When we calm-
ly reason upon the im-
measurable distances, and
the awful rapidity of mo-
tion, with the masses of
matter thus in movement,
we are constrained to ac-
knowledge that all our
boasted knowledge is as
nothing in the wondrous
dispensation of Him who
" telleth the number of the
stars and calleth them all
by their names."

Astronomy is the most
ancient of all sciences.
The study of the stars is,
without doubt, as old as
man himself, and hence
many of its discoveries date
back of authentic records,
amid the dim mysteries of
tradition.

The Chinese possess an
account of a conjunction of four planets and the moon, which
must have occurred a century before the flood. They have also
the first record of an eclipse of the sun, which took place about
two hundred and twenty years after the deluge.

Fig. I. The Solar System.

The Chaldean shepherds, watching their flocks by night under
the open sky, could not fail to become familiar with many of
the movements of the heavenly bodies. The Chaldeans in-
vented the sun-dial, and also discovered the " Saros," or "Chal-
dean Period," which is the
length of time in which the
eclipses of the sun and
moon repeat themselves in
the same order.

Thales, who was noted
for his .electrical discov-
eries, and acquired much
renown, established the
first school of astronomy
in Greece. He taught that
the earth is round, and that
the moon receives her light
from the sun. He also
introduced the division of
the earth's surface into
zones, and the theory of the
obliquity of the ecliptic.
He predicted an eclipse of
the sun which is memorable
in ancient history as having
terminated a war between
the Medes and the Lyd-
ians. These nations were
engaged in a fierce battle,
but the awe produced by
the darkening of the sun

was so great that both sides threw down their arms and made

peace.

Anaximander and Anaxagoras were pupils of Thales. Anax-

imander taught that the stars are suns, and that the planets are

•to

356

ASTRONOMY.

inhabited. Anaxagoras maintained that there is but one God,
that the sun is solid, and as large as the country of Greece, and
attempted to explain eclipses and other celestial phenomena by
natural causes. For his audacity and impiety, as his countrymen
considered it, he and his family were doomed to perpetual ban-
ishment.

Pythagoras founded the second celebrated astronomical school
at Crotona, at which were educated hundreds of enthusiastic
pupils. He knew the causes of eclipses, and calculated them
by means of the Saros. Pythagoras was most emphatically a
dreamer. He conceived a system of the universe in many re-
spects correct; yet he advanced no proof, and made few con-
verts to his views, and they were soon well nigh forgotten. He
held that the sun is the center of the solar system, and that the
planets revolve about it in circular orbits; that the earth revolves
daily on its axis, and yearly around the sun ; that Venus is both
morning and evening star; that the planets are inhabited — and
he even attempted to calculate the size of some of the animals
in the moon ; that the planeis are placed at intervals correspond-
ing to the scale in music, and that they move in harmony, mak-
ing the "music of the spheres," but that this celestial concert is
heard only by the gods — the ears of man being too gross for
such divine melody. Pythagoras believed the sun to be 44,000
miles from the earth, and 75 miles in diameter.

Eudoxus held that the heavenly bodies are set, like gems, in
hollow, transparent crystal globes, so pure that they do not
obstruct the view, and that they all revolve around the earth.

Hipparchus, who flourished in the second century B.C., has
been called the "Newton of Antiquity." He was the most
celebrated of the Greek astronomers ; he calculated the length
of the year within six minutes, discovered the precession of the
equinoxes, and made the first catalogue of the stars — 1,081 in
number.

Egypt, as well as Chaldea, was noted for its knowledge of the
sciences long before they were cultivated in Greece. It was the
practice of Grecian philosophers, before aspiring to the rank of
teacher, to travel for years through these countries, and gather
wisdom at its fountain-head. Pythagoras thus spent thirty years
in traveling.

About two hundred years after Pythagoras the celebrated
school of Alexandria was established. Here were concentrated
in vast libraries and princely halls nearly all the wisdom and
learning of the world ; here flourished all the sciences and arts,
under the patronage of generous kings.

The Ptolemaic System.

Ptolemy of Alexandria (A.D. 130-150) was the founder of
a theory called the Ptolemaic system, based largely upon the
materials gathered by previous astronomers, such as Hipparchus,
already mentioned, and Eratosthenes, who computed the size of
the earth by means even now considered the best — the measure-
ment of an arc of the meridian. The advocates of the Ptolemaic
theory assumed that every planet revolves in a circle, and that
the earth is the fixed center around which the sun and the heav-
enly bodies move. They conceived that a bar, or something
equivalent, is connected at one end with the earth ; thai at some

part of this bar the sun is attached ; while between that and the
earth, Venus is fastened, not to the bar directly, but to a sort of
crank; and farther on, Mercury is hitched on in the same way.
They did not fully understand the nature of these bars — whether
they were real or only imaginary — but they did comprehend their
action, as they thought; and so they supposed the bar revolved,
carrying the sun and planets along in a large circle about the
earth; while all the short cranks kept flying around, thus sweep-
ing each planet through a smaller circle.

The movements of the planets were to the ancients extremely
complex. Venus, for instance, was sometimes seen as ■ evening
star" in the west; and then again as "morning star" in the
east. Sometimes she seemed to be moving in the same direction
as the sun, then, going apparently behind the sun, she appeared
to pass on again in a course directly opposite. At one time she
would recede from the sun more and more slowly and coyly,
until she would appear to be entirely stationary ; then she would
retrace her steps, and seem to meet the sun. All these facts
were attempted to be accounted for by an incongruous system of
"cycles and epicycles."

The system of Ptolemy passed current for 1400 years, and
during this time

Astrology
was ranked as one of the most important branches of knowledge.
Star diviners were held ir. the greatest estimation, and the issue
of any important undertaking, or the fortune of an individual, was
foretold by means of horoscopes representing the position of the
stars and planets. The system of the astrologers was very com-
plicated, and corlained regular rules to guide the interpretation,
so intricate that years of study were required for their mastery.
Venus foretold love; Mars, war; the Pleiades, storms at sea.
Not only the i^n irant were the dupes of this system, Lord Bacon
believing in it nt jst firmly.

The Copernican System.

The system ts now accepted is called the Copernican system,
after Nicholas .'.Copernik, or Copernicus, who, in 1543, breaking
away from the theory of Ptolemy, revived that of Pythagoras.
He saw the beautiful simplicity of considering the sun the grand
center about which revolve the earth and all the planets. He
noticed how constantly, when we are riding swiftly, we forget
our motion, and think that objects really stationary are gliding
by us in the contrary direction. He applied this thought to the
movements of the heavenly bodies, and maintained that, instead
of the starry hosts revolving about the earth once in twenty-four
hours, the earth simply turns on its own axis; that this produces
the apparent daily revolution of the sun and stars, while the
yearly motion of the earth about the sun, transferred in the same
manner to that body, would account for its various move-
ments.

Tycho Brahe opposed the Copernican theory, but made many
important investigations. Then came Kepler, who adopted the
Copernican theory, and whose observations upon the planet M an
cleared away manycompllcations. He laid down three laws, as
follows: /. Planets rtvokre in ellipses, with the sun at one
focus. 2. A line connecting the center of the earth with the

ASTRONOMY.

"7f

357

center of the sun passes over equal spaces in equal times. J. The
squares of the times of revolution of the planets about the sun are
proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
Kepler also remarked that gravity was a power existing be-
tween all bodies, and reasoned upon the tides being caused by
the attraction of the moon for the waters. About this time, viz. :
the beginning of the seventeenth century, the telescope was in-
vented, and logarithms came into use. The telescope did not
penetrate into Southern Europe till 1608-9.

Galileo, who had discovered the laws of the pendulum and
of falling bodies, learned that a Dutch watchmaker had invented
a contrivance for making distant objects appear near. With his
profound knowledge of optics and philosophical instruments, he
instantly caught the idea, and soon had a telescope completed
that would magnify thirty times. With this instrument he ex-
amined the moon, discovered its . mountains and valleys, and
watched the dense shadows sweep over its plains. Near Jupiter
he saw three bright stars, as he considered them, which were
invisible to the naked eye. Shortly after, he noticed those stars
had changed their relative positions. Being somewhat per-
plexed, he waited three days for a fair night in which to resume
his observations. The fourth night was favorable, and he again
found the three stars had shifted. After continued observations
he discovered a fourth star, and finally found that they were all
rapidly revolving around Jupiter, each in its elliptical orbit, with
its own rate of motion, and all accompanying the planet in its
journey around the sun. Here was a miniature Copernican
system, hung up in the sky for all to see and examine for them-
selves. Galileo met with the most bitter opposition. A great
many refused to look through the telescope, lest they might be-
come victims of the philosopher's magic. Some prated of the
wickedness of digging out valleys in the fair face of the moon ;
while others doggedly clung to the theory they had held from
their youth up.

Then Newton promulgated, his immortal discovery of the law
of gravitation — that every particle of matter in the universe at-
tracts every other particle of matter with a force directly propor-
tional to its quantity of matter, and decreasing as the square of
the distance increases — and the relations of the sun and planets
became more evident.

Subsequent researches brought astronomy into prominence
more and more. The spectroscope has, in the able hands of
living astronomers, revealed to us elements existing in the
vapors and composition of the sun and other heavenly bodies.
Stars are now known to be suns, some bearing a great resem-
blance to our sun, others differing materially. The nebula:
have been analyzed, and found to be stars, or gas, burning in
space— hydrogen and nitrogen being the chief constituents of
this glowing matter. Instruments for astronomical observation
have now been brought to a pitch of perfection scarcely ever
dreamed of, and month by month discoveries are made and re-
corded, while calculations as to certain combinations can be
made with almost miraculous accuracy. The transit of Venus,
the approaches of comets, eclipses, and the movements of stars,
are now known accurately and commented on long before the
events can take place.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

Gravitation is the force which keeps the planets in their
orbits. The sun attracts the planets, and they influence him in
a minor degree. Likewise the moon and stars and our earth
attract each other. But as the sun's mass is far greater than the
masses of the planets he influences them more, and could absorb
them all without inconvenience or disturbance from his center
of gravity.

Every body will remain at rest unless force compels it to
change its position, and it will then go on forever in a straight
path, unless something stops it. But if this body be acted on
simultaneously by two forces in different directions it will go in
the direction of the greater force. Two equal forces will tend
to give it an intermediate direction, and an equal opposing

Fig. a.
The Surface of the Sun as seen through a Powerful Telescope.

force will stop it. The last axiom but one — viz., the two equal
forces in different, not opposing directions — gives us the key to
the curving line of the planetary motions. Were it not for the
attraction of the sun, the planets would fly off at a tangent ;
while, on the other hand, were not the impelling force as great
as it is, they would fall into the sun. Thus they take an inter-
mediate line, and circle round the center of the solar system —
the Sun.

The solar system consists of : (1) The sun — the center; (2)
the major planets — Vulcan (undetermined), Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune ; (3) the asteroids,
or minor planets, at present (January, 1892) 322 in number;
(4) the satellites, or moons, which revolve around the different
planets; (5) meteors and shooting stars; (6) comets.

-M

358

ASTRONOMY.

The stars called planets have certain motions, going from east
to west, from west to east, and sometimes again appearing quite
motionless. This change of place, appearing now at one side
of the sun and now at another, has given them their title of
"wanderers." The planets and their satellites, the asteroids,
comets and meteors, all circle round the sun in more or less
regular orbits. And there must be families of comets that have
not yet appeared to us, and whole systems of meteors as yet
unseen.

THE SUN.

When we consider the power and grandeur of the sun, we
may well feel lost in the contemplation. He balances the
planets and keeps them in their orbits. He gives us light and
heat, and in darkness nothing will come to maturity. We obtain
rain and dew owing to his evaporative power, and no action
could go on upon the earth without him.

The sun is not solid so far as we can tell. It is apparently a
mass of white-hot vapor, and is enabled to shine by reason of
its own light, which the planets and stars cannot do, they shin-
ing only by the sun's reflected light. From this we might con-
clude that the sun is entirely gaseous, but, in the recent researches
in spectrum analysis, the light of the sun has been examined by
means of the spectroscope, and split up into its component colors,
and scientists have discovered that a number of elements exist
in the sun in a vaporous state. Hydrogen is there, with other
gases unknown to us, and many metals, discovered by their
spedra, which are the same under similar circumstances. The
sun is supposed to be spherical in shape — not flattened at the
poles, as our earth is — and to be composed of materials similar
to those which constitute the earth, only that in the sun these
materials are still in a heated condition. Thus we can argue, by
analogy from the spectra of earthly elements, that as the sun and
star light give u« similar spectra, the heavenly bodies are com-
posed of the same elements as our globe.

When the surface of the sun is examined with a good tele-
scope, under favorable atmospheric conditions, it appears to be
composed of minute grains of intense brilliancy and of irregular
form, floating in a darker medium and arranged in groups and
streaks, as shown in Fig. 2. With a rather low power the gen-
eral effect of the surface is much like that of rough drawing-
paper.

The sun's average distance from the earth is 91,500,000 miles.

The volume of the sun is 1,253,000 times that of the earth,
but its density is only about one-fourth that of the earth. The
attraction of gravitation at the sun must be more than that of the
earth's surface twenty-seven times. A body dropped near the
surface of the sun would fall 436 feet in the first second, and
would then have attained a velocity of ten miles a minute.

The light of the sun is equal to 5,563 wax candles, held at a
distance of one foot from the eye. It would require 800,000
full moons to produce a day as brilliant as one of cloudless sun-
shine.

The amount of heat we receive annually is sufficient to melt a
layer of ice thirty-eight yards in thickness, extending over the
whole earth.

The sun appears to be about half a degree in diameter, so that
36b disks like the sun, laid side by side, would make a half cir-
cle of the celestial sphere. It seems a little larger to us in win-
ter than in summer, as we are 3,000,000 miles nearer it.

The sun makes the apparent circuit of the heavens in 365 d.
6 h. 9 m. 9.6 s.; the transit from one vernal equinox to the next
being only 365 d. 5 h. 48 m. 48.6 s., owing to the precession of
the equinoxes, explained elsewhere.

The Sun's Apparent Motion.

If we rise early in the moming we shall, as the reader will
say, see the sun rise — that is, he appears to us to rise as the
earth rotates. By the accompanying diagram (Fig. 3) we can

Fig. 3. The Sun's Apparent Motion.

understand how Sol makes his appearance, and how he comes up
again. The earth rotates from west to east, and so the sun
appears to move from east to west. If we look at the diagram
we shall see that after rising at O the sun advances toward the
meridian in an oblique arc to A, the highest or culminating
point — midday. He then returns, descending to W ; this path
is the diurnal arc. At Q similarly, during his passage in the
nocturnal arc, he reaches the lowest or inferior culmination.
H H is the meridian.

On the 2Ist of March this path brings the sun on the •' equi-
noctial" line. Day and night are then of equal duration, as
the arcs are equal. So this is the vernal (or spring) equinox.
Some weeks after the sun is at midday higher up at S', and so,
the diurnal arc being longer, the day is longer. (Z is the
zenith, 7.' is the nadir, P V is the celestial axis.) From that
time he descends again toward the equinoctial to the autumnal
equinox, and so on, the diurnal arc becoming smaller and
smaller until the winter solstice is reached (S).

Now, the sun has a two-fold apparent motion — vii., a
circular motion obliquely ascending from the horizon, which is
explained by the rotation of the earth, and by our position, 0, to
the earth's axis, / /', and also by a rising and setting motion
between the solstitial points, S and S', which causes the inequal-
ity of the days and nights. Independently of the daily motion
of the sun, we observe that at the summer solstico, on the 21st
of June, at midday, the sun is at S', and one half year later,
viz., on the 21st of December, at midnight, the sun is at 1,
from which he arrives again in the space of half a year at S';
so we are able to represent this annual motion of the sun by a

ASTRONOMY.

359

circle, the diameter of which is the line S' s. This circle is
called the Ecliptic.

The plane of the ecliptic, S' s, cuts the plane of the equinoc-
tial, A Q, at an angle of 23^°, and the axis of the ecliptic, S' 7/
s", makes the same angle with the axis of the heavens, P P.
The two parallel circles S' s' and S i include a zone extend-

B' -S"

Fig. 4. The Ecliptic.

ing to both sides of the equinoctial, and beyond which the sun
never passes. These circles are called the tropics, from trcpo,
I turn, because the sun turns back at these points, and again
approaches the equinoctial. The parallel circles S" s" and
g///y// described by the poles of the ecliptic, S'" s", about the
celestial poles, P P, are called the arctic and antarctic circles.

Whenever the sun crosses the equinoctial, there is the equi-
nox ; but the points of intersection are not invariably the same
every year. There is a gradual westerly movement, so it is a
little behind its former crossing-place every year. This is the
"precession of the equinoxes" because the time of the equi-
noxes is hastened, but it is really a retrograde movement.
Hipparchus discovered this motion, which amounts to about
fifty seconds in a year. So the whole revolution will be com-
pleted in about 28,000 years.

Sun-Spots.
Sun-spots, as they are generally called, are hollows in the
sun's vapory substance, and are of enormous extent ; and there
are brilliant places near those spots, which are termed faculce.
These spots have been observed to be changing continuously,
and passing from east to west across the sun, and then to come
again at the east, to go over the same space again. Now this
fact has proved that the sun turns around upon his axis, and,
although he does not move, as we imagine, from east to west,

round the earth, the orb does move — in fact, the sun has three
motions : one on his axis ; secondly, a motion about the center
of gravity of the solar system, and a progressive movement
toward the constellation Hercules.

Solar Prominences.

During solar eclipses the sun exhibits what are termed " red
prominences," — the luminous vapors existing around it. When
the orb is eclipsed, bright-colored vapors can be seen shooting
out from underneath the dark shadow. These red prominences
were first observed in 1842, and in 1 85 1 it was proved that they
appertained to the sun, for the moon hid them as the eclipse
began. " The luminosity of these prominences is intense," says
Secci, " and they often rise to a height of 80,000 miles, and occa-
sionally to more than twice that; then, bending back, they fall
again upon the sun like the jets of fountains. Then they spread
into figures resembling gigantic trees, more or less rich in
branches."

THE PLANETS.

The ancients knew five of the planets and named them
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In later years a
great number were discovered, but we must confine ourselves
to the consideration of the principal ones, eight in number, in-
cluding our own Earth, Uranus and Neptune completing the
list. Of these, Venus and Mercury are the interior (or inferior)
planets, moving between us and the sun ; the others are called
exterior (or superior), and pass quite round the heavens. All
the planets are spheroids, and they vary greatly in size. Their
comparative distance and magnitude are thus interestingly
illustrated by Sir John Herschel :

" Choose any well-leveled field, and on it place a globe two
feet in diameter to represent the sun. Mercury will be repre-
sented by a grain of mustard seed on the circumference of a
circle 164 feet in diameter for its orbit; Venus, a pea, on a
circle 284 feet in diameter ; the Earth, also a pea on a circle
430 feet ; Mars, a rather large pin's head on a circle of 654 feet ;
Juno, Ceres, Vesta, and Pallas, grains of sand in orbits of 1,000
to 1,200 feet; Jupiter, a moderate-sized orange on a circle
nearly half a mile across; Saturn, a small orange on a circle
four-fifths of a mile ; and Uranus, a full-sized cherry, or small
plum, upon the circumference of a circle more than a mile and
a half in diameter."

Comparative Table showing the Diameter, Distance from the Sun

, Volume

Density, etc

., of the Planets of the Solar System.*

Diameter

Miles.

Mean distance

from the sun,

in miles,

(about).

Sidereal period

of revolution.

(Length of

year).

Time of
rotation on
their axes.

Average
velocity.
Miles per
second.

Volume,
earth being i .

Density,

earth
being i.

Weight,

earth being i.

Date of
Discovery.

The Sun

888,646

3.089

7,896

7,926

4,070

92,164

75,070

36,216

33,6io

35,000,000

66,000,000

91,000,000

139,000,000

476,000,000

872,000,000

1,753,000,000

2,746,000,000

d. b. m.

87 23 16

224 16 50

365 6 9

686 23 31

4,332 14 2

io,759 5 16

30,686 17 21

60,126 17 5

d. h.

24 $%

23 2IJ3

23 56

24 37^
9 55^

10 15

9 30

30
22
:8
15
8M

1,41^,225.00
0.05
0.99
1. 00
0.13
1,491.00
772.00
86.50
76.60

0.25
1.22
0.90
j .00
0.97
0.22
0.13
0,16
0.3a

354,936.00
0.07
0.91
z.oo

0.J3
33871

101.36
M-Z5

18.98

Antiquity.
Antiquity.

Earth

Antiquity.
Antiquity.

Antiquity.
Herschel, 1781,

Oalle, 1846.

* The planet Vulcan, discovered in 1859, ant * having its orbit next to the sun, is still undetermined,
that of Uranus.

Prof. Tice estimates that its diameter is as large as

V-

360

ASTRONOMY.

"7f

The planets revolve upon their axes in the same manner as
the earth. This we know by telescopic observation to be the
case with many planets, and by analogy the rule may be ex-
tended to all. Conformably to the principles of gravitation,
their velocity is greatest at those parts of their orbit which are
nearest the sun, and least at the parts which are most distant
from it ; in other words, they move quickest in perihelion, and
slowest in aphelion.

The question whether the planets are inhabited cannot be
satisfactorily answered. There are many who think that the
only object God can possibly have in making any world is to
form an abode for man. Our own earth was evidently fitted up,
although perhaps not created, for this express purpose. When
we turn to the planets we do not know but God has other races
of intelligent beings who inhabit them, or even entirely different
ends to attain. Of this, however, we are fully assured, that, if
inhabited, the conditions on which life is supported vary much
from those familiar to us.

Fig. 5. General Appearance of a Sun-Spot.

Satellites, or "planetary moons," are plainly perceived at-
tending upon the great planets. One we are all familiar with —
the moon, which lends a beauty to our nights which no other
light that we can command can ever do.

Mars possesses two moons and Jupiter four ; Uranus rejoice*
in the latter number ; Neptune has only one ; no less than eight
satellites wait upon Saturn. No doubt there are many more of
these moons to be found, and every year will doubtless bring us
further knowledge respecting them. Mars' moons were dis-
covered only in 1877, although known to exist. Jupiter's moons
are supposed to be as large as our own moon ; Neptune and
Uranus can boast of equally-sized attendants.

MERCURY.

The distance of Mercury from the sun Is less than half that of
our earth, and so it receives much more heat and light than we
do. The sun to the Mercurians, if there be any inhabitants upon

the planet, must appear about seven times larger than he does
to us. When the sky is very clear we may sometimes see
Mercury, just after the setting of the sun, as a bright, sparkling
star near the western horizon. Its elevation increases evening
by evening, but never exceeds 30 . And if we watch it closely,
we shall find that it again approaches the sun and becomes lost
in his rays. Some days afterward, just before sunrise, we can
see the same star in the east, rising higher each morning, until
its greatest elevation
equals that which it
before attained in the
west. Mercury's or-
bit is the most eccen-
tric of any of the
eight principal plan-
ets, so that, although
when in perihelion it
approaches to within
28,000,000 miles, in
aphelion it speeds
away 15,000,000
miles farther, or to
the distance of 43,-
000,000 miles. Being so near the sun, its motion in its orbit is
correspondingly rapid — thirty miles per second.

Fig. 6. A Sun-Spot as seen by Secchi.

VENUS.
Venus, the nearest planet to the earth, is somewhat smaller
than the latter. This planet is both a morning and evening
star, and is very brilliant — so much so, that close observation
with the telescope is impossible. When at her nearest point
she is invisible, as she passes between us and the sun, and of
course when fully illuminated she is directly beyond the sun,
and inclosed in his
rays. But under
other circumstan-
ces she is distinctly
visible as a cres-
cent in the even-
ing, and nearly full
as a morning star.
Venus has long
been celebrated as
the morning and
evening star, as
"Lucifer" and
" Hesperus." ««• 7- A Sun-Spot .. seen by Nasmith.

That Venus possesses an atmosphere denser than our own can
scarcely be doubted. The observations made during successive
transits seem to have established the fact that aqueous vapor
exists around, and water in, Venus. No satellite can be found,
although the ancients reported such an attendant. A transit of
Venus, like one of Mercury, is simply a passing of the planet
across the illuminated disc of the sun. The transits afford
means to ascertain the volume, distance, etc., of the sun. The
last occurred in 1882, and there will not be another for more

*f*

ASTRONOMY.

361

than a hundred years. The seasons in Venus must be very
different from ours. As her inclination is greater than that of
our earth, and as the sun is so much nearer to her than to us,
her tropical and polar regions are close, and a vertical sun is
scarcely enjoyed by two places for three successive days, and she
may have two winters and summers, two springs and autumns.

Fig. 8. A Solar Prominence.

The evidence of an atmosphere, as well as of mountains, rests
very much upon the peculiar appearance attending her crescent
shape. The luminous part does not end abruptly ; on the con-
trary its light diminishes gradually. This diminution may be
entirely explained by the twilight on the planet. The existence
of an atmosphere which diffuses the rays of light into regions
where the sun has already set, has hence been inferred. Thus,
on Venus, the evenings, like ours, are lighted by twilight, and
the mornings by dawn. The edge of the illuminated portion of
the planet is uneven and irregular, and this appearance is doubt-
less the effect of shadows cast by mountains.

OUR EARTH AND HER SATELLITE.

It seems rather strange to class our earth, which is dark and
opaque, and which appears to us so vast, among the bright
heavenly bodies. Nevertheless it is one of the smallest of the
principal planets of the solar system, and although we see in it
no motion, while the orbs about us seem constantly changing
their position, science has demonstrated that it revolves around
the sun, in an orbit of nearly 600,000,000 miles, at the tremen-
dous rate of eighteen miles per second, or 65,000 miles an hour.
To other worlds our earth appears as a star does to us. In
studying astronomy we must consider that it is a planet shining
brightly in the heavens, held in its course by the invisible power
of gravitation, and that in reality it is small and insignificant
beside some of the mighty globes that so gently shine upon us
from distances almost inconceivable ; that our earth, in fact, is
only one atom in a universe of worlds, all firm and solid, and
all, perhaps, equally well fitted to be the abode of life.

Science teaches us that the earth was doubtless once a glow-
ing star, and under the head of Physical Geography we can see

that the Scriptures confirm this doctrine. The crust upon which
we thrive is only the cinders and ashes of a fearful conflagra-
tion, and the air we breathe is only the gas left over when the
fuel was consumed.

The earth has two motions— one from east to west, in its
course round the sun, and one on its own axis. If we send a
ball rolling we perceive that it turns round as it proceeds. So
the earth turns on its axis, the extremities of which are called
the poles. The horizon appears to us stationary, and so the
stars we see at night seem to move. Those on the west, which
are passed over and hidden, seem to have sunk or set, and those
on the east seem to have moved above or risen. The sun seems
to move by day, and the stars by night, but this is a mere optical
delusion — a delusion in which the untaught mind is confirmed
by the relative fixity of everything on our globe, the apparent
rest of everything around.

The earth's rotation, according to sidereal time, is less than
solar time, and we have 365 solar days and 366 sidereal
days. A person going round the world would gain or lose a
day, as he traveled east or west, according to his reckoning as
compared with the reckoning of friends at home. We can best
ascertain the earth's motion by watching the stars rise and set.
The earth proceeds at its tremendous pace round the sun in an
ellipse or oval track, 600,000,000 miles in length, from which it
never moves, year by year, in any appreciable degree. Now
what prevents this earth of ours from rushing off by itself into

The Earth in Space.

space? The reason is because the sun holds it back. The
force of the sun's gravitation is so enormously great that it suf-
fices to retain our globe and all the planets in their various
orbits, and to counteract the force which launches them through
space. If the earth were suddenly to increase her velocity or
the sun to contract his mass, we should be flung into infinite

362

ASTRONOMY.

space, and in a short time would be frozen up completely. Our
present diurnal course would probably proceed, but all life
would cease as we whirled with distant planets through in-
finity. If, on the other hand, the earth were to stop suddenly,
an amount of heat would be engendered sufficient to raise the
temperature of a globe of lead the same size as our globe
384,000° of the Centigrade thermometer, and, as Prof. Tyndall
says, the greater part, if not the whole, of our planet would be
reduced to vapor. But against such a catastrophe we are as-
sured by the immutability of God's laws. The variation in the
earth's revolution has not exceeded the hundredth part of a
second in 2,000 years.

The Seasons.
In the diagram (Fig. 10) we shall at once find the explana-
tion of the constantly recurring seasons, and the amount of

Fie- ">• The Seasons.

our globe which is illuminated by the sun at various times. It
will be easily understood that the poles have six months day
and six months night. When the earth is at an equinox, one-
half of the surface is illuminated and the other half in shade ;
therefore the days and nights are equal. But when the north
pole turns more and more toward the sun, the south pole is
turning away from it in the same ratio, — the days and nights re-
spectively are getting longer and longer, and at the north and
south poles day and night are continuous, for the small spaces
round the poles are, drring a certain period, wholly in sunshine
and shade respectively.

When the earth is in Libra, and also when in Aries,* the rays

•When we say Iliat the earth is in Libra, wc mean that a spectator placed
at the sun would tee the earth in that part of the heavens which is occu-
pied by the sign of Libra. See Zodiac (Dictionary of Astronomical Terms).

strike vertically at the equator, and more and more obliquely in
the northern and southern hemispheres, as the distance from the
equator increases, until at the poles they strike almost horizon-
tally. This variation in the direction of the rays produce* a
corresponding variation in the intensity of the sun's heat and
light at different places, and accounts for the difference between
the torrid and polar regions. As the earth changes its position,
the angle at which the rays strike any portion is varied. For in-
stance, take the earth as it enters Capricornus, and the sun in
Cancer. He is now overhead 23^° north of the equator. His
rays strike less obliquely in the northern hemisphere than when
the earth was in Libra. Let six months elapse : The earth is
now in Cancer and the sun in Capricornus ; and he is overhead
23^° south of the equator. His rays strike less obliquely in the
southern hemisphere than before, but in the northern hem-
isphere more obliquely.
These six months have
changed the direction of
the sun's rays on every
part of the earth's surface.
This accounts for the dif-
ference in temperature be-
tween summer and winter.
At the equinoxes one-
half of each hemisphere is
illuminated; hence the
name equinox {trquus,
equal, and nor, night).
At these points of the orbit
the days and nights are
equal over the entire earth,
each being twelve hours in
length.

When the earth is at the
summer solstice, about the
21st of June, the sun is
overhead 2$%" north of
the equator, and if its ver-
tical rays could leave a
golden line on the surface
of the earth as it revolves,
they would mark the Tropic
of Cancer. The sun is at its furthest northern declination,
ascends the highest it is ever seen above our horizon, and rises
and sets 23^3° north of the east and west points. It seems now
to stand still in its northern and southern course ; and hence the
name solstice ( sol, the sun, sto, to stand). The days in the north
temperate zone are longer than the nights. It is our summer,
and the 21st of June is the longest day of the year. In the
south temperate zone it is winter, and the shortest day of the
year. The circle that separates day from night extends 23^*
beyond the north pole ; and if the sun's rays could in like man-
ner leave a golden line on that day, they would trace on the earth
the Arctic Circle. It is the noon of the long, six-months polar
day. The reverse is true at the Antarctic Circle, and it is there
the midnight of the long, six-months polar night.

1 £-

ASTRONOMY.

3 6 3

The earth crosses the aphelion point the 1st of July, when it
is at its furthest distance from the sun, which is then said to be
in apogee. The sun, each day rising and setting a trifle further
toward the south, passes through a lower circuit in the heavens.
We reach the autumnal equinox the 22d of September. The
sun being now on the equinoctial, if its vertical rays could leave
a line of golden light, they would mark on the earth the circle of
the equator. It is autumn in the north temperate zone, and
spring in the south temperate zone. The days and rights are
equal over the whole earth,
the sun rising at 6 A.M., and
setting at 6 p.m., exactly in
the east and west where
the equinoctial intersects the
horizon.

The sun, after passing the
equinoctial — "crossing the
line," as it is called — sinks
lower toward the southern
horizon each day. We reach
the winter solstice the 2ist of
December. The sun is now
directly overhead 23^° south
of the equator; and if its rays
could leave a line of golden
light, they would mark on
the earth's surface the Trop-
ic ot Capricorn. It is at its
furthest southern declination,
and rises and sets 23^°
south of the east and west
points. It is our winter, and
the 2 1 st of December is the
shortest day of the year. In
the south temperate zone it
is summer and the longest
day of the year. The circle
that separates day from night
extends 23^° beyond the
south pole; and if the sun's
rays in like manner could
leave a line of golden light,
they would mark the Ant-
arctic Circle. It is there the
noon of the long six-months
polar day. At the Arctic
Circle the reverse is true;
the rays fall 23^° short of

the north pole, and it is there the midnight of the long six-
months polar night. Here, again, the sun appears to us to stand
still a day or two before retracing its course, and it is therefore
called the winter solstice.

The earth reaches its perihelion about the 31st of December.
It is then nearest the sun, which is, therefore, said to be in peri-
gee. The sun rises and sets each day further and further north,
and climbs up higher in the heavens at midday. Our days

gradually increase in length, and our nights shorten in the same
proportion. On the 21st of March the sun reaches the equi-
noctial, at the vernal equinox. He is overhead at the equator,
and the days and nights are again equal. It is our spring, but
in the south temperate zone it is autumn.

We are nearer the sun by 3,000,000 miles in winter than in
summer. The obliqueness with which the rays strike the north
temperate zone at that time prevents our receiving any special
benefit from this favorable position of the earth. We notice

that we do not have our great-
est heat at the time of the
summer solstice nor our
greatest cold at the time of
the winter solstice. After
the 2 1st of June, the earth,
already warmed by the
genial spring days, continues
to receive more heat from the
sun by day than it radiates
by night ; thus its temperature
still increases. On the other
hand, after the 21st of De-
cember, the earth continues
to become colder, because
it loses more heat during the
night than it receives during
the day.

As the sun is not in the
center of the earth's orbit, but
at one of 'Us foci, that portion
of the orbit which the earth
passes through in going from
the vernal to the autumnal
equinox comprises more than
one-half the entire ecliptic.
On this account the summer
is longer than the winter.

The velocity of the earth
varies in different portions of
its orbit. When passing from
the vernal equinox to aphe-
lion, the attraction of the sun
tends to check its speed;
from that point to the
autumnal equinox, the attrac-
tion is partly in the direction
of its motion, and so in-
creases its velocity.
If the axis of the earth were perpendicular to the ecliptic, the
sun would always appear to move through the equinoctial. He
would rise and set every day at the same points on the horizon,
and pass through the same circle in the aeavens, while the days
and nights would be equal the year round. There would be
near the equator a fierce torrid heat, while north and south the
climate would melt away into temperate spring, and, lastly, into
the rigors of a perpetual winter.

Moon by Earth-light.

364

ASTRONOMY.

If the equator were perpendicular to the ecliptic, odd results
would follow. To a spectator at the equator, as the earth leaves
'.he vernal equinox, the sun would each day pass through

Fig. It. Telescopic View of the Full Moon.

a smaller circle, until at the summer solstice he would
reach the north pole, when he would halt for a time
and then slowly return in an inverse manner. In our
own latitude, the sun would make his diurnal revolu-
tions in the way we have just described, his rays shining
past the north pole further and further, until we were in-
cluded in the region of perpetual day, when he would
seem to wind in a spiral course up to the north pole, and
then return in a descending curve to the equator.

The sun and moon appear flattened when near the
horizon, because the rays from the lower edge pass through
a denser layer of the atmosphere, and are, therefore, re-
fracted about 4' more than those from the upper edge.
The effect of this is to make the vertical diameter appear
about 4' less than the horizontal, and so distort the Ggure
of the disk into an oval shape.

The dim and hazy appearance of the heavenly bodies
when near the horizon is caused not only by the rays of
light having to pass through a larger space in the atmos-
phere, but also by their traversing the lower and denser
part. The intensity of the solar light is so greatly di-
minished by passing through the lower strata, that we are
enabled to look upon the sun at that time without being
dazzled by his brilliant beams.

The glow of light after sunset, and before sunrise, which we
term twilight, is caused by the refraction and reflection of the
sun's rays by the atmosphere.

The diffused light of day is produced in the same
manner as that of twilight. The atmosphere reflects
and scatters the sunlight in every direction. Were it
not for this, no object would be visible to us out of di-
rect sunshine ; every shadow of a passing cloud would
be pitchy darkness ; the stars would be visible all day ;
no window would admit light except as the sun shone
directly through it, and a man would require a lan-
tern to go round his house at noon.

The blue light reflected to our eyes from the atmos-
phere above us, or more probably from the vapor in the
air, produces the optical delusion we call the sky.
Were it not for this, every time we cast our eyes up-
ward we should feel like one gazing over a dizzy preci-
pice ; while now the crystal dome of blue smiles down
upon us so lovingly and beautifully that we call it
heaven.

THE MOON.

"Fancy," says Lockyer, "a world without ice,
cloud, rain, snow ; without rivers or streams, and there-
fore without vegetation to support animal life ; — a
world without twilight or any gradations between the
fiercest sunshine and the blackest night ; — a world,
also, without sound, for, as sound is carried by the
air, the highest mountain on the airless moon might
be riven by an earthquake inaudibly." If it were
possible to reach the moon, as Jules Verne's travelers
did, we should find a very irregular and corrugated

/ 1* r' -

\mV "* imam

Fig. 13. A Map of the Moon.

=7?

ASTRONOMY.

365

surface — plains and mountains without water. There being
no atmosphere, we should be able to see the stars in the day-
time. The appearance of our earth from the moon, and the
beauty of the stars in the unclouded and waterless space
around the satellite, must be very grand, as depicted in a
measure, in the illustration (Fig. 11).

When we look steadily at the full moon through a telescope
we perceive upon its surface dark and light tracts, called " seas,"
though they are dried'up now. Thus, we hear of the " Sea of

Fig. 14. The Moon's Path through Space.

Serenity," the " Sea of Storms " and the " Sea of Tranquility."
The hill ranges extend for hundreds of miles, and the elevation
reaches 30,000 feet, and even more. The so-called craters do
not resemble volcanoes when viewed closely, but appear like
basins or valleys surrounded by lofty hills. One great plain,
called Copernicus, is more than fifty miles across.

The moon moves around us in 271/. "]h. 43m. 11.461*. Its
diameter is about 2,160 miles, and it is much less dense than
our earth, and so the force of gravity is less there than here.
Its mean distance from us is 238,833 miles. The moon goes
through certain changes or phases every twenty-nine days or so ;
and while rotating on its own axis our satellite goes round the
earth, so that we only see one side of the moon, inasmuch as
the two motions occupy almost exactly the same length of time.
So we generally see the same space of the moon, though at
times there is a slight variation. This movement or swaying of
the central point is called the moon's "libration," and is an
optical effect, due to the inequalities in the motion of the moon
in its orbit, and to the inclination of its equator and orbit to the
ecliptic.

The Phases of the Moon.

The moon, as we have seeH, revolves around the earth in the
same time as she turns upon her own axis, and always presents
one side to us when she appears. Any one can ascertain this if
he will put a candle upon a round table, and walk round it
facing the candle. The experimentalist will find that he will
turn upon his own axis as well as turn around the table. Thus
we shall see how the moon changes.

The time intervening between one " new " moon and another
is 291/. 12.4. 44m. 2s., and is termed a synodic revolution. This
is longer than the sidereal revolution, because the earth is also
moving in the same direction, and the moon has to make up the
time the earth has got on in front, as it were. So the moon
travels nearly thirteen times round the earth while the latter is
going round the sun.

The revolutions of the moon have been a measurement of
time for ages, and her varying appearances during lunation are
always observed with interest. The illustration (Fig. 15) will

assist us materially. The sun's rays fall in a parallel direction
unon the earth and moon, and let us suppose that S is the sun
in the diagram and T the earth ; c at the various points
is the moon, the capital letters, A, B, C, etc., indicating the
planet as she appears from the sun, and the small letters show-
ing how she appears to us from the earth. Let us suppose that
the sun, earth and moon are in conjunction — that is, in a direct
line. The phases C and G are the moon's " quadratures." At
A we see the sun shining on the moon, but we only have the
dark side. It is then " new moon." But by degrees, as
she goes round in her orbit, we perceive a small crescent-
shaped portion, lighted up by the sun at B and b. At </
we have the first quarter or half-moon, and so on to the
last quarter.

The moon revolves round the earth in a changeable
elliptical orbit, intersecting the ecliptic at certain points
called nodes. When the moon is nearest to the earth she
is said to be in perigee ; when farthest from us she is
in apogee. The line uniting these points is the line of apsides,
the difference in distance being about 4,000 miles.

Eclipses.
The moon passes the sun periodically, and so, if she moved
in the plane of the ecliptic, there would be eclipses of the sun

■fya

Fig. 15. The Phases of the Moon.

and moon twice a month ; but, as the orbit is inclined a little,
she escapes by moving north or south.

There are eclipses of the sun and of the moon. The former
occur at the time of new moon, and the latter at full moon ;
and this will be at once understood when we remember that
the sun is eclipsed by the moon passing between us and the

V-

*fe

366

ASTRONOMY.

sun ; and the moon is eclipsed because the shadow of the tarlh
falls upon her when she is opposite the sun, and therefore " full."

There are total, partial, and annular eclipses. The last of
these terms is derived from "annulus," a ring; for a ring of
light is left around the dark portion eclipsed, and is only seen
in solar eclipses. In one sense the eclipse of the sun is really an
eclipse of the earth, because
it is caused by the shadow of
the moon falling upon the
earth.

Various singular appear-
ances always attend a total
eclipse. Around the sun is
seen a beautiful corona, or
halo of light, like that which
painters give to the head of
the Virgin Mary. Flamesofa
blood-red color play round
the disk of the moon ; and,
when only a mere crescent of
the sun is visible, it seems to
resolve itself into bright spots,
interspersed with dark
spaces, havingthe appearance
of a string of bright beads.

The Tides.

The ebb and flow of tidal
waters depend upon the moon
to a great extent. Twice ev-
ery day we have the tides,
twelve hours apart, and the
flow and ebb are merely examples of the attraction of gravita-
tion which is exercised on all bodies, whether liquid or solid.
The tides may be compared to a great wave, which, raised by
the moon's attraction, follows her in her course round the earth.
The sun also aids in this effect, but as the moon is so much
nearer the earth her influence is far greater. The tides are
highest at the equator and
lowest at the poles, because the
tropics are more exposed to
the lunar attraction.

' MARS
Appears to the naked eye as a
bright red star, rarely scintillat-
ing, and shining with a steady
light, which distinguishes it
from the fixed stars. Its ruddy
appearance has led to its being
celebrated among all nations.
The Jews gave it the appellation of " blazing," and it bore in
other languages a similar name. The orbit of Mars is exterior
to the earth's, as is proved by his never appearing " horned,"
nor ever passing across the sun's disc. Therefore, no transits
of Mars can take place as transits of Venus and Mercury. When

Pig. 15. The Corona as seen in 1857.

Fi r . 17.

in " opposition," or on the opposite side of us from the sun,
Mars is at his brightest This happened in September, 1877.
He will come close again to us in iS02. Of all the planets Mars
has the most eccentric orbit. He curls about, so to speak, in
loops and curves, in a very irregular manner, and therefore his
distance from the earth varies considerably.

Mars is most like the earth
of all the planets, and its in-
habitants — if, indeed, it is
now inhabited — must have
a beautiful view of us when
the weather is fine, for we
are so much larger. When
examined with a good tel-
escope, the seas and con-
tinents of Mars can be dis-
tinctly perceived. At the
poles there appears to be a
white or snowy region at
varying periods, which would
lead us to the conclusion that
the atmospheric changes and
the seasons are similar to our
own ; and as the inclination
of the planet is nearly the
same as the earth, this sup-
position may be accepted as
a fact.

The seasons of Mars are
not equal, in consequence of
his wandering propensities,
and winter is warmer up
there than our winter, while summer is cooler than our sum-
mer. That there are clouds and an aqueous atmosphere sur-
rounding the planet we learn from analysis and spectroscopic
observation. Respecting the question of habitation, Richard
Proctor says : " I fear my own conclusion about Mars is that
his present condition is very desolate. I look on the ruddiness

of tint as one of the signs that
the planet of war has long
since passed its prime. There
are lands and seas in Mars, the
vapor of water is present in
his air, clouds form, rains and
snows fall upon his surface,
and doubtless brooks and rivers
irrigate his soil, and carry down
the moisture collected on his
wide continents to the seas
whence the clouds had origin-
ally been formed. But I do not
think there is much vegetation on Mars, or that many living crea-
tures of the highertypes of Martian life as it once existed still re-
main. All that is known about the planet lends to show that the
time when it attained that stage of planetary existence through
which our earth is now passing must be set millions of years.

The Rotation of Mars, as shown by the Movement of
the Spots on its Disc.

VL.

ASTRONOMY.

367

perhaps hundreds of millions of years ago. He has not yet, in-
deed, reached that airless and waterless condition, that extrem-
ity of internal cold, or in fact that utter unfitness to support
any kind of life, which would seem to prevail in the moon.
The planet of war in some respects resembles a desolate battle-
field, and I fancy that there is not a single region of the earth
now inhabited by man which is not infinitely more comfortable
as an abode of life than the most favored regions of Mars at the
present time would be for creatures like ourselves."

Mars is attended by two satellites, or moons, discovered in
1877 — both being very small, their diameter not exceeding six
miles, although late astronomers have reasoned that they must
be three times as large.

JUPITER, THE GIANT PLANET,

Is thirteen hundred times larger than our earth. His inclination
is very small, and he therefore enjoys very small changes of
seasons. He has four satellites. Jupiter himself was well
known to the ancients, but his moons were discovered by

* 1

-i^t-r

tp^-^j

UliiJJii -_^B

-■I

Fig. 18. Jupiter as shown by the Telescope.

Galileo. These moons were found to revolve around Jupiter in
times varying from nearly two days to nearly sixteen days, ac-
cording as they were at a less or greater distance from him.
They were also found to have their times of eclipses and
transits. They act with respect to Jupiter very much as the
inner planets act with respect to the sun, for observation showed
Galileo that the satellites sometimes appeared on one side of the
planet, and at other times on the opposite side.

Jupiter is the largest of the planets, and only Venus is
brighter. He revolves at a distance of 476,000,000 of miles
from the sun, and his year is equal to nearly twelve of ours,
while his day is scarcely ten hours long, showing a rapidity
more than twenty times the rate of our earth. Jupiter, there-
fore, must have a very much greater diameter than the earth.

There is much less sunlight and heat found on Jupiter than
upon earth, because he is so much farther from the sun than

we are. There is but little difference in the length of his days
and nights, which are each of about five hours' duration. At the
poles the sun is visible for nearly six years, and then remains set
for the same length of time. The seasons vary but slightly.
Summer reigns near the equator, while the temperate regions
enjoy perpetual spring.

When Jupiter is examined with the telescope it will be seen
that he is crossed by belts of vapor ; and when we consider the
results of the spectrum analysis of the planet, we may fairly
assume that Jupiter is in a very heated state, and that we can-
not really perceive the actual body of the planet. There is an
immense quantity of water thus surrounding Jupiter, and he
seems to be still in the condition in Which our earth was before
geology grasps its state, and long ere vegetation or life appeared.
The waters have yet to be " gathered together unto one place,"
and the dry land has yet to appear. Under these conditions we
can safely assume that there are no inhabitants on the " giant
planet." The belts or zones of Jupiter vary in hue, and the con-
tinual changes which are taking place in this cloud region tend
to show that disturbances of great magnitude and importance
are occurring.

It is useless to speculate upon what will happen in Jupiter
when the disc is eventually cooled. The planet, we know, has
not nearly reached maturity ; the earth is in the full prime of its
life, and the moon is dead and deserted. What the millions of
years which must elapse before Jupiter has cooled may bring forth
we need not try to find out. The earth will then, in all proba-
bility, be as dreary as the moon is now, and we shall have re-
turned to dust.

The velocity of light was discovered by an attentive exam-
ination of the eclipses of Jupiter's moons, by Romer, a Daniih
astronomer, in 1617, who was led to discover the progressive
motion of light. Before him, it had been considered instantan-
eous. He noticed that the observed times of the eclipses were
sometimes earlier and son^times later than the calculated times,
according as Jupiter was nearest or farthest fromthe earth. His
investigations convinced him that it requires about 161^ minutes
for light to traverse the orbit of the earth. Romer's conclusion
has since been verified by the phenomena of aberration of light.

SATURN

Is an immense globe, surrounded by a beautiful bright ring,
or, rather, series of rings, and attended by eight moons. He
appears to possess much the same constitution as Jupiter, but
is enveloped in an even denser atmosphere. He revolves on
an inclined axis, and has seasonal alterations of unequal
length. The rings of Saturn are apparently broad, and flat,
and thin, resembling roughly the horizon of a globe, and are
supposed to be a close agglomeration of stars, or satellites,
revolving around the planet, and encircling him in a belt.
The two outermost rings are very bright, the inner ring being
darker, and partially transparent, for the ball of Saturn can be
perceived through it. The rings are not always so plainly seen
as in the illustration (Fig. 19). Sometimes they appear as a
mere line of light on each side of the planet. This occurs at
the time of the equinox. By degrees, however, as they become

<a •>.

3 68

ASTRONOMY.

inclined, they appear broader. The inner ring may be formed
of vapor, but the outer ones are of something more solid, as
indicated by the shadows they cast upon the planet, and it casts
upon them at certain times. Saturn possesses eight moons,
seven of them revolving in orbits on the plane of the rings
but one more inclined.

Saturn, on account of its distance, shines with a feeble,
but steady, pale yellow light, which distinguishes it from the
fixed stars. Its orbit is so vast that its movement among
the constellations may be easily traced through one's lifetime.
It requires two and a half years to pass through a single sign
of the zodiac; hence, when once known, it may be easily
found again.

As the earth and Saturn occupy different portions of their
orbits, the distances between them at different times may vary
200,000,000 miles.

The light and heat of the sun at Saturn are only ,J 5 that
which we receive. The axis of the planet is inclined from a
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit about 31 . The seasons,
therefore, are similar to those on the earth, but on a larger scale.

. m

Jvt

^^^

^fc^>

tj$8*^ r ~

Fig. 19. Saturn and his Rings.

The sun climbs in summer about 8° higher above the horizon, and
sinks correspondingly lower i n winter. The tropics are 1 6° further
apart, and the Arctic and Antarctic circles 8° further from the
poles. Each of Saturn's seasons lasts more than seven of our
years. There is about fifteen years' interval between the autumn
and spring equinoxes, and between the summer and winter
solstices. For fifteen years the sun shines on the north pole,
and a night of the same length envelopes the south oole.

URANUS.

Uranus was discovered by Herschel, in 1781, and has been
called after its discoverer, and sometimes the " Georgium Siclus."
It revolves at an enormous distance from the sun — viz. : 1,753,-
000,000 of miles. It takes about eighty-four of our years (30,686
days) to go round the sun, and possesses four moons. It is very
much larger than the earth— about four times the diameter, and
forty times its volume. We can only speculate concerning its
physical constitution, which is assumed to be similar to that of
Jupiter, while the changes of temperature and seasons must vary
immensely. Uranus has four moons, called Ariel, Umbriel, Ti-
tania and Obcron. The outer pair can be seen without much
difficulty.

NEPTUNE

Is the far-off sentinel at the very outposts of the solar system.
The existence of this planet was determined by calculation
before it had been seen at all. Uranus was observed to be dis-
turbed in his orbit, moving sometimes faster than at others;
and even before Uranus had been discovered Saturn and Jupiter
had been seen to be afiected by some body in the system. Lever-
rier determined to ascertain the cause of this, and came to the
conclusion that some other planet was influencing Uranus. The
Newtonian theory here received a most convincing proof. While
I.everrier was calculating, Mr. Adams, of Cambridge, leaped to
the same conclusion, and wrote the result of his calculations to
Professor Airy, and the planet was seen, but not reported upon.
Meantime Leverrier published his calculations, and the observers
at Berlin detected the new planet in September, 1846.

Very little can be said concerning Neptune, as its distance is
too great for observation. It has one moon, which moves round
the planet in 5 d. 21 h., and is of great size.

THE ASTEROIDS, OR MINOR PLANETS.

The Asteroids are smaller planets circulating outside the
orbit of Mars. They are all at distances from the sun ranging
between 200,000,000 and 300,000,000 miles, the periods
of sidereal revolution ranging from 1,100 to 3,000 days.
Consequently their years are from three to nine times as long
as ours. Nearly 335 of these minor planets have been dis-
covered, and they are all very much smaller than the earth,
some, indeed being only a few miles in diameter.

In olden times astronomers noticed a very considerable

gap between Mars and Jupiter, which was remarkable when

the regular progression of the distances between the planets

was remembered. The discovery of Ceres in 1801 led to

other discoveriee, and now we have nearly two hundred

asteroids. Pallas was discovered in 1802; Jrso, 1804; Vesta,

1807; Astr.*a, 1845, and since 1848 every year has added to

the list.

The hypothesis that all these asteroids are fragments of one
large planet which has been destroyed was started by Olbers;
and in confirmation of this view it has been determined that the
asteroids have essentially the same character. The orbits of
these minor planets are different from the larger " wanderers,"
and cross each other, so that a collision may one day ensue.

Vesta is the first in order in the system, and revolves in 1 ,325
days, at a mean distance of 225,000,000 of miles from the sun.
Juno and Ceres take each about four of our years to revolve in
their orbits, at greater distances still, averaging 260,000,000
of miles. Pallas and Ceres are most alike in their periods and
distance from the sun. The principal asteroids are only about.
300 miles in diameter.

METEORS.

Meteors are small erratic bodies rushing through the planet-
ary system, and, getting hot in the process, appear in the
atmosphere surrounding our earth as "shooting stars." Some
■ falling bodies have reached the earth, and such are

-» — »*

"Iv

ASTRONOMY.

369

called "aerolites" or "meteorites." Numbers, of course, are
burnt up before they reach us, and who can tell what destruction
such a catastrophe may represent, or whether it be or be not an
inhabited world which has thus been plunged to destruction by
fire ? They are of a metallic or stony nature. On certain nights in
August and November it has been calculated that these meteors

Fig. Jo. An Exploding Meteor.

will appear. They fall from certain constellations, after which
they are named ; as Leonides, from Leo, in the November
displays.

The star showers sometimes present the appearance of a beau-
tiful display of rockets. Millions of them rush round
the sun, and when, as occasionally happens, our earth
comes near them, we have a grand display of celestial
fireworks.

It is estimated that the average number of meteors
that traverse the atmosphere daily, and which are
large enough to be visible to the eye on a dark, clear
night, is 7,500,000; and if to these the telescopic
meteors be added, the number will be increased to
400,000,000. In the space traversed by the earth
there are, on the average, in each volume the size of
our globe (including its atmosphere), as many as
13,000 small bodies, each one capable of furnishing
a shooting star visible under favorable circumstances
to the naked eye.

COMETS.

It has been lately suggested that there is a great
degree of affinity between comets and meteors — in
fact, that a comet is merely an aggregation of meteors.
Comets have been supposed to be bodies of burning
gas. Their mass is very great, and their brilliant tails
are many millions of miles in extent. In their orbits,
they differ greatly from the planets. While the latter
are direct in their wanderings, comets are most irreg-
ular and eccentric. When first seen, the comet re-
sembles a faint spot of light upon the dark back-
ground of the sky. As it comes nearer, the brightness
increases and the tail begins to show itself.

The term comet signifies a hairy body. A comet consists
usually of three parts : the nucleus, a bright point in the center
of the head; thecoma (hair), the cloud-like mass surrounding

the nucleus ; and the tail, a luminous train extending generally
in a direction from the sun.

It is not understood whether comets shine by their own or by
reflected light. If, however, their nuclei consist of white-hot
matter, a passage through such a furnace would be anything but
desirable or satisfactory.

It is to Halley that the discovery of the elliptical orbit of
comets is due. A comet had been observed in 1607, and Halley
made a calculation that it would reappear in 1757. The expected
visitor passed the perihelion in 1759. This comet, on its appear-
ance at Constantinople, is said to have cause-i much consterna-
tion, and Christians regarded it as a ''sigiV for the Turks
had just then captured Constantinople and were threatening
Europe. Halley's comet was last observed in 1835.

Encke's, Biela's and the comets of 1843 and 1858 are com-
paratively recent. Others came in 1861, 1874, 1883. In 1881
two comets appeared. Some comets of antiquity were very
remarkable, and are reputed to have equaled the sun in magni-
tude. One tail is usually supposed to be the distinguishing
mark of a comet, but in 1 774 one appeared with six tails,
arranged something like a fan. Sometimes the tail is separated
from the head. Some comets appear at regular intervals, and
their approach can be determined with accuracy. Of course we
only see those which are attracted by the sun, or those which

Fig. ai. Various Forms of Comets.

revolve in the solar system. There must be thousands of other
comets which we never see at all.

The comet of 1680 pursued its course for two months at a

K-

37°

ASTRONOMY.

velocity of 800,000 miles an hour. The tail was estimated to
extend 123,000,000 of miles, and a length of 60,000,000 of
miles was emitted in two days. This comet appeared B.C. 34,
and again at intervals of about 575 years, and will reappear
about 2255.

Biela's comet was the cause of much anxiety in 1832, for a
collision with the earth was feared. A month, however, inter-
vened between the period at which the comet was expected at
a certain place in the system and the earth's arrival at that spot,
and so the comet was 60,000,000 miles away when the collision
was apprehended. What the effect of such a collision would

Pig. H. Orbits of the Comets.

be, cannot be said. Wonderful atmospheric phenomena and
increased temperature would, however, certainly result. If
comets, as is believed, consist partly of solid particles, a collision
would certainly be unpleasant; but their weight is probably a
mere nothing compared to their vapory volume, which must be
enormous. That the tails must be of a very attenuated medium,
is evident, as the stars can be seen through them, although a
very thin cloud will obscure a star.

THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.

This phenomenon, which may be seen in the western horizon
on any clear winter or spring evening, after twilight, and also in
the eastern horizon, just before daybreak, in summer or autumn,
consists of a faint luminosity, extending out on each side of the
sun, and lying nearly in the plane of the ecliptic. It can gen-
erally be traced to about 90 degrees from the sun. growing
fainter as it rises above the horizon. In a very clear tropical
atmosphere, however, it forms a complete ring, ami may In-
traced all the way across the heavens. These appearances seem

to indicate that it is due to a lens-shaped appendage surrounding
the sun and extending a little beyond the earth's orbit. Various
attempts have been made to explain the phenomenon, but the
most probable theory is that it is due to an immense number of
meteors revolving round the sun, and which lie mostly within
the earth's orbit, each reflecting a sensible portion of sunlight,
but far too small to be separately visible.

THE FIXED STARS.

Those stars which shine with a clear, distinct light, and visibly
change their position with respect to the others, are called
planets, and these have been fully described according to their
order in our solar system. Those stars which apparently re-
main immovable, and shine with a shifting, twinkling light,
are termed fixed stars, although it is now known that they also
are in motion. Arcturus, for instance, moves at the rate of
fifty miles a second, and others less, but only the rates of a
few are known.

In the daytime we cannot see the Mars because of the supe-
rior light of the sun ; but with a telescope they can be traced,
and an astronomer will find certain stars as well at noon as at
midnight. When looking at the sky from the bottom of a
deep well or lofty chimney, if a bright star happens to be di-
rectly overhead, it can be seen with the naked eye, even at
midday.

In reality, we never see the stars. This assertion seems par-
adoxical, yet it is strictly true. So far are the stars removed
from us that we see only the light they send, but not the sur-
face of the worlds themselves.

The number of the stars is beyond our calculation. Those
visible only in the telescope amount to millions, and are called
telescopic stars. The stars visible to the unaided eye amount to
about six thousand. There are more visible in the southern
than in the northern hemisphere. The magnitudes of the
stars range in classes according to the brightness of the stars
observed, for this is really the test from the first magnitude to
the sixth ; after that the telescopic stars are seen up to the
fifteenth or sixteenth. We can only see about three thousand
stars at one time from any place, although, as remarked above,
many millions may be observed with a good telescope, and as
many more, probably twenty mil-
lions, are invisible.

The Motion of the Heaven-
ly Bodies.
Attentive observation of the*
starry heavens will convince us
that all the visible stars describe
circles which are the smaller the
nearer the stars are to a certain
point of the heavens, P (Fig. 23).
Near this point there is a toler-
ably bright star, the Pole-star, which appears to the eye as
always occupying the same position. A line, P P', drawn from
the star through the center of the earth, C, represents the axis

The Celestial Axis.

ASTRONOMY.

371

Fig. 34.

around which all the heavenly bodies perform their apparent
motions. The part of the celestial axis, PP', passing through
the earth, is the earth's axis; the North Pole,/), is on the same
side as the Pole-star, and the South Pole,/', is on the opposite
side. Thus //' is the earth's
axis, and the line aq, the
plane of which cuts the
earth's axis at right angles,
is the equator, equally dis-
tant from both poles. Now
if we suppose the plane of
the equator to be extended
to the heavens, we have the
celestial equator, A Q, or
equinoctial, dividing the
heavens into the northern
and southern hemispheres.
The equinoctial cannot be
actually described or made
visible, but its line of direction
may be imagined by observ-
ing the stars through which
it passes.

By assigning to an observer
stations on the earth's sur-
face differing in relation to the earth's axis, the aspects of celestial
phenomena will be essentially modified. One of these stations
may be supposed to be, for example, at one of the two poles, at
/, or at any point of the equator, as at q,
or, finally, on any portion of the earth's
surface which lies between the pole and
the equator, as, for example, 0.

The Constellations.

At a very early period in the history
of astronomy the observers of the heavens
grouped stars together in fancied resem-
blances to men and animals, and these
constellations, as they are termed, are com-
binations of fixed stars. Many of the con-
stellations are familiar by name to every-
body. Illustrations of some of the more
interesting are given. We shall find that
the forms are in greater part due to the
imagination of the ancients, and do not
bear our. our ideas of the animals, etc., they
are supposed to represent, while at the same
time they cross and recross with other con-
stellations in the skies in a very puzzling
manner. The twelve maps of the stars pre-
sented in subsequent pages will, however,
enable us to gain a knowledge of the con-
stellations as they appear on the sky on
any night during the year.

The arrangement of the constellations is plunged in the
obscurity of ages, but B.C. 370 there were forty-five thus

grouped. The brighter stars have all proper names, but most of
the names have dropped entirely out of astronomical use,
though many are popularly retained. The brighter stars are

now generally designated by the letters of the Greek alphabet

alpha, beta, gamma, delta,
etc., — to which is appended
the genitive of the Latin
name of the constellation.
Thus Aldeboran would be
designated as Alpha Tauri.
When the letters of the Greek
alphabet are exhausted, those
of the Roman alphabet are
employed. The fainter stars
in a constellation are usually
designated by some system
of numbers.

Doable and Multiple
Stars.

Many stars which appear
single to the naked eye are
really double when seen
through the telescope, that
is, they are composed of a
Pairs of stars are not considered

The Constellation Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, contain
ing the Great Dipper, or Charles' Wain.

Fig. 35. Virgo (The Virgin).

pair of stars lying side by side,
double unless the components are so near together that they
both appear in the field of view when examined with a tele-
scope. When what appears as a single star
is resolved into more than two components
by the telescope, it is called a multiple
star.

New and Variable Stars.
There are many stars which undergo
changes of brilliancy, sometimes slight,
but occasionally very marked. These
changes, in some cases, are apparently
irregular, and in others periodic. All such
stars are said to be variable. Algol, in
the constellation Perseus, is a variable star,
whose period is now known to be 2d. zoh.
49 m. Mira, in the constellation Cetus, is
generally invisible, but at intervals of about
eleven months it shines forth as a star of the
second or third magnitude. The star 7 of
the constellation Argo (Eta Argus), in the
southern hemisphere, is perhaps the most
remarkable variable star in the heavens.
It was first observed by Sir John Herschel,
while at the Cape of Good Hope. He
says: "On the 16th of December, 1837,
my astonishment was excited by the ap-
pearance of a new candidate for distinction
among the very brightest stars of the first magnitude in a part
of the heavens where I was certain that no such brilliant object
had ever been seen. * * * I finally became satisfied of

*7^=?

ASTRONOMY.

■!■',

;^7 HYAOtS

raitots

» ■ ? .

•■> 1 ,-■

its identity with my old acquaintance Eta Argus, although
its light was nearly tripled." It continued to increase until
January 2, 1838, then faded a little till April following. In
1842 and 1843 it blazed up brighter than ever, and in March of

the latter year
was second only
to Sirius. Dur-
ing the twenty-
five years follow-
ing it slowly but
steadily dimin-
ished; in 1867
it was barely vis-
ible to the naked
eye, and the next
year it vanished
entirely from the
unassisted view,
and has not yet
begun to recover

its brightness.
Fig. 26. Orion and Taurus. ,,

New or tempo-
rary stars are such as have suddenly
appeared, and even become very brilliant,
and then faded away and disappeared.
They are now classified by astronomers
among the variable stars, their changes
being of very irregular and fitful character.
In 1572 an apparently new star appeared
in Cassiopeia, and was first seen by Tycho
Brahe on November It, when it had
attained the first magnitude. It became
rapidly brighter, rivaling Venus in splen-
dor, so that good eyes could discern it
in full daylight. In December it began
to wane, and in the following May it
had disappeared entirely. Kepler's star,
first seen in October, 1 604, in Ophiuchus,
began to fade in the following winter,
but remained visible throughout 1605,

disappearing entirely early in 1606. It was noted for its bril-
liant scintillation. Astronomers suppose that this star also ap-
peared in 393, 798 and 1203, which would make it a variable
star with a period of a little over 400 years. In May, 1 866, a
star of the second magnitude suddenly appeared in Corona
Borealis, and this is the most striking case of the kind in recent
times.

Distance of the Stars.
Snch is the distance of the stars that only in a comparatively
few instances has any displacement of these bodies been detected
when viewed from opposite points of the earth's orbit — that is,
from points 185,000,000 miles apart — and then only by the
most careful and delicate measurement. Half of the above dis-
placement, or the displacement of the star as seen from the
earth instead of the sun, is called the parallax of the star. In
no case has a parallax of one second as yet been discovered.
The distance of a star whose parallax is one second would be

206,265 times the distance of the earth from the sun, or about
19,000,000,000,000 miles. It is quite certain that no star is
nearer the earth than this. Light has a velocity which would
take it seven and a half times around the earth in one second ;
but it would require more than three years to reach us from the
distance named. If the Almighty, in his inscrutable wisdom,
should blot all the stars out of existence, it would be more than
three years before we should miss a single one. The star a in
the constellation of the Centaur is supposed to be the nearest of
the fixed stars, and it is estimated that it would take its light
about three years and a half to reach us. It has also been esti-
mated that it would take light over 16 years to reach us from
Sirius, about 18 from Vega, about 25 from Arcturus and over 40
from the Pole-star. The stars named, however, are comparatively
near to us, and there are many so far removed that their light
requires a thousand years to reach the earth.

Proper Motion of the Stars.
The discovery of the real motion of the stars, called their
"proper motion," is due to Halley. He noticed that three very
bright stars, Sirius, Aldeboran and Arcturus, were not in the
places assigned to them. The stars have come to be universally
denominated as fixed because they seem
to retain their relative positions from year
to year. Although moving at the rate
of many miles a second, their distance is
so enormous that, in the majority of cases,
it would be thousands of years before
this rate of motion would produce a suf-
ficient displacement to be noticeable to the
unaided eye. In the course of ages, bow-
ever, a marked change in the configura-

Com» Berenices (Berenices Hair).

tion of the stars will
be produced.

The stars in all
parts of the heavens
are found to move
in all directions, and
with all sorts of ve-
lodttn. When, how-
ever, their motions are
averaged, there is
found to be an appar-
ent proper motion
common to all the
stars. Those in the

Fig. 38. Arcturus and Bootes.
neighborhood of Hercules appear to be approaching us, and
those in the opposite part of the heavens appear to be receding
from us. In other words, all the stars appear to be moving

ASTRONOMY.

373

B0OT£S ~ s\

(7/7 ff ASTEFtlON

yfez*

lA If COR CAROL^.

away from Hercules and towards the opposite part of the

heavens.

Astronomers hold that this apparent common motion of the

stars is due to
the real motion
the sun and the
planets of his
system through
space. Wheth-
er this motion of
the sun is in a
straight line or
around some dis-
tant center, has
not been deter-
mined, but it is
estimated that
our great lumin-
ary moves along
Fig. 39. Canes Venatici (The Hunting Dogs), his path at the

rate of about 1 50,000,000 miles a year.
In some cases, groups of stars, prob-
ably forming connected systems, have a
common proper motion, entirely different
from that of the stars around and among
them. The most remarkable instance of
this kind occurs in the constellation
Taurus. Proctor has shown that five of
the seven stars forming the Great Dipper
have a common proper motion, and he
proposes for this phenomenon the name of
Star-drift.

NEBULAE AND STAR-
CLUSTERS

Fig. 30. Leo

Are numerous in the heavens. The most

important are those in Orion and in Andromeda. But there
are other very beautiful "patches" of luminous matter, or cloud
appearances, composed of stars invisible to the naked eye.
There must be thousands of these star-clouds.

The nebulae present the appearance of various forms — circu-
lar, elliptical, annular and spiral. Sometimes one or more
minute stars are enveloped in a nebulous haze, and are hence
called nebulous stars. The great nebula of Andromeda is one
of the few that are visible to the naked eye. One can see at a
glance that it is not a star, but a mass of diffused light, and it
has sometimes very naturally been mistaken for a comet. Its
spectrum suggests that it is really an immense star-cluster, so dis-
tant that the highest telescopic power cannot resolve it, yet in
the largest telescopes it looks more like a gas than in those of
moderate size.

The great nebula of Orion, surrounding the middle star of the
three forming the sword, has above all others excited the wonder
of observers. In its center are four stars, easily distinguished by
a small telescope, together with two smaller ones requiring a

nine-inch telescope to be well seen. Besides these, the whole
nebula is dotted with stars. A good eye will perceive that what
appears as a single star, instead of looking like a bright point,
has a hazy appearance, due to the surrounding nebula. Huyghens
first described the object in 1659. He says : " There is one
phenomenon among the fixed stars worthy of mention, which, so
far as I know, hag hitherto been noticed by no one, and indeed
cannot be well observed except with large telescopes. In the
sword of Orion are three stars quire close together. In 1656,
as I chanced to be viewing the middle one of these with the
telescope, instead of a single star, twelve showed themselves (a
not uncommon circumstance). Three of these almost touched
each other, and with four others shone through a nebula, so that
the space around them seemed far brighter than the rest of the
heavens, which was entirely clear, and appeared quite black ;
the effect being that of an opening in the sky, through which a
brighter region was visible."

The Nebular Hypothesis.

What is termed the Nebular Hypothesis was put forward by
Laplace, and by it he endeavored to account for the regular
development of the stellar system, which
is supposed to have originated from an
immense nebular cloud. This immense
mass would rotate and contract, and the
outer portions would separate and develop
into rings like Saturn's rings. Then the
rings break into separate portions, and
each portion condenses into a planet, or
the small "bits" travel round the sun
like asteroids, and in this manner various
systems were formed. This theory was
considered to be quite exploded when
stars were discerned in nebulae by the
more recent telescopes ; but then the
spectroscope came to our aid, and it was
(The Lion). discovered that there were some nebulae

which aresimply
masses of glow-
ing gas or aggre-
gations of stones
which are dash-
ing against each
other in so forci-
ble a manner as
to produce heat
and luminosity.
Proctor has put
iorwara a hy-
pothesis that the
star or meteor
showers are the
original cause of
the sidereal sys- ««•»»■ Corvu. (The Crow),

tern, and that this rain of meteors has fallen for all time, grad-
ually consolidating into orbs.

Tffe

— » >7

c —

374

ASTRONOMY.

•*

THE MILKY WAY
Is a whitish, vapory-looking belt, and is composed of multi-
tudes of millions of suns, of which our own sun itself is one, so
far removed from us that their light mingles and makes only a
fleecy whiteness. Philosophers have frequently discoursed
upon this phenomenon, but all statements must remain more or
less speculative. From Kepler's to the present time astrono-

Fig. 32. A Spiral Nebula.

mers have been considering the Milky Way, but an actual
knowledge is still beyond us. It is agreed, however, that the
galaxy is not a continuous stream, but a series of luminous
patches, most extraordinary aggregations of stars, which it is
not only impossible to count, but each of which appears to be

independent of the others. " The sidereal system," says Proctor,
in his Universe of Stars, " is altogether more complicated,
altogether more varied in structure than has hitherto been sup-
posed. Within one and the same region co-exist stars of many
orders of real magnitude, the greatest being thousands of time*
larger than the least. All the nebuUe hitherto discovered,
whether gaseous or stellar, irregular, planetary, ring-formed, or
elliptic, exist within the limits of the sidereal system. They all
form part and parcel of that wonderful system whose nearer
and brighter parts constitute the glories of our nocturnal
heavens."

And a little reflection will show how true this is. Not very
long ago in the world's life the solar system was supposed to
consist of one sun with a few planets wandering around him.
Then some more were found, and they were called " satellites."
For a long time man fancied he had reached the " ultima thule "
of astronomy in these depths ; but the whole idea was changed
when it was discovered that beyond Mars there lie the asteroids
and the host of bodies in this solar system which we cannot do
more than allude to. Then when we consider this " sun " of
ours, which we think so enormous, and which keeps in subjec-
tion and illuminates so many heavenly bodies, and when we
reflect that there are in space, and visible, stars many times
larger than our ruling orb, each a sun, and that our sun would,
if placed where the great Sirius glows, be but a speck in the
firmament, and his system invisible to our eyes, we may well
wonder at the magnitude of the subject and bow down before
the wisdom and power of Him " at whose sight all the stars
hide their diminished heads."

4«f H» ■

A DICTIONARY OF ASTRONOMIGAL DEFINITIONS.

-i»ofo-2-

Apbelion. That point of a planet or comet's
orbit which is most distant from the sun; the
opposite point is called the perihelion.

Apogee. The point of a planet's orbit farthest
from the earth. (Generally used only when
speaking of the moon.)

Apsides (plural of Afsis.) The two points of an
orbit which are respectively the greatest and least
distance from the central body.

Axis. A real or imaginary straight line on which
a body revolves or is supposed to revolve.

Azimuth. An arc of the horizon intercepted
between the meridian of the place and a vertical
circle passing through the center of any object.
See Nadir and Zenith.

Celestial Globe. An artificial globe represent-
ing tin nt and the signs of the Zodiac
in their places in the heavens.

Celestial Sphere. The blue arch of the sky
at it appears spread above us.

Circumference. The line that goes round or
encompasses a circular figure.

Colures. Two circles dividing the ecliptic 'into
four equal parts, and making the seasons. The
"equinoctial colure" passes through the equi-
noxes at Aries and Libra. The other, north and
south, is the " solstitial colure."

Conjunction. Planets are in conjunction with
each other when in the same sign and degree. A
planet with the sun between it and the earth is in
conjunction with ihe sun.

Declination. The distance of the heavenly
bodies from the equinoctial measured as a meri-
dian. In other words, latitude upon a celestial
globe. The Tropics indicate the limits of the
sun's declination.

Degree. The 360th part of the circumference of
a circle.

Diameter. A right line passing through the
center of a circle or sphere.

Disc The apparently flat surface of a planet.

Diurnal. Constituting the measure of a day.
Diurnal arc. the arc described by the sun during
the daytime or while above the horizon. Diur-

nal circle, the apparent circle described by a celes-
tial body in consequence of the earth's rotation.

Ecliptic. The earth's orbit about the sun, or the
sun s apparent path through the heavens. The
sun, of course, does not actually move, and there-
fore the track, or supposed circle, is really the
earth's motion observable from the sun When
the moon is near this circle eclipses happen.
The ecliptic cuts the equinoctial at an angle of
83° a8', one-half being to the north and the other
to the south of the equinoctial. The poles of the
ecliptic are the points where the axis of the
earth's orbit meets the celestial sphere.

Elliptical. Oval or oblong, with roundedenda.

Epicycle. A circle in the center of a greater
circle.

Equator. An imaginary great circle on the
earth's surface, everywhere equally distant from
the two poles and dividing the earth into two
hemispheres. The equator cf tke heaven* it a
great circle of the celestial sphere, coincident
with the plane of the earth's equator, and 1
the equinoctial.

ASTRONOMY.

375

Equinoctial. The plane of the equator ex-
tended to the heavens. When the sun appears
in that line the days and nights are of equal dura-
tion — 12 hours each. This occurs about the 21st
of March and the 23d of September. The term
equinoctial is from the two Latin words eguaes,
equal, and nox, night.

Equinoxes. The points where the equinoctial
and the ecliptic (the sun's apparent path through
the heavens) intersect. The vernal equinox is
the place where the tun crosses the equinoctial,
commonly called "crossing the line," in going
north, which occur* about the 21st of March.
The autumnal equinox is the place where the
sun crosses the equinoctial in going south, which
occurs about the 21st of September.

Horizon. The rational horizon is the great
circle passing through the center of the earth,
separating the visible from the invisible heavens.
The sensible (apparent) horizon is the small circle
where the earth and sky seem to meet. It is
parallel to the rational horizon, but distant from
it the semi-diameter of the earth. No two places
have the same sensible horizon.

Latitude. The distance from the ecliptic at a
right angle north or south. Parallels of latitude
are familiar circles parallel to the equator. Lati-
tude and longitude upon a celestial globe are
known respectively as declination " and " right
ascension."

Longitude. The distance in degrees, reckoned
from the vernal equinox, on the ecliptic, to a circle
at right angles to > Massing through the heavenly
body whose longitude is designated.

Lunar. Relating to the moon.

Lunation. The period of a synodic revolution
of the moon, or the period from one new moon to
the next.

Meridians. Circles passing through the poles
at right angles to the equinoctial. Every place is
supposed to have a meridian, but astronomers
apply only twenty-four to the heavens, and they
represent the sun's, or the planets', "move-
ments " every hour— 15 being one hour, 360
being 24 hours.

Nadir and Zenith. The poles of the horizon.
The zenith is the point directly overhead, and the
nadir the one directly under foot. Azimuth
circles are circles drawn through these points.

Nocturnal. Relating to night.

Nodes. The opposite points of a planet where
its orbit cuts the ecliptic or the earth's orbit.

Occident. The western quarter of the hemi-
sphere.

Occultation. The hiding of a heavenly body
from sight by the intervention of some other of
the heavenly bodies.

Opposition. A planet with the earth between
it and the sun is in opposition.

Orbit. The path described by a planet revolving
round the sun. The plane of the orbit is an
imaginary surface cutting through the center of
the sun and the planet and extending to the stars.
The inclination of an orbit is the plane of the
orbit with reference to the plane of the earth.

Orient. The part of the horizon where the sun
first appears in the morning.

Orrery. An apparatus illustrating, by means of
small balls mounted on rods and moved by wheel-
work, the size, motions, positions, orbits, &c, of
the bodies of the solar system.

Oscillation. Moving backward and forward, or
swinging like a pendulum ; vibration.

Parallax. The difference between the position
of a body as seen from some point on the earth's
surface and its position as seen from some other
conventional point, as the earth's center or the
sun.

ParalleL A line which, throughout its whole
extent, is equidistant from another line.

Parhelion. A mock sun or meteor, appearing
in the form of a bright light near the sun, and
sometimes tingedcwith colors like the rainbow,
with a luminous train.

Penumbra. The shadow cast, in an eclipse,
where the light is only partly cut oft" by the in-
tervening body ; the space of partial illumination,
between the umbra, or perfect shadow, and the
light.

Perigree. The opposite of apogee.
Perihelion. That point in the orbit of a planet
or comet in which it is nearest to the sun.

Radius Vector. A line drawn from a planet
to the sun, wherever the planet may be.

Right Ascension. Corresponds to "longi-
tude " on a celestial globe.

Sidereal. ' ' Measured by the apparent motion
of the stars. See Time.

Sign. The twelfth part of the ecliptic or zodiac.
See Zodiac.

Solstices. The points in the ecliptic at which
the sun is furthest from the equator, north or
south, namely, the first point of Cancer and the
first point of Capricorn, the former, about the
21st of June, being called the summer solstice,
and the latter, about the 21st of December, the
winter solstice.

Spectroscope. An optical instrument used in
determining the physical constitution of the heav-
enly bodies by analyzing their light.

Sphere. U An orb, or star. 2. The apparent
surface of the heavens, which seems to the eye
spherical, and in which the heavenly bodies ap-
pear to have their places.

Time. "Apparent" time is indicated by the
sun ; " sidereal " time by the stars. Mean time
is that marked by a perfect clock, giving every
day in the year equal length. A sidereal day is
the exact interval of time in which the earth re-
volves on its axis. It is found by marking two
successive passages of a star across the meridian
of any place. This so absolutely uniform that
the length of the sidereal day has not varied
1-100 of a second in 2,000 years. The sidereal
day is divided into twenty-four equal portions,
which are called sidereal hours, and each of these
into sixty portions, termed sidereal minutes, etc.
A solar day is the interval between two suc-
cessive passages of the sun across the meridian
of any place. If the earth were stationary in its
orbit, the solar day would be of the same len<rth
as the sidereal; but while the earth is turning
around on its axis, it is going forward at the rar»

of 360 in a year, or about i° per day. When
the earth has made a complete revolution, it
must, therefore, perform a part of another revo-
lution through this additional degree, in order to
bring the same meridian vertically under the sun.
One degree of diurnal revolution is about equal
to four minutes of time; hence, the solar day is
about four minutes longer than the sidereal day.
The civil day extends from midnight to midnight.
The present method of dividing the day into two
portions of'twelve hours each, was adopted by
Hipparchus, 150 years B.C., and is now in gen-
eral use over the civilized world. Until recently,
however, very many nations terminated one day
and commenced the next at sunset. Under this
plan, 10 o'clock on one day would not mean the
same as 10 o* clock on another day. The Puri-
tans commenced the day at 6 p.m. The Baby-
lonians, Persians, ar>d modern Greeks begin the
day at sunrise.

Transit. 1. The passage of a smaller heavenly
body across the disc of a larger ; as of Venus or
Mercury across the sun's disc. 2. The passage
of a body over the meridian of a njitce, or
through the field of a telescope.

Vertical. Planets are vertical when direct
overhead.

Zenith. See Nadir.

Zodiac A girdle entending 8° on each side of
the ecliptic, in which space of 16 the planets
move. The zodiac is divided into twelve parts of
30 each, called the " Signs." Their names are
as under written :

Northern Signs.

Spring.

Aries, the Ram, March.
Taurus, the Bull, April.
Gemini) the Twins, May.

Summer,

Cancer, the Crab, June.
Leo, the Lion, July.
Virgo, the Virgin, August,

Southern Signs.
Autumn.
Libra, the Balance, September.
Scorpio, the Scorpion, October.
Sagittarius, the Archer, November.

Winter,

Capricornvs, the Goat, December,
Aquarius, the Waterbearer, January.
Puces, the Fishes, February.
The signs are reckoned from the point of inter-
section of the ecliptic and equator at the vernal
equinox. The names were originally the names
of the constellations occupying severally the
divisions of the zodiac, by which they are now
retained. In consequence of the precession of
the equinoxes, however, the signs have, in pro-
cess of time, became separated about 30 degrees
from these constellations, and each of the Litter
now lies in the sign next in advance, or to the
east of the one which bears fts name. The con-
stellation Aries now lies, for instance, in the sign

«7

37°

HOW TO READ THE SKY.

"7f

How *to ♦ Read *the • Sky. [

Half-Hours with the Stars: A Plain and Easy Guide to the Knowledge of the Constellations.

, ■ < ■ WITB TWELVE MAPS OF TBS HEAVENS, TRUE FOB EVERT YEAR.-*—
Br RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A.. F.R.A.B.

IT is very easy to gain a knowledge of the stars, if the learner
sets to work in the proper manner. But he commonly meets
with a difficulty at the outset of his task. He provides him-
self with a set of the ordinary star-maps, and then finds himself
at a loss how to make use of them. Such maps tell him nothing
of the position of the constellations on the sky. If he happen to
recognize a constellation, then, indeed, his maps, if properly con-
structed, will tell him the names of the stars forming the constel-
lation, and also he may be able to recognize a few of the neigh-
boring constellations. But when he has done this, he may meet
with a new difficulty, even as respects this very constellation.
For if he look for it again some months later, he will neither
find it in its former place, nor will it present the same aspect, —
if, indeed, it happen to be above the horizon at all.

It is clear, then, that what the learner wants is a set of maps
specially constructed to show him in what part of the sky the
constellations are to be looked for. He ought, on any night of
the year, to be able to turn at once to the proper map, and in
that map he ought to see at once what to look for, toward what
point of the compass each visible constellation lies, and how high
it is »bove the horizon. And, if possible (as the present work
shows is the case), one map ought to suffice to exhibit the aspect
of the whole heavens, in order that the beginner may not be con-
fused by turning from map to map, and trying to find out how
each fits in with the others.

It is to fulfill these requirements that the present maps have
been constructed. Each exhibits the aspect of the whole sky at a
given day and hour. The circumference of the map represents
the natural horizon, the middle of the map representing the part
of the sky which lies immediately overhead. If the learner hold
one of these maps over his head, so as to look vertically upward
at it, the different parts of the horizon marked in round the cir-
cumference being turned toward the proper compass points, he
will see the same view of the heavens as he would if he were to
lie on his back and look upward at the sky, only that the map is
a planisphere, and the sky a hemisphere.

But, although this illustration serves to indicate the nature of
the maps, the actual mode of using them is more convenient.

Let it first be noted that, properly speaking, the maps have
neither top, bottom, nor sides. Each map may be held with any
part of the circumference downward; then the center of the map
is to be looked upon as the top for that part of the circumference.
The portion of the map lying beneath the center represents the
portion of the sky lying between the point overhead and a cer-

tain portion of the horizon — the part, in fact, co rre s ponding to
the particular part of the circumference which is turned down-
ward. Thus, if on any night we wish to learn what are the stars
toward the north, we look for the map corresponding to that
night. At the hour named the stars toward the north will be
those shown between the center of the map and the top ; and, of
course, we hold the map upside down, so as to bring the center
above the northern part of the circumference.

Again, it must be noted that, although the maps are neces-
sarily arranged in a certain order, there is in reality no first or
last in the series. The map numbered I. follows the map num-
bered XII. in exactly the same manner that the latter follows the
map numbered XI. The maps form a circular series, in fact.

The only reason for numbering the maps as at present is that
the map numbered I. happens to exhibit the aspect of the sky at a
convenient hour on the night of January I . It will be found
that the dates follow on with intervals of three or four days right
round the year, the end of the year falling in the left-hand column
of Map I., while the beginning of the year is in the middle column
of the same map. It may be mentioned, in passing, that the
dates have not been thrown in so as to fall regularly round the
year, but correspond with the variations due to the earth's varia-
ble motion round the sun.

It will be seen at once that a map can always be found cor-
responding to a convenient hour on any night of the year, except
only in midsummer, when, on a few of the dates, night has not
begun at the hour named. It was impossible, without spoiling
the regularity of the dating, or adopting an inconveniently late
hour for all the maps, to avoid this difficulty. But, as a matter of
fact, the difficulty disappears at once when the student is told
that on any date named under a map, the aspect of the sky two
hours later than that named, is that represented in the following
map. Thus, at eight o'clock in the evening of June II, the
aspect of the stars is as shown in Map VI., but the stars cannot
be seen, because it is still daylight ; at ten o'clock, however, on
the same night, the aspect of the sky is that shown in Map V 1 1 .,
as, indeed, the first date under that map shows.

Next as to finding the north point, or any point of the com-
pass which will enable the observer to determine the rest. If
he is only familiar with the aspect of those seven bright stars of
the Great Bear which have been called Charles' Wain, the
Butcher's Cleaver, the Great Dipper, and by other names, he
can always determine the north point by means of the two Stan
called the pointers, since these seven stars never set In the

HOW TO READ THE SKY.

377

explanation of each map it is shown where the Great Bear is
to be looked for on each night, the observer being assumed to
hare such a general knowledge of the direction of the compass-
points as will suffice for the purpose of finding so marked a
collection of stars. Thus the pole-star is found, and for the
purpose of such observations as are here considered, this star
maybe looked upon as marking the exact direction of the north.

It is worth noticing that the stars called the Guardians of the
Pole form no bad time-piece when used with the aid of such
maps as the present. They revolve round the pole once in
twenty-four hours (less about four minutes), in a direction con-
trary to that of a clock's hands. But stars near the equator,
whose motions are much more rapid, afford a yet better measure
of time, if the direction of the south point is well determined.

It will be well for the student to remember that the planets
Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn will at times appear among
the constellations here shown. Venus and Jupiter can always
be recognized by their superior light, and Mars and Saturn by
the steadiness with which they shine. As they never appear,
save among the zodiacal constellations, it becomes very easy to
recognize them.

The following list exhibits the names of all the stars of the
first three magnitudes to which astronomers have given names ;
at least, all those whose names are in common use :

a Andromeda (Andromeda) Alphtratz.

P " Mirach Mizar.

y " Almach.

a Aquarii (Aquarius — The Water- Bearer) Sadalmelik.

P " Sadalsund.

6 " Skat.

a Aauila (Aquila — The Eagle) Altair.

P " Alshain.

V " Tarazed.

a Arietis (Aries — The Ram) Hernial.

P " Sheratan.

7 " Mesartim.

a Auriga (Auriga — The Waggoner, or Charioteer) .... Capetta.

P " Menkalinan.

a Bootis (Bootes) Areturus.

P " Nekkar.

* " Izar, Mizar, Mirack.

V " Muphrid.

a Canum Ven. (Canes Venatici — The Hunting Dogs) Cor Caroli.

a Canis Majoris (Canis Major — The Great Dog) Sirius.

P " " Mirzam.

e " " Adara.

a Canis Minoris (Canis Minor — The Little Dog) .... Procyon.

P " " Gomeisa.

a J Capricomi (Capricomus — The Goat) Secunda Ciedi.

<5 " Deneb Algiedi.

a Cassiopeia (Cassiopeia) Schedar.

P " Chaph.

a Cephei (Cepheus) Alderamin.

P " Alphirk.

V " Errai.

a Ceti (Cetus— The Whale, or The Sea Monster) Menkar.

P " Diphda.

f " Baten Kaitos.

» " Mira.

a Columba (Columboe — The Dove) Phact.

a Corona Bor. (Corona Borealis — Northern Crown). .Alphecca.

a Corvi (Corvus — The Crow) Alchiba.

6 " Algores.

a Crateris Alkes.

a Cygni (Cygnus — The Swan) Arided, Deneb, Adige.

P '< Albireo.

a Draconis (Draco) Thuban.

P " Alwaid.

y " Etanin.

P Eridani (Eridanus) Cursa.

y " Zaurac.

a Geminorum (Gemini — The Twins) Castor.

P « Pollux.

y " Alhena.

5 " Wasat.

£ " Mebsuta.

a Herculis (Hercules) Ras Algethi.

(i " Korneforos.

a Hydra (Hydra— The Water Snake) . . .Alphard, Cor Hydra.

a Leonis (Leo — The Lion) Regulus, Cor Leonis.

P " Deneb Aleet, Denebola, Deneb.

y " Algeiba.

6 " Zosma.

a Leporis (Lepus) Armb.

a Libra (Libra — The Scales) Zuben el Genubi.

P " Zuben el Chamali.

y " Zuben Hakrabi.

a Lyra (The Lyra — The Lyre) Vega.

p " Sheliak.

y " Sulaphat.

a Ophiuchi (Ophiuchus — The Serpent-Bearer) . . . Ras Alhague.
P « Cebalrai.

a Orionis (Orion) Betelgeux.

P " Rigel.

y " Bellatrix.

& " Mintaka.

e " Alnilam.

a Pegasi (Pegasus) Markab.

P " Scheat.

y " Algenib.

, Enif.

Homan.

c "

C "

a Persei (Perseus) Mirfak.

P " Algol.

a PiscisAust. (PiscisAustralis — The Southern Fish) Fomalhaut.

e Sagitlarii (Sagittarius — The Archer) A'aus Australis.

a Scorpionis (Scorpio — The Scorpion) . Antares, Cor Scorpionis.

a Serpentis (Serpens — The Serpent) Unukalhai.

a Tauri (Taurus — The Bull) Aldeboran.

P " Nalh,

r) " Alcyone (Pleiad).

a Ursa Majoris (Ursa Major — The Great Bear) Dubhe.

p » " Merak.

y " " Phecda.

e " " Alioth.

f " " Mizar.

ri " " Alkaid, Benetnasch.

t >• •' Talilha.

a Ursa Minoris (Ursa Minor— The Little Bear) Polaris.

P " " Kochab.

a Virginis (Virgo — The Virgin) Spica, Azimech, Spica.

P •< Zavijava.

e " Vindemiatrix.

Map I- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN JANUARY.

MOIiaOH NM3H, U „..

Dec. 21, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Dec. 24, 9:45; Bee. 28, 9:30; Jan. 1, 9:15; Jan. 5, 9:00; Jan. 8, S.-46

Jan. 12, 8:30 ; Jan. 16, 8:15 ; Jan. 20, 8:00.

2^HE Great Bear lies toward the northeast. The Pointers are
Vj*) uppermost, and the pole star is toward the left. The two stars
known as the Guardians of the Pole (/3 and y of the Little Bear)
hang below the pole-star, slightly toward the right. The Dragon
forms aloop of stars below the Little Bear. The'Lyre is low down on
the left, its chief star, Vega, scintillating brilliantly. Still further on
the left, almost due northwest, is the fine cross of Cygnus. Following
the direction indicated by the upright of the cross, raise the eyes toward
the point overhead, and recognize the constellation Cassiopeia, by the
five bright stars forming a figure resembling the letter W (now raised
on end, the points of the W to the left). Returning to the horizon,
and looking further around to the left, we see due west the constella-
tion Pegasus, or the Winged Horse. He is now inverted, his head
being close to the horizon on the right. The square of Pegasus,
formed by the bright stars Rigel, Betelgcux, Bellatrix and Alpherat,
will attract the observer's notice, and lead him to the constellation
Andromeda, Alpherat being in Andromeda's head. The length of
this constellation is now almost vertical, and between the feet of An-
dromeda and the point overhead lies the constellation Perseus. Notice
Algol (the Demon Star of the Arabs), lying due southwest, close up to
the point overhead. Of the variations of this remarkable star a great
deal might be Mid. Usually the observer will see it of the second

magnitude, however, as it only remains a fourth magnitude star for
about twenty minutes. Immediately below Perseus is Aries, recogniz-
able by the three stars which form the Ram's head. Below that again
is Cetus, the Whale. Due south lies Eridanus, consisting chiefly at
small stars, which cover a wide expanse of sky. Above is Taurus,
recognizable at once by the Pleiades and Aldeboran. Still turning
toward the left we see Orion, nearly upright, but with his shoulders
slightly thrown back. Immediately below Betelgeux (Ibt-al Janza, the
Giant's Shoulder) is Canis Major, on his hind feet, and throwing a
forepaw toward the Little Hare fa constellation of small stars directly
below Orion). Observe the leaning star of the Dove (a ColumUv)
directly below a Leporis. Almost due west, and midway between the
horizon and the point overhead, are the twin stars Castor and Pollux,
Castor being uppermost. Still higher lies Auriga, the star Capella.
always a very conspicuous object, shining very brilliantly at this eleva-
tion. Canis Minor lies below the feet of the Twins. Observe the
small cluster Prereepe, or the Beehive (only visible on very clear
nights) ; it lies now almost exactly midway between Castor and the
Further to the left, and near the horizon, is the Lion. It is
well to notice " The Sickle " (the group of stars formed by Rcgolua,
q, i, n, t, and two small stars), as this is a well-marked object.

dip II-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN FEBRUARY.

MOZtMOH N*3HU,n*.

^UTHERN HORIZON.

Jan. 20, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Jan. 23, 9:45; Jan. 27, 9:30; Jan. 31, 9:15; Feb. 4, 9:00; Feb. 7, 8:45;

Feb. 11, 8:30; Feb, 15. 8:15; Feb. 19, 8:00.

HE Great Bear is now midway between the horizon and the
) point overhead, and toward the northeast. The " pointers " are

uppermost, and the pole-star lies toward the left (as shown in the
i). The Guardians of the Pole are seen below, and toward the right,
oediately below the pole lies the Dragon's Head, the body and tail
nding toward the right, to a point between the pointers and the
idians of the Pole. Vega is seen just above the horizon, slightly
he left of the north point. Further to the left is the upper part
Cygnus, above which is the inconspicuous Cepheus. Due north-
t,and high above the horizon, is Cassiopeia, the W being now in
position ^. Further to the left, and close to the horizon, is the
ing Horse. The square of Pegasus stands just above the horizon,
i apper corner (Alpherat) of the square belongs to Andromeda, still
srted; and above the feet of Andromeda we see Perseus. Algol is
' due west. Below Algol, but slightly to the left, is Aries ; and
lower, and further to the left, Cetus appears, the figure presented
ts principal stars reminding one of the Mantis insect. It is now
mg. The star Mira may not be visible, as this is a variable, invis-
at regular intervals for months together. Notice Eridanus setting
«td the southwest, and Taurus above; and then tum to Orion,
Oit due south, standing erect in all his glory, at the greatest elevation

he ever attains in our latitude. To the left, low down, we see Qi+
Greater Dog, Sirius, now shining with his full splendor. The dog is
still rampant; indeed, he is never seen otherwise in our latitudes.
Looking upward, and somewhat further to the left, almost due south-
east, we see the Twins, their feet resting on the borders of the Milky
Way. Still higher is Auriga, now, in fact, overhead. Below the Twins
see the Little Dog. Below this constellation the stern of the ship Argo
is rising into view. But as the part of this constellation which rises
above our horizon contains no conspicuous stars, we need not pay much
attention to it at this stage of our star-gazing.

Somewhat to the east of southeast we see a single conspicuous star
— though several small stars are seen in the neighborhood. This
is Cor Hydrae, the Heart of the Sea Serpent. The Arabian astronomers
gave to this star the name of Al Fard, or The Solitary One. Leo lies
toward the east, and between the Sickle in Leo and the Lesser Dog
we recognize Pnesepe, and the two small stars on either side, known to
the ancients as the Aselli.

We have now come round again to the Great Bear. Observe how
much larger an extent of sky this constellation covers than is commonly
assigned to it by beginners. Below the Bear's tail the head and
shoulders of Bootes are rising into view.

Map III- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN MARCH.

•HOZmOH Mh3Hj.j, n . (

S03Hd30

■»JBI$J,„J

Is
1Q

»> •' *»Etf>

•>• ^

.r.^'"/-.

' ■'»*/,„

I . ' I £ ' J

i' An/u- •

8 °OTHERN HOR»l° H *

An. W, af tO o'clock in the evening ; Feb. 22, 9:45; Feb, 26, 9.30 ; March 2, 9:15 ; March 6, 9:00 ,

March 13, 8:30 ; March 17. 8:15 ; March 21, 8:00.

March 9. 848:

^T* HE Great Bear is now approaching the point overhead, but is
V») easily recognized toward the northeast. The Pointers, as shown,
indicate the pole-star toward the left, and considerably below
them. The Guardians of the Pole now lie on the right of, and some-
what below the pole-star. Vega shines just above the horizon,
.immediately below them. Between lies the Dragon's Head; and we
see the body and tail of the Dragon curving round between the head
and the Guardians of the Pole. The upper part of Cygnus is now all
that can be seen of this constellation, almost due north on the horizon.
Further to the left, and well raised above the horizon, we see Cassi-
opeia. Andromeda is now approaching the horizon, her head almost
touching it toward the northwest. Next on the left is Aries, and
above Aries is Perseus. Above Perseus is Auriga, Capella being almost
due west Cetus has nearly set, only its head being visible above the
horizon. Above Eridanus (now nearly set) is Taurus, very favorably
situated for observation. The Pleiades lie due west, and Aldeboran —
a brilliant red star — to their left. Orion is toward the southwest,
bending forward toward the west. Above him, but somewhat to the
left, are the Twins, Castor still uppermost. Below the Twins are the

two Dogs, Canis Major toward the south-southwest, and low down.
Cor llydr.v lies midway between the south and the southeast, and is
well raised above the horizon. It is interesting to notice how blank
this part of the heavens appears, so far, at least, as conspicuous stars are
concerned. Toward the southeast is Alkes, the chief star in the Cup;
and we notice the Crow just rising into view toward the left. Above
we recognize Leo, the Sickle being now a conspicuous object. Virgo
u partially into view above the eastern horizon. The cup-
shaped group formed by the rive stars shown in the mapwas called by
the Arabian observers, for reasons not yet explained, "The Retreat of
the I fowling Dog." Bootes has now risen above the horizon, though
as yet in a nCMabtnt position. Arcturus is a conspicuous object on
the right of this constellation. Below the head and shoulders of Bootes
notice the Crown, one star only of which ( Alphecca) is shown in the
map. Doubtless this grasp of stars originally formed the right arm of
Bootes. The constellation recently attracted much notice as the region
in which a new star (or rather, an irregular variable) made its appear-
ance a year or two ago. Hercules is gradually rising into view townni
the northeast

Map IY.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN APRIL

.MQZiaOH NM3HJ»i»..

So "THERN HOR»* oH '

March 21, at 10 o'clock in the evening ; March 24, 9:45 ; March 28, 9:30 ; April 1,9:15; April 5, 9:00; April 8, 8:45;

April 12, 8:30; April 16, 8:15; April 20, 8:00.

v^f HE Great Bear is now easily found, being nearly overhead. The
VJy pole lies below the Pointers.

The Guardians of the Pole are now somewhat higher than the
pole toward the right. Below the pole-star is Cephus, and due west
of him is Cassiopeia, the W gradually approaching its natural posi-
tion. Andromeda's feet are to be seen above the southwestern horizon,
anil toward the left Aries is setting.

Above Aries is Perseus, now well situated for observation. The
brilliancy of the Milky Way in this neighborhood is worth noticing.

Due west is the Bull, above which lies Auriga.

Orion is now approaching the horizon, and is prone toward his
"western grave; " above him hang " the starry Gemini."

Toward the left are the two Dogs. The Greater Dog is now set-
ting.

Cor Hydrae is somewhat to the west of south,
itt Leo, due south, and with its handle vertical.

Above is the Sickle

rhe length of Hydra is now nearly raised above the horizon.

Virgo has risen, and the brilliant Spica is a conspicuous object
toward the southeast. Just above the horizon is the second star of the
Scales.

Due east is the Serpent just above the horizon. It must be noticed,
however, that a part of this constellation lies on the further side of the
as yet unrisen Ophiuchus. Serpens is the only constellation thus
divided.

Above Serpens is Bootes, still nearly recumbent. Coma Berenices
and Cor Caroli occupy the positions severally accorded to them in the
map.

To the left of Serpens is Hercules, or Engonasin, the Kneeler, sup-
posed by many to represent Adam kneeling on the head of the serpent,
Draco.

The Lyra has now nearly risen, in the northeast, immediately beneath
the Dragon's head.

Map V- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN MAY.

■ M OllHOH NM3HX«Om

SOUTHERN HOR»I° H *

April 20, at 10 o'clock in the evening ; April 23, 9:45 ; April 27. 9:30 ; May 1, 9:15; May 5, 9:00 ; May 9. 8:45 ;

May 13, 8:30; May 17, 8:15 ; May 21, 8:00.

\T* HE Great Bear, still overhead, is found immediately, and the
(6) Pointers, which have now crossed over to the west of the zenith,
point downward to the pole-star. The Guardians of the Pole
are now higher than the pole, toward the right. Below the pole
Cephus and Cassiopeia are seen, the former on the right. Andromeda
has nearly disappeared ; and Perseus has passed the northwest, and is
approaching the horizon. The Pleiades are just setting, almost due
northwest; and above is Auriga. In the west we see Betelgeux, the
sole star belonging to Orion, now visible. Above, and due west, are
the twin stars Castor and Pollux. We have, in fact, the configuration
described by Tennyson, speaking of the season we are considering:

" It fell on a time of year
When the shining daffodil dies, ntul the Charioteer
And starry Gemini hang like glorious crowns
Over Orion's grave, low down in the west."

Canis Major has set, but the Lesser Dog is still above the horizon, to
the left of and below the Twins. Cor Hydr.u is almost exactly
toward the southwest, and above is Leo. Due south, tin

Quadrangle of Corvus is seen, above which is " The Retreat of the
lowling Dog," Spica shining conspicuously on the left, toward the

south-southeast. Libra has risen into view, and somewhat to the east
of southeast we see the first indications of the interesting southern con-
stellation Scorpio. The vertical row of conspicuous stars formed by a
part of Ophiuchus and the body of Serpens is well worth noticing.
Above it is Bootes; to the left of which, and lower down, we see Her-
cules, inverted. His head is marked by the upper alpha, the lower
representing the head of Ophiuchus, the Serpent-holder — typical, some
suppose, of the Messiah. The feet of the kneeling Hercules are on
the head of Draco, whose body and tail extend upward, between the
Guardians of the Pole and the Greater Bear. It is impossible not to
e, from the configuration«of this constellation as now seen, that
the ancients looked on the stars which form the Lesser Bear as forming
a winj; of Draco. Beneath the Dragon's head we see the Lyre. The
Swan has now risen above the horizon, and the cross belonging to this
constellation is seen in an almost horizontal position. The brilliancy
of the Milky Way at this part of its extent is well worth noticii
the space between the stars a, /} and y Cygni, there is a distinctly-
marked black gap in the Milky Way, which has been termed the
Northern Coalsack. The extension of the Milky Way toward Cephas
should also be noticed.

Map VL-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN JUNE.

HOIIMOH WM3HJV,..,

SOUTHERN HOBIl° H '

May 21, at 10 o'clock in the evening; May 25, 9:45; May 28, 9:30; June 1, 9:15; June 5, 9:00; June 9, 8:45;

June 13, 8:30; June 17, 8:15; June 21, 8:00.

jT* HE last star of the Great Bear's tail is now just passing the point
\G\ overhead. The Pointers are lowermost, and the pole-star is
^"^^ below, toward the right. The Guardians of the Pole are above
the pole-star, a little toward the right. Below them is Cassiopeia, the
W being now almost in the proper position of the letter. To the left
is Perseus, Algol being quite close to the horizon. Further round to
the left we see Capella and the other stars of Auriga low down toward
the horizon. Not much higher are the twin-stars Castor and Pollux,
Castor to the left, the feet of the twins resting on the horizon. It is
interesting to compare the splendor of the sky near the horizon, from
Gemini in the west-northwest, to Cassiopeia in the north, with the com-
parative blankness of the part of the sky immediately above these
constellations. Prsesepe is almost due west, about as high as Castor.
Leo has come around so far toward the west that the tip of the Sickle
just reaches that point of the compass. Below Regulus is Al Fard,
now near setting. Virgo is now at her highest, Spica shining resplen-
dently a little toward the west of south. Below Virgo notice Corvus
and Crater, two of the neatest small constellations in the heavens.
Due south, just above the horizon, is the head qf the southern constella-
tion the Centaur. Above Virgo, and almost due south, we see Bootes,
now nearly upright, and presenting a fine figure as with uplifted arm
(the stars belonging to the Crown) he chases Ursa Major past the
zenith. Returning to the neighborhood of the horizon, observe the
brilliant red star An'ares, or Cor Scorpionis, lately risen above the

southeastern horizon. Due southeast we see a fine line of brilliant
stars formed by C, e and 6 Ophiuchi, and t, a and 6 Serpentis. These
stars, with n Ophiuchi, and the stars y and /3 Serpentis, form a figure
much resembling a saber, the cross-handle being formed by two stars
not shown in the map. Nearly the whole of the large constellation
Ophiuchus (the reader will remember how Milton says of a comet, that
it "fired the length of Ophiuchus large") has now risen above the
horizon. It requires some imagination to recognize in it the figure of a
man holding a serpent ; but this is not the only instance in which the
stars of a constellation bear little resemblance to the figure from which
the constellation is named. Hercules is now nearly due east and high
above the horizon. Toward the same quarter, but quite close to the
horizon, Aquila is coming into view, the brilliant Altair scintillating
finely. Lyra is above, Vega being almost exactly midway between the
horizon and the point overhead. The leading star of Cygnus is toward
the northeast, the length of the cross being still nearly horizontal.
Between Cygnus and the point overhead is the head of the Dragon,
the body and tail winding off toward the left and upward, above the
Guardians of the Pole.

On some of the dates named under this map the stars cannot be
seen, as it is not yet dark. Therefore use Map VII. two hours later.
F6r instance, on June 31, use Map VII. at ten o'clock, and similarly for
the other davs at the end of June.

Map VII -HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN JULY.

■ yQlHIOH MHSHlun*.

*OOTH«RN HOHIXO*'

June 21, at 10 o'clock in the evening ; June 25, 9:45 ; June 29, 9:30 ; Jul/ 3d, 9: It:

July 14, 8:30; July 18, 8:15; July 22d. 8:00.

July 7, 9:00; July 10, 8:45;

y* HE Great Bear is now descending toward the northwest. The
(6) Pointers lie nearly half-way between the point overhead and the
^"^ horizon, toward the northwest. Thus the pole-star lies to the
right of the Pointers. The Guardians of the Pole have passed above
the pole toward the left. Below the pole, and close to the horizon,
we see Perseus on the right, and Auriga on the left. Capella is scin-
tillating brilliantly, as are Castor and Pollux, which are now setting
near the northwest, Pollux lowest and on the left. Pnesepe is nearly
set, and will probably not be visible in the thick air so low down. - Leo
is approaching the horizon, the Sickle being inclined forward. Above
fj Leonis notice the Hair of Berenice, half-way between the horizon
and the point overhead, and forming an interesting object at this eleva-
tion. Bootes stands now in the northwest, high up above the horizon.
Below Arcturus is Spica, and lower still, toward the right, the Crow
and Cup are setting. The constellation Scorpio forms a magnificent
object in the south. The stars which are assigned to this constellation
in maps form but a portion of the original constellation, and it is not
difficult to recognize in the arrangement of the stars now lying toward
the south a resemblance to the figure of a scorpion with extended
claws. Above Scorpio we see the group of stars compared to a saber,

now no longer vertical, but inclined forward. " Ophiuchus large " it
fully raised, and reaches from the horizon more than half way to the
point overhead, and from the south to the southeast. Below his head
(a.) we see Sagittarius just rising above the horizon; and above Ophi-
uchus, Hercules extends right up to the point overhead. The three
bright stars in the body of Aquila are now midway between southeast
and east; the uppermost is y, the lowest ft, and the middle star is
Altair. Above, toward the left, is Lyra, Vega being now raised far
toward the point overhead. Below Vega is the head of Cygnus, and
the cross of Cygnus is now in a position exactly horizontal, and also
exactly midway between the point overhead and the horizon ; in other
words, each of the stars a, y and /3 Cygni now has an elevation of
forty-five degrees above the horizon. Below Cygnus, Pegasus is rising
into view, three stars of the square being visible, and the nose of the
horse (t ) due east. Andromeda has just risen above the northeastern
horizon. Above her feet we see Cassiopeia, the \V still in its natural

?■ ition. Draco forms a curve round and above the Guardians of the
ole, his head being to the east, and close to the point overhead.
On the last three dates mentioned under this map it will be better
to use Map VIII., two hours later.

Map VIII- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN AUGUST.

.MOltaOH NM3HJ,MO«i

SO "THERN HOR«*° H

July 22, at 10 o'clock in the evening; July 26, 9:45; July 30, 9:30; Aug. 3, 9:15; Aug. 7, 9:00; Aug. 11,8:45;

Aug. 15, 8:30; Aug. 19, 8:15 ; Aug. 23, 8,00.

5?""" HE Great Bear is now in the northwest, and midway between
(G) the point overhead and the horizon, the pole to the right of the
Pointers. The Guardians of the Pole nave swung round above
the pole-star toward the north-northwest. Below the pole is the head
of the Charioteer, Capella still low down toward the right of the north
point. Above the Lesser Bear is the body of Draco, his head almost
exactly overhead. Below the Great Bear, Leo is setting, only a part
of the Sickle being visible. Coma Berenices lies immediately above
the tip of the Lion's tail (/?), and above Coma again is Cor Caroli and
the poor constellation, the Hunting Dogs, of which Cor Caroli is the
leading brilliant. Virgo is setting. To the left Spica is scintillating
brilliantly, close to the horizon in the west-southwest. Bo5tes is now
midway between the horizon and the point overhead, and inclining
forward, his head and shoulders due west, his feet above Spica. In
the southwest is Libra, close to the horizon. Above is Serpens, reach-
ing to a point midway between the horizon and the point overhead.
Between the head of the serpent (y, /3) and the zenith we see Hercules,
reaching round from the south to the west, and still inverted. In fact
Hercules is never seen upright in our latitudes. This kneeling figure
must have been conceived by astronomers living in other latitudes, and
at a time when the pole was very differently situated. Ophiuchus has
now passed the south toward south-southwest, and Antares and the
other stars of Scorpio lie toward the same quarter low down toward the

horizon. It is interesting to notice the portion of the Milky Way now
brought into view toward the south. We see here the commencement
of that part of the Milky Way which, by its superior brilliancy, as seen
in southern latitudes, indicates the greater proximity of the galaxy in
that direction. It is also interesting to notice how singularly the two
branches of the Milky Way vary in splendor along the southern half of
the semi-circle now above the horizon. Lyra is high up toward the
point overhead, the stars /3 and y forming a pendant to the brilliant
Vega. Below them, toward the southeast, and about half way between
the horizon and the point overhead, is Altair, y and /? Aquila; lying
almost in a vertical line, one above, the other below Altair. Low
down toward the horizon are the zodiacal constellations Sagittarius
(extending from south to south-southeast), Capricornus (extending past
the southeastern quarter) and Aquarius, reaching nearly to the east. It
is, indeed, noteworthy that from the northwest right round through
south to the northeast, the horizon is occupied by zodiacal constella-
tions, no less than eight of which are thus situated — though Pisces, hav-
ing no conspicuous stars, is not marked in, in Map VIII. Cygnus is
high up toward the east, and below Arided is the square of Pegasus.
The left-hand start of the square is Alpherat, and Andromeda lies in a
nearly horizontal position, her feet being toward the northeast. Above
these is Cassiopeia, the right hand side of the W beginning to be th«
highest. Below, and close to the horizon, is Perseus.

Map IX.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN SEPTEMBER.

.mOIHOH N1I3HHO,

SOUTHERN HORIl° M-

Aug. 23, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Aug. 27. 9:45 ; Aug. 31, 9:30: Sept. 4. 9:t5 : Sept. 8, 9:00; Sept. 12, 8:45,

Sept. 15. 8:30; Sept. 19, 8:15; Sept 23, 8:00.

*7~ m HE Great Bear is now passing toward the north, ami getting low
C6) down. The pointers are to the right of the seven stars, and the
pole-star lies above them, and toward the right. The Guardians
of the Pole are to the left of, and scarcely higher than the pole-star.
The Dragon passes between the two Bears toward the west, his head
being still high above the horizon. Coma Berenices is setting between
northwest and west-northwest. Iiodtes has passed the west, and forms
a fine figure above that part of the horizon. The Northern Crown, with
the brilliant Alphecca, is due west, about midway between the horizon
and the point overhead.

Above the Crown are the feet of Hercules. I lis head and shoulders
are to the left of the Crown, and at alxiut the same height above the
horizon. The Serpent lies between the shoulders of Hercules and the
horizon. On the hit is •' Ophiuclius Urge," toward the southwest, and
extending from the horizon halfway to the point overhead. The brill-
iant Vega lies toward the same quarter, but much higher up.

Aquila is due .south, Altair being about midway between the horizon
and the point overhead. Close to the horizon, and extending from

south-southwest to south, is Sagittarius. Next to him, on the left, is
Capricornus, and next to that again is Aquarius, now covering a wide
range of sky between Capricornus and Pegasus. In the lenith is
Cygnus, the upright and cross-rod of the cross being now about equally
inclined to the horizon. The square of Pegasus has passed the M
the left-hand star being still Alphcrat, and Andromeda still in a horizon- J
tal position. Cassiopeia is in the northeast, and raised somewhat more
than halfway from the horizon toward the point overhead.

Below Andromeda, Aries has fully risen ; and toward the northeast,]
low down, we see the Pleiades again. Between them and Cassiopeia'
lies Perseus. It is well to notice this constellation while in its present
(wsition, and also the richness of the background of milky light in this
neighborhood. The whole of this part of the heavens is full of I
and contrasts strangely with the barren region close by, Iwtwcen the
north point of the horizon and Cassiopeia.

Auriga is rising above the north northeast horizon, and Capella is
iK'ginning to scintillate le>s brilliantly as it rises above the denser strata
of the atmosphere.

Map X- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN OCTOBER.

SOUTHERN HOR«° H '

Sept 23, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Sept 26, 9:45; Sept 30, 9:30; Oct 4, 9:f5; Oct 8, 9:00; Oct 11,8:45;

Oct 15, 8:30 ; Oct. 19, 8:15 ; Oct 23, 8,00.

*7~* HE Great Bear is low down toward the north- northwest; the pole-
\G) star lying above, and very little to the right of the Pointers. The
Guardians of the Pole are now below the pole-star, on the left,
and almost exactly midway between the horizon and the point overhead.
The Dragon passes between the two Bears, and round to the left of the
Guardians of the Pole. His head is toward the west-northwest, high up
above the horizon. Cor Caroli is approaching the horizon, and Bootes
is already half set. So, also, is Serpens in the west. But Corona is
still well raised above the north-northwest horizon. Hercules is in the
west, but extends over a wide range, from side to side. Vega is due
west, and high above the horizon, the stars /3 and y lying to the left, at
about the same height. Also at about the same height is the star /? of
the Swan, and the Cross of Cygnus is now upright again, Arided lying
near the point overhead. Altair is in the southwest, raised somewhat
less than halfway from the horizon toward the point overhead. Below
Aquila is Sagittarius. Next, to the left and somewhat higher, is Capri-
cornus, and, next, Aquarius, in the south. A noted star, Fomalhaut,
the most southerly first-magnitude star ever seen in this country, is now
visible toward the east of south, and very low down. It is the chief

star of the Southern Fish, a constellation not to be confounded w*fh the
southermost of the Fishes. The Square of Pegasus is toward th» south-
east, raised high above the horizon. Alpherat is still the most easterly
star of the square, and Andromeda is still horizontal, though now well
raised above the eastern horizon. The Sea Monster, Cetus, covers a wide
range of the sky, low down, toward the east-southeastern horizon. The
limits of the constellation, indeed, as defined by astronomers, extend
from the east to the south-southeast. Aries is in the east, about half-
way between Andromeda and the horizon. Taurus has now risen in the
east-northeast, Aldeboran, the brightest red star in the htavens, scintil-
lating brilliantly low down toward the horizon. Above the head and
horns of Taurus is Perseus, and immediately above Perseus, raised three-
quarters of the way from the horizon toward the point overhead, is Cas-
siopeia, the W now almost on end, and having the points toward the
right. Auriga has now risen in the northeast, Capella being almost ex-
actly in that quarter, and raised somewhat more than one-fourth of the
way toward the point overhead. Castor is just rising between the north
east and the north-northeast

Map XI.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN NOVEMBER.

• hOZIMOH NMBHlMQn,

S °OTHERN HORIION

Oct. 23, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Oct. 26, 9:45 ; Oct. 30, 9:30; Nov. 3, 9:15; Mot. 7. 9:00;

Hoy. 14, 8:30; No*. 18, 8:15 ; Hoy. 22, 8:00.

/for. 10.8.-45;

^~* HE Great Bear is now due north, and at its lowest, the pole-star
\G) lying above, and somewhat to the left of the Pointers. The
^"■"^ Guardians of the Pole are below and to the left of the pole star,
and immediately above the last star of the Great Bear's tail. The head
of Draco has now come to the northwest, and is not nearly so high
above the horizon as it was a month ago. Due northwest, and almost
on the horizon, is Alphecca, the other stars of the Crown being also
very close to the horizon. Between Alphecca and the Great Bear the
head and shoulders of Bootes are still to tie seen al>ove the horizon.
In the west-northwest, close to the horizon, are the heads of the two
giant constellation figures Hercules and Ophiuchus. The left Ii.uhI
and brighter a marks the place of the head of the Serpent-bearer,
who is now passing below the horizon. The whole of Hercules, on
the other hand, is still above the horizon, and, as usual, inverted.
Above is Lyra, and Cygnus now occupies a conspicuous position in
the west, midway between the horizon and the point overhead, the
cross being still nearly vertical. Aquila, the Eagle, is approaching the
western horizon, Altair being in the west-southwest, and raised almost
exactly one-fourth of the way toward the point overhead. Above
Altair, and toward the left, is an interesting little constellation not
marked in the map — Dclphinus. It will M raCOgBlMd at once,

though consisting only of small stars, by the resemblance it presents to
the figure of a dolphin leaping from the sea. Capricornus is in the
southwest, low down, and next to it is Aquarius, covering a wide
range of the sky, and reaching almost to the south. Below is Fomal-
haut, nearing the south-southwest horizon. The square of Pegasus is
now at its highest. Andromeda is still horizontal ; in fact, it is a
peculiarity of this constellation that throughout its rise, from near the
horizon to near the point overhead, the star Alpherat is always very
nearly on the same level with a portion of the line joining the two stars
•/ and 51, which mark the feet of Andromeda. This is true from
the epoch indicated in Map VII. to that indicated in Map XI., or
through one-third part of the constellation's Course round the pole.
Cctus is now well raised above the south-southeast horizon. The star
a ( Mcnkar) lies to the east of southeast. Immediately above this star
is the head of Aries ; below it is Kridanus, now ri>ing in '.lie southeast.
Orion also is rising, the three stars forming his belt almost upright
toward the east. Above them is Aldeboran, and above that star arc
.the Pleiades. Near the point overhead is Cassiopeia ; below Cassio-
peia, and somewhat to the right, is Perseus; below Perseus, and to the
\urij;a, with the brilliant Capella ; and below Auriga the twin
stars Castor and Pollux have risen, Castor vertically above Pollux.

Map XII.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN DECEMBER

. H qziaoHNa3iu^p w

8 °"THERN HORIZON

Nor. 22, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Nov. 25, 9:45: Nov. 29, 9:30 ; Dec. 3, 9:15 , Dec. 7, 9:00: Dec. 10, 8:45 ;

Dec. 14, 8:30 ; Dec. 17, 8:15 ; Dec. 21, 8:00.

^""* HE tip of the Great Bear's tail lies almost due north, and low
\G) down. The Pointers are toward the north-northeast, and the
pole-star is above, and towcrd the left. The Guardians of the
Pole hang below the pole-star, slightly toward the left. Draco hangs
below the Lesser Bear, extending around from right to left, where his
body bends downward again. The head of Draco lies between north-
west and north-northwest, raised almost exactly one-fourth of the way
from the horizon toward the point overhead. Toward the left, slightly
lower, is Vega, the companion stars (i and y lying on the left. Cygnus
is in the west-northwest, the cross again upright, and Arided raised
somewhat less than half-way from the horizon toward the point over-
head. Above, very near the point overhead, is Cassiopeia. Low down,
and somewhat to the right of the western point of the horizon, is Altair,
with his companion stars /? and y, the former on his left, the latter on
his right. The square of Pegasus is still high above the horizon,
toward the west-southwest. The highest star of the square is
Alpherat, and Andromeda now extends from this point lo the point
overhead, close to which are both her feet. Aquarius is setting in the

west-southwest. Cetus is due south, well raised above the horizon.
The space below Cetus, quite bare of conspicuous stars, belongs to the
southern constellations Sculptor and Fornax. Above Cetus is Aries,
the star a due south, and raised nearly three-fourths of the way from the
horizon toward the point overhead. Above the south-southeast horizon
is Eridanus, covering a Urge space of the sky. Orion has now well
risen above the southeastern horizon somewhat easterly. Above him
is Taurus, the Pleiades now shining very conspicuously. Near the
point overhead is Perseus, the star a being toward the east, and
Algol toward the southeast. Below Perseus, somewhat to the left, is
Auriga ; and below the brilliant Capella are to be seen the twin-stars
Castor and Pollux, the constellation Gemini being now in a horizontal
position, the feet of the twins (/t and y) resting on the Milky Way.
Procyon has just risen above the eastern horizon. Toward the north-
east the sky is almost blank. But low down may be s<:en two stars
belonging to the Sickle in Leo, now rising above the northeastern
horizon.

39°

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

"71

OUR GLOBE, AS IT WAS AND AS IT IS; WEATHER AND CLIMATE;
ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE.

OUR EARTH is, indeed, a world of wonders, and whether
we penetrate its crust or explore its surface, we will ever
find opportunity for study, and food for reflection. When
wc were at school, and learnt the various countries of the world,
we had maps showing us the several divisions of one realm
from another. The mountains, lakes and other prominent
features of each continent were conned and repeated, but we
seldom, perhaps never, bestowed a thought upon the formation
of the mountains, and the manner in which rivers ran down
into, and through, lakes to the ocean. There were the moun-
tains, there were the lakes, and rivers, and capes, and head-
lands, and there they are still, to all intents and purposes, the
same to see, to climb up, to sail down, as the case may be. But
the maps of some countries have undergone visible changes.
Territory has changed hands. Some powers have extended their
dominions, while other countries have been dismembered. This
study is called Geography — Political Geography — for it marks
the political boundaries. The knowledge of the formation of
hills, headlands, lakes, rivers, seas — their causes, constitution
and effects ; how they rose, how they exist and wax or wane
during the course of centuries — is Physical Geography. We
must learn how this earth of ours has been gradually made fit
for man's habitation, and what the various stages of its growth
have been. We must consider plant and animal life upon our
planet, and how the atmosphere affects them. All this is em
braced In Physical Geography and its satellite sciences of Ge-
ology, Meteorology, Climatology, Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology
and Ethnology.

Our globe is nearly round in shape. In the language of
science, it is an oblate spheroid — that is, a body having the
polar diameter shorter than the equatorial. That our earth is
round is evident from the following facts :

I. Men have circumnavigated it — that is, they have sailed in
one continuous direction as nearly as the configuration of the
land would permit, and have arrived at the point of starting.

2. When we stand on the shore, and observe a ship coming
in from the sea, we notice that the tops of the masts are seen
first, and lastly the h»ll, or body. The hull is hidden by the
curved surface of the water. In traveling across extensive plains,
in like manner, the tops of mountains are seen before their
lases.

3. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the shadow of the
earth falling on the moon. This shadow is always circular. A
spherical body is the only one which will cast a circular shadow
in any position in which it may be placed.

4. The north star rises as we travel north, and declines as we
go south, till we reach the equator, when it disappears.

For the purpose of locating the different portions of the earth's
surface, imaginary circles are employed. Every circle, whether
great or small, is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees.

A great circle divides the earth's surface into two equal parts,
or hemispheres ; a small circle, into two unequal parts.

The equator is a great circle equally distant from the poles.

A meridian circle is any great circle passing through the poles.

A meridian is half of a meridian circle, extending from pole to
pole.

The points on the earth's surface at the ends of the axis are
called poles. The one which is nearest a certain fixed star called
the north star, is the north pole ; the other is the south pole.

The circumference of the earth is the distance around it, and
measures about 25,000 miles.

The diameter of the earth is a straight line passing through
its center, and terminating in opposite points of its surface. The
equatorial diameter extends from any point on the equator to the
opposite point, and is about 7,925^ miles long. The polar
diameter extends from pole to pole, and thus coincides with its
axis. Its length in miles is 7,899. The difference of length,
about 26 Vi miles, is owing to the flattening of the earth, which
brings each pole 13^ miles nearer the center than are the points
that lie on the equator.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

~7\

39 1

The latitude of a place is its distance from the equator,
measured on its own meridian. Latitude is either north or
south, and is reckoned in degrees (from o to 90), minutes and
seconds. The latitude of places on the equator is o.

The longitude of a place is its distance from some given merid-
ian, measured on its own parallel. Longitude is either east or
west, and is reckoned in degrees (from o to 180), minutes and
seconds. The given meridian from which longitude is reckoned
is called the first meridian.

Every degree of latitude is equal to about 69^ statute miles.
A degree of longi-
tude, at the equa-
tor, is also about
(x) l /i statute miles;
but, north or south
of the equator, it
becomes less and
less as the merid-
ians approach each
other, and at the
poles, where they
meet, it is nothing.

The polar cir-
cles are the two
parallels 23^ de-
grees from each
pole. The north-
ern. polar circle is
called the Arctic
Circle; the south-
ern, the Antarctic
Circle.

The tropics are
the two parallels
23 X degrees north
and 23^ degrees
south of the equa-
tor. The north-
ern tropic is called
the Tropic of Can-
cer; the southern,
the Tropic of Cap-
ricorn.

Zones are belts of
the earth.bounded
by the polar circles

and the tropics. The North Frigid Zone, which lies north of
the Arctic Circle, is 23^ degrees wide. The North Temperate,
which lies between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer,
is 43 degrees wide. The Torrid, which lies between the tropics,
is 47 degrees wide. The South Temperate, which lies between
the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle, is 43 degrees
wide. The South Frigid, which lies south of the Antarctic Cir-
cle, is 23 J^ degrees wide.

The circle 0/ illumination is the great circle which separates
the light side of the earth from the dark.

Day and Night.

The earth has two constant motions : (1) its daily motion, or
rotation on its axis (its shorter diameter), from west to east; (2)
its yearly motion, or movement in a nearly circular path (called
its orbit) around the sun. The length of time the; earth is turn-
ing on its axis is called a day. Every part of the earth's surface
being successively carried into light and shade, the daily rota-
tion causes the phenomena of day and night. The length of
time the earth is in passing around the sun is called a year.

It turns on its
own axis in the
same time about
365X times.hence
there are 365^
days in a year.

As the earth re-
volves from west
to east, the sun
will appear to
travel from east to
west.

At the equator
th e days and nights
are always twelve
hours long ; the
farther a point lies
from the equator,
the longer are its
longest day and its
longest night.

At the poles the
year is made up
of but one day
and one night,
each lasting six
months.

All places in
about 66^£ de-
grees of latitude,
north or south,
have one day in
the year twenty-
four hours long,
and one night of
an equal length.

DAY AND NIGHT.— EASTERN HEMISPHERE.

The Change of Seasons

Is produced by the earth's revolution around the sun, in con-
nection with the fact that its axis is constantly inclined to the
plane of the ecliptic, and always points in the same direction.

The earth's axis is constantly inclined 23^ degrees to the
plane of its orbit. If this were not the case there would be no
change of seasons; the circle of illumination would always be
identical with some meridian circle. The sun's rays, reaching
from pole to pole, would fall on each point of the earth's

39 2

PHYSICAL (iEOORAPHV.

surface at the same angle throughout the year, and days and
nights would everywhere be of twelve hours' duration. (See
Astrontmy.)

GEOLOGY

Tells us about the external surface of the earth, its stones and
rocks, and how they were formed, and generally something about
the conformation of the crust of the earth and its history. As
has been well said, " Geology is the Physical Geography of the
past."

" Everything
must have a be-
ginning," and the
earth must have
had a beginning,
although the act-
ual manner of the
physical creation
of our planet is a
disputed fact.

We are not
about to discuss
the religious side
of the question.al-
though we should
undoubtedly find
that Biblical teach-
ing and Geology
run side by side
toward the same
end, and the tes-
timony of the
earth andskybears
witness to the di-
vine hand that
created the uni-
verse, which we
can trace back to
the dim and dis-
tant ages when
" the earth was
without form, and
void; and dark-
ness was upon the
face of the deep."

The

DAY AND NIGHT.-WESTERN HEMISPHERE.

Six Eras of Creation.

It seems to be established that each of the six days of Creation
was an era, a period, not of twenty-four hours, but of centuries,
during which great changes and new appearances took place.
The first of these eras was marked by the creation of light; the
second, by the separation of vapors from the waters ; the third,
by the separation of land from water, and the appearance of
grass, herb, fruit and tree. On the fourth day, or rather in the
fourth era, " Ciod made two great lights in the firmament of the
heaven ; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to

rule the night : and he made the stars also." In the fifth era
were created fishes and birds — " great whales, and every living
creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abund.
antly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind."
In the sixth era appeared the beasts of the earth, and finally man,
for whom the earth had now become a fit abode.

The earth appears at one time to have been an intensely
heated molten ball, surrounded by a hot atmosphere filled with
vapors and gases. By degrees the outer part of this molten mass
gave its heat into space, and portions of its matter became solid

as they cooled.
As the cooling
proceeded, these
solid masses grew
larger, and at last
blended in a thin
crust. The vapor
in the atmosphere
was next con-
densed, and thus
was formed the
great primeval
ocean, covering
the whole globe.
From time to time
this mighty ocean
would break
through weak
places in the crust,
and pour on the
seething mass be-
low. Great vol-
umes of steam
would then be
formed, which
would rend the
solid barriers
above it, and force
through the open-
ings thus made
floods of melted
rock, to flow over
the earth, and, in
course of time cool
down into a new
mineral deposit.
In the lapse of ages, innumerable changes of this kind occurred
on the surface. Continents were upheaved, and the waters
finally subsided into the hollow places, carrying with them and
depositing a sediment of rocky matter. The crust gradually be-
came thioker, the surface assumed a form comparatively perma-
nent, and only occasional eruptions showed that fiery heat and
waves of molten rock still raged within.

A succession of plants, marking distinct eras of vegetable life,
were then called into being, ami different orders of animals were
created — living and preying upon each other, and dying, as they

"71

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

393

do now. The most simple forms of animal life appeared first ;
then those of a higher organism ; and finally man, created in the
image of God.

If any one will take the pains to evaporate any saline solution
in a capsule till it is about to crystallize, and observe attentively
the pellicle of salt as it forms on the surface, an idea may be
formed of our globe's physical history. First, a partial film will
show itself in a few places, floating about and joining with
others ; then, when nearly the whole surface is coated, it will
break up in some places and sink into the liquid beneath ; an-
other pellicle will form and join with the remains of the first,
and as this thickens it will push up ridges and inequalities of the
surface from openings and fissures in which little jets of steam
and fluid will escape. These little ridges are chains of moun-
tains; the little jets of steam, those volcanic eruptions which
were at one period so frequent; the surface of the capsule is the
surface of the earth, and the five minutes which the observer has
contemplated it, a million years.

The Drincipal agents in producing the constant changes
going on within and upon our globe are the winds, the ocean,
the rivers, and the forces at work within the earth. Land and
water are to this day fighting for the mastery, as they did when
the condensation of the vapors surrounding the earth formed the
seas and oceans, leaving only the higher portions of the earth's
mass exposed, and when the clearing up of the dense, dark
clouds for the first time let in upon the earth's surface the glori-
ous and vivifying rays of the sun, corresponding to the earliest
record in the Bible of the acts of Creation : " And God said, let
there be light: and there was light."

But, perhaps, some reader may not think that the land and
water of our earth are thus engaged. A very few minutes' re-
flection, however, will suffice to confirm the assertion. Look at
the lofty crags in the Alps, for instance. What has shattered
those peaks, and sent the masses toppling down in stone ava-
lanches to the lower slopes, and then into the valleys? — Water.
Water has been in the crevices, and was frozen there ; in freez-
ing it expanded and loosened the crags, which, forced asunder,
gave an opening to more snow and ice, and so this powerful
leverage, aided by the wind and storm, is disintegrating our
mountains.

It is the same by the seashore ; the cliffs are wearing away,
and the sea approaches ; at other places the sea recedes from
the land, as coral formation and embryo chalk cliffs are rising
under the surface of the ocean. Lakes dry up, and the meadow
or farm arises on the site, while other old spots are sub-
merged.

The rocky wall over which the Niagara River precipitates
itself, is constantly wearing away under the impact of 700,000
tons of water every minute ; so that the falls are gradually re-
ceding toward Lake Erie, at a rate variously estimated at from
I foot to 1 )£ yards every year. They were once, and that, too,
within the present geological period, at least four miles nearer
to Lake Ontario than they now are.

It is computed that the Mississippi carries annually into the Gulf
of Mexico 400,000,000 tons of earthy matter — enough to cover
an area of ten square miles to the depth of twenty-five feet.

The winds transport loose sand, particularly on coasts ex-
posed to their fury, and, driving it inland, heap it up in parallel
ridges. Such sand-hills, or downs, as they are called, are very
common near the ocean ; on the coast of England they have
buried houses and farms.

Rivers are constantly changing the earth's surface by wearing
passages through the strata over which they flow, and by bearing
incalculable quantities of earthy matter to the sea, to form new
deposits at their mouths.

No rest, no change of idea, but ever changing in physical ap-
pearance, Nature goes on her wondrous way, working now as
steadily, as harmoniously and as surely as she did before time
was, and as she will continue to do when time shall be no
more. And all the works of Nature, ever changing, yet ever the
same, are recorded by the same Power that governs them.
" All things," says Emerson, " are engaged in writing their his-
tory. The planet, the pebble, goes attended by its shadow.
The rolling rock leaves its scratches on the mountain; the river,
its channel in the soil; the animal, its bones in the stratum ; the
fern and leaf, their modest epitaph in the coal. The falling
drop makes its sculpture in the sand or the stone. Not a foot
steps into the snow or along the ground, but prints, in characters
more or less lasting, a map of its march. Every act of the man
inscribes itself in the memories of his fellows, and in his own
manners and face. The air is full of sounds, the sky of tokens,
the ground is all memoranda and signatures, and every object
covered over with hints which speak to the intelligent"

Rocks.

We must entirely put away from our minds the idea that the
earth we live on was created at once, or as it appeared to the first
human beings. Our planet was prepared for man by degrees
during millions of years. Therefore, supposing (as is supposed)
that the earth came from the sun, we have all the material of the
globe in a fused state. As the earth cooled, rocks were formed
by pressure, and then water came, and now we can read
" books in the running brooks, and sermons in stones," at our
leisure.

A rock, in geology, is any natural formation of earthy or stony
material, whether in the form of sand, gravel, clay, mold, or a
compacted mass. In regard to their form and position, the rock
masses of the earth's crust may be divided into three classes —
stratified rocks, unstratified rocks, and veins.

Stratified recks are those that lie in layers, or strata. They
compose the greater part of the land surface of the earth, form-
ing not only vast plains, but whole mountain systems. To this
class belong slate, sandstone, limestone, marl, chalk, etc.

Unstratified rocks are irregular masses, formed, not by the
deposit of sediment in beds or layers, but by the gradual cooling
of melted matter. They embrace igneous and metamorphic
rocks.

Igneous rocks owe their orign to the action of heat, as the
stratified rocks do to that of water. Basalt may be mentioned
as an example of the igneous rocks. In some regions it consti-
tutes immense beds, and in others forms gigantic columns, as
regular as if wrought by art.

«5 ^

'7t

394

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Metamorphic rocks are such as were originally stratified, but
afterward underwent a change of structure through the agency
of heat or chemical action.

Veins are rock-matter filling the cracks of fissures of other
rocks. They vary greatly in size and extent. They may be
regular or irregular in form, isolated or united in a complex net-
work.

The term drift is employed to designate the immense deposits
of sand, gravel, clay and boulders, or loose rocks, which exist
over a great part of the American continent. The origin of
this material is referred to " Glacial Period" when, from some
cause, a change of climate caused immense masses of ice, either
in the form of icebergs or glaciers, to plow their way over the
continent, bringing the material from the Archaean beds and
depositing it over the existing formations, and at the same time
scoring and grooving the underlying rocks.

The Geologic Ages.

There are seven great geologic ages, or divisions of time,
known as the Azoic, the Silurian, the Devonian, the Carbonifer-
ous, the Reptilian, the Ma.nmalian, and the Age of Man. Our
knowledge of the plants and animals of the ages preceding the
creation of man is derived from their remains dug out of the
earth, and called fossils.

The Azoic Age is the era, as its name implies, when there was
no life, either vegetable or animal, cr. the globe. The crystal-
line minerals and all the igneous rocks date back to this age,
and hence they are destitute of fossils.

During the Silurian Age, the second in atiquity, there was
no terrestrial life ; but mollusks — animals with soft, fleshy bodies,
without any internal skeleton, like the oyster and the snail —
abounded in the waters. The oldest sandstone and limestone
belong to this period. Its plant-fossils are sea-weeds.

The Devonian Age was the age of fishes, remarkable for their
thick, bony scales. The sea also teemed with shell-, corals and
sea- weed; while the land, though yet limited in extent, began
to be covered with vegetation. Insects, the earliest of terrestrial
animals, now first appeared.

The Carboniferous Age, or age of coal, is fourth. From
colossal tree ferns, leaves and branches, deposited in successive
centuries, were formed, by gradual decomposition under water,
those vast coal-beds on which the industrial pursuits of the pres-
ent day so largely depend. The animals of this age consisted
mainly of insects of various kinds; and inferior tribes of
reptiles.

The Reptilian Age was marked by the great number, variety
and size of its reptiles, the appearance and habits of which are
known from the remains, found .buried in the rocks of this
period. The rocks of this age are the freestones, extensively
used for building, sandstone formations, intersected with ridges
of trap of igneous origin, limestone and gypsum, laminated and
plastic clays, and chalk-beds, containing layers of flint.

The Mammalian Age was the sixth. The reptiles now dwin-
dled in size and diminished in number, being succeeded by
quadrupeds, some of which were much larger than any modern
species. The deinotherium, mastodon, megatherium and fossil

elephant were among the gigantic animals of this era, while the
plants resembled those of the present time, palms, oaks, «"?pW.
magnolias, etc., being found in the forests.

The Age of Man is the last of the seven geologic ages.
The huge monsters that gave the preceding period its peculiar
character became extinct, and were replaced by smaller animals
— those we see around. Man was created, and invested with
dominion over the earth. This is the "era of the finished
world — the era, also, of man's progress and preparation for an-
other and a higher life."

THE EARTH'S SURFACE.

The earth's surface of an area of about 197,000,000 square
miles, of which only about one-fourth is land.

Lowlands are tracts, either level or diversified by hill and
vale, not elevated more than 1,000 feet above sea-level. Deserts
are extensive tracts destitute of water, and, consequently, of
vegetation and animal life.

Silvas are forest plains. Plains that produce grass, but not
trees, are known in North America as prairies ; in South Amer-
ica as llanos and pampas ; in Asia and Southeastern Europe as
steppes.

The desert of Sahara, as far as known, consists partly of
table-lands and partly of low plains. It is interspersed with
oases, or fertile spots, which are generally lower than the sur-
rounding country; some of these are of considerable extent and
well populated.

A mountain is an elvation of land exceeding 2,000 feet in
height. A A ill is less than 2,000 feet in height.

A mountain-chain is a long, elevated ridge, or several moun-
tains extending in a line.

Mountains are of great use to man. They attract the clouds,
condense their moisture, and store up in reservoirs the water
received from them, sending it forth again in streams, from
thousands of springs, to fertilize . the soil. They increase the
surface of the earth, giving variety to its vegetable pro-
ductions. They protect the adjacent countries from cold and
piercing winds, and thus exert a favorable influence on their
climare.

An avalanche is a large mass of snow, ice and earth, sliding
or rolling down a mountain. A water-shed is the mountain
chain or ridge of land which separates one basin from another,
and from which the rivers flow.

A mountain pass is an elevated road crossing a mountain -
chain through a natural opening or depression.

Glaciers are immense masses of ice formed by the accumu-
lated snows upon the mountain tops. They fill in vast valleys,
and have an onward motion throughout like a liquid or semi-
liquid body, Their course down the slopes is very slow, lnit,
like rivers, they flow faster in the middle than at the bottom
and sides. The lower extremities are constantly melting, form-
ing torrents and mountain streams, while the upper parts are
fed by the snows. Rocks of immense size are torn off and car-
ried down by glaciers. They occur in the greatest numbers in
the Alps. When a glacier reaches the ocecn large fragments
are broken off and float away as itebtrgt.

** « ■-

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

395

VOLCANIC PHENOMENA.

That the interior of the earth has a high temperature, inde-
pendent of the influence of the sun's rays, seems to be proven by
many phenomena. The majority of scientists maintain that the
center of the earth is a mass of molten material, and that conse-
quently the temperature increases the nearer this center is ap-
proached. This theory seems to accord with the facts in rela-
tion to hot springs, artesian wells, volcanoes, etc., although it is
maintained by some that these phenomena may be caused en-
tirely by local chemical changes going on within the earth's
crust.

Hot Springs.

Thermal or hot springs are most common in mountainous
regions, and especially where the earth's crust is most broken
and disturbed. Springs of every kind are formed by the rain or
melted snow sinking into the earth and issuing from it again at
a lower level. The fact that the water is sometimes hot, shows
that it must have come in contact with heated rock material
within the crust of the earth.

They are found of every grade of temperature from that of
slightly above the surrounding atmosphere, to the boiling point.
They are found in all parts of the world, the most numerous,
perhaps, in Europe.

Geysers

Are intermittent, spouting, hot springs, and have a temperature
at the boiling point. They are found in Iceland, New Zealand,
and in the " National Park " at the head waters of the Yellow-
stone River in the Rocky Mountains.

The most celebrated is the Great Geyser of Iceland. It con-
sists of an immense well, or funnel, 10 feet wide at its mouth,
and about 70 feet deep, surmounted at the surface with a basin
65 feet in diameter and 7 feet deep, formed by the deposit of
mineral matter from the water. At intervals it sends up a col-
umn of water and steam to the height of 100 feet. More re-
markable even than the geysers of Iceland are some that are
found in the " National Park." One, the Giantess, throws
water to the height of 200 feet. Grasshoppers and other insects,
and pieces of wood which fall into the waters, soon become in-
crusted with quartz, which is held in solution by the water, thus
permanently petrifying them.

Volcanoes.

A volcano is a mountain, or opening in the earth's crust,
through which issue fire, smoke, ashes, lava, steam, etc. Vol-
canoes may be distinguished as extinct and active. Extinct
volcanoes are such as are now at rest, but were subject to erup-
tions in former ages, as is shown by their form and structure,
and the presence of craters. Active volcanoes are such as are
either in a constant state of eruption, or have eruptions from time
to time, with intervals of rest.

Volcanoes throw out an enormous amount of material. Whole
islands and portions of continents have been formed by volcanic
action. Iceland is an example of a volcanic island.

The lava, when it first issues from a volcano, is somewhat like
melted iron running from a furnace, but soon cools on the surface

and forms a black, porous crust. Sometimes the streams are so
thick that the interior remains hot for twenty years.

A terrific eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, A.D. 79, destroyed the
flourishing cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae, and
covered them with ashes and cinders to the depth of fifteen
feet.

About sixty eruptions of Mt. Etna are recorded. In 1669, a
stream of lava from this mountain overflowed the ramparts of
Catania, sixty feet in height, and destroyed a portion of the city.
In 1832, several craters opened in the sides of the mountain, and
a stream of lava eighteen miles long, one mile broad, and thirty
feet deep, poured over the adjacent fields.

In 1835, the terrible eruption of Conseguina occurred. It
lasted three days, during which the light of the sun was obscured
over half of Central America, and more than 40,000 square
miles are said to have been covered with dust, ashes and lava.

Fields of Fire.

In some localities an inflammable gas issues from openings in
the ground. This gas frequently becomes ignited and burns for
some time. There is a region of this kind on the western shore
of the Caspian Sea. This gas is supposed to be from the decom-
position of vegetable matter by internal heat.

Earthquakes.

The second class of volcanic phenomena are earthquakes.
These consist of vibrations or tremblings of the earth's crust,
and are caused by movements in the fluid interior; but how
these movements are produced, is as yet unknown. It is esti-
mated that since the Creation earthquakes have destroyed
thirteen million human beings. Scientists assert that not less
than twelve shocks of earthquake are experienced in the United
States daily, although, of course, they are but slight, and individ-
ually unworthy of mention.

An earthquake is generally preceded by unmistakable signs.
The electrical condition of the air seems to be changed percep-
tibly to both men and beasts — the former experiencing oppression
and dizziness ; the latter uttering cries of distress, running wildly
about, or otherwise manifesting uneasiness. The atmosphere is
unnaturally still and hazy, and the sun seen through it looks
like a ball of fire.

The year 1868 was remarkable for the number and severity of
its earthquakes. One of these occurred in the Sandwich Islands,
destroying whole villages and many lives. One of the most
terrible earthquakes on record occurred in South America, in
August of that year. Its center of activity seems to have been
at Arica, a seaport of Peru, which was completely destroyed,
with two hundred of its inhabitants. The shocks extended
throughout the Andes, from the United States of Colombia to
Chili, and towns and cities were laid in ruins. It is estimated
that more than fifty thousand persons lost their lives by this
catastrophe.

The great earthquake of Lisbon occurred November I, 1755.
A rumbling sound beneath the surface was immediately followed
by three shocks, so close together that they seemed but one,
which threw down the principal part of the city; the sea

-F=

39 6

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

retired, leaving the bar dry, and instantly returned in a wave
forty feet high, engulfing a great marble quay, to which multi-
tudes had fled to escape the falling buildings. In the space of
six minutes, thirty-five thousand persons perished.

The most remarkable earthquake that has occurred in the
United States is that of New Madrid, on the Mississippi, in
1811-12. For several months there was an incessant quaking
of the ground, which, for a distance of three hundred miles,
rose and sank in undulations. The most of the town was sub-
merged.

Readers will remember the earthquake which visited Java in
1882, and also that in Spain the lattei part of December, 1884,
the shocks continuing into the middle of January, 1885. Accord-
ing to the official record, the number of persons killed in
Granada was 695, while 1,480 were injured.

The crust of the earth is in some places gradually and slowly
rising ; in other places it is sinking. The coast of North Amer-
ica, from Labrador to New Jersey, is slowly rising. The
southern part of Greenland is sinking. The Scandinavian pen-
insula is sinking in the southern part and rising in the northern
part. These changes are at the rate gf a few feet only in a hun-
dred years. The cause is probably the slow contraction from
cooling of the earth's crust.

ISLANDS.

About one-seventeenth of the land surface of our planet is in
the form of fragmentary bodies, called islands. They may be
considered as of two classes : Continental, those lying in the
near vicinity of the continents, and really forming a part of the
continental structure, and oceanic, those lying at a distance from
the continents, in the midst of the oceans, and differing in struc-
ture from the continents.

Oceanic islands are all small and usually occur in groups.
Their rock structure is essentially different from that of the conti-
nents, and the vegetation and animal life generally peculiar.
They may be divided into two classes — volcanic, or high, and
the coral, or low.

The volcanic islands are the summits of active or extinct vol-
canoes projecting above the water. They are usually consider-
ably elevated, with steep shores, and more or less circular in
outline. Some have peaks of great height, as one of the Sand-
wich Islands, with the peak of Hawaii, fourteen thousand feet
above the sea level. Many of them have appeared within the
history of man.

Coral islands are among the most interesting phenomena o'
Physical Geography. They owe their existence to the work oi
colonies of small radiate animals called polyps. The structure
of the polyp consists of a cylindrical or sack-like membrane,
attached at the bottom to some solid body, and enclosing a
second sack, which forms the stomach. At the top is an open-
ing, or mouth, which is surrounded by thread-like organs called
tentacles. When expanded, the polyp resembles a flower in
form and often in the beauty of its color. The solid coral,
which composes the reef, is secreted in the cavity between the
outer and inner membranes, as the bones are secreted in the

bodies of higher animals. Coral polyps multiply by eggs, to a
certain extent, but chiefly by a process of budding similar to the
branching of plants. Thus they grow into vast communities, in
which generation succeeds generation, each individual leaving
behind, as it dies, its contribution to the reef in the form of a
small cell of carbonate of lime. The polyps cannot live out of
water, and hence their work must cease at low water mark.
Fragments of the coral structure are broken off and thrown upon
the top of the mass by the waves, and thus in the course of time
a reef, as it is called, is formed, projecting from the water.
Upon this reef a vegetation finally springs up from the seeds
which the winds and waves bring, and a soil is formed from the
pulverized coral, drifted material and decayed vegetation. The
reef-building polyps exist only in tropical regions, or where the
water never gets below the temperature of 68° F.

WATER.

This all-important and ever-present liquid is a chemical com-
bination of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen — eight parts of the
former by weight being combined with one of the latter. When
pure, it is destitute of color, taste and smell ; but, as it readily
absorbs gases and dissolves many solids, it is seldom found in
this state.

The large body of water covering by far the greater part of
the earth's surface is called the ocean. There is really but one
ocean ; but the continents partially divide it into five basins,
which we distinguish by different names, as the Atlantic, Pacific,
Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans.

The bottom of the ocean is supposed to be diversified with
depressions and elevations — with low plains, plateaus and
mountains — like the land; hence the depth differs in different
parts. Some of the researches lately made by English explorers
in regard to deep-sea beds have, however, led to the belief that
there are no rough ridges, abrupt chasms nor bare rocks, and
that the sea bottom, at great depths, is not affected by currents
or streams — even by those of the magnitude of the Gulf Stream
— its general appearance rather resembling that of the American
prairies, and it is everywhere covered by a kind of mud. The
greatest depth shown by soundings is eight and three-quarter
miles. The mean depth of the whole body of the ocean is esti-
mated at four miles.

The color of the ocean is a beautiful sky-blue where the
depth is great, but in shallow water, yellowish tints, reflected
from the bottom, mingle with the blue, and produce a grayish
green.

Phosphorescence, one of the most beautiful of marine phe-
nomena, is a brilliant light occasionally observed in the sea
during dark nights, particularly in tropical regions. Sometimes
the crests of the waves, the spray thrown up by the ship's bow,
and the wake she leaves behind, look as if they were on fire.
This phenomenon is produced by myriads of animalcules,
which have the property of emitting light from their bodies,
like fire-flics. A hundred of them have been found in a single
drop of sea-water.

-/I

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

397

The Oceanic Movements.

The great body of the ocean is never at rest ; not only is the
surface agitated by the winds, but even at great depths the
wat.er moves from one region to another.

There are four oceanic movements, viz.: waves, tides, cur-
rents and whirlpools.

Waves are ridges of water, produced by the friction of winds
on the surface. Tides are alternate risings and fallings of the
waters of the ocean.

Tides are produced by the attraction of the moon and sun —
principally that of the former — acting with different degrees of
force on different parts of the earth. Were the moon the sole
cause of the tides, they would always be of the same height ; but
the sun also exerts an attraction, which, according as it acts with
or against that of the moon, increases or diminishes the height
of the tide.

The currents are vast streams which traverse the ocean, and
keep its waters in perpetual circulation. The principal of these
are the Gulf Stream, the Equatorial, Japan, Antarctic and Arctic
currents.

The Gulf Stream.

The most important of the oceanic currents is the Gulf
Stream, so called from the Gulf of Mexico, out of which it flows
into the Atlantic, through the Strait of Florida. It is from
twenty-five to one hundred and fifty miles in width, and moves
with a velocity of from one and one-half to five miles an hour,
the water being much warmer than other parts of the ocean near
it. Its color is of a deep indigo blue, strikingly different from
the green of the surrounding ocean. A branch of this vast body
of warm water, constantly flowing past the western coast of
Europe, exerts a most genial influence on the climate. Even
many miles in the interior the air is tempered by west winds,
warmed by contact with this great stream. The Gulf Stream
carries the heat of the Caribbean Sea across the Northern
Atlantic to the shores of Scotland and Norway. This tropical
river, flowing steadily through the cold water of the ocean,
rescues England from the snows of Labrador. Should it, by
any chance, break through the Isthmus of Panama, Great
Britain would be condemned to eternal glaciers.

The Equatorial Currents.

An equatorial current crosses the Atlantic from the coast of
Africa to the neighborhood of Cape St. Roque. It there divides
into two branches, a northwesterly and a southwesterly, each of
which follows the South American coast — the former making
its way into the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.

In the Pacific two equatorial currents are found — one north
and the other south of the equator. The former, turning to the
northeast near the Loo Choo Islands, continues under the name
of the Japan current. The south equatorial current of the
Pacific consists of two branches, one of which, striking the
Australian coast, divides into a northwesterly and a south-
westerly branch, as does the Atlantic equatorial current on the
coast of Brazil ; the other, farther north, turns near the Caroline
Islands, and reverses its course, crossing the Pacific again in a

direction nearly due east to South America, under the name of
the Equatorial counter-current.

The Japan Current,

In the Pacific, bears a remarkable resemblance to the Gulf
Stream in the Atlantic. Impelled by the Pacific equatorial cur-
rent, it sweeps from the China Sea along the Asiatic island
chains, in a northeasterly direction, toward the Aleutian Islands
and Alaska, the climate of which it improves, as the Gulf Stream
does that of Northwestern Europe. Between the Japan current
and the main land, a cold current sets in the opposite direction,
as in the case of the Gulf Stream.

The Antarctic Current,

Which enters the Atlantic, runs in a northwesterly direction to
the southern extremity of Africa, and thence along its western
eoast until it joins the Equatorial near the Gulf of Guinea. That
which sets into the Pacific flows along the South American
coast, under the name of the Peruvian or Humboldt current, and
is merged in the Equatorial west of the Gulf of Guayaquil. The
Antarctic current, belonging to the Indian Ocean, runs along the
western coast of Australia, and unites with the Equatorial just
north of the Tropic of Capricorn.

From the Arctic Ocean two cold currents set to the south,
one on each side of Greenland. Uniting at the mouth of Davis
Strait, they continue their southerly course as far as Newfound-
land, where part of this broad Arctic river, as an under-current,
flows beneath the Gulf Stream, and the rest, as a surface-current,
keeps inside of this stream, close to the American shore as far
south as Florida.

Whirlpools are circular currents, which occur in certain
localities.

Inland Waters.

The inland waters of the earth are springs, rivers and lakes.

The rain or melted snow and hail which sinks into the earth,
penetrates the crust until it reaches an impervious strata, when it
runs along until it finds an outlet at the surface in the form of a
spring, or gathers into underground reservoirs, some of which,
by their peculiar formation, having an outlet in the form of a
siphon, form intermittent springs.

The drainage from the surface and the water from springs
form small streams which unite to form rivers. When the water
from streams and from the surface collects in depressions on the
earth's surface, it forms lakes.

Lakes may be divided into classes, as follows: (i) Those
having inlets, but no visible outlets. (2) Those having outlets,
but no apparent inlets. (3) Those having no apparent outlets
or inlets. (4) Those having both inlets and outlets.

The Caspian Sea, Aral Sea and Great Salt Lake are examples
of the first ciass. Such lakes are usually salt. The water is
either all lost by evaporation or is absorbed by the earth. Lakes
of the second class are usually found in mountainous regions,
and are the source of some large rivers. The water evidently
comes from springs and rises until it runs over the basin. . Lake
Albano, near Rome, is an example of the third class. Such
lakes are usually situated in elevated regions, are supposed to be

A«-

398

Tf?

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the craters of extinct volcanoes, and are fed by springs. Lakes
of the fourth class are by far the most common.

When water evaporates, all impurities are left behind ; hence
rain water is not salt like the ocean. The water of springs,
rivers and lakes is, therefore, pure and fresh, unless it comes in
contact with foreign matter that it is capable of dissolving.

THE AIR.

The earth is surrounded by an elastic fluid called air, which
enters the minutest pores, and therefore exists in every substance.

Air, like everything else, is attracted by the earth, hence it
has weight, although experiments show that it is 815 times
lighter than water.

Air is essential to the transmission of sound, to combustion,
and to life.

CLIMATE.

Climate is the state of the atmosphere in regard to tempera-
ture, winds, moisture and salubrity.

The climate of a place as regards temperature depends upon :

Latitude. — The general law is that the amount of heat is greatest at the
equator, and diminishes toward the poles. There are three reasons for
this: 1. The sun's rays fall perpendicularly upon the earth at the equator ,-
and more and more obliquely as we go toward the poles, a. The area
covered by a given amount of heating power from the sun is smaller at the
equator. 3. Where the sun's rays fall perpendicularly they pass through a
less amount of atmosphere, and the absorption of heat is less.

Attitude. — The decrease in temperature is about three deg. F. for
every 1,000 feet of elevation. As the air receives most of its heat by
radiation and reflection from the earth, and as the higher we go the less
dense the air, the less heat is absorbed either from the earth or from the
direct rays of the sun.

Prevailing Winds. — Winds blowing from the tropical regions carry the
heat with them, and conversely, winds from the polar regions lower the tem-
perature. Whichever wind prevails throughout the year in a given place
will consequently modify the temperature of that place.

Length 0/ Day. — During the day the earth receives from the sun more
heat than it radiates into space ; while during the night it radiates more than
It receives. Hence a succession of long days and short nights results in an
accumulation of heat, raising the average temperature and producing
summer ; while long nights and short days result in a temperature below the
average, producing winter. The heating power of the sun is greater in
summer, because at that season it is shining more directly upon that part of
the earth, and conversely in winter. In the tropical regions the inequality of
day and night is very little, but increases toward the poles. The tempera-
ture in the tropics is therefore more uniform. The length of day makes
up for the lessened intensity of the sun's rays ; hence a place in high latitude
may have at times higher temperature than a place within the tropics.

Ocean Currents. — The warm waters of the tropical regions being brought
toward the polar regions bring the heat with them, radiating it into space,
and it is absorbed by the atmosphere.

Mountain Ranges.— & mountain range will make a country near it
warmer or colder, according as it shields it from a cold or warm wind.

The Distribution 0/ Land and Water, — Land heats or cools rapidly,
absorbing or emitting but little heat. Water heats or cools slowly, absorb-
ing or emitting large quantities of heat. Hence the land is subject to great
and sudden changes of temperature ; the water to small and gradual
changes. Places situated near the sea have, therefore, a more equable
i lim.itr.

Character of Soil.'" Dry, sandy soil heats and cools more rapidly than
wet and marshy lands; hence the latter will have a more uniform teni
perature.

Slope 0/ La nd.— Land which slopes so that the sun's rays will strike it
nearer vertically will receive more heat. The south side of a hill is wanner
In winter than the north side.

In regard to winds the climate of a place depends upon :

Temperature. — As winds are but masses of air set in motion by the
unequal heating, the winds of any given place depend primarily upon the
temperature, though not necessarily upon the temperature of that place. As
the air is heated in the tropical parts of the earth by the sun, it rises, and
colder air flows In from the polar regions to take its place ; hence the primary
currents, which are modified in various ways by other causes.

Rotation 0/ the Earth. — The winds are turned out of their course by
the rotation of the earth in the same manner as the ocean currents.

Land and Water. — The land becomes wanner during the day than the
sea, and, the air rising, a cooler air flows in from the sea. At night the land
parts with its heat more rapidly than the water and becomes cooler; then
the wind sets the other way. Hence we have the land and sea breezes.

Elevation o/the Land. — Mountains, as has already been stated, shelter
places from winds. Some of the great plains are subject to almost constant
winds.

In regard to moisture, the climate of a place depends upon :

Prevailing Wind. — If a wind blows from large bodies of water in a warm
region it will be laden with moisture which will be likely to be precipitated
on reaching a colder country.

Mountains.— The contact of a moisture-laden wind with the cold sides of
mountains will cause a precipitation of its moisture, and the regions beyond
the mountains will not leceive it.

Forests, by shading the earth, keep its surface cool, and this tends to con-
dense the moisture.

Cultivation 0/ the Soil, causing it to absorb 'moisture from the atmos-
phere, and by capillary attraction in dry weather bring up moisture from
below to the surface.

Temperature. — Increased heat causes greater evaporation, and hence
more moisture in the atmosphere. More rain falls within the tropics than in
the temperate or polar regions. •

Land and Water. — More rain falls on the coasts of a country than in the
interior, because the winds are more moist. More rain falls in the northern
hemisphere than in the southern because there is a greater diversity of land
and water, the evaporation coming mainly from the ocean, and the condensa-
tion from the diversified land surface.

Isothermal lines are lines connecting places that have the same
mean temperature.

There is a line or limit of elevation, above which the surface
is covered with perpetual snow ; this is called the snow line.

WINDS AND WEATHER.

Wind is air in motion. Winds have a purifying effect upon
the atmosphere; they dissipate unhealthy exhalations; they
transport vapors from the sea to moisten and fertilize the land ;
they carry the seeds of plants far and wide, and thus extend the
empire of vegetation ; finally, they waft our ships, and are, in
some countries, made available as a motive power for machinery .

The cause of winds is the difference of heat received from the
sun in different places. The heated air expands, becomes rare-
fied, and rises. The cooler air immediately rushes in from the
surrounding parts, to restore the disturbed equilibrium.

The trade-winds are so named because, by their regularity,
they favor commerce. They are produced as follows: The
equatorial regions being most intensely heated, a current of rare-
fied air is there constantly ascending, while colder currents from
the north and south set in toward the equator to fill its place.
When these reach the ascending current, having in turn become
rarefied, they follow it in its upward course, and thus air is with-
drawn from the higher latitudes, and accumulated in the equa-
torial regions.

IVhirhtrinds are bodies of air that have a rotatory or spiral
motion, and are usually caused by the meeting of contrary winds.

"7 <5 W

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g . -

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

399

When a whirlwind occurs on a sandy plain or desert, great
quantities of fine sand are carried up to a great height in the
atmosphere, and move with the revolving body of air, forming
what are called sand-pillars.

The Sirocco, which in some places is a warm, damp wind, in
Madeira is a hot wind, and likewise in Sicily, where it is
equally warm and damp like steam.

The Simoon is a very hot wind, raising sand-storms in the
deserts, and experience has shown it to be very prejudicial to
life in consequence of the fine sand and the tremendous heat it
carries with it. Then we have the Hurricane, from " Ouracan,"
of the Caribs ; the Typhoon, or Tae-fun, of China, so called
from the dreaded god Typhon of Egypt ; and the Tornado and
Cyclone — all violent winds, and circling round, causing, so
to speak, whirlwinds, by which trees are uprooted and houses
destroyed.

In hurricanes, tornadoes, etc., the rotatory motion of the air is
from right to left in the northern hemisphere, and from left to
right in the southern.

Water-spouts are whirled up by the winds in spiral columns of
water, and when permitted to come near a ship at sea, or when
they break upon land, which is seldom, are very destructive.

Dew and Hoar-Frost.

When air charged with moisture comes in contact with a
solid surface colder than itself, aqueous vapor is precipitated on
this surface as dew. The grass at night becomes cooled by rad-
iation, and thus condenses upon its surface the vapor of the air.
Dew will gather most freely upon those objects that are the best
radiators, as they will the soonest become cool. Thus grass,
leaves, etc., which need the most, get the most.

Dew will not form on windy nights, because the air is con-
stantly changing, and does not become cool enough to deposit
its moisture. A heavy dew is a sign of rain, because it shows
that the moisture of the air is easily condensed.

If, during the precipitation of dew, the temperature falls to the
freezing-point (32° F.), hoar-frost is formed. This consists of
minute ice-crystals, and is nothing more than frozen dew. Frost
will not form on cloudy nights, because the clouds act like a
blanket, to prevent radiation, and keep the earth warm.

Fogs.

Fogs are formed when the temperature of the air falls below
the dew-point («'. e., the temperature at which dew is deposited).
They are found mainly on low grounds, and in the vicinity
of rivers, ponds, etc., where the abundance of moisture keeps
the air constantly saturated.

Clouds.

Clouds are collections of visible vapor suspended in the at-
mosphere, at altitudes ranging from one to five miles. Vapor
consists of particles of water so fine and light that they float in
the air like dust.

Mountains are " cloud-capped," because the warm air rising
from the valley is condensed upon their cold summits. Clouds
are constantly falling by their weight; but, as they melt away in
the warm air below, by condensation they increase above.

The nimbus cloud is a dark-colored cloud, from which rain
falls.

The stratus cloud is composed of broad, widely extended
cloud-belts, sometimes spread over the whole sky. It is the lowest
cloud, and often rests on the earth. It is the night cloud.

The cumulus cloud is made up of large cloud-masses, looking
like snow-capped rrfountains piled up along the horizon. It
forms the summits of pillars of vapor, which, streaming up from
the earth, are condensed in the upper air. It is the day cloud ;
and, when of small size and seen only near midday, is a sign of
fair weather.

The cirrus cloud consists of light, fleecy clouds floating high in
air. It is believed to be formed of spiculae of ice or flakes of
snow.

The cirro-cumulus is formed by small, distinct, rounded por-
tions of the cirrus cloud, which separate from each other, leaving
a clear sky between. It accompanies warm, dry weather. The
cirro-stratus is produced when the cirrus cloud spreads out into
long, slender strata. It forebodes storms. The cumulo-stratus
presents the peculiar forms called " thunder-heads." It is caused
by a blending of the cumulus with the stratus, and is a precursor
of thunder-storms.

Rain — Snow — Hail.

When the minute vapor-particles of clouds combine and grow
too heavy to float in the air, they are precipitated as rain — or,
at a temperature below the freezing-point, as snow or hail.

Snow is frozen vapor, with its particles aggregated in flakes.
Hail is frozen rain.

Snow is an important agent in the economy of nature. Being
a non-conductor of heat, it protects the roots of the grasses and
the winter grains from severe frosts. Collecting in great masses
on lofty mountains and gradually thawing, it feeds streams,
which carry fertility and wealth to extensive districts.

Lightning and Thunder.

Lightning is a discharge of atmospheric electricity, accom-
panied by a flash of light.

Heat-lightning is either the reflection of distant flashes on the
clouds, or the frequent and therefore weak and silent discharge
of electricity from the clouds through a moist atmosphere.

Lightning cleaves the air with inconceivable rapidity, and
leaves a vacuum behind it, into which the surrounding air rushes
with great force, and with a loud, crackling sound, which we
call thunder.

Lightning and thunder take place at the same instant, but we
see the former before we hear the latter. This is because light
travels with much greater velocity than sound.

Thunder-storms are most frequent within the tropics during
the rainy season.

The Aurora Borealis.

The aurora borealis is a luminous appearance, which at times
imparts wonderful beauty to the polar skies at night, and is also
of occasional occurrence in the temperate latitudes. It is sup-
posed to be produced by the passage of electric currents through
strata of highly rarefied air.

±X

~s \

400

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Mirage.

Mirage (sometimes called Fata Morgana) is the appearance
in the air of the image of some distant object, seen eitherincon-
nection with the object itself, above or below the latter, or sus-
pended in the air, the object being invisible. It is a very curious
but sufficiently common phenomena, and in the Asiatic and
African plains it is frequently observed. When the weather is
calm and the ground hot, the Egyptian landscape appears like a
lake, and the houses look like islands in the midst of a widely-
spreading expanse of water. This causes the mirage, which is
the result of evaporation, while the different temperatures of the
air strata cause an unequal reflection and refraction of light,
which give rise to the mirage. Travelers are frequently deceived,
but the camels will not quicken their usual pace until they scent
water.

The Fata Morgana and the inverted images of ships seen at
sea are not uncommon on European coasts. Between Sicily and
Italy this effect is seen in the Sea of Reggio with fine effect.
Palaces, towers, fertile plains, with cattle grazing on them, are
seen, with many other terrestrial objects, upon the sea — the
palaces of the Fairy Morgana. The inverted images of ships
are frequently perceived, and many most extraordinary but per-
fectly authentic tales have been related concerning the reflection
and refraction of persons and objects in the sky and on land,
when no human beings nor any of the actual objects were within
the range of vision.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

Zoology is that science which treats of animals, their structure,
habits and classification.

There are four principal divisions of animals, based on dis-
tinct types of structure, and including all the denizens of the
earth, the water and the air. Following are the divisions of
the animal kingdom, beginning with the lowest :

SUB-KINGDOMS OR DIVISIONS.

I. Protozoa— First-living things,
or lowest form of animal life.

II. Radiata— Radiates, that is,
such as are shaped like a star or
flower, and have their organs ar-
ranged uniformly around a common
center.

III. Mollusca— Mollusks.that Is,
soft-bodied, without joints, and with-
out vertebra;, but usually protected
by a shell.

CLASSES OF SUBDIVISIONS.

. Amoeba, sponges, proteus, etc.
They have no mouth, and no dis-
tinct members, but are capable of
making many changes in their
form.

i. Coral animals, sea-anemones, etc.
a. Jelly-fishes, sea-nettles,
i. Star-fishes, sea-urchins.

i. Ilryozoa, that is, moss animals;
as sea-mats, white sea-weeds, etc.

a. Brachlopods, that is, with arm-
feet, or spiral appendages ; as the
lingular, spirifers, etc.

3. Ascidians, that is, pouch-like ; as
salpK, etc.

4. Acephals, that is, headless ; as
oysters, etc.

5. Csphalates, that is, with heads ;
as snails, etc.

6. Cephalopods, that is, with heads
and feet, or, more strictly, tenta-
cles.

IV. AimctrLATA — Articulates,
that is, animals having the body and
members jointed, but without an
internal skeleton.

V. Vertkbrata — Vertebrates,
that is, animals that have a back-
bone, and an articulated or jointed
skeleton, and a great nervous cord,
the spinal marrow, enclosed in a
bony shc-.th.

1. Worms, as earth-worms, Ircch— .
etc.

2. Crustaceans, as crabs, lobsters,

etc.

3. Centipedes, etc.

4. Spiders, etc.

5. Beetles, butterflies, etc.

1. Fishes.

2. Reptiles, that is, creeping things,
as turtles, frogs, snakes, lizards,
etc.

3. Birds, that Is, " Every winged
fowl."

4. Mammalia, that is, animals with
teats.

The last class, Mammalia, is further subdivided into fourteen
orders, of which the most distinctive, still ascending from the
lower to the higher, are four, namely :

1. Cetacea, that is, of the whale tribe.

2. Quadrupeds, that is, four-footed animals generally.

3. Quadrumana, that is, four-handed ; as the gorilla, chimpanzee, ape and

monkey.

4. Bimana, that is, two-handed ; of which the only representative Is man.

ETHNOLOGY.

Ethnology is that science which treats of the division of man
into races, with their origin, relations and characteristics. Natur-
alists divide mankind, according to certain physical characteristics,
into varieties, or races. Authorities differ greatly in this classifi-
cation. Cuvier made three races; Pritchard, seven; Agassiz,
eight, and Pickering, eleven; but the classification most com-
monly accepted is that into five races, as made by Blumenbach,
as follows: The Caucasian, European, or white race; the Mon-
golian, Asiatic, or yellow race ; the Ethiopian, African, or black
race; the American Indian, or red race; the Malay, or brown
race. The first three are much more clearly marked, and are
considered by Guyot as primary races ; the others, being modi-
fications of these three, he designates as secondary races.
Because of the blending of types, it is difficult to make a classi-
fication, hence the difference among authorities. The points on
which the classification is based are mainly the size and propor-
tions of the body, the shape of head and the features, the hair
and beard, and the color of the skin

The Caucasian race are characterized by tall stature, oval
head and face, high forehead, regular features, abundance and
softness of hair and beard, and usually fair skin, but in some it is
tawny or swarthy, as in the Hindoos, Arabs and others. They
stand at the head in intelligence and civilization. This race is
represented by the principal inhabitants of Europe and their
descendants in America, and by the inhabitants of India, Arabia
and of Western Asia and Northern Africa.

The Germanic nations are descendants of the numerous tribes
of the ancient German stock that destroyed the Roman empire
and erected different states upon its ruins.

The Romanic nations occupy Southern Europe, and are so
called because their languages are mostly derived from the
Latin s|»ken by the ancient Romans. They are mixed nations,
descended partly from the ancient Pelasgians and partly from
other branches of Aryan stock.

•2

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

40I

The Italians derive their origin from the Romans, German
Longobards and Normans, with a slight intermixture of the
Arabic stock.

The Spanish and Portuguese have sprung from a mixture of
Celts, Romans, Germans and Arabs.

The Mongolian race are distinguished by short stature, round
head, wide face, high cheek bones, obliquely set eyes, coarse
straight hair, scarcely any beard, and yellowish color of the skin.
They are distributed over the whole of Eastern Asia, except in
India, and include the Esquimaux of the northern part of North
America.

The Ethiopian race are characterized by medium stature, gen-
erally ungainly form, low and retreating forehead, head full back
of the ears, flat, broad nose, projecting jaws, thick lips, short,
curly hair, and skin generally black or dark. They occupy all
of Africa, except the northern part, and many of their descend-
ants are found in America.

The American race resemble the Mongolian, but the head is
not so round, the face less wide and flat, the eyes horizontal, the
hair black and straight, and beard scanty, and the skin a reddish
or copper color. They occupy North and South America,
except on the Arctic shores.

The Malay race resemble also the Mongolian, but have
thicker lips, horizontal eyes, hair less straight, generally full
beards, and color usually brown. They occupy the Malay pen-
insula and the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

The number of languages spoken on the earth is estimated at
eight hundred and sixty, embracing about five thousand dialects.
The language spoken by the greatest number is the Chinese ;
the one most widely spread is the English.

In regard to religion, mankind may be divided into two gen-
eral classes : Monotheistic, those who worship one god, and
polytheistic, those who worship more than one god, also called
pagans, or heathens. Of the first class we have : (1) the Chris-
tian, which recognizes the Bible as the revealed word of God,
and Jesus Christ as the Son of God; (2) the Jewish, which rec-
ognizes the Old Testament as the word of God, but does not
acknowledge Christ; (3) the Mohammedan, or the religion of
Islam, whose two articles of faith are, "There is no god but
God, and Mohammed is the Prophet of God."

Of the second class there are : ( 1 ) Brahminism, or Hindooism,
the religion of the people of India, a very ancient religion which
has many good moral doctrines, but strange ideas of a future
state; (2) Buddhism, an offshoot of Brahminism, now practiced
by the people of China and Japan, founded by Sakya-Muni,
who adopted the title of Buddha (the enlightened), a religion
which has been more enthusiastic in making converts than any
other, except Christianity, and has many good moral precepts,
but is practically atheistic; (3) Fetichism, a very low form of
superstition, which consists in the worship of material objects,
either living or dead, as animals, or idols of wood or stone.

In regard to general culture and intelligence, mankind may
be divided into : ( 1 ) Savages, those who are scarcely elevated
above the brutes, live in tribes and subsist by hunting and fish-
ing; (2) Barbarians, those who have possessions, as flocks and
herds, and practice agriculture to some extent, yet have made

no progress in arts and sciences ; (3) Half-civilized, those who
have made some progress in the arts, have towns and cities, but
depend chiefly upon agriculture ; (4) Civilized, those who have
made considerable progress in science and art, engage in com-
merce and have a written language; (5) Enlightened, those who
stand at the head of the scale, have a division of labor, systems
of education, and have made the greatest progress in science,
art, and in morality.

The principal forms of government are : ( I ) The monarchical,
that form where one person exercises chief power, to which he
succeeds by inheritance, and holds for life. (2) Republican,
where the power is vested in men who are chosen by the people
for a limited period. An absolute monarchy (despotism) is one
where the ruler has unlimited or absolute power, his will being
the sole law. A limited or constitutional monarchy is one where
the ruler's power is limited by a constitution, or laws made by
the representatives of the people. In a monarchical government
the ruler receives various titles in different countries, as emperor,
king or queen, czar, sultan, shah and mikado. In a republican
government the chief officer is called a president.

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE.

The animals of a Country taken together are called its fauna,
while its flowers and vegetation are denominated flora.

The frigid zones produce very scanty vegetation, mosses and
lichens, and some stunted specimens of the higher forms, as the
willow, birch and pine. The animal world is much more
varied as to species. Here are found the reindeer, the musk ox
and the white bear, and many smaller fcr-bearing animals on the
land ; while, in the sea, or on its shores, are found whales, wal-
ruses, seals and water-fowls of many species.

In the torrid zone is found the most dense and varied vegeta-
tion, flowers of the most brilliant hue and of the largest size, the
most delicious fruits, the most powerful aromatics, the most val-
uable woods ; in fact, the most of those productions which add
to the luxuries of life. The animal world is represented by the
greatest number of species, among which are those of the largest
size, the most powerful and active, and the most intelligent. It
is the home of the elephant, the giraffe, the lion, the tiger, the
monkey, the ostrich, the condor, parrots, and of reptiles of the
largest size, as the crocodile and boa constrictor, as well as those
of the most poisonous character.

In the temperate zones are found the vegetation most useful to
man, as the oak, the pine, the maple and other useful timber
trees ; the indispensable grains, as wheat, maize, barley, rye ; the
useful fruits, as the apple, peach, pear, etc., and the fabric
plants, as flax and cotton. The animal kingdom is represented
by the bear, the bison, the elk and deer, the wolf; and the do-
mestic animals so useful to man, as the horse, the ox, sheep
and goats ; and many species of fowl, as pigeons, ducks, geese,
turkeys, etc.

MINERALS AND METALS.

The prosperity and wealth of a country depend largely upon
its mineral resources. Nature has bestowed her wealth in lavish
abundance, asking only the labor of man to make it useful. As

£2

402

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

u rule the useful and valuable minerals are found in rocky or
mountainous countries. These countries not being adapted to
agriculture, the people find employment in mining and manufac-
turing the raw material which is stowed away in their hills,
depending for subsistence upon commerce with their agricultural
neighbors of the plains. On the other hand, the inhabitants of
the plains must depend upon their neighbors of the hills for
material which adds to their comfort and convenience. Wher-
ever that most useful of metals, iron, is found, near by is always
found coal, which is necessary in reducing the iron to useful
forms. Timber also grows abundantly on the mountains. This,
too, is necessary to the manufacturer. The streams of hilly
countries have greater fall, and are thus adapted for water
power, which also adds to the advantages.

Many minerals occur near the surface of the earth, in alluvial
soil or the sandy beds of rivers ; but the greater part lie deep in
the ground, and are obtained with more or le*& labor by mining.

The most important metals are gold, silver, platinum, mercury,
iron, lead, copper, tin; nickel, zinc and antimony.

The richest silver mines in the world are those of Mexico.
Iron is found in the greatest abundance in different parts of the
United States and Europe. The great lead mines of the United
States lie on each side of the Mississippi River, in Northwestern
Illinois, Southwestern Wisconsin, and Iowa, and in Missouri,
south of the Missouri River. The richest and purest copper
mines in the world lie on the shores of Lake Superior, in North-
ern Michigan, where blocks of native copper weighing 80 tons
have been found. Zinc occurs in the Appalachian region, par-
ticularly New Jersey and Pennsylvania ; also in Illinois, Missouri,
Wisconsin and Tennessee.

Some Strange Metals.

Some of the metals, familiar enough to the chemist, though
rarely seen oifside his laboratory, have so little in common with
the metals of everyday life as to scarcely seem to belong to the
same class of substances. We commonly think of a metal as be-
ing heavy, yet sodium and potassium will float on water, and
Jithium is the lightest of all known solids. The fact is, that the
word "metal" is one of the hardest in the language to define.
The metals all have a peculiar luster, to be sure, which, from its
association, has come to be called metallic; but many minerals.
as galena and black-lead, which most certainly are not metals,
liave the same appearance, and so on, through the list of proper-
ties. The chemical relations of the metals give good reasons for
placing these substances by themselves, though even here the
lines are not clearly marked.

One of the most distinctive properties of the metals is their
power to form, when combined with acids, a class of bodios
called salts — on account of their resemblance to common salt —
which contains about 40 per cent of the metal sodium. This
metal is a bluish white, waxy solid, and has such a great ten-
dency to rust, or unite with the oxygen in the air, that it must be
kept in some oil, like petroleum, which contains no oxygen.

If a bit of sodium be thrown upon a piece of ice, the metal
takes fire, and any attempts to put it out by pouring water on it
would only be adding fuel to the flame. The sodium-match ii
an application of this peculiar property of the metal. It is
merely a bit of wood tipped with sodium, and which can, of
course, be lighted on the stormiest day by the mere contact of a
raindrop. The matches are, however, decidedly dangerous,
and their manufacture is generally prohibited.

Potassium, which is obtained from potash, is another metal
very similar to sodium, and will take fire upon ice or water even
more readily than this last-named metal. A small piece of potas-
sium thrown into a jug of water apparently takes fire at once, and
swims about with great rapidity, burning all the time with a
brilliant violet flame

One may be forgiven if his ideas on combustion are somewhat
upset by the first sight of this phenomenon, but there is really
nothing very strange about it. Water is a compound of hydro-
gen and oxygen, and these metals, sodium and potassium, have
so strong an attraction for oxygen that they will take it wher-
ever they can find it, even from water. This, of course, sets the
oxygen free, which is set on fire by the heat given off when the
potassium and oxygen unite, and burns with a violet color be-
cause of the vapor of the metal. The same is true in the case of
sodium ; the flame is due to the burning hydrogen rather than the
metal.

Sodium, potassium, and lithium, with several other metals,
form a group known as the alkali metals. There is another
group, to which iron belongs, which contains an interesting
member called aluminum — sometimes aluminium — from its
occurrence in common alum.

Aluminum is a beautiful metal, much like silver in appear-
ance, and possessing many valuable properties. It is very
sonorous, easily worked, does not tarnish in the air, and is only
about one-fourth as heavy as silver. It conducts electricity
eight times better than iron. Added to this, it occurs in greater
quantity than any other metal in the world. Every clay-bank,
every granite-bed, is a bed of aluminum, but as yet no cheap and
ready means of obtaining the metal has been found in spite of
all attempts. Napoleon offered a large reward to any one dis-
covering such a process. As late, however, as 1878, the
metal was still a curiosity; and up to 1889 the total out-
put of the world from all sources, French, English, Ger-
man and American, had been less than 110 totis. The
total production of the United States in 1889 v.t^ |
pounds, valued at ♦97,335. The stage of actual produc-
tion having been reached, the all-important feature of
the industry now is the effort by new procetse* to reduce
the coal of making the metal ; some of the present unfa-
miliar and elaborate metallurgical processes being repro-
ductions on I lar^e scale of experiments which are not
ordinarily used even in chemical laboratories. This UV
teretting and valuable metal lies hidden everywhere
At, and a princely fortune a«ait- the man who can
bring it to the light.

COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS.

403

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Notes, Bills, Orders, Checks, Drafts and Receipts Properly Drawn for Every State.

J*f VERY business man has felt the neces-
1 sity of a simple and thorough- explana-
tion of the legal principles and usages
1 which underlie all business transactions.
The law presumes that no man is ignorant of
the law, and consequently, when such vital
issues are at stake, no one can afford to be
ignorant. Not a day passes by in a large
counting-house that some question does not
arise which involves legal knowledge in its cor-
rect solution. To those who have felt the
need of a safe and simple adviser in those
every-day difficulties of trade, we will offer the
chapters which follow. All the matters in-
cluded in the routine of business will be found
fully treated, while such explanations are
appended as will make the study one in which
a mistake will be found impossible.

All men should know so much of the ordi-
nary law as protects their common and uni-
versal rights, and it must be admitted by every
student that business men should understand
the most general laws of business — the law of
partnership ; how. to make agreements ; how
to conduct sales ; how to draw notes ; how to
collect them, and the like. Knowledge of the
principles of business law will prevent, every
day, important mistakes leading to trouble and
loss. The laws have here been made plain by

themselves, so that a thorough and satisfactory
answer is at hand for every question.

The forms given will be found exceptionally
complete and accurate, having been prepared
with care and examined with close scrutiny.

NEGOTIABLE PAPER.

Confidence is the broad foundation on which the whole
superstructure of business, as it exists to-day, has been built.
The steps in this progress have been, first, barter in kind,
the exchange of a bushel of wheat for a handful of arrow-
heads, as business is still conducted among the savages ;
next, the substitution of money as a medium of exchange;
and finally, the substitution of negotiable paper, that is, docu-
mentary evidence of debt, for money, completing the pro-
gression. Negotiable paper includes promissory notes, due
bills, drafts, checks, certificates of deposit, bills of exchange,
bank bills, Treasury notes (greenbacks), and all other evi-
dences of debt, the ownership of which may be transferred
from one person to another.

The mere acknowledgment of debt is not -sufficient to
make negotiable paper; the promise of payment or an order
on some one to pay is indispensable. This promise must be
for money only. The amount must be exactly specified.
The title must be transferable. This feature must be visible
on the face of the paper by the use of such words as
"bearer" or "order." In some of the States peculiar
phrases are ordered by statute, as " Payable without defalca-
tion or discount," or " Payable at ," naming the bank

or office.

Promissory Notes.

A written agreement, signed by one person, to pay another,
at a fixed time, a stated sum of money, is a promissory note.
It becomes negotiable by being made payable to an order on

404

COMMERCIAL LAW AM) FORMS.

some one or to bearer. As it is a contract, a consideration
is one of its essential elements. Yet, although it be void as
between the two first parties, being negotiable and coming
into the hands of another person who gives value for it, not
knowing of its defect, it has full force and may be collected.

The date is of great consequence on all such paper. In
computing time, the day of date is not counted, but it is the
fixed point beginning the time at the end of which payment
must be made. Omission of the date does not destroy a note,
but the holder must prove to the time of its making. The
promise to pay must be precise as to time which the note is
to run. It must be at a fixed period, or conditional upon the
occurrence of something certain to happen, as **at sight,"
"five days after sight," "on demand," "three months after
date," "ten days after the death of John Doe." The time
not being specified, the note is considered "payable on
demand," and suit may be entered immediately.

The maker, the person who promises and whose signature
the note bears, must be competent. Insane people and idiots
are naturally, and aliens, minors and married women may
he legally, incompetent. The maker is responsible and binds
himself to pay the amount stated on the note at its maturity.
He need not pay it before it becomes due, but should he do
so and neglect to cancel the note, he would be again respons-
ible if any other person, without knowledge of such pay-
ment, acquired it for value before maturity. Even a receipt
for payment from the first payee would not stand good
against the subsequent holder.

The payee is the person in whose favor the note is drawn ;
the legal holder, the person to whom the money must be
paid. When a note is made payable simply to bearer, with-
out naming the payee, any one holding the note honestly
may collect.

A subsequent party, one who comes into possession of the
note after the original holder, has a better claim than the
first one, for the reason that between the maker and the
first payee there may have been, in the contract, some under-
standing or condition militating against the payment when it
would become due, but the third person, knowing nothing of
this, gives his value and receives the note. The law will
always sustain the subsequent party.

The endorser is held responsible if the maker fails to pay
when the note arrives at maturity. A note payable to order
must be endorsed by a holder upon passing it to another, and,
as value has been given each time, the last holder will look
to his next preceding one and to all the others.

A note, being on deposit as collateral security, becoming
due, the temporary holder is the payee and mast collect.

Endorsements.

The following form will illustrate the shape in which a note
should be drawn and endorsed. An endorsement is a writing
across the back of a note, which, as will be seen further on,
makes the writer responsible for the amount of the note.

COMMON FORM OF NEGOTIABLE NOTE, WITH ENDORSEMENTS.

Q3t**A/yn, (fa. <&., Qtfay u/, 1993.
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In Blank.

In Full.

ENDORSEMENTS.
General. Qualified.

Conditional.

Restrictive.

Pay
CkttS. F.vant •

only.
I.. A. Par

V-

COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS.

405

The Endorser's Responsibility.

It has been generally admitted that the three first endorse-
ments given amount to the same thing; that is, either the
blank endorsement, the full endorsement or the general
endorsement entitles the holder of the note to the money,
and to look to Davis for payment if Benson defaults. It has
even been held that in a general endorsement the holder had
the right to fill in the words "or order" after Chas. Evans'
name, if he saw fit. The qualified endorsement releases the
endorser from any liability in case Benson defaults, the
words "without recourse" meaning that the holder is with-
out recourse against the endorser. The conditional and
restrictive endorsement explain themselves by their wording,
and, it is needless to say, are only used in special cases.
Each endorser is severally and collectively liable for the
whole amount of the note endorsed if it is dishonored, pro-
vided it is duly protested and notice given to each. The
endorser looks to the man who endorsed it before him, and
so back to the original maker of the note. As soon as a note
is protested, it is vitally necessary that notice should be sent
to each person interested at once.

Necessary Legal Points.

Bearing the preceding facts in mind, any form of note
which conforms to these requirements will hold in law: It
must promise to pay a specified sum of money. To be on
the safe side, however, it is well to see to it that any note
offered for negotiation —

Is dated correctly;

Specifies the amount of money to be paid;

Names the person to whom it is to be paid;

Includes the words "or order" after the name of the
payee, if it is desired to make the note negotiable;

Appoints a place where the payment is to be made ;

States that the note is made "for value received;"

And is signed by the maker or his duly authorized repre-
sentative.

In some States phrases are required in the body of the
note, such as "without defalcation or discount;" but, as
a general thing, that fact is understood without the statement.

FORMS OF NOTES.

A Note Negotiable without Endorsement.

A Note Negotiable Only by Endorsement.

$aoo. Chicago, Nov. 26, 1893.

Three months after date I promise to pay John H. Woltering, or
order. Two Hundred Dollars, value received.

J. T. Norton.

A Note Not Negotiable.

$200. St. Louis, Nov. 17, 1S93.

Ninety days after date I promise to pay Charles C. Collins Two
Hundred Dollars, value received.

Samuel Atkinson.

A Note Bearing Interest.

$100. Baton Rouge, La., Nov. 26, 893.

Six months after date I promise to pay R. V. Jennings, or order.
One Hundred Dollars, with interest, for value received.

John Q. Watson.

A Note Payable on Demand.

$150. Philadelphia, Nov. 30, 1893.

On demand I promise to pay Lamonte Whittlesey, or bearer, One
Hundred and Fifty Dollars, value received.

John Q. Chaffington.

A Note Payable at Bank.

$100. Cincinnati, Dec 34. 1893.

Thirty days after date I promise to pay Thomas I. Rankin, or order,
at the Second National Bank, One Hundred Dollars, value received.

Prank T. Morrison.

Principal and Surety.

$793. Newark, N. J., Dec, 28, 1393.

Sixty days after date I promise to pay Daniel O'C. Patterson, or
order, Seven Hundred and Ninety-three Dollars, with interest, value
received.

John G. Wattbrson, Principal.

T. R. Graham, Security.

A Married Woman's Note in New York.

$400. New York, Dec. 13, 1S93.

Three months after date I promise to pay Johnson, Dunham & Co.,
or order, Four Hundred Dollars, with interest. And I hereby charge
my individual property and estate with the payment of this note.

Clara C. Dickerson.

A Joint Note*

?3,ooo. Detroit, Mich., Dec. 12, 1893.

One year after date we jointly promise to pay E. C. Langworthy,
or order, Three Thousand Dollars, value received.

John C. Jennings.
Walter D. Curtis.

A Joint and Several Note.

$3,000. Detroit, Mich., Dec. 13, 1893.

One year after date we jointly and severally promise to pay E. C.
Langworthy, or order, Three Thousand Dollars, value received.

John C Jennings.
Walter D. Curtis.

A Partnership Note.

No. — Boston, Mass., November 26, 1S93.

One month after date, without grace, we promise to pay to the
order of ourselves Two Hundred and Fifty Dollars, at any bank in
Boston.

Johnson & Co.,

309 Temple Place.
$150. Due Dec. 26, 1S93.

Q ^

406

=7?

COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS.

A Note Payable by Instalments*

$3,000. Pittsbckg, Nov. 18, 1893.

For value received, I promise to pay R, P. Donaldson & Co., or
order, Three Thousand Dollars, ii* the manner following, to wit:
One Thousand Dollars In one year, One Thousand Dollars in two
years, and one Thousand Dollars in three years, with interest on ail
said sums, payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount.

Hugo R. Mueller.

A Judgment Note, with Collateral Note Combined*

[The portions enclosed in brackets are used in collateral notes
Only.]

Chicago, Dec. 20, 1803.

One year after date, for value received, I promise to pay to the
order of Jeremiah B. Shclton Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Dollars,
with Interest at the rate of eight per cent per annum [after due, hav-
ing deposited with the legal holder hereof, as collateral security,
• * *. And I hereby give said legal holder, his, her or their as-
signs, authority to sell the same, or any part thereof, at the maturity
of this note, or at any time thereafter, or before, in the event of said
security depreciating in value, at public or private sale, without
advertising the same, or demanding payment, or giving notice, and
to apply so much of the proceeds thereof to the payment of this note
as maybe necessary to pay the same, with all interest due thereon,
and also to the payment of all expenses attending the sale of the said
collaterals, and in case the proceeds of the sale of the same shall not
cover the principal, Interest and expenses, I promise to pay the defi-
ciency forthwith after such sale, with interest at ten per cent per
annum. And it Is*ncrehy agreed and understood that if recourse Is
had to such collateral, any money realized on sale thereof In excess
of the amount due on this note shall be applicable to the payment of
any other note or claim which the said legal holder may have against
me, and in case of any exchange of, or addition to, the collateral
above named, the provisions of this note shall extend to such new or
additional collateral.]

And to further secure the payment of said amount, I hereby author-
ise, irrevocably, any attorney of any court of record to appear for
me In such court. In term time or vacation, at any time hereafter,
and confess a judgment without process in favor of the holder of this
note, for such amount as may appear to be unpaid thereon, together
with costs and twenty-five dollars attorney's fee, and also to file a
cognovit for the amount thereof with the agreement therein, that no
writ ot error or appeal shall be presented upon the judgment en-
tered by virtue hereof, nor any bill in equity filed to interfere in any
manner with the operation of said judgment, and to waive and re-
lease all errors which may intervene In any manner with the opera-
tion of said judgment; and to waive and release all error which may
intervene in any such proceedings, and consent to Immediate execu-
tion upon such judgment. Hereby ratifying and confirming all that
said attorney may do by virtue hereof.

John T.Stratford. [Seal.]

A judgment note in Illinois requires the power of attorney
to confess it. Many, and, in fact, most people deem a judg-
ment note a sort of mortgage. It has no such effect, how-
ever, and creates no lien or claim different from any other
note, and differs from any other note in this only, that the
holder can take it and go into court, enter up a judgment
and have execution against the maker at once. Thus, by
the judgment so entered up, the holder gets a lien, and not
by any lien created by the note before judgment*

A Short Form of Judgment Note*

$460. Brooklyn, N. V., Nov. 16, 1805.

On demand, for value received, 1 promise to pay, to the order of
Alexander A. McHatton, Four Hundred and Sixty Dollars. And I

hereby confess Judgment for said sum with interest and costs, are-
lease of all errors, and a waiver of all rights of appeal and to the
benefit of all laws exempting property from levy and sale.

Ezexiah Partington.

Sealed >'ote.

$5,000. Cincinnati, O., Nov. 16, 189^.

For value received, I promise to pay Edgar & Co., or order, Five
Thousand Dollars, in three years from the date hereof, with interest
payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. And in
case of default of my payment of the interest or principal aforesaid
with punctuality, I hereby empower any attorney-at-law, to be ap-
pointed by said Edgar & Co., or their assigns, to appear in any court
which said Edgar & Co., or their assigns, may select, and commence
and prosecute a suit against me on said note, to confess judgment for
all and every part of the interest or principal on said note, in the pay-
ment of which I may be delinquent.

Witness my hand and seal, this 16th day of November, A. D. 1S03.

John White. [Sial.]

Attest: George Oldham.

Forms of Notes in Several States.

MISSOURI.

$ 60.00. St. Louis, Mo., July 24, /Soj.

Three months after date, I promise to pay to the
order of Edgar M. Voll Sixty Dollars, for value re-
ceived, negotiable and payable without defalcation or

discount.

Sigma nd A. A teles.

INDIANA.

■fS'J- Indianapolis, Int., July aS, /Soj.

On demand, for value received, I promise to pay
William Westermann .J- Co., or order, Three Hundred
and Fifteen Dollars, without interest, payable -with-
out any relief whatever from value or appraisement.

Richard Af. Sylvester.

PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW JERSEY.

1 fjoo.

Philadelphia, Pa., July ab, /Soj.

Ninety days after date, I promise to pay to the \
I 1

> order of Lafayette Armstrong Three Hundred Dol-
lars, at Third National flank, value received, with-

i out defalcation.

George Miller.

COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS.

407

A Swindling Note.

Carlyle, III., October j, i8gj.

One year after date, I promise to pay R. Tucker or bearer Ten Dollars, when I sell by

order Four Hundred and Seventy-five Dollars ($4.75) worth of Patent Fanning Mills,

for value received, at ten per cent per annum. Said Ten Dollars when due is

payable at Carlyle, Illinois.

JOHN WILSON,
Witness : John Roc.

Agent for R. Tucker.

Although the above venerable scheme of the confidence
man has been exposed time after time, it still continues to
add yearly to its list of victims. A paper is drawn up
wherein'a farmer agrees to pay ten or twenty dollars when he
has sold goods to a given amount. By tearing off the right-
hand end of this paper, what is apparently an agreement for
a small amount becomes a promissory note for a considera-
ble sum. This note is sold at a bank, thereby becoming the
property of a third and innocent party, and the signer of the
agreement is called upon to pay the note.

This shows how important it is that a man should read and
carefully examine every paper presented to him for his signa-
ture.

DUE BILLS.

A Due Bill differs from a note in the fact that it is a simple
acknowledgment of a debt. It may be payable in money or
merchandise. It is the simplest form of negotiable paper.

$10.00. Philadelphia, May 8, 1893.

Due John Jackson, or order, for value received, Twenty Dollars.

Henry Folsom.

In acknowledgment of debt, a form of due bill called an
I O U is sometimes given.

I O U Three Hundred ar.d Fifty Dollars.

Wm. Johnson.

Due Bill Payable in Merchandise.

$50.00. St. Louis, May 14, ,893.

Due Enos Baldwin, Fifty Dollars, payable in goods from our store

Sontag & Weber.

on demand.

One Bill Payable in Money and Merchandise.

$50.00. St. Loiis, May 14, 1S03.

Due Howard Read, Fifty Dollars, payable, Twenty-five Dollars
cash. Twenty-five Dollars in goods from our store, on demand.

Sontag & Weber.

ORDERS.

An Order for Money.

Waco, Texas, April i, 1893.
Mr. B.J. Ring;

Please pay \V. H. Cavanagh Ten Dollars on my account.

M.F. Crenshaw.

An Order for Merchandise.

Dallas, Texas, May 15, 1893.
Mr. N. W. Bechtel:

Please pay L. W. Motsuff Thirty Dollars in Merchandise and
charge the same to my account.

L. E. Kittrell.

RECEIPTS.

For Money on Account.

$15.01. Kirkwood, Mo., Jan. 1, 1S93.

Received of J. M. Hardy Fifteen Dollars on account.

P. D. Rich.

In Full of All Demands.

$150. Des Moines, Iowa, Sept. 2, 1S93.

Received of J. C. O'Neal One Hundred and Fifty Dollars, in
full of all demands to date.

Alfred \V, Gregory.

$So.

For Rent.

St. Louis, Mo., Nov. 1, 1S93.

Received of W. F. George Eighty Dollars, in full for one month's
rent of residence at 2S07 Olive St.

John G. Stewart.

For Money Advanced on a Contract.

$500. Denver, Col., May 15, 1893.

Received of L.W.Logan Five Hundred Dollars, in advance, on
a contract to build for him a dwelling-house at No. 315 Cheyenne
Ave., Denver.

John T. Sherfey.

408

COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS.

AvL-A-^A^A-l-

■^ A .1* A -X- J,

POINTS OF BUSINESS LAW.

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>§<€>-

€k HECKS made payable to "Cash" or order, or to some
character, or numb.er, or order, are held to be payable
^ to bearer.

A past-due note entrusted for collection to an agent
was converted by him to his own use, and was afterwards sold
under an execution against him. The court decided that the
purchaser had not acquired any interest in the note and could
not maintain an action against the maker.

In case of the death of the principal maker of a note the
holder is not required to notify a surety that the note is not
paid, before the settlement of the maker's estate.

Notes obtained by fraud, or made by an intoxicated per-
son, are not collectible. A note made by a minor is void.

If no time of payment is specified in a note it is payable on
demand.

An endorser can avoid liability by writing " without re-
course" beneath his signature.

A check endorsed by the payee is evidence of payment in
the drawer's hands.

A signature written with a lead pencil is valid.

No contract is good unless there be legal consideration.

An outlawed debt is revived should the debtor make a
partial payment.

In case of a note made payable one day after date, with
interest from date at the rate of 12 per cent per annum, in-
terest to be paid anViually, it was held that the note woald
draw the same rate of interest after maturity until paid.

The revised statutes of Indiana provide that notes payable
"to order" or "to bearer," in that State, are negotiable as
inland bills of exchange, and the payees and endorsers
thereof may recover as in oase of such bills.

Payment is the performance of an agreement or the fulfil-
ment of a promise, the discharge in money of a sum due.
Pleaded as a defence, payment of money or of an equivalent
accepted in its place, to the plaintiff or his authorized repre-
sentative, must be proved by defendant. To extinguish the
debt, payment must be made by a person having the right
to do so, to a person entitled to receive it, at the appointed
place and time, and in something proper to receive, both as to
kind and quality. Proof that anything has been done or
accepted as payment is proof of payment. A receipt is
prima facie evidence of payment ; so also is the possession
by the debtor of a security after the day of payment

ACCOMMODATION PAPER.

Drafts as well as notes are employed as accommodation
paper. For example, Smith, being willing to lend Jones
money which the later needs, and having none immediately
available, draws a draft on Robinson, who is his debtor, and
makes it payable to Jones, who gives no value for it. Such

a draft in Jones' hand is accommodation paper and cannot
be used as an implied contract against Smith; if discounted
at a bank, or transferred for money to an individual, it be-
comes business paper as far as the holder is concerned, and
its payment may be enforced.

Forged Paper.

The endorsee generally obtains a perfect title when paper
is transferred before maturity; but if the first endorsement
is forged, no title rests in the holder. If the signature of the
maker of a note is forged, the holder has no recourse against
him. Negotiable paper is void when the consideration is
either contrary to the general principles of common law or is
prohibited by statute.

Want of Consideration.

Want of consideration — a common defence interposed to
the payment of negotiable paper — is a good defence between
the original parties to the paper; but after it has been trans-
ferred before maturity to an innocent holder for value, it is
not a defence.

Stolen or Lost Paper.
Negotiable paper, payable to bearer or endorsed in blank,
which has been stolen or lost, cannot be collected by the
thief or finder, but a holder who receives it in good faith be-
fore maturity, for value, can hold it against the owner's claims
at the time it was lost.

Payment Before Maturity.

Sometimes the holder of paper has the right to demand
payment before maturity; for instance, when a draft has been
protested for non-acceptance and the proper notices served,
the holder may at once proceed against the drawer and
endorsers.

State Laws as to Payment.

If a note or draft is to be paid in the State where it is
made, the contract will be governed by the laws of that Sute.
When negotiable paper is payable in a State other than that
in which it is made, the laws of that State will govern it.
Marriage contracts, if valid where they are made, are valid
everywhere. Contracts relating to personal property are
governed by the laws of the place where made, except those
relating to real estate, which are governed by the laws of the
place where the land is situated.

Collateral Security.
If negotiable paper, pledged to a bank as security for the
payment of a loan or debt, falls due, and the bank fails to
drmand p.iyment and have it protested when dishonored, the
bank is liable to the owner for the full amount of the paper.

"71

14-

LAWS RELATING TO INTEREST.

409

Tfje Lawg of the United j&ateg and [Saijada Relating to Interest.

COMPILED FROM THE LATEST STATE AND TERRITORIAL 8TATUTES.

Laws of Each State and 'Territory Regarding Kates of Interest and Penalties for Usury, with Iti*
Law or Custom as to Day of Grace on \m< s und Drafts.

STATES AND TERRITORIES.

LEGAL

RATE OF

INTEREST.

RATE
ALLOWED BY
CONTRACT.

Per cent.
8

7
6

7
8
6

7
6
6

8
7

S
6
6

7
6

5
6
6
6
7
7
6
6
10

7
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
8
6
6

7
6
8
8
6
6
10
6

Per cent.
8

Any rate.
10

Any rate.

Any rate.
6

Dakota, North and South

District of Columbia

Florida

Any rate.

Idaho (usurer liable to arrest for mis-
demeanor)

7
8

Indiana

Kansas

Louisiana

Maine

Any rate.
' 6

Any rate.

Michigan

Minnesota

Missouri

Montana

Any rate.

Nebraska

Nevada

Any rate.

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York+

North Carolina

Ohio

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

Any rate.

South Carolina

Tennessee

Utah

Any rate.

Vermont

Virginia

Washington

Any rate.

West Virginia ....

Any rate.

PENALTIES FOR l/SCRY.

GRACE OR

NO GRACE.

Forfeiture of entire interest.

Grace.

No penalty.

Cirace.

Forfeiture of principal and interest.

Grace.

No penalty.

No grace.

No penalty.

* No grace.

No penalty.

No grace.

Forfeiture of contract.

Grace.

Forfeiture of contract.

No grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest.

No grace.

No penalty.

No grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest.

No grace.

Forfeiture of 3 times excess of int'st.

No grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest. m

No grace

Forfeiture of excess of interest.

Grace.

Forfeiture of interest and costs, and

10 per cent, to school fund.

No grace.

Forfeiture of excess of interest.

Grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest.

Grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest.

Grace.

No penalty.

Grace.

Forfeiture of excess of interest.

Grace.

No penalty.

Grace.

Forfeiture of excess of interest.

Grace.

Forfeiture of contract.

Grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest.

Grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest.

Grace.

No penalty.

Grace.

Forfeiture of interest and cost.

Grace.

No penalty.

No grace.

Forfeiture of thrice the excess.

Grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest and costs.

Grace.

No penalty.

No grace.

Forfeiture of principal and interest.

No grace.

Forfeiture of twice the interest.

Grace.

Forfeiture of excess.

No grace.

Forfeiture of principal and interest.

No grace.

Forfeiture of excess of interest.

Grace.

No penalty.

Grace.

Forfeiture of interest.

Grace.

Forfeiture of excess of interest.

No grace.

Forfeiture of all interest.

Grace.

No penalty.

No grace.

Forfeiture of excess of interest.

No grace.

Forfeiture of excess.

No grace.

No penalty.

Grace.

Forfeiture of excess of interest.

No grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest.

Grace.

No penalty.

Grace.

Forfeiture of entire interest.

Grace.

* Except on promissory notes and bills of exchange. t $5,000 call loans on collateral, any rate.

No agreement to pay a higher than the legal rate can be enforced unless it is expressly authorized by statute, the
established presumption of the law, in the absence of such legislation, being that such a rate is usurious.

4io

LAWS RELATING TO LIMITATION OK ACTIONS.

The Laws of the United j&ateg aqd Caijada Relating to Limitatioq of ^ctiong.

Note. — A statute of limitation heginsto run from the time at which a creditor is authorized first to commence suit. Upon mutual, concurrent
and open accounts, the statute, in general, begins to run with the date of the last item. A debt, otherwise barred, may be revived by a new
promise made within the period of limitation. The new promise may be either express or implied from a part payment, or any unqualified
acknowledgment from which a promise may be inferred.

* Alabama .
Arkansas ..
♦Arizona . .
California..

Colorado.,

Connecticut.

Dakota, North &i South

Delaware

District of Columbia....

Florida

Georgia

•Idaho

•Illinois ....

• Indiana .. .
•Iowa

• Kansas... .

• Kentucky .

• Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

• Massachusetts.
Michigan

• Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

* Montana

* Nebraska

* Nevada

New Hampshire.

New Jersey

New Mexico. .. .

New York

North Carolina . .
•Ohio

•Oregon

* Pennsylvania,

Rhode Island

South Carolina. ,

•Tennessee

•Texas

•Utah

•Vermont.
Virginia ...

•Washington. .
West Virginia .
• Wisconsin.,..

•Wyoming

CANADA.

Province of Ontario.,
Province of Quebec,

Tears,

i, a

rears.
3

t
i

6
6

I
3

JIM

6
6
6

10
10

6
6
6
6
3
IS

6
6

6
6
6

4
4

I'rart.
10

4
4

5
4

30
16
6
30

4l
4

6
10
30

£ < *

Tears.
'5

■o§§

»s

30
8

Judgments of Justice's court, 5 years. Judgment liens expire In 3 years.

An action upon a judgment rendered or contract made out of the State is

barred in 3 years.
Whin the cause of action accrues without the State, the periods oflitnita-

tion are 3 years for notes and accounts ; 3 years for sealed instruments

and judgment--.
Promissory notes not negotiable arc barred in 7 years. Demand notes,

when indorsed, must be protested within 4 months from date, without

grace, to hold the indorser.

Judgments become dormant in 7 years from date of last return 00 execution
issued, but may be revived. Foreign judgments barred in 5 years.

Judgments become dormant in 5 years, unless revived.

•'Store account" for goods sold and delivered, 3 years from 1st of January
next succeeding date of last Hem. Merchandise accounts between mer-
chants, 7 years.

Witnessed notes, 30 years.

Years from date of last execution.
Accounts stated, 3 years.

Foreign judgments barred in 3 years.

Liabilities incurred out of State, 3 years.

For foreign judgments. Domestic judgments become dormant in 5 years,
but may be revived.

Man intile accounts are not alfectcd bv the statute as long as they remain
opes.

Action " for specific recovery of personal property," or " for relief on the

ground ot fraud," 3 years,
W itnessed notes, 14 years.
Judgments of ether States, period of limitation under the law of that

State, not exceeding 10 years. " Store account," 1 years.

Judgments of another State, same as in Virginia. "Store account," 1
Judgments of other States and sealed instruments, v. here the liabili

crucd out of the State, 10 Years.
Judgments become dormant in 5 years. Foreign debts and judgments, t

• In the States thus marked, it is provide

the statute ol limitations of that St:it

statute period before he can take adv

I Sander, 6 months.

X Seals abolished.

d by statute that a cause of action shall be barred which first accrued in another State and is barred by
c. "This is contrary to the general rule, by which a debtor must have resided in the State during the
antagc of it.

|| Ssnre accounts, 3 vears.

(Assault, 4 years.
$$ In certain courts, jo years.
1 Slander, 1 year.

I Store accounts, 3 years.

BANKS AND BANKING.

411

iBaBacac^r:^^ 1 ^^■^r^r. l ^r,^^r^^i.^^:■^r^^r..^r^r:^^r^^^r..^P^r.^F;^rl^^!^r^r:.^r^^..■^r.^r^^^^^^^r^r-l^^
CaC[JLJLJL>ILJkJ^JlJtJLJ t JLAJLJLJt^JLJLJLJL^LJL'JtJLJLJLJLjLJUJLJLJLJL

BANKING.

c&n

ff-2-

.;-^>- -:>

-*'9

BANK is, in the simplest sense of the

Mft| r term, a place in which money can be

)b stowed away for safe-keeping. But since

the days when goldsmiths and others
took care of the funds of such as trusted in
their honor and the strength of the strong-
boxes which were part of their stock in trade,
the idea has been by degrees developed, until
now a banking institution, with its means of
supplying exchange and discount, its powers
of circulation, its care of deposits and its atten-
tion to correct accounts, is the embodiment
of one of the most interesting as well as the
most useful of modern sciences. One of the
prime needs of every commercial community
is an ample supply of banking capital and
facilities for discount.

The profit of the manufacturer, of the mer-
chant and of the retail trader represents in the
long run only the balance left after paying the
current rate of interest, and if, in consequence
of lack of banking capital, interest is higher in
one city than in competing cities, all business
will suffer, goods will not be bought, grain will
not be handled, cotton will be out of reach,
improvements will be postponed, and the city
will be condemned to enforced idleness in many
departments of endeavor where the busy wheels

Jk=

of industry would be started in motion if money
could be borrowed on easy terms.

How the Business is Carried On.

The business of banking is divided into sev-
eral departments or branches, Deposits, Circu-
lation, Exchange, Collection, Discounts and
Loans being the most important. On account
of these different branches banks are frequently
called Banks of Discount, Banks of Deposit,
Savings Banks, etc.

Banks of Deposit.

A Bank of Deposit is one which receives
money from depositors for safe-keeping, paying
it back on their checks to others or to them-
selves. The most important function of a bank
is the receiving of deposits, the person thus
entrusting his money to the care of the bank
being called a depositor. He not only has the
advantage of the safe-keeping of his cash, but
the further convenience of making his payments
from it whenever he chooses, by means of checks.
As he will receive payments from others in a
similar manner, and deposit them as money, it
will at once be seen that an immense volume of
business can be transacted, and vast sums of

v- r ~-

412

BANKS AND BANKING.

money paid out, without the handling of any
cash.

In Europe it is quite different. The holder
of a check presents it to the bank and re-
ceives the money. The system of payment
by checks, which are deposited as money, is
more universally practiced in the United States
and Canada than in any other part of the world.

The safe-keeping of his money, and the con-
venience of his check account, together with
other favors he receives in the way of discounts,
loans, exchange, etc., are generally regarded as
sufficient compensation for the use of a deposi-
tor's funds.

A person desiring to make a single deposit,
to be withdrawn in the same amount, receives
from the bank a Certificate of Deposit.
This is issued by the bank itself, is payable at
any stated time, or on demand, and may bear
interest.

Banks of Circulation.

The issue by a bank of its promises to pay, in
the form of bank notes or bills, is called its cir-
culation. These notes or bills, being guaranteed
by the Government, answer as a substitute for
money. The Government holds, as security,
bonds belonging to the bank, to a still larger
amount, and also retains a five per cent fund for
immediate redemption. Only the National
Banks issue a circulation, as a tax of ten per
cent would be levied upon any other kind of
circulating notes.

Circulating notes called " Greenbacks " are
issued by the National Treasury, which thus
performs the office of a Bank of Circulation.
Various opinions exist as to the propriety of
the Government exercising this function. Some
hold that it is not right or proper for the Gov-
ernment to be engaged in the banking business,
while others contend that the Government alone

should have the power to issue paper currency.

Others, again, believe the Government should

hold a dollar of coin in the Treasury for every

paper dollar in circulation.

Banks of Exchange.

A Bank of Exchange is one which receives
money on deposit, and, instead of paying it back
to the depositor, makes payments by drafts on
other banks. It keeps money on deposit at the
principal trade centres, thus affording the advan-
tage of sending money to different points at a tri-
fling expense and without risk in transportation.

It charges the person who desires to remit a
small amount for its services, and sells him its
draft on the place to which the remittance is
to be sent. The system is known as Inland
and Foreign Exchange, Inland Exchange con-
sisting of a draft drawn and payable in the
State or country, and Foreign Exchange being
a draft drawn in one country and payable in
another. Foreign Exchange involves also the
reduction of the money of one country into that
of another.

What is Bank Discount?

Bank Discount is the payment of a note or
other paper before it is due, deducting the
interest that would have accrued at maturity.
A note or draft is discounted when the interest
for the given time and at the given rate is taken
from the face, and the balance paid to the
holder. The sum deducted is the discount ; the
remainder is the proceeds.

Bank Officers and Employes.

The stockholders of an incorporated bank
elect a Board of Directors, who manage its
affairs. These elect a President, one or more
Vice-Presidents, and a Cashier. The Cashier is
the executive officer of the bank and controls
its interior management. He is assisted by a
number of employes. The principal ones are the
Paying Teller and the Receiving Teller, who are
at the head of the debit and credit departments ;
the Note Teller ; the Discount Clerks ; the
Collection Clerks ; the Book-keepers, each in
charge of certain ledgers ; Assistant Tellers ;
Assistant Book-keepers; Check-Clerks and
Messengers, or " Runners."

HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK.

4'3

SN doing business with a bank, the first step is to secure a
proper introduction to the cashier. If one's references
are all right, the depositor's signature is put on record
i) \ in the "signature-book," giving the name as he intends
•"^S" to sign it on his checks. This is done to furnish the
paying teller with an accurate means of judging the genuine-
ness of the signatures of checks — a very necessary precaution,
as the bank is responsible for the genuineness of the signa-
tures of all checks. When a partnership account is opened,
each member of the firm who is allowed to sign checks
writes the firm's name and his own in the signature-book.

Deposits.

When money is deposited in a bank, some voucher should
be taken. This is done usually by the teller writing the
amount of the deposit in the small bank-book of the depositor,
and sometimes a receipt, called a teller's check, is given. When
a deposit is made, the bank usually issues a small "hand-
book," to be carried in the pocket, in which an account is
kept by the teller of the bank of all the transactions which
follow. After the opening deposit, when it is intended to
pay in more money, the depositor fills out a blank, showing
the amount paid in and indicating whether it is in checks or
current funds. This ticket, with the book and the money,
is handed to the teller, who enters the date and amount.
When a note is left for collection, it is usually entered by the
collection clerk in the back part of the book, giving date,
maker's name, maturity, and amount. When collected, the
amount, less collection charges, is placed in the book as a
regular deposit. Few merchants keep a separate account
with a bank in their general books, the "bank-book" and
the stubs of the check-book being sufficient, and in themselves
vouchers of the transaction.

How to Keep the Stub of Check-Book.

In drawing a check, insert all the particulars in the stub
before doing so in the body of the check ; also the purpose for
which the check is drawn.

The left-hand page of the stub is intended for the purpose
of entering your deposits ; the right-hand page for the de-
scription of the checks. When both sides are footed up, the
excess of the left-hand total over the right shows the balance
remaining to your credit in bank.

By following the form here given, it will be found much
preferable to subtracting each check, as many do, wnich
makes the tracing of an error very difficult:

Nov. 6

Deposit.

Coin

IOO.OO

Bills

200.00

Check.

Willi

6O.OO

37-50

666.66

Nov.S,
Bills.

Deposit.

Nov. 9, Deposit.
Check, B. Dixon.

216.14

983-30

2,233.84

$2,064

1,000

<s>

$3."6 '4

No. 1.
Nov. 7, 1S93.

Amount

Order of

T. A. Lament.

No. J.
Nov. 8, 1893.

Amount

Order of
L. H. Peterson.

No. 3.
Nov. 11, 1893.

Amount

Order of

J. M. Whitney.

$200

658

I9S3 3°

The totals are carried forward to the next pages in this
manner :

Forward,

Etc.

$3,216 14 :, Forward,

Etc.

$983

Balancing a Bank-Book.

Checks paid are not entered up in the bank-book as they
are presented for payment, but are filed away, and at the end
of a month, or, indeed, whenever the depositor desires to have
his account balanced, the book is presented and the balance
figured up by the teller, who enters it usually in red ink under
the paid checks on the right-hand side. The book should
then be ruled up, and the balance in bank carried over to the
left-hand side, similar to the first entry. When the depositor
calls for his book, all the cancelled checks are passed out to
him along with the account.

How to Draw and Endorse a Check.

A check is a written order on a bank directing that a certain
amount of money be paid to a person whose name is given,
or to the order of that person, or to the bearer. A check
is the simplest form of negotiable paper, although there
are checks which are not negotiable. There is no set
form for the wording of a check. Any dated demand upon

4*4

HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK.

a bank in which the person signing has money, properly
signed, is a check, and will draw the money. Some-
times the words "or order" are used; sometimes, "or
bearer." Occasionally checks are made payable to "the
bearer" without giving any name. If the words "or order"
and "or bearer" are both omitted, then the check is not nego-
tiable, and can be paid only to the person named. In theory
a check is a sight draft, which does not need acceptance, as it
is paid on presentation. All banks keep printed forms of
checks, which they issue to depositors. When a check is
made payable to the payee "or order," it must be endorsed
by the payee before payment. Generally, all checks, whether
"to order" or "to bearer," should be endorsed, which is
by writing the name of the payee across the back.

Certified Checks.

If all men were perfectly honest, certified checks would
never have been thought of. But men will occasionally
draw against deposits which exist only in their imaginations,
and to meet this growing evil, certification of checks has
been introduced. No uncertified check from a stringer
should be received by any business man. The certifying
means that the person drawing the paper has funds to his
credit to the amount of the check, and the bank guarantees
its payment. To get a check certified, it is presented either
to the paying teller or the cashier of the bank om which it is
drawn. The bank officer writes across the face, "Certified,"
with the date, and signs. Another form used very frequently
are the words, "Good when properly endorsed," with the
signature. This makes the bank liable for the check, even
if it is a forgery or a fraudulent one. The certification of a
check is the same as the acceptance of a draft.

Banking Frauds.

Forged Checks. — Despite the precautions taken by banks
in keeping a signature-book, it frequently happens that astute
rogues deceive them with forgeries. This is the most danger-
ous crime in the business world, as it strikes at the root of
confidence. Some forgers are so expert that they are able to
imitate a signature so closely that even the one whose na.-ue
is forged can only swear that he did not make out the check,
and will not be able to pick out the forged signature by itself
from the genuine. All of the responsibility of detecting
forgeries is thrown upon the receiving teller of the bank.
Every check is paid by the bank at its own risk, and it has no
recourse against the person whose name is forged. A forgery
cannot be rectified by the person whose name was used, as
this rectification would be contrary to public policy, and would
tend to shield a crime which, unpunished, would break the
whole commercial fabric.

RAISED CHECKS.

A device of sharpers which is frequently attended with
great success is so to alter the wording and the figures of a
check that it will call for more money than the drawer in-
tended to pay. This is called "raising a check," and is a

felony. Check-raising is only possible when the check is
loosely written, with a number of blank places where words
may be inserted. Care should be taken always to fill in the
empty spaces with lines of ink. If a raised check is paid by
a bank it can only charge the depositor with the amount for
which he drew. A very common device, and a good one,
used by many merchants, is to stamp the amount of money
written on the check with an instrument having a number of
sharp points, which so roughens the paper that it is impos-
sible to write anything more on it, although it leaves the
original writing legible.

ALTERED CHECKS.

Altered checks differ from raised checks from the fact that
in an altered check all of the original writing except the signa-
ture, date and number is taken out with chemicals, which
leaves the check blank. It is then rewritten for any amount
the swindler desires to put in.

CRAFTS AND BILLS OF EXCHANGE.^

A draft may be described as an order or request, written by
one person to another, asking the latter to pay a specified
sum of money to a third party, or to his order, or to the
bearer. Bills of exchange are drafts under another name.
An inland bill is a draft drawn and payable in the same
State or country, and a foreign bill of exchange is drawn
in one country and payable in another. Remittances can be
made much more safely and expeditiously by sending bi'.ls of
exchange than by sending money. If lost, the draft may be
duplicated. To provide against this contingency, in sending
drafts over sea, it is customary to draw two or three for the
same remittance, and when one of these is paid, the others are
void; but the great and increasing accuracy of the world's
postal systems has largely removed the necessity for sending
more than one bill of exchange. So much for definitions.
We will now examine drafts and their forms.

How Drafts are Drawn.

In a draft, as in a note, any form which includes the neces-
sary requirements will be held good in law. no matter how
these may be arranged. Still, custom has, in a measure,
crystallized on certain lines.

run

r-t

Li J

$600. Chicago, April ttt, 7S9J.

At Ten Days sight pay U the trder 0/ Edwin
Russell Six Hundred Do!:*rs. value received,
with current rate of exchange.

Dtnohue £ Ct.

To Simon Htkadar, I
St. Ltttit, Me. (

HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK.

4'5

The theory upon which a draft is drawn is that the drawer
has or will have funds in the hands of drawee at the maturity
of the draft, or that the drawee is indebted to him. Sometimes
drafts are drawn by agreement when there is no indebtedness.
It must be borne in mind that there is much difference in the
liability between a note and a draft. The maker of a note
must pay it; the drawer of a draft is only liable after the
drawee has refused to pay. The drawee only becomes liable
when he has accepted the draft. When the draft is presented,
if it is a sight draft, no acceptance is necessary, except where
the State law allows days of grace. The draft is simply to be
paid at once. But when it is to be paid at a certain time
after sight, the drawee must formally accept it, which is done
by writing across the face of the paper the word " Accepted, "
with the date and the signature of the person accepting. This
acceptance is a legal promise to pay.

When the draft is presented, the drawee can demand a
reasonable time to make up his mind whether to accept or
not, whereupon it may be left with him one day. If he re-
fuses to return it at the end of that time, he can be held as
accepting. The place for presentment is the business office
or residence of the payee.

Non-Acceptance.

When the drawee refuses to accept the draft, it is said to
be " dishonored." It must be at once protested, and notice
sent to all parties who are consequently liable. The protest
must be made on the same day that the draft is dishonored,
and the notice sent at least by the day following. The pro-
test should be made by a notary public ; but, if one is not
accessible, it can be made by any respectable citizen.

A Protest.

A protest is a declaration made by a notary public against
the loss which may follow the non-acceptance of a draft, its
non-payment, or the non-payment of a note. To illustrate
the machinery of the protest we will return for a moment to
the draft, the form for which has been given above. Mr.
Hockaday refuses to accept the draft drawn on him by
Donohue & Co. It is placed in the hands of a notary
public, who again presents the draft to Hockaday and de-
mands its acceptance. He refuses, whereupon a form is
filled out testifying to the facts in the case, especially Hocka-
day's refusal to accept, all of which is attested by the notary.
No person can be held responsible for payment unless notice
of protest is sent to him as early as the day following the
protest. These notices should be sent to the maker and to
each endorser of the draft.

NOTICE OF PROTEST.

St. Louis, April 7th, 1893.
Please to cake Notice :

That a Draft drawn by yourself on Simon Hockaday,

of St. Louis, Mo., for the sum of One Thousand Dollars,

dated April 1st, 1893. was this day Protested for non-

acceptance, and that the holder looks to you for the payment

thereof, acceptance having been duly demanded by me and

refused.

Commissioned June 1st, 1893. ^ jS. Oldfield

Commission expires June 1st, 1S04. \ ' J '

Notary Public.
To Donohue & Co., Chicago, III.

An acceptance "supra-protest" is the name given to the
acceptance of the draft by some person other than the drawee,
" for the honor of the drawee." The draft is then held till
maturity, and presented to the drawee as though he had
accepted it. If he refuses to pay, it is protested, and the
person making the "acceptance supra-protest" is liable for
the amount.

Foreign Bills of Exchange.

The principles which we have been examining above apply
with equal force to foreign bills of exchange. These are
now commonly drawn in sets of two, so that each may be sent
by a different ship, and they are always to be payable in the
money current in the country where the payment is to be made.

Exchange for £200.

St. Louis, August 8th, 1893.
At sight of this First of Exchange (second unpaid)
pay to the order of Philip Francis Two Hundred
Pounds Sterling, value received, and charge same to
account of

Wilmot Baring.
To Cunningham, Shaw <V Co.,
Liverpool, England.

Exchange for £200.

St. Louis, August 8th, 1893,
At sight of this Second of Exchange (first unpaid)
pay to the order of Philip Francis Two Hundred
Pounds Sterling, value received, and charge same to
account of

To Cunningham, Shaw <V» Co.,
Liverpool, England.

Wilmot Baring.

A foreign bill is protested in the same manner as an inland
bill. The law does not explicitly require this protest in every
case, but it has been found, even where the State statute has
simply required "notice of non-acceptance" to be furnished
the parties liable, to be the safest way to fix liability

Letters of Credit.

The letter of credit is one of the most useful of banking
instruments, proving of great convenience to travellers in
foreign lands, whom it enables to draw money from banks
and bankers, thus relieving them from the risks attendant
upon carrying large amounts of money about the person, and
the annoyance of making frequent exchanges. The following
is the form generally employed :

<s «_

416

HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK.

-7\

•4.

FOREIGN LETTER OF CREDIT.

Third National Bank.

Foreign Letter of Credit,
No. 3308.

Kansas City, March 23, /Soj.
Gentlemen :

We request that you will have the goodness to fur-
nish Mr. Hannibal Atkins, of this city, whose signature
is at foot, with any funds he may require, to the extent
of Twenty Thousand Francs in Gold, against his
Duplicate Receipts {one of which you will forward to
us~), for any payment made under this credit.

Whatever sum Mr. Atkins may take up, you will
please endorse on the back of this letter, which is to
continue in force until January 1, I&94, and charge
to the account of

Your obedient servant,

THE THIRD NATIONAL BANK,
Richard Rankin,
The Signature of President.

Hannibal Atkins.

Inland letters of credit are also used, their general character-
istics being the same as the foreign, though they differ some-
what in their wording. Generally a letter of introduction is
delivered to the party to whom the credit is issued, introduc-
ing him to the correspondent of the bank of issue, and stating
the nature of the transaction, the amount of credit granted and
the time it has to run. Letters of advice, conveying the same
intelligence, together with the signature of the party bearing
the letter of credit, are sent to the bank's correspondents.

Bill of Lading as Security.

Shippers of merchandise, purchasing cargoes on specula-
tion to be forwarded to an agent for sale, to obtain the money
to pay for it, draw a draft upon the consignee, made payable
to the bank from which the money is obtained, by giving as
security for its payment a bill of lading made out by the
captain of the craft or the railroad company owning the road
upon which the goods are shipped, either in the name of the
shipper, and assigned by him to the bank, or drawn originally
in the name of the bank, both forms being common. As a
general rule, the bill of lading is attached to the draft and is
held by the bank, to which the title at once passes.

A BILL OF LADING.

No. 31s. Chicago, fufyjo, iSqj.

Shipped by Asa Lasalle, as Agent, in apparent good order, on
board the Propeller May Prescott, of Ogdensburg, New York,
whereof James Perkins, of Cleveland, Ohio, is Master, the following
described property, to be transported to the place of destination with-
out unnecessary delay, and to be delivered as addressed on the margin

in like good order, in the customary manner, free of lighterage, upon
prompt payment of freight and charges as prescribed in this bill.

The Freight, Charges and Demurrage payable to Enos Hanscomb,
Cashier First National Bank of Erie, Pa., or order, at place of destin-
ation, who is the only party authorized to collect the same, and
whose receipt shall be in full of all demands on this cargo or Bill of
Lading.

In Witn4st Whereof, the said Master of said boat hath affirmed to
three Bills of Lading, one marked " original " and two "duplicate,"
of this tenor and date, one of which being accomplished the others to
stand void.

Order of Franklin Bank. 10,000 Bushels No. 1 Winter Wheat

Freight, 3 cents per bushel.

Notify Peter Albright it Co., Ogdensburg.

Amos Bowen.
J. G. Leitch.

The grain thus hypothecated to the bank is subject to its
control and direction, and its proceeds, when sold, must be
applied to the draft's payment.

Asa Lasalle's transaction in purchasing the wheat and
shipping it on the propeller May Prescott, of which James
Perkins is captain, is partially described in the foregoing bill
of lading. The grain is consigned to Peter Albright & Co.,
Ogdensburg, agents, on account of the Franklin Bank, which
also requires Asa Lasalle to insure the consignment for its
protection. The following is the form of draft employed in
a transaction of this kind :

THE DRAFT.

-*-Tr-»-«.

$12,000.

Chicago, III., July it, 1803.
Pay to the order of Franklin Bank Twelve
Thousand Dollars, value received, and charge
the same to account of {10,000 bus. winter wheat,
Prop. May Prescott)

Asa Lasalle.
To refer Albright A» Cc,
Ordeniburr.
N: Sss-

The Clearing-House System.

A Clearing-house is an association of the banks and
bankers of a city for the exchange of their checks and the
adjustment of accounts between themselves. A business
man, receiving a check in the course of trade, seldom thinks
of sending it.to the bank on which it is drawn, but simply
deposits it in the bank with which he keeps his account,
only taking the precaution to have it "certified " if he doubt*
its goodness. Thus, at the close of a day, each bank will
hold a number of checks drawn on other banks. These are
assorted, and placed in envelopes, marked with the names of
banks on which they are drawn and with the total amount,
and taken by a clerk and messenger to the Clearing-house.
There the balances against or in favor of each bank are
ascertained, and are paid in by a certain hour each day, and
the accounts settled. By the Clearing-house system the
exchange of millions of dollars is daily effected in large
cities by the transfer of a few thousands.

c Y

_^J

-/ff

psT

NATIONAL BANKS— STOCKS AND BONDS.

4'7

OUR NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM.^

tHE NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM was created

by Congress in the belief that it was the best per-

^j manent method of securing paper money absolutely

safe from loss to the holder and readily convertible

^p* 1 into coin. Under the laws of the United States any
number of persons not less than five may form an association and
obtain a charter for the purpose of carrying on the business of a
national bank. The capital stock of a national banking associa-
tion is divided into shares of $100 each, and in cities of 50,000
population, or over, no association can be organized with a less
capital than $200,000; in cities of less than 50,000, $100,000
capital is required, but, with the approval of the Secretary of
the Treasury, national banks may be organized in places of less
than 6,000 inhabitants with a capital of $50,000.

National banks are authorized to discount and negotiate notes,
drafts, etc. ; to receive deposits ; to buy and sell exchange, coin
and bullion ; to loan money on personal security, and to issue
circulating notes. They are prohibited from making loans on
real estate, or on security of their own shares of capital, except
to secure debts previously contracted, and real estate purchased
or mortgaged to secure a pre-existing debt cannot be held for a
longer period than five years.

They are also prohibited from making loans to one person or
association, excepting on business paper representing actually
existing value as security, in excess of one'tenth of the capital of
the bank.

The stockholders of a national bank are individually liable
(equally and ratably, and not one for another) for an amount
equal to the par value of the capital stock held by them.

The national banks in the reserve cities are required by law
to hold a lawful money reserve of 25 per cent, of their deposits ;
all other national banks, 15 per cent. The excess above legal
requirements is called " surplus reserve." This reserve includes
the five per cent redemption fund with the U. S. Treasurer.

The law provides that a surplus fund shall be accumulated, by
setting aside, before the usual semi-annual dividend is declared,
one-tenth part of the net profits of the bank for I he preceding
half-year, until the surplus fund shall amount to 20 per cent of
its capital stock.

The national banks pay to the United States a tax of I per
cent annually upon the average amount of their notes in circula-
tion, J4 per cent annually upon the average amount of their
deposits, and y z per cent annually upon the average amount of
capital not invested in U. S. bonds. Banks other than national
pay taxes to the United States on account of their circulation,
deposits and capital at the same rates as are paid by the national
banks.

National Bank Circulation.

Every national bank, before it is authorized to commence
business, must transfer to the Treasurer of the United States
registered bonds, bearing interest to an amount not less than
one-fourth of the capital stock paid in, as security for its circu-
lating notes. Banks having a capital of more than $150,000
shall be required to deposit bonds to the amount of one-third of
their capital stock.

Upon a deposit of registered bonds, the association making
the same will receive from the Comptroller of the Currency cir-
culating notes of different denominations, in blank, equal in
amount to 90 per cent of the current market value, not exceed-
ing par, of the bonds so deposited.

The circulating notes of national banks are redeemed in law-
ful money by the banks which issue them, and by the Treasurer
of the United States at Washington. Every national bank must,
at all times, keep and have on deposit in the Treasury of the
United States, in lawful money, a sum equal to 5 per cent of its
circulation, to be held and used for the redemption of such cir-
culation.

A bank going into voluntary liquidation must, within six
months thereafter, deposit in the Treasury a sum equal to the
amount of circulating notes outstanding. The law also requires
that full provision shall be made for the redemption of the circu-
lating notes of any insolvent bank before a dividend is made to
its creditors. No association, therefore, can close up its business
without first providing for the payment of all its circulating notes,
and the amounts deposited for their redemption must remain in
the Treasury until the last outstanding note shall have been pre-
sented. Thus the Government, and noi the bank, receives all
the benefit arising from lost or unredeemed circulating notes.

..o^o-

<^ £7"-X^ s

-E^fe

sJ ZT - 'S^ s

STOCKS < -AND ♦ BONDS

f HE CAPITAL of a corporation is always divided into
shares ranging from $10 to $1,000, but usually of
$100 each. These shares are known as stock, and
represent an interest in the property and profits of the
company over and above liabilities and expenses. A
dividend is the distribution of the profits, proportionate to num-
ber of shares held among the stockholders.

Stock certificates are written instruments, signed by the proper
officers of the company, and certifying that the holder is the
owner of a certain number of shares of the capital stock. These
certificates are transferable, and may be bought and sold the
same as other species of property. The sum for which each
share or certificate was issued is the par value, and the amount
for which it can be sold the market value.

-v

STOCKS AND BONDS — GOVKRNMF.XT BONDS.

Preferred Stock.

This kind of stock takes preference of the ordinary stock of a
corporation, and the holders are entitled to a stated per cent an-
nually out of the net earnings before a dividend can be declared
on the common stock. Preferred stocks are generally the result
of reorganization, although sometimes issued in payment of float-
ing or unsecured debts.

How Stock is "Watered."

Sometimes the charter of a corporation forbids the declaring
of a dividend exceeding a certain per cent of the par value of its
stock. In this case the directors may find it desirable to " water"
the stock — that is, issue additional shares. This increase in the
number of shares of course reduces the percentage of dividend,
although the same profit in the aggregate is secured to the stock-
holders.

BONDS.

A bond is in the nature of a promissory note — the obligation
of a corporation, state, county or city to pay a certain sum of
money at a certain time, with interest payable at fixed periods or
upon certain conditions.

The bond of a company may be a perfectly safe investment,
when the stock is not ; and the stock of a prosperous and suc-
cessful company, paying large dividends or having a large sur-
plus, may sell at a higher price than the bonds of the same com-

pany, the income from which is limited to the agreed rate of
interest which they bear. A much closer scrutiny should be
made of a company's standing when one thinks of investing
in its share capital, than when it is the intention to loan the com-
pany money on its mortgage bonds.

Generally the bonds of business corporations are secured by
mortgage, but some classes of bonds are dependent on the solv-
ency or good faith of the company issuing them.

The coupons attached to bonds represent the different install-
ments of interest, and are to be cut ofl" and collected from time
to time as the interest becomes payable. Bonds are sometimes
issued without coupons, and are then called registered bonds.
Such bonds are payable only to the registered owner, and the
interest on these is paid by check. Convertible bonds are such
as contain provisions whereby they may be exchanged for stock,
lands or other property.

Bonds are known as First Mortgage, Second Mortgage, etc.,
Debentures, Consols, Convertible Land Grant, Sinking Fund,
Adjustment, Income or otherwise, according to their priority of
lien, the class of property upon which they are secured, etc.
Income bonds are generally bonds on which the interest is only
payable if earned, and ordinarily are not secured by mortgage.
Bonds are also named from the rate of interest they bear, or
from the dates at which they are payable or redeemable, or from
both; as, U. S. 4's 1907, Virginia 6's, Western Union 7's, cou-
pon, 1900, Lake Shore reg. 2d, 1903.

GOVERNMENT BONDS.

jUR GOVERNMENT found it necessary to borrow large
sums of money to prosecute the war of the Rebellion,
and in return issued interest-bearing bonds. All of
these bonds now outstanding are payable in coin, except
only the currency 6's, and all are exempt from taxation.
The following is a complete list of bonds outstanding
in 1892 :

4)^'s of 1891 — Continued at 2 per cent. Author-
ized by acts of July 14, 1870, and Jan. 20, 1871, and issued
for the purpose of funding the 5-20 and 10-40 bonds. The
original issue was $250,000,000. In 1891, in view of the
requirements of the sinking fund for 1892, it was deemed
advisable to suspend the redemption of these bonds until
aftar that year should begin, and to reserve the residue
of the loan for readjustment. The amount outstanding
subject to settlement at the option of the Government
after Sept. 1, 1891, was $50,869,200. The holders of the
bonds were offered their choice of presenting them for
redemption with interest to Sept. 2, or for continuance at
the pleasure of the Government with interest at 2 per
cent. Amount outstanding at 2 per cent, $25,364,500.

4's OF 1907. Authorized by acts of July 14, 1870, and Jan-
uary 20, 1 87 1, and issued for the purpose of funding the 5-20
and 10-40 bonds. Redeemable at option of Government after
30 years from their date, or after July 1, 1907.

Currency 6's. Issued to aid in construction of the Pacific
railroads, and authorized by acts of July 1, 1862, and July a,

1864. Principal and interest payable in lawful money of the
United States. Payable 30 years after date, and maturing at
different dates from 1895 to 1899.

Refunding Certificates. Authorized by act of February
26, 1879. These certificates are of the denomination of Jio,
bear interest at 4 per cent, and are convertible at any time, with
accrued interest, into 4 per cent bonds.

All Government lionds are dealt in and quoted " flat " — that is
to say, the quoted market price is for the bond as it stands at the
time, including the accrued interest — except that after the closing
of the transfer books the registered bonds are quoted ex-interest —
that is to say, the interest then coming due belongs to the holder
of the bond at the time of the closing of the books, and does
not go with the bond to the purchaser.

Coupon bonds, being payable to bearer, pass by delivery with-
out assignment, and are therefore more convenient for sale and
delivery than registered bonds, which must be assigned by the
party in whose name they are registered. The interest coupons,
being also payable to the bearer, will be cashed by any bank or
banker.

The interest on registered bonds is paid by checks, made to
the order of the registered owner and sent to him by mail.
These checks, when properly endorsed, can be collected and
cashed through any bank or banker.

Coupon bonds may 1* converted into registered bonds of the
same issue, but there is no provision of law for converting regis-
tered bonds into coupon bonds.

Y-

) «M * §§ ••• • <!"» HIW *

' f im »«it i«a« i i i ai i ii«a tt< nm tt »i < Di i<i g it f

1B90

^ • ftftt ' M ' frat'f O HM j

The MCKINLEY TARIFF BILL.

AN ACT to reduce the revenue and. equalize duties on imports,

and for other purposes.

E IT ENACTED by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That on and after the sixth day of October, eighteen
hundred and ninety, unless otherwise specially provided for in this act, there shall be
levied, collected, and paid upon all articles imported from foreign countries, and men-
tioned in the schedules herein contained, the rates of duty which are, by the schedules
and paragraphs, respectively prescribed, namely:

(All changes from the old law are indicated by foot-notes or by italics.

Schedule A -

-Chemicals. Oils and
Faints.

1, Acetic or pyroligneous acid, not ex-
ceeding the specific gravity of one and forty-
seven one-thousandths, one and one-half
cents per pound; exceeding the specific
gravity of one and forty-seven one-thou-
sandths, four cents per pound. [Old law:
Two cents and four cents.]

2. Boracic acid, five cents per pound.
[Old law: Pure, five cents per pound; com-
mercial, four cents.]

X. Chromic acid, six cents per pound.
[Old law: Fifteen per centum.]

4. Citric acid, ten cents per pound,

5. Sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol, not oth-
erwise specially provided for, one-fourth of
one cent per pound. [Old law: Free under
general provision for acids.]

6. Tannic acid or tannin, ceventy-five
cents per pound. [Old law: One dollar
per pound.]

7. Tartaric acid, ten cents per pound.

S. Alcoholic perfumery, including co-
logne-water and other toilet waters, two
dollars per gallon and fifty per centum ad
valorem^ alcoholic compounds not specially

f provided for in this act, two dollars per gal-
on and twenty-five per centum ad valorem.
9. Alumina, alum, alum cake, patent
alum, sulphate of alumina, and aluminous
cake, and alum in crystals or ground, six-
tenths of one cent per pound.

10. Ammonia. — Carbonate of, one and
three-fourths cents per pound; muriate of, or
sal-ammoniac, three-fourths of one cent per
pound; sulphate of, one-half of one cent per
pound. [Old law: Carbonate of, twenty
per centum; muriate of, ten per centum; sul-
phate of, twenty per centum.]

11. Blacking of all kinds, twenty-five per
centum ad valorem.

12. Blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper, two
cents per pound. [Old law: Three cents
per pound.]

13. Bone-char, suitable for use in decolor-
izing sugars, twenty-five per centum ad val-
orem. [Old law: All bone-char twenty-
five per centum.]

14. Borax, crude, or borate of soda, or
borate of lime, three cents per pound; re-
fined borax, five cents per pound.

15. Camphor, refined, four cents per
pound. [Old law: Five cents per pound.]

16. Chalk, prepared, precipitated, French,
and red, one cent per pound; all other chalk
preparations not specially provided for in
this act, twenty per centum ad valorem.

17. Chloroform, twenty -five cents per
pound. [Old law: Fifty cents per pound.]

COAL-TAR PREPARATIONS.

18. All coal-tar colors or dyes, bv what-
ever name known, and not specially pro-
vided for in this act, thirty-five per centum
ad valorem.

19. All preparations of coal-tar, not colors

or dyes, not specially provided for in this
act, twenty per cent, ad valorem.

20. Cobalt, oxide of, thirty cents per
pound. [Old law: Twenty per centum.]

21. Collodion and all compounds of pyroxy-
line, by whatever name known, fifty cents
per po.und; rolled or in sheets, but not made
up into articles sixty cents per pound; if in
finished or partly-finished articles, sixty
cents per pound and twenty-five per centum
ad valorem.

22. Coloring- for brandy, wine, beer, or
other liquors, fifty per centum ad valorem.
[Text of old law: Coloring for brandy,
fifty per centum.]

23. Copperas or sulphate of iron, three*
tenths of one cent per pound.

24. Drugs, such as barks, beans, berries,
balsams, buds, bulbs, and bulbous roots, and
excrescences, such as nut-galls, fruits, flow-
ers, dried fibers, grains, gums, and gum res-
ins, herbs, leaves, lichens, mosses, nuts,
roots and stems, spices, vegetables, seeds
(aromatic, not garden seeds), and seeds of
morbid growth, weeds, woods used express-
ly for dyeing, and dried insects, any of the
foregoing which are not edible, but which
have been advanced in value or condition by
refining or grinding, or by other process of
manufacture, and not specially provided for
in this act, ten per centum ad valorem.

25. Ethers sulphuric, forty cents per
pound; spirits of nitrous ether, twenty-five
cents per pound; fruit ethers, oils or es-
sences, two dollars and fifty cents per
pound; ethers of all kinds not speciallv oro-

420

THE TARIFF.

vided for in this act, one dollar per pound. [Old
law: Ethers sulphuric, fifty cents per pound;
nitrous ether, thirty cents per pound; ethem all
other, one dollar per pound; oenanthic.or oil of
cognac, four dollars per ounce; fruit ethers, etc.,
two dollars and fifty cents per pound; oil or
essence of rum, fifty cents per ounce.]

a6. Kxtracts ami decoctions of logwood and
other dye-woods, extract of sumac, and extracts
of barks, such as are commonly used for dyeing or
tanning, not specially provided for in this act,
seven-eighths of one cent per pound; extracts of
hemlock bark, one-half of one cent per pound.
[Old law; Logwood and other dye-woods, ex-
tract, ten per centum: sumac extract, twenty per
centum; extract of hemlock and other barks for
tanning, twenty per centum.]

27. Gelatine, glue, and isinglass or fish-glue,
valued at not above seven cents per pound, one
and one-half cents per pound; valued at above
seven cents per pound and not above thirty cents
per pound, twenty-five per centum ad valorem;
valued at above thirty cents per pound, thirty per
centum ad valorem. [Old law: Glue, twenty
per centum; gelatine, thirty per centum; fish-glue
or isinglass, twenty-five per centum.]

a8. Glycerine, crude, not purified, one and
three-fourths cents per pound. Refined, four
and one-half cents per pound. [Old law: Grade,
two cents per pound; refined, five cents pound.]

29. Indigo, extracts, or pastes of, three-fourths
of one cent per pound; carmined, ten cents per
pound. [Old llaw: All ten per centum "

ith«

,0. Ink and ink powders, printers'

um.J
' ink,

, and all
other ink, not specially provided for in this act,
thirty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Ink
of all kinds and ink-powders, thirty per centum.]

31. Iodine, resublimed, thirty cents per pound.

32. Idoform, one dollar and fifty cents per
pound. [Old law: Two dollars per pound.]

33. Licorice, extracts of, in paste, rolls, or
other [forms five and one-half cents per pound.
[Old law: Paste or roll, seven and one-half cents
per pound; juice, three cents pound.]

34. Magnesia, carbonate of, medicinal, four
cents per pound; calcined, eight cents per pound;
sulphate of, or Epsom salts, three-tenths of one
cent per pound. [Old law: Carbonate of, five
cents per pound; calcined, ten cents per pound;
sulphate, twelve cents per pound.]

35. Morphia, or morphine, and all salts thereof,
fifty cents per ounce. [Old law: One dollar per
pound.]

36. Alizarine assistant, or soluble oil, or oleate
of soda, or Turkey red oil, containing fifty per
centum or more of castor oil, eighty cents per
gallon; containing less than fifty per centum of
castor oil, forty cents per gallon; all other, thirty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: By ruling
of Treasury Department as castor oil at eighty
cents per gallon.]

37. Castor oil, eighty cents per gallon.

38. Cod-liver oil, fifteen cents per gallon. [Old
law: Twenty-five percentum.]

39. Cotton-seed oil, ten cents per gallon of
seven ami one-half pounds weight. [Old law:
Twenty-five cents per gallon.]

40 CfDton oil, thirty cents per pound. [Old
law: Fifty cents per pound.]

41. Flaxseed or Unseed and poppy-seed oil,
raw, boiled, or oxidized, thirty-two cents per

f;allon of seven and one-half pounds weight.
Old law: Twenty-five cents per gallon; poppy
oil, free. ]

4'j. Fusel oil, or amylic alcohol, ten per centum
ad valorem.

43, Hemp seed oil and rape-seed oil, ten cents
per gallon.

44. Olivr oil, fit for ulad purposes, thirty-five
cents per gallon. [Old law: Twenty-five per
centum. |

45- Peppermint oil, eighty rent* per pound.
)K I l.i u Twenty 1 1 v- - ■ per . eimim.)

46. Seal, herring, whale, and other fish oil not
specially provided far in this act, eight cents per
gallon. [Old law: Twenty-five per centum j

47. Opium, atpieous extract of, for medicinal
uses, and tincture of, as laudanum, and all other
liquid preparations ol opium, not specially pro-
vided fur in this act, forty per centum ad va-
lorem.

[old

48. Opium containing less than nine per cen-
tum of morphia, and opium prepared for smoking,
twelve dollars per pound; but opium prepared for
smoking and other preparations of opium depos-
ited in bonded- warehouse shall not be removed
therefrom without payment of duties, and tuch
duties shall not be refunded. [Old law: Ten
dollars per pound on opium for smoking, contain-
ing less than nine per centum of opium prohibited:
opium, crude, containing nine per centum or
more, one dollar per pound]

AIMS, COLORS AND VAKMSIIES.

49. Haryta, sulphate of, or barytes, including
barytes earth, unmanufactured, one dollar and
twelve cents per ton; manufactured, six dollars
and seventy-two cents perton. [Old law: I'n-
manufactured, ten per centum; manufactured,
one-quarter cent per pound.]

50. Blues, such as Berlin, Prussian, Chinese,
and all others, containing ferrocyanidc of iron,
dry or ground in or mixed with oil, six cents per
pound; in pulp, or mixed with water, six cents
per pound on the material contained therein when
dry. [Old law: Twenty per centum.]

51. Blanc-fixe, or satin white, or artificial sul-
phate of barytes, three-fourths o f one cent per
pound. [Old law: Twenty-five per centum]

52. Black, made from bone, ivo*y, or vegeta-
ble, under whatever name known, including bone-
black and lamp-black, dry or ground in oil or
water, twenty-five per centum atf valorem. [Old
law: Change in text, but same rate.]

53. Chrome yellow, chrome green, and all
other chromium colors in which lead and bichro-
mate of potash or soda are component parts,
dry, or ground in or mixed with oil, four ind one-
half cents per pound; in pulp or mixed with water,
four and one-half cents per pound on the material
contained therein when dry. [Old law: Twen-
ty-five per centum.]

54. Ocher and other ochery earths, sienna and
sienna earths, umber and umber earths not spe-
cially provided for in this act, dry, one-fourth of
one cent per pound; ground in oil, one and one-
half cents per pound. [Old law 1 try. one-half
cent per pound; in oil, one cent per pound]

55. Ultramarine blue, four and one-halfcents
perpound. [Old law: Five cents per pound]

56. Varnishes, including so-called gold size or
Japan, thirty-five per centum ad valorem; and on
spirit varnishes for the alcohol contained therein,
one dollar and thirty -two cents per gallon addi-
tional, [Old law: Forty per centum ad valorem
on varnish; gold size, free; Japan, forty per
centum by Treasury ruling.]

57. Vermilion red, and colors containing quick-
silver, dry or ground in oil or water, twelve
cents per pound. [Old law: Twenty-five per
centum.]

58. Wash blue, containing ultramarine, three
cents per pound. [Old law: Twenty percen-
tum.]

59. Whiting and Paris white, dry, one-half of
one cent perpound; ground in oil, or putty, one
cent per pound.]

60. Zinc, oxide of, and tvkiti /mint contain-
ing zinc, but not containing lead; dry, one and
one-fourth cents per pound; ground in oil, one
and three-fourths cents per pound.

61. All other paints and colors, whether dry or
mixed, or ground in water or oil, unhiding lakes,
crayons, smalts, and frostings, not specially pro-
tfded, t»r in this act, and artists' colors of all
kjqd ■ . -in tubtaOC otherwise, twenty five per cen-
tum ad valorem; all paints and colors mixed or
ground with water or solutions vher than oil, and
commercially known as artists' water color
paints, thirty per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Twenty five per centum on all. F.ntire change

of text.]

LEAD PRODUCTS.

62. Acetate of lead, white, five and one-half
cents per pound; brown, three and one-half cents
per pound.]

63. litharge, three cents per pound.

64. Nitrate of lead, three centt per pound.

65. Orange mineral, three and one-halfcents
pel pound, inlaw; Three rents pel pound.]

66. Red lead, three cents per DOOM.

67. White lead, and what paint containing

lead dry or in pulp, or ground or mixed wits oil,
three cents per pound.

68. Phosphorus, twenty cents per pound. [Old
law: Ten cents per pound.]

69. Bichromate and |chromate of, three
per pound.

E. Caustic or hydrate ot, refined in sticks or
, one cent per pound. [Old law: Twenty
per centum.]

71. Hydriodate, iodide, and lodate of, fifty
cents per pound.

73. Nitrate of, or saltpeter, refined, one cent per
pound. [Old law: One and one-half cents per
pound,]

73. Prussiate of, red, ten cents per pound,
yellow, five cents per pound.

•

PKBPAJtATIOKS,

74. All medicinal preparations, including me-
dicinal proprietary preparations, of which alcohol
is a component part, or in the preparation of
which alcohol is used, not specially provided for
in this act, fifty cents per pound. [Old law:
Change of text. Hoffman's anodyne, thirty
cents per pound.]

75. All medicinal preparations, including me-
dicinal proprietary preparations, of which alcohol
is not a component part, and not specially pro-
vided for in this act, twenty-five per centum ad
valorem; calomel and other mercurial medicinal
preparations, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.
[Old law; Twenty-five per centum, and fifty per
centum.]

;' Products or preparations known as alkalies,
alkaloids, distilled oils, essential oils, expressed
oils, rendered oils, and all combinations of the
foregoing, and all chemical compounds and salts,
not specially provided for in this act, twenty-five
per centum aa valorem.

77. Preparations used at applications to the
hair, mouth, teeth or skin, such as cosmetics,
dentifrices, pastes, pomades, powders and tonics,
including all known as toilet preparations, not
specially provided for in this act, fifty per centum
ad valorem [Change of text ]

78. Santonine and all salts thereof containing
eighty per centum or over of santonine, two dol-
lars and fifty cents per pound. [Old law: Three
dollars per pound.]

79. Soap: Castile soap, one and one-fourth
cents per pound; fancy, perfumed, and all de-
scriptions of toilet-soap, fifteen cents per pound:
all other soaps, not specially provided for in
this act, twenty per centum ad valorem. [Old
law: Castile soap, twenty per centum.]

80. Bicarbonate of soda or supercarbonate of
soda or saleratus, one cent per pound. [Old law;
One and one-halfcents per pound.]

81. Hydrate of, or caustic soda, one cent pet
pound.

82. Bichromate and chromate of. three cents
per pound. [Old law: Not enumerated, but
classified under bichromate of potash at three
cents per pound.]

83. Sal-soda, or soda-crystals, and soda-ash,
one-fourth of one cent peT pound.

84. Silicate of soda, or other alkaline silicate,
one-half of one cent per pound.

85. Sulphate of soda, or salt-cake or niter-cake,
one dollar and twenty-five cents perton. [Old
law: Twenty per centum . ]

86. Sponges, twenty per centum ad valorem.

87. Strychnia, or strychnine, and all salts
thereof, forty centt per ounce. [Old law; Fifty
cents per ounce.]

88. Sulphur, refined, eight dollars per too;
sublimed, or flowers of, ten dollars per ton.
[Old law: Refined, ten dollars per ton; flowers,
twenlv dollars per ton J

89. Sumac, ground, four-tenths 01 one .ent per
pound. [Old law: Three-tenths cent per pound]

00. Tartar, cream of, and patent tartar. «**
cents per pound.

91. Tartars and lees crystals, partly refined,
fat* ohms per pound.

92. Tartrate of soda and potaasa, or Rochcle
talis, three cents per pound.

v 1 » — "~

THE TARIFF.

421

Schedule B. — Earths, Earthenware

and Glassware.

BRICK AND Til. P..

93. Fire-'^rick, not glazed, enameled, orna-
mented, o." decorated in any manner, one dollar
and twenty-five cents per ton; glazed, enameled,
ornamented, or decorated, forty-five per centum ad
valorem. [Old law; Fire-brick, twenty per cen-
tum; brick, iwenty-five per centum. J

94. Tiles and brick, other than fire- brick, not
glazed, ornamented, painted, enameled, vitrified
or decorated, twenty-five per centum ad valorem;
ornamented, glazed, painted, enameled, vitrified,
or decorated, and all encaustic, forty-five per cen-
tum ad valorem. [Old law: Encaustic tiles,
thirty-five per centum; roofing and paving tiles,
twenty per centum, and some classed by Treasury
rulings as plaques, etc., at sixty per centum.]

CEMENT, LIME AND PLASTER.

95. Roman, Portland, and other hydraulic ce-
ment in barrels, sacks, or other packages, eight
cents per one hundred pounds, including weight of
barrel or package; in bulk, seven cents per one
hundred pounds; other cement, twenty per centum
ad valorem. [Old law: Twenty per centum.]

96. Lime, six cents per one hundred pounds,
including weight of barrel or package. [Old law:
Ten per centum.]

97. Plaster of Paris, or gypsum, ground, one
dollar per ton; calcined, one dollar and seventy-
five cents per ton. [Old law: Twenty per cen-
tum]

CLAYS OR EARTHS.

98. Clays or earths, unwrought or unmanufact-
ured, not specially provided for in this act, one
dollar and fifty cents per ton; wrought or manu-
factured, not specially provided for in this act,
three dollars per ton; china clay, or kaolin, three
dollars per ton.

EARTHENWARE AND CHINA.

99. Common brown earthenware, common stone-
ware, and crucibles, not ornamented or decorated
in any manner, twenty-five per centum ad
valorem. [Old law: Stoneware above the capac-
ity of ten gallons, twenty per centum; crucibles,
twenty-five per centum.]

100. China, porcelain, parian, bisque, earthen,
stone and crockery ware, including placques,
ornaments, toys, charms, vases, and statuettes,
painted, tinted, stained, enameled, printed, gilded,
or otherwise decorated or ornamented in any
manner, sixty per centum ad valorem; if plain
white, and not ornamented or decorated in any
manner, fifty-five per centum ad valorem.
[Note. — The text is made more comprehensive
than in the old law.]

101. All other china, porcelain, parian, bisque,
earthen, stone, and crockery ware, and manu-
factures of the same, by whatsoever designation
or name known in the trade, including lava tips
for burners, not specially provided for in this act,
if ornamented or decorated in any manner, sixty
per centum ad valorem; if not ornamented or
decorated, fifty-five per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Fifty-five per centum.]

102. Gas retorts, three dollars each. [Old law:
Twenty-five per centum.]

GLASS AND GLASSWARE.

103. Green, and colored, molded or pressed,
and flint, and lime glass bottles, holding more
than one pint, and demijohns, and carboys (cov-
ered or uncovered), and other molded or pressed
green and colored and flint or lime bottle glass-
ware, not specially provided for in this act, one
cent per pound. Green and colored, molded or
pressed, and flint, and lime glass bottles, and
vials holding not more than one pint and not less
than one-quarter of a pint, one and one-half cents
per pound; if holding less than one-fourth of a
pint, fifty cents per gross. [Old law: Green
and colored, one cent per pound; flint and lime,
forty per centum.]

104. All articles enumerated in the preceding '
paragraph, if filled, and not otherwise provided
for in this act , and the contents are subject to an ad |

valorem rate of duty, or to a rate of duty based upon
the value, the value of such bottles, vials or other
vessels shall be added to the value of the contents
for the ascertainment of the dutiable value of the
latter, but if filled, and not otherwise provided for
in this act, and the contents are not subject to an
ad valorem rate of duty, or to rate of duty based
on the value, or are free of duty, such bottles,
vials, or other vessels shall pay, in addition to the
•duty, if any, on their contents, the rates of duty
prescribed in the preceding paragraph: Provided,
That no article manufactured from glass de-
scribed in the preceding paragraph shall pay a
less rate of duty than forty per centum ad va-
lorem. [Old law: Green and colored, thirty per
centum; flint and lime, forty per centum, in addi-
tion to duty on contents.]

105. Flint and lime, pressed glassware, not cut,
engraved, painted, etched, decorated, colored,
printed, stained, silvered or gilded, sixty per cen-
tum ad valorem. [Old law: Forty per centum.]

106. All articles of glass, cut, engraved, painted,
colored, printed, stained, decorated, silvered or
gilded, not including plate glass silvered, or
looking-glass plates, sixty per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Forty-five per centum.]

107. Chemical glass ware for use in laboratory,
and not otherwise specialty provided for in this
act, forty-five per centum ad valorem.

108. Thin-blown glass, blown with or without a
mold, including glass chimneys and all other
manufactures ofglass, or of which glass shall be
the component material (of chief value, not spe-
cially provided for in this act, sixty per centum ad
valorem. [Old law: Mostly forty and forty-five
per centum.]

109. Heavy-blown glass, blown with or without
a mold, not cut or decorated, finished or unfin-
ished, sixty per centum ad valorem. [Old law;
Forty per centum.]

no. Porcelain or opal glassware, sixty per cen-
tum ad valorem. [Old law: Forty per centum.]

in. All cut, engraved, painted or otherwise
ornamented or decorated glass bottles, decanters,
or other vessels of glass shall, if filled, pay duty
in addition to any duty chargeable on the con-
tents, as if not filled, unless otherwise specially
provided for in this act.

112. Unpolished cylinder, crown, and common
window-glass, not exceeding ten by fifteen inches
square, one and three-eighths cents per pound;
above that, and not exceeding sixteen by twenty-
four inches square, one and seven-eighths cents
per pound; above that and not exceeding twenty-
four by thirty inches square, two and three-
eighths cents per pound; above that, and not ex-
ceeding twenty-four by thirty-six inches square,
two and seven-eighths cents per pound; all above
that, three and one-eighth cents per pound:
Provided, That unpolished cylinder, crown and
common window-glass, imported in boxes, shall
contain fifty square feet, as nearly as sizes will
permit, and the duty shall be computed thereon
according to the actual weight of glass. [Old
law: To ten rby fifteen, one and three-eighths
cents square foot; above that to sixteen by twen-
ty-four, one and seven-eighths; above that to
twenty-four by thirty, two and three-eighths; all
above, two and seven-eighths, with an allowance
for box weight on single thick of five pounds,
and on double thick of ten pounds.]

113. Cylinder and crown-glass, polished, not
exceeding sixteen by twenty-four inches square,
four cents per square foot; above that, and not
exceeding twenty-four by thirty inches square.
six cents per square foot; above that, and not ex-
ceding twenty-four by sixty inches square, twenty
cents per square foot; above that, forty cents per
square foot. [Old law: To ten by fifteen, two
and one-half cents square foot; above that to six-
teen by twenty-four, four cents; above that to
twenty-four by thirty, six cents; above that to
twenty-four by sixty, twenty cents; all above that,
forty cents.]

114. Fluted, rolled, or rough plate-glass, not
including crown, cylinder or common window-
glass, not exceeding ten by fifteen inches square,
three-fourths of one cent per square foot; above
that, and not exceeding sixteen by twenty-four
inches square, one cent per square foot; above
that, and not exceeding twenty-four by thirty
inches square, one and one-half cents per square
foot; all above that, two cents per square foot;

andall fluted, rolled, or rough plate-glass, weigh-
ing over one hundred pounds per one hundred
square feet, shall pay an additional duty on the
excess at the same rates herein imposed: Pro-
vided, That all 0/ the above plate-glass -when
ground, smoothed, or otherwise obscured shall
be subject to the same rate of duty as cast pol-
ished plate-glass unsilvered. [Old law: Was
the same, omitting the proviso.]

115. Cast polished plate-glass, finished or un-
finished and unsilvered, not exceeding sixteen by

twenty-four inches square, five cents per square
foot; above that, and not exceeding twenty-four
by thirty inches square, eight cents per square
foot; above that, and not exceeding twenty-four
by sixty inches square, twenty-five cents per
square foot; all above that, fifty cents per square
foot. [Old law; In addition to above had a
bracket not exceeding ten by fifteen at three cents
per square foot, but did not contain the words
" finished or unfinished."]

116. Cast polished plate-glass, silvered, and
looking-glass plates, not exceeding sixteen by
twenty-lour inches square, six cents per square
foot; above that, and not exceeding twenty-four
by thirty inches square, ten cents per square foot;
above that, and not exceeding twenty-four by
sixty inches square, thirty-five cents per square
foot; all above that, sixty cents per square foot .
[Old law has a bracket up to ten by fifteen at four
cents per square foot.]

117. But no looking-glass plates, or plate-glass
silvered, when framed, shall pay a less rate of
duty than that imposed upon similar glass of like
description not framed, but shall pay in addition
thereto upon such frimes the rate of duty applica-
ble thereto when imported separate. [Old law:
Additional duty of thirty per centum on the
frames.]

118. Cast polished plate-glass, silvered or un-
silvered, and cylinder, crown or common window-
glass, when ground, obscured, frosted, sanded,
enameled, beveled, etched, embossed, engraved,
stained, colored, or otherwise ornamented or
decorated, shall be subject to a duty of ten per
centum ad valorem in addition to the rates
otherwise chargeable thereon. [Not in old law.]

119. Spectacles and eyeglasses, or spectacles
and eyeglass-frames, sixty per centum ad valorem .
[Old law: Forty-five per centum or twenty-five
per centum or according to component of chief
value.]

120. On lenses costing one dollar and fifty
cents per gross pairs, or less, sixty per centum ad
valorem. [Old law: Forty-five per centum.]

Z2i. Spectacles and eyeglass lenses with their
edges ground or beveled to fit frames, sixty per
centum ad valorem. [Old law: Forty-five per
centum or free.]

122. All stained or painted window-glass and
stained or painted glass windows, and hand,
pocket, or table mirrors not exceeding in size one
hundred and forty-four square inches, with or
without frames or cases, of whatever ma-
terial composed, lenses of glass or pebble, wholly
or partly manufactured, and not specially pro-
vided for in this act, and fusible enamel, forty-five
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Forty-five
per centum, thirty per centum, ten per centum.]

MARBLE AND STONE, AND MANUFACTURES OF.

123. Marble of all kinds in block, rough or
squared, sixty-five cents per cubic foot.

124. Veined marbte, sawed, dressed, or other-
wise, including marble slabs and marble paving
tiles, one dollar and ten cents per cubic foot (but
in measurement no slab shall be computed at less
than one' inch in thickness^. [Old law does not
contain the words in parenthesis.]

125. Manufactures of marble not specially pro-
vided for in this act, fifty per centum ad valorem.

126. Burr-stones manufactured or bound up
into mill-stones, fifteen per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Twenty per centum.]

127. Freestone, granite, sandstone, limestone
and other building or monumental stone, except
marble, unmanufactured or undressed, not spe-
cially provided for in this act, eleven cents per
cubic foot. [Old law: One dollar per ton.]

422

THE TARIFF.

i»8, Freestone, granite, sandstone, limestone,
and other building or monumental stone, except
marble, not specially provided for in this act,
hewn, dressed or polished, forty per centum ad
valorem, [Old law; Twenty per centum.]

129. Grindstones, finished or unfinished, one
dollar and seventy-five cents per tun.

130. Slate, slate chimney-pieces, mantels, slabs
for tables and all other manufactures of slate, not
specially provided for in this act, thirty per cen-
tum ad valorem.

131. Rooting slates, twenty-five per centum
a4 valorem.

Schedule C. — Metals and Manufact-
ures of.

IKON AND STBKL.

13s. Chromate of iron, or chromic ore, fifteen
per centum ad valorem.

133. Iron ore, including manganiferOus iron
ore, also the dross or residuum from burnt py-
rites, seventy-five cents per ton. Sulphur ore, as
pyrites, or sulphuret of iron in its natural state
containing not more than three and one-half per
centum topper, seventy-five cents per ton; Pro-
vided t That ore containing more than two per
centum of copper shall pay, in addition thereto,
one-half of one cent per pound for the copper
contained therein: Provided, also. That sul-
phur ore as pyrites or sulphuret of iron in its
natural state, containing in excess of twenty-
five per centum of sulphur, shall be fret of
duty, except on the copper contained therein, as
above provided: And provided further , 'I hat
in levying and collecting the duty on iron ore
n* deduction shall be made from the weight of
the ore on account of moisture which maybe
chemically or physically combined therewith.
[Old law: The copper was dutiable at two and
one-half cents per pound. The last two pro-
visos are new matter.]

134. Iron in pigs, iron kentledge, spiegeleiscn,
ferro- manganese, ferro-silicon, wrought and cast
scrap iron, and scrap steel, three-tenths of one
cent per pound; but nothing shall be deemed
scrap iron or scrap steel except waste or refUM
iron or steel tit only to be remanufactured. [Old
law: Did not contain ferro- manganese or fcrro-
silicon. The scrap iron was confined to that
which had been in actual use.]

135. liar-iron, rolled or hammered, comprising
flats not less than one inch wide, nor less than
three-eighths of one inch thick, eight-tenths of
one cent per pound; round iron not less than
three-fourths of one inch in diameter, and square
iron not less than three-fourths of one inch square,
nine-tenths of one cent per pound; flats less than
one inch wide, or less than three-eighthsof one inch
thick; round iron less than three-fourths of one
inch and not less than seven-sixteenths of one
inch in diameter, and square iron less than three-
fourths of one inch square, one cent per pound.
[Old law: The respective rates were eight tenths
cent per pound, one cent per pound, one and
one-tenth cents per pound.]

136. Round iron, in coils or rods, less than
seven-sixteenths of one inch in diameter, and
bars or shapes of rolled iron, not specially pro-
vided for in this act, one and one-tenth cents per
pound: Provided, That all iron in slabs, blooms,
loops, or other forms less finished than iron in
bars, nnd more advanced than pig-iron, except
castings, shall lie rated as iron in bars, and be
subject to a duty of eight -tenths of one cent per
pound; and none of the iron above enumerated in
thin paragraph shall pay a less rate of duty than
thirty-five per centum ad valorem: Provided

further, That all iron bars, blooms, billets, or
sixes or shapes of any kind, in the manufacture of
which charcoal is used as fuel, shall be mbjnct to
a duty of not less than twenty-two dollars per
ton |<)lil l.iw; One and two-tenths cents per
pound 1

137. Beams, girders, joists, angles, channels,
car-truck channels, TT, columns and posts, or
parts of sections of columns and posts, deck and

bulb beams, and building forms, together with all
other structural shapes of iron or steel, whether
plain or punched, or fitted for use, nine-tenths of
one cent per pound. fOld law: One and one-
fourth cents per pound]

138. Boftar, or other phsa Iron <>r steel, except
saw plates hereinafter provided for, not thinner
than number ten wire gauge, sheared or un-
sheared, and skelp iron or steel sheared or rolled
in grooves, valued at one cent per pound or less,
five-tenths of one cent per pound; valued above
one cent and not above one and four-tenths cents
per pound, sixty-five hundredths of one cent per
pound; valued above one and four-tenths cents
and not above two cents per pound, eight-tenths
of one cent per pownd; valued above two cents
and not above three cents per pound, one and
one-tenth cents per pound; valued above three
cents and not above four cents per pound, one
and five-tenths cents per pound; valued above
four cents and not above seven cents per pound,
two cents per pound; valued above seven cents
and not above ten cents per pound, two and
eight-tenths cents per pound; valued above ten
cents and not above thirteen cents per pound,
three and one-half cents per pound; valued above
thirteen cents per pound, forty-five per centum
ad valorem: Provided, That all plate iron or

steel thinner than number ten wire gauge shall
pay duty as iron or steel sheets. [Old law:
Boiler or other plate iron, one and one-fourth

cents per pound if iron; forty-five per centum if
steel.)

139. Forgings of iron or steel, or forged iron
and steel combined, of whatever shape, or in
whatever stage of manufacture, not specially pro-
vided for in this act, two and three-tenths cents
per pound: J'rovided, That no forgings of iron
or steel, orforgingsof iron and steel combined, by
whatever process made, shall pay a less rate of
duty than forty-five per centum ad valorem.
[Old law; Forgings of iron and steel, or forged
iron, of whatever shape, or in whatever stage of
manufacture, not specially enumerated or pro-
vided for in this act, two and one-half cents per
pound, I

140. Hoop, or band, or scroll, or other iron or
■tea), valued at three cents per pound or less,
eight bjtchea or leal in width, and MM than three-
eighths of OM Inch thick and" not thinner than

number ten wtra gauge, ona cam par pound;
thinner than noma r ten wire gang* and not
thinner than number twenty wire gang*, one and
one-tenth cents per pound; thinner than number
twenty wire n nd three-tenth

per pound: Provided, TntthoopQI hand iron,

or hoop 01 band ■tad, cnl to length, or wholly or
partially manufactured into hoops or ties for bal-
ing purpoaaa, barrel hoops of iron or steel, and
hoop or band iron, or hoop or band steel flared,
■played, or pun. bed, with or without buckles or
fastenings, shall pay two- tenths* of one cent per

pound mora duty than dial linnoaad on the hoop
or band Iron or ■tad from wbicn they are made.

[Old law: Hoop, or band, Of KTOll, M other iron,
eight inches or less in width, and not thinner than
number ten wire Range, one cent per pound,
thinner than numlier ten wire gauga, and not
thinner than number twenty wire gauge, one and
two-tenths of one cent per pound; thinner than
number twanty wire gauge, one and tour tenths of
one cent per pound: /'raided. That all articles
not specially enumerated or provided for in this

act, whether wholly 01 pastry manuntrrnred,

made from sheet, plafc d or scroll iron

herein provided for or of which such sheet, plate,
hoop, band Off scroll iron shall l>e the material of
chief value, sh nrth of one cent per

pound mora dntv than thai imposed on the iron

from win. h they an- made, or which shall be such

j Ofcttnf value. If steel, forty f'
centum: Iron and ataalootbM) tie*, or hoops for
baling purpOtaa, not thinner than number twenty
Vi pel iMiturn ad valorem.
■ t iron, C0C9
mon or black, thinner than one in. h and ■
and not thinner than number twenty wire gauge,
one and one truth of one cent per pound: thinner
than number twenty wire gauge and not thinner
than number twine. 00a and

two-tontha of on* cam pej ponndj Uunnei than
number twenty-live wire gauge and not thinner

than number twenty-nine wire gauge, one and
five-tenths of one cent per pound, thinner than
number twenty-nine wire gauge, and all iron
commercially known as common or black taggers
iron, whether put up in boxes or bundle* or not,
thirty per centum ad valorem 1

141. Kailway-bars, made of iron or steel, and
railway-bars made in part of steel, T -rails, and
punched iron or steel flat rails, six-tenths of one
cent per pound . [Old law: Iron or steel tee ratta
weighing not over twenty-five pounds t» the yard,
nine-tenths of one cent per pound; iron or steel
Aat rails, punched, eight-tenths of one cent per
pound. Iron railway bars, weighing more than
twenty-five pounds to the yard, seven-tenths of
one cent per pound , Steel railway ban and rail-
way bars made in pan of steel, weighing more
than twenty-five pounds to the yard, seventeen
dollars per ton]

142. Sheets of iron or steel, common or black,
including all iron or steel commercially known
as common or black tagger* iron or steel, and
skelp iron or steel, valued at three cents per
pound or less: Thinner than number ten and not
thinner than number twenty wire gauge, one cent
per pound; thinner than number twenty wire
gauge, and not thinner than number twenty-five
wire gauge, one and one-tenths cents per pound;
thinner than number twenty-five wire gauge, one
and four-tenths cents per pound; corrugated or
crimped, one and four-tenths cents per pound:
Provided, 1'hat all common or black sheet iron,
or sheet steel not thinner than number ten wire
gauge shall pay duty as plate iron or plate
steel. [Old law: Sheet iron, common or black,
thinner than one inch and one-half and not
thinner than number twenty wire gauge, one and
one-tenth of one cent per pound: thinner t ha n
number twenty wire gauge and not thinner than
number twenty-five wire gauge, one and two-
tenths of one cent per pound; thinner than
number twenty-five wire gauge and not thinner
than number twenty -nine wire gauge, one and
five-tenths of one cent per pound: thinner than
number twenty-nine wire gauge and all iron com-
menally known as common or black taggers iron,
whether put up in boxes or bundles or not, thirty
per centum ad valorem.]

143. All iron or steel sheets or plates, and ail
hoop, band or scroll iron or steel, excepting what
are known commercially as tin plates, terne
plates, and taggers tin, and hereinafter provided
for. when galvanized or . oated with /inc or
spelter, or other metals, or any alloy of those
metals, shall pay three 'fourths of one cent per
pound more duty than the rates imposed by the
preceding paragraph upon the corresponding
gauges or forms, of common or black sheet or
taggers iron or steel; and on and after July first.

1 hundred and ninety-one, all iron or steel
sheets or plates, or taggers iron coated with
tin or lead or with a mixture of which these
met.ds or either of them is a component pan, by
the dipping or any other process, and commer-
cially known as tin plates, terne plates, and tag-
gers tin, shall pay two and two-tenths cents per
pound: Provided, That, on and after July first,
eighteen hundred and ninety-one, manufacturer*
of whii h tin, tin plates, terne plates, tagger-, tin.
or either Of them, are component materials of
chief value, and all articles, vessels or wares
manufactured, stamped or drawn from sheet Iroa)
or sheet steel, such material being the compooent

I .due, and coated wholly or in pan «
or lead or a mixture of which these metals or
cither of them is a component pan. shall pay the

ftfry five per centum ad valorem
vided. That on and after ( October first, eigh t een
hundred and ninety seven, tin plates and terne
■hrer pmrwtr

ired square feet shall be admitted free of
duty unless it shall be made to appear to the sat-
isfaction of the Prestdem (who shall thereupon by
proclamation make known the met) that the ag-
gregate quantity of MM h plates lighter than
three pounds per hundred square feet produced an
the United States dui I the *ta year*

next preceding June thirtieth, eighteen hundred
and ninety seven, ha* equalled one third the
amount of such plates imported and entered far

I non during any ft** al year after the pas-
sage of this act , and prior to said October first,

THE TARIFF.

— jSpH

4 2 3

eighteen hundred and ninety-seven: Provided ',
That, the amount of such plates manufactured
into articles exported, and upon which a draw-
back shall be paid, shall not be included in as-
certaining the amount of such importations: And
Provided further , That the amount or weight of
sheet iron or sheet steel manufactured in the
United States and applied or wrought in the
manufacture of articles or wares tinned or terne-
plated in the United States, with weight allow-
ance u sold to manufacturers or others, shall be
considered as tin and terne plates produced in the
United States within ;he meaning of this act.
[Old law: And provided. That on all such iron
and steel sheets or plates aforesaid, excepting on
what are known commercially as tin plates, terne

f)lates, and taggers tin, and hereafter provided
or, when galvanized or coated with zinc or spel-
ter, or other metals, or any alloy of those metals,
three-fourths of one cent per pound additional.
Iron or steel sheets, or plates, or taggers iron,
coated with tin or lead, or with a mixture of
which these metals is a component part, by the
dipping or any other process, and commercially
known as tin plates, terne plates, and taggers
tin, one cent per pound; corrugated or crimped
sheet-iron or steel, one and four-tenths of one
cent per pound. Manufacturers of tin, forty-five
per centum.]

144. Sheet-iron or sheet-steel polished, plan-
ished or glanced, by whatever name designated,
two and one-half cents per pound: Provided,

• That plate or sheet or taggers iron or steel, by
whatever name designated, other than the pol-
ished, planished or glanced, herein provided for,
which has been pickled or cleaned by acid, or
by any other material or process, or which is
cold-rolled, smoothed only, not polished, shall
pay one-quarter of one cent per pound more duty
than the corresponding gauges of common or
black sheet or taggers iron or steel. [Old law:
The words in italics in this paragraph are new
matter.]

145. Sheets or plates of iron or steel, or taggers
iron or steel, coated with tin or lead, or with a
mixture of which these metals, or either of them,
is a component part, by the dipping or any other
process, and commercially known as tin plates,
terne plates, and taggers tin, one cent per pound
until July first, eighteen hundred and ninety-
one.

146. Steel ingots, cogged ingots, blooms, and
slabs, by whatever process made; die blocks or
blanks; billets and bars and tapered or beveled
bars; steamer, crank, and other shafts; shafting;
wrist or crank pins; connecting-rods and pisto»-
rods; pressed, sheared or stamped shapes; saw-
plates, wholly or partially manufactured; ham-
mer-molds or swaged steel; gun-barrel molds not
in bars; alloys used as substitutes for steel tools;
all descriptions and shapes of dry sand, loam, or
iron-molded steel castings; sheets and plates not
specially provided for in this act; and steel in all
formsai.d shapes not specially provided forin this
act ; all of the above valued at one cent per pound
or less, four-tenths of one cent per pound; valued
above one cent and not above one and four-tenths
cents per pound, five-tenths of one cent per pound;
valued above one and four-tenths cents and not
aboveone and eight-tenths cents per pound, eight-
n nthsnfonecent per pound; valued above one and
eight-tenths cents and not above two and two-
tenths cents per pound, nine-tenths of one cent
per pound; valued above two and two-tenths
cents, and not above three cents per pound, one
and two-tenths cents per pound; valued above
three cents and not above four cents per pound,
one and six-tenths cents per pound; valued above
four cents and not above seven cents per pound,
two cents per pound; valued above seven cents
and not above ten cents per pound, two and
eight -tenths cents per pound; valued above ten
cents and not above thirteen cents per pound,
three and one-half cents per pound; valued above
thirteen cents and not above sixteen cents per
pound, four and two-tenths cents per pound;
valued above sixteen cents per pound, seven
cents per pound. [Old law: Steel ingots, cogged
bigots, Mo.mis, and slabs, by whatever process
modi : (He blocks or blanks; billets and bars and
tapered or beveled bars; bands, hoops, strips, and
sheets of all gauges and widths; plates of all
thicknesses and widths; steamer, crank, and other

shafts; wrist or crank pins; connecting-rods and
piston-rods; pressed, sheared, or stamped shapes,
or blanks of sheet or plate steel, or combination
of steel and iron, punched or not punched; ham-
mer-molds or swaged steel; gun-molds, not in
bars; alloys used as substitutes for steel tools; all
descriptions and shapes of dry sand, loam, or iron-
molded steel castings.all of the above classes of steel
not otherwise specially provided for in this act
valued at four cents a pound or less, forty-five per
centum ad valorem; above four cents a pound and
not above seven cents per pound, two cents per
pound; valued above seven cents and not above
ten cents per pound, two and three-fourths cents
per pound; valued at above ten cents per pound,
three and one-fourth cents per pound.]

147. Wire rods: Rivet, screw, fence anj other
iron or steal wire rods, and nail rods whether
round, oval, flat, square, or in any other shape,
in coils or otherwise, not smaller than number six
wire gauge, valued at three and one-half cents or
less per pound, six-tenths of one cent per pound;
and iron or steel, flat, with longitudinal ribs for
the manufacture of fencing, valued at three
cents or less per pound, six-tenths of one cent
per pound: Provided, That all iron or steel
rods, whether rolled or drawn through dies,
smaller than number six wire gauge, shall be
classed and dutiable as wire. [Old Taw: Iron or
steel rivet, screw, nail, and fence, wire rods,
round, in coils and loops, not lighter than num-
ber five wire gauge, valued at three and one-half
cents or less per pound, six-tenths of one cent per
pound. Iron or steel, flat, with longitudinal ribs
for the manufacture of fencing, six-tenths of a
cent per pound.]

148. Wire: Wire made ofiron or steel, not
smaller than number ten wire gauge, one and
one-fourth cents per pound; smaller than number
ten, and not smaller than number sixteen wire
guage, one and three-fourths cents per pound;
smaller than number sixteen and not smaller than
number twenty-six wire gauge, two and one-
fourth cents per pound; smaller than number
twenty-six wire gauge, three cents per pound:
I'rovided, That iron or steel wire covered with
cotten, silk or other material, and wires or strip
steel, commonly known as crinoline-wire, corset-
wire and hat-wire, shall pay a duty of five cents
per pound: And provided further, That flat
steel wire or sheet steel in strips, whether drawn
through dies or rolls, untempered or tempered, of
whatsoever width, twenty-five one thousandths
of an inch thick or thinner (ready for use or other-
wise), shall pay a duty of fifty per centum ad
valorem: And Proznded further, That no article
made from iron or steel wire, or of which iron or
steel wire is a component part of chief value, shall
pay a less rate of duty than the iron or steel wire
from which it is made either wholly or in part: And
Provided further, That iron or steel wire-cloths,
and iron or steel wire-nettings made in neshes of
any form, shall pay a duty equal 'n amount to
that imposed on iron or steel wire .sed in the
manufacture of iron or steel wire cloth, or iron
or steel wire nettings, and two cents ^er pound
in addition thereto. [Old law: Smaller than
number ten gauge, one and one-half and two
cents per pound; number ten to number sixteen
gauge, two cents; number sixteen to number
twenty-six gauge, two and one-half cents; smaller,
three cents. Provided , That iron or steel wire
covered with cotton, silk, or other material, and
wire commonly known as crinoline, corset and
hat-wire, shall pay four cents per pound in ad-
dition to the foregoing rates: And provided

further, That no article made from iron or I
steel wire, or of which iron or steel wire is a com- I
ponent part of chief value, shall pay a less rate of j
duty than the iron or steel wire from which it is 1
made, either wholly or in part: And provided j

further. That iron or steel wire-cloths, and iron
or steel wire-nettings, made in meshes of
any form, shall pay a duty equal in amount
to that imposed on iron or steel wire of the
same gauge, and two cents per pound in ad-
dition thereto. There shall be paid on gal van - '
ized iron or steel wire (except fence wire) one-
half of one cent per pound in addition to the rate
imposed on the wire of which it is made. On

iron wire-rope and wire-strand, one cent per
pound in addition to the rates imposed on the wire
of which it is made. On steel wire-rope and wire-
strand, two cents per pound in addition to the rates
imposed on the wire of which it is made.]

There shall be paid on iron or steel wire coated
with zinc or tin, or any other metal (except fence-
wire and iron or steel, flat, with longitudinal ribs,
for the manufacture of fencing), one-half of one
cent per pound in addition to the rate imposed on
the wire of which it is made; on iron wire-rope
and wire-strand, one cent per pound in addition
to the rate imposed on the wire of which it is
made; on steel wire-rope and wire-strand, two
cent' per pound in addition to the rate imposed on
the wire of which they or either of them are made:
Provided further. That all iron or steel wire
valued at more than four cents per pound shall
pay a duty of not less than forty-five per centum
ad valorem except that card-wire for the manu-
facture of card clothing shall pay a duty of thirty-
five per centum ad valorem.

General Provisions.

140. No allowance or reduction of duties for
partial loss or damage in consequence of rust ©r of
discoloration shall be made upon any description
of iron or steel, or upon any article wholly or*
partly manufactured of iron or steel, or upon any
manufacture ofiron and steel.

150 AH metal produced from iron or its ores,
which is cast and malleable, of whatever de-
scription or form, without regard to the per-
centage of carbon contained therein whether pro-
duced by cementation, or converted, cast or
made from iron or its ores, by the crucible, Bes-
semer, Clapp-Gri fliths, pneumatic, Thomas-Gil-
christ, basic, Siemens-Martin, or open-hearth
process, or by the equivalent of either, or by a
combination of two or more of the processes, or
their equivalents, or by any fusion or other pro-
cess which produces from iron or its ores a metal
either granular or fibrous in structure, which is
cast and malleable, excepting what is known as
malleable-iron castings, shall be classed and de-
nominated as steel.

151. No article not specially provided for in
this act, wholly or partly manufactured from tin
plate, terne plate, or the sheet, plate, hoop, band
or scroll iron or steel herein provided for, or of
which such tin plate, terne plate, sheet, plate,
hoop, band or scroll iron or steel shall be the ma-
terial of chief value, shall pay a lower rate of
duty than that- imposed on the tin plate, terne
plate, or sheet, plate, hoop, band, or scroll iron
or steel from which it is made, or of which it shall
be the component thereof of chief value. [Not in
old law.]

152. On all iron or steel bars or rods of -what-
ever shape or section, which are cold rolled,
cold hammered, or polished in any way in addi-
tion to the ordinary process of hot rolling or ham-
mering, there shall be paid one-fourth of one cent
per pound in addition to the rates provided in
this act; and on all strips, plates or sheets of
iron or steel of whatever shape, other than the
Polished, planished or glanced sheet-iron or
sheet-steel hereinbefore provided for ,which are
cold rolled, cold hammered, Slued, brightened,
tempered or polished by any process to such
Perfected surface finish, or polish better than
the grade of cold rolled, smooth only, herein-
before proinded for, there shall be paid one and
one-fourth cents per pound in addition to the
rates provided in this act upon plates, strips,
or sheets of iron or steel of common or black

finish; and on steel circular saw piates there
shall be paid one cent per pound in addition to
the rate provided in this act for steel saw plates.

Manufactures of Iron and Steel.

153. Anchors or parts thereof of iron or steel,
mill-irons and mill-cranks of wrought-iron and
wrought-iron for ships, and forgings ofiron or steel,
or of combined iron and steel, for vessels, steam-
engines and locomotives, or parts thereof, weighing
each twenty-five pounds or more, one and eight-
tenths cents per pound. [Old law; Two ceuta ;.*er
pound.]

4»4

THE TARIFF.

154. Axles, of pasts thereof, axle-bam, axle-
blanks, or tvrgfciga for axles, whether of iron or

steel, without n Ni. in . to (tic stage or state of
I— IHifiictllfHi, two 'iiits par pound; /'rorided.
That when iron or steel axles are imported
fittnl in wheels , or /</' t% 0/ inheels, 0/ troti or
steel , they ahull hr dutiable at the same rate as
the wheels in UtkicM they are fitted. [Old law:
Two and a hall cents per pound, ]

155. Anvils of in. 11 or steel, Of of iron and steel
combined, by whatever process made, or in what-
ever sta^e of nianunu tuie, two and one-half cents
per pound. [Ne* language, No change in
rate J

ISO. Blacksmiths' hammers and sledges, track
tools, wedges and crowl>ars, whether of iron or
steel, two ami one-fourth cents per pound. [Old
law: Two and one-half cents per pound.]

157. IJoiler or other lul>es, pipes, flues, or stays
of wrought iron or steel, two and one-half cents
per pound. |OUl law: Two and one -fourth and
three cents per pound, j

is8. Holts, with or without threads or nuts, or
holt-blanks, and finished hinges or hinge blanks,
whether of iron or steel, two and one-fourth cents
pcrpoiind. (Old law: Two and one-half cents
per pound.]

159. Card-clothing, manufactured from tem-
pered steel wire, fifty cents per square foot; all
other, twenty-five cents per square foot. [Old
law: Forty-five per centum and twenty-five
per centum.]

160. Cast-iron pipe of every description, nine-
tenths of one cent per pound. [Old law; One
cent per pound.]

161. Cast-iron vessels, plates, stove-plates,
andirons, sad-irons, tailors' irons, hatters' irons,
and castings of iron, not specially provided for in
this act, one and two-tenths cents per pound.
[Old law : One and one-fourth cents per
pound.]

162. Castings of malleable iron not specially
provided for in this art, one and three-fourth
cents per pound. [Old law; Two cents per
pound. )

163. Cast hollow-ware, coated, glazed, or
tinned, three cents per pound, [Old law: AH
hollow-ware, coated, glazed, or tinned, three
cents per pound]

164. Chain or chains of all kinds, made of iron
or steel, not less than three-fourths of one inch in
diameter, one and six-tenths cents per pound;
less than three fourths of one inch and not less
than three-eighths of one inch in diameter, one
and eight-tenths cents per pound; less than three-
eighths of one inch in diameter, two and one-half
cents per pound, but no chain or chains of any
description shall pay a lower rate of duty than
forty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
One and three-fourths cents per pound; two cents
per pound; two and one-half cents per pound]

165. Pen-knives or pocket-knives of all kinds,
or parts thereof, and erasers, or parts thereof,
wholly or partly manufactured, valued at not
more than fifty cents per dozen, twelve cents per
dozen; valuedf at more than fifty cents pi ■
and not exceeding one dollar and fifty cents per
dozen, fifty cents per dozen; valued at more than
one dollar and fifty cents per dozen and not ex-
ceeding threei dollars per dozen, one dollar per
dozen; valued at more than three dollars per
dozen, two) dollars per dozen; and in addition
thereto on alt the altove, fifty per centum ad va-
lorem. Razor* und razor hlades, finished or mi
finished, valued at less than lour ilollars per
dozen, one dollai per do/en; valued at four dol-
lars or mora per dozm, one dollar and seventy-
five cents per dOMO; and in addition thereto on
all the above razors and razor-blades, thirty per
centum ad valorem. J Old law; Pen-knives,
pocket-knives of all kinds, md razors, fifty pcr
centum; cutlery not specially provided for,
thirty-five per centum.]

Bwordtj sword-blades, and side-arms,
thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

167. Tan* lento) . forks, stasia, and all butch-
era*, bunting, kitchen, lurid, butter, vegetable,

llMit, Oh tain, ptlllllii. !•■' . (., Illltels' |>al> 1 :

artists' knives nl all sixes, (iiusIh (I01 unfinished,
valued! mi not mote than ».ne di

nm cents per dozen: valued at more than
one dollar and not more than tuo dollar*, thirty
five cents per dozen; valued at uu-rr than two
dollars and not more three dollars, forty cents
per dozen; valued at more than three dollars and
not more than right dollars CMM dollar (Krr dozen,
valued al more than . -ight .1 -Mars per

dozen; and in addition upon all the above named
articles, thirty per centum ad valorem. All QBN
fog and cooks knives and forks of all sizes, fin-
ished or unfinished, value. i ,,t not more than four
dollars |>er dozen pieces, one dollar per dozen;
valued al more than four dollars and not more
than sight dollars, two dollars per dozen pieces;
valued al more than eight dollars and not more
twelve dollars, three dollars per dozen pieces;
valued at more than iw.lw dollars, five, dollars
per do/en pieces; and in addition upon all the
above named articles, thirty per centum ad va-
lorem. [Old law; Cutlery not specially pro-
vided for, thirty-five per centum.]

168. Files, file-blanks, rasps and floats of all
cuts and kinds, four inches in length and under,
thirty-five cents per dozen; over four inches in
length and under nine inches, seventy-five cents
per dozen; nine inches in length and under four-
teen inches, one dollar and thirty cents per dozen;
fourteen inches in length and over, two dollars
per dozen. [Old law; Nine inches and under
four inches, one dollar and fifty cents per dozen;
fourteen inches and over, two dollars aid fifty
cents per dozen]

FIRE-ARMS.

169. Muskets and sporting rifles, twenty five
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Muskets,
rifles, and other fire-arms, not specially provided
for, twenty-five per centum.]

170. All double-barreled, sporting, breech-load-
ing shot-guns valued at not more than six dollars
each, one dollar and fifty cents each; valued at
more than six dollars and not more than twelve
dollars each, four dollars each; valued at more
than twelve dollars each, six dollars each; and in
addition thereto on alt the above, thirty-five per
centum ad valorem. Single-barrel, breech-load-
ing shot-guns, one dollar each and thirty-five per
centum ad valorem. Revolving pistols valued at
not more than one dollar and fifty cents, each,
forty cents each; valued at more than one dollar
and fifty cents, one dollar each; and in addi-
tion thereto on all the above pistols, thirty-five
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Thirty-five
per centum.]

171. Iron or steel sheets, plates, wares, or arti-
cles, enameled or glazed with vitreous glasses,
forty-five per centum ad valorem. [Notk — Not
in old law. Rates various.]

172. Iron or steel sheets, plates, wares, or arti-
cles, enameled or glazed as above with more than
one color, or ornamented, fifty per centum ad
valorem. [Not in old law. Rates various.]

NAILS, SPIKES, TACKS AND NP.KDt.SS.

173. Cut nails and cut spikes of iron or steel,
one cent per pound. [Old law: One and one-
fourth cents per pound.]

174. Horseshoe nails, hob nails, and all other
wrought iron or steel nails not specially provided
for in this act, four cents per pound.

175. Wire nails made of wrought ir-m or steel,
two laches long and longer, not lighter than num-
ber twelve wire gauge, two onrta per pound; from
one inch to two inches in length, and lighter than
number twelve and not lighter than number six
teen wire gauge, two and one-half cents per
pound; shorter than one inch and lighter than
numl>er sixteen wire gauge, loin cents per pound.
[( )ld law: Knur cents pi i pound.)

176. Spikes, nuts and washers, and horse,
mule, or ox shoes, of wrought iron a steel, one
and eight-tenths cents pel pound. [< >ld law:
Twocents ]*?r pound 1

177 Cut tacks, brads, or sprigs, not exceeding
sixteen ounces to toe thousand, two and one-
fotUth cents per thousand: « v feeding sixteen
ounces to the thousand, two and three-fourths
cents per pound. [Old law: Two and one-half
CODtS per pound, three cents per pound ]

178. Needles for knitting or sewing machines,
crochrt-neadles, and tape-needles anclbodkinv oj
metal, thirty -fiw* per centum a. I valotrui. [Old

lesj I wenty-hve per c
centum.]

170. Needle*, knitting,
» tally provided for in this
turn ad valorem.

centum and thirty-five per

and all others not ape-
act, twenty-five per cea-

180. Steel plates engraved, stereotype plates,
etntrotype plates, and plates of other mate-
rials, engraved or lithographed, for printing,
twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

181 Railway fish-plates or splice-ban made
of iron or steel, one cent per pound. [Old law:
One and one-fourth cents per pound.]

18a. Rivets of iron or steel, two and one-hail
cents per pound.

183. Saws: Cross-cut saws, eight cents per
linear foot; mil), pit, and drag-saws, not over
nine inches wide, ten cent* per linear foot;
over nine inches wide, fifteen cents per linear
foot; circular saws, thirty per centum ad valorem;
hand, hack and all other saws, not especially
provided for in that act, forty per fw ttrm ad
valorem.

184. Screws, commonly called wood-screws,
more than two inches in length, five cents per
pound; over one inch and not more than two
inches in length, seven cents per pound; over one-
half inch and not more than one inch in length,
ten cents per pound; one-half inch and less in
length, fourteen cents per pound. [Old law:
Six cents per pound; eight cents per pound; tea
cents per pound; fourteen cents per pound, re-

rgrw. ■

■„. J heels, or parts thereof, made of iron or
steel, and steel-tired wheels for railway purposes,
whether wholly or partly finished, and iron or
steel locomotive, car, or other railway tires or
parts thereof, wholly or partly manufactured,
two and one-half cents per pound; and ingots,
cogged ingots, blooms, or blanks for the same,
without regard to the degree of manufacture, one
and three-fourths cents per pound: Provided,
That when wheels or parts thereof, of iron or
steel, are imported with iron or steel axles fitted
in them, the wheels and axles together shall be
dutiable at the same rate as is provided for the
wheels when imported separately. [Old law:
Steel wheels and steel-tired wheels fur railway
purposes, whether wholly or partly finished, and
iron or steel locomotive, car, and other railway
tires, or parts thereof, wholly or partly manu-
factured, two and one-half of one cent per pound;
iron or steel ingots, cogged ingots, blooms, or
blanks for the same, without regard to the degree
of manufacture, two cents per pound.]

Miscellaneous- Metals and Manufact-
ures of.

186. Aluminium or aluminum. In crude form,
and alloys of any kind in which aluminum is the
component material of chief value, fifteen cents
per pound. [Old law: Free]

187. Antimony, as regulus or metal, three-
fourths of one cent per pound.

188. Argentine, albata, or German silver, un-
manufactured, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

189. Brass, in bars or pigs, old brass, din-
pings from brass or Ihmh metal. umrV/./* sheath-
ing, or yellow metal fit only for remanufacture,
one and one-half cents per m

190. Bronxe powder, twelve cents per pound:
bronze or I >utch metal, or aluminum, in leaf,
right cents per packagr of one hundred leaves
[Old law: Rronxe Hutch metal in leaf, ten per
centum; bronze powder, fifteen per centum.]

101 . Copper imported in the form of ores, one-
half of one cent per pound on each pound of fine
copper contained therein. [Old taw: Two and
one-half cents per pound.]

19a. Old copper, fit only for remanufacture,
clippings from new copper, and all composition
metal of which copper m a component material of
chief value, not specially provided for in this act,
»■• crnt per pound [Old lav: Tl
pound.]

Three cents per

THK TAKiKK.

425

193. Rcwuhis of copper ami black or coarse
copper, uiul copper cement, one cent per pound on
each pound "! fine 1 opper contained therein. [Old
law: Three end om- iialiYcuts per pound.]

194. Copper in plates, bars, ingots, Chili or
others pfan. and in other forms not manufactured,
not specially provided for in this act, one and
one-fourth cents per pound. [Old law: Four
cents per pound.]

195. Copper in rolled plates, called braziers'
copper, sheets, rods, pipes, and copper bottoms,
also sheathing or yellow metal of which copper
is the component material of chief value, and not
composed wholly or in part of iron ungalvanized,
thirty-five per centum ad valorem. [In old law,
and omitted: Sheathing, or yellow metal, not
wholly of copper, nor wholly nor in part of iron,
ungalvani/ed, in sheets, forty-eight inches long and
fourteen inches wide, and weighing from fourteen
to thirty-four ounces per square foot thirty-five
per centum ad valorem; copper, when imported
for the United States Mint, fret-.]

GOLD AND SILVER.

196. Bullions and metal thread of gold, silver,
or other metals not specially provided for in this
act, thirty per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Twenty-five per centum.]

197. Gold-leaf, two dollars per package of five
hundred leaves. [Old law: One dollar and fifty
cents per package.]

198. Silver leaf, seventy-five cents ]>er package
of five hundred leaves. [Old law: Seventy-five
cents per package.]

109. Lead ore and lead dross, one and one-
half cents per pound: Provided, That silver ore
and all other ores containing lead shall Pay a
duty 0/ one and one-half cents per pound on
the lead contained therein, according to sample
and assay at the port 0/ entry.

200. Lead in pigs and bars, molten and old
refuse lead run into blocks and bars, and old scrap
lead fit only to be remanufactured, two cents per
pound.

201. Lead in sheets, pipe, shot, glaziers' lead
and lead ivire, two and one-half cents per
pound. [Old law: Three cents per pound.]

202. Metallic mineral substances in a crude
state and metals unwrought, not specially pro-
vided for in this act, twenty per centum ad valo-
rem: mica, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.
[Words in italics new matter; old law: Mica and
mica waste free.]

203. Nickel, nickel oxide, alloy of any kind of
which nickel is the component material of chief
value, ten cents per pound. [Old law: fifteen
cents per pound.]

204. Pens, metallic, except gold pens, twelve
cents per gross.

205. Pen-holder tips, pen-holders, or parts
thereof, and gold pens, thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.

206. Pins, metallic, solid-head or other, in-
cluding hair-pins, safety-pins, and hat, bon-
net , shawl and belt pins, thirty per centum ad
valorem. [Pins now are classified at various
rates.]

207 Quicksilver, ten cents per pound. The
flasks, bottles, or other vessels in ivhich quick-
silver is imported shall be subject to the same
rate of duty as they would be subject to if im-
ported empty. [Old law: Ten per centum.]

208. Type-metal, one and one-half cents per
pound for the lead contained therein: new
types, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old
law: lyp* metal, twenty per centum.]

209. Tin: On and after July first, eighteen
hundred and ninety-three, there shall be imposed
and paid upon cassiterite or black oxide of tin,
and upon bar, block, and pig tin, a duty of four
cents per pound: Provided, That unless it shall be
made to appear to the satisfaction of the Presi-
dent of the United States (who shall make known
the fact by proclamation) that the product of the
mines of the United States shall have exceeded
five thousand tons of cassiterite, and bar, block,

and pig tin in any one year prior to July first,
eighteen hundred and ninety-five, then all imported
cassiterite, bar, block, and pig tin shall after July
first, eighteen hundred and ninety-five, be ad-
mitted free of duty. [Old law; Free.]

WATCHES.

210. Chronometer, box or ship's, and parts
thereof, ten per centum ad valorem.

211. Watches, parts of watches, watch-cases,
watch movements, and -watch-glasses, -whether
separately packed or otherwise, twenty-five
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Watch mate-
rials also twenty-five per centum.]

ZINC Ok SPELTER.

212. Zinc in blocks or pigs, one and three-
fourths cents per pound, [Old law: One and
one-half cents per pound.]

213. Zinc in sheets, two and one-half cents
per pound. [Old law contains the words "spelter
or tutenegue. ']

214. Zinc, old and worn out, fit only to be re-
manufactured, one and one-fourth cents per
pound. [Old law: One and one-half cents per
pound.]

215. Manufactures, articles, or wares, not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
composed wholly or in part of iron, steel, lead,
copper, nickel, pewter, zinc, gold, silver, plati-
num, aluminum , or any other metal, and
whether partly or wholly manufactured, forty-five
per centum ad valorem. [Old law; Epaulets,
galloons, laces, knots, stars, tassels, and wings
of gold, silver or other metal, twenty-five per cen-
tum. Umbrella and parasol ribs, and stretcher-
frames, tips, runners, handles, or other parts
thereof, when made in whole or chief parts of
iron, steel, or any other metal, forty per centum
ad valorem; Brittania ware, and plated and gilt
articles and wares of all kinds, thirty-five per
centum.

Schedule D.- - Wood and Manufactures of.

216. Timber, hewn and sawed, and timber used
for spars and in building wharves, ten per centum
ad valorem. [Old law; Twenty per centum.]

217. Timber, squared or sided, not specially
provided for in this act, one-half of one cent per
cubic foot. [Old law: One cent per cubic foot.]

218. Sawed boards, planks, deals and other
lumber of hemlock, white wood, sycamore, white
pine and basswood, one dollar per thousand feet
board measure; sawed lumber, not specially pro-
vided for in this act, two dollars per thousand
feet board measure; but when lumber of any sort is
planed or finished, in addition to the rates herein
provided, there shall be levied and paid for each
side so planed or finished fifty cents per thousand
feet board measure; and if planed on one side,
and tongued and grooved, one dollar per thousand
feet board measure; and if planed on two sides,
and tongued and grooved, one dollar and fifty
cents per thousand feet board measure; and in
estimating board measure under this schedule
no deduction shall be made on board measure
on account of planing, tongueing and grooving:
Provided, That in case any foreign country
shall impose an export duty upon pine, spruce,
elm or other logs, or upon stave-bolts, shingle
wood or heading blocks exported to the United
States from such country , then the duty upon
sawed lumber herein provided for, •when im-
ported from stick country, shall remain the
same as fixed by the law in force prior to the
Passage of this act. [Old law: White pine two
dollars per thousand feet.]

219. Cedar; That on and after March first,
eighteen hundred and ninety-one, paving posts,
railroad ties, and telephone and telegraph poles
of cedar, shall be dutiable at twenty per centum
ad valorem. [Old law: Free.]

220. Sawed boards, plank, deals, and all
forms of sawed cedar, lignum-vita?, lancewood^
ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rosewood,
sat in wood, and all other cabinet-woods not
further manufactured than sawed, fifteen per cen-
tum ad valorem; veneers of wood, and wood un-
manufactured, not specially provided for in this

act, twenty per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Two dollars per thousand feet; veneers, thirty-five
per centum; canes and sticks for walking, if un-
finished, twenty per centum.]

221. Pine clapboards, one dollar per one thou-
sand. [Old law; Two dollars per one thousand. ]

222. Spruce clapboards, one dollar and fifty
cents per one thousand.]

223. Hubs for wheels, posts, last-blocks, wagon-
blocks, oar-blocks, gun-blocks, heading-blocks,
and all like blocks or sticks, rough-hewn or sawed
only, twenty per centum ad valorem.

224. Laths, fifteen cents per one thousand
pieces.

225. Pickets and palings, ten per centum ad
valorem. .^Old law; Twenty per centum.]

226. White pine shingles, twenty cents per one
thousand; all other, thirty cents per one thousand.
[Old law: Thirty-five cents per one thousand]

227. Staves of wood of all kinds, ten per cen-
tum ad valorem.

228. Casks and barrels (empty), sugar-box
shooks, and packing-boxes, and packing-box
shooks of wood, not specially provided for in this
act, thirty per centum ad valorem.

229. Chair cane, or reeds wrought or manu-
factured from rattans or reeds, and whether
round, square, or in any other shape, ten per cen-
tum ad valorem. [Old law: Rattans and reeds,
manufactured, but not made up into completed
articles ten per centum ad valorem.]

230. House or cabinet furniture of wood, wholly
or partly finished, manufactures of wood, or of
which wood is the component material of chief
value, not specially provided for in this act, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem. [Old law; House
or cabinet furniture, in piecefs] or rough, and not
finished, thirty per centum ad valorem. Cabi-
net ware[s] and house furniture, finished, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem. Manufactures of
cedar wood, granadilla, ebony, mahogany, rose-
wood, and satinwood, thirty-five per centum ad
valorem. Manufactures of wood, or of which
wood is the chief component part, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty-five
per centum ad valorem. Canes and sticks for
walking, finished, thirty-five per centum.

Schedule E. — Sugar.

231. That on and after July first, eighteen hun-
dred and ninety-one, and until July first, nineteen
hundred and five, there shall be paid, from any
moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropri-
ated, under the provisions of section three thou-
sand six hundred and eighty-nine of the Revised
Statutes, to the producer of sugar testing not less
than ninety degrees by the polariscope, from
beets, sorghum, or sugar-cane grown within the
United States, or from maple sap produced
within the United States, a bounty of two cents
per pound; and upon such sugar testing less than
ninety degrees by the polariscope, and not less
than eighty degrees, a bounty of one and three-
fourths cents per pound, under such rules and
regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Rev-
enue, with the approval of the Secretary of the
Treasury, shall prescribe.

232. The producer of said sugar to be entitled
to said bounty shall have first filed prior to July
first of each year with the Commissioner of In-
ternal Revenue a notice of the place of produc-
tion, with a general description of the machinery
and methods to be employed by him, with an
estimate of the amount of sugar proposed to be
produced in the current or next ensuing year, in-
cluding the number of maple trees to he tapped,
and an application for a license to so produce,
to be accompanied by a bond in a penalty, and
with sureties to be approved by the Commissioner
of Internal Revenue, conditioned that he will
faithfully observe all rules and regulations that
shall be prescribed for such manufacture and pro-
duction of sugar.

233. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
upon receiving the application and bond herein-
before provided for, shall issue to the applicant a
license to produce sugar from sorghum, beets, or
sugar-cane grown within the United States, or
from maple sap produced within the United States
at the place and with the machinery and by the

426

THE TARIFF.

methods described in the application; but said
license shall not extend beyond one year irom the
date thereof.

334. No bounty shall be paid to any person en-
gaged in refining sugar* which have been im-
ported into the United States or produced in the
United Stales, upon which the bounty herein pro-
vided for has already been paid or applied for. nor
to any person unless he shall have first been
licensed as herein provided, and only upon sugar
produced by such person from sorghum, beets, or
sugar-cane grown within the United States, or
from maple sap produced within the United
States. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treas-
ury, shall from lime to time make all needful rules
and regulations for the manufacture of sugar from
sorghum, beets, or sugar-cane grown within the
United States, or from maple sap produced within
the United States, and shall, under the direction of
the Secretary of the Treasury, exercise supervision
and inspection of the manufacture thereof.

335 And for the payment of these bounties the
Secretary of the Treasury is authorized to draw
warrants on the Treasurer of the United States
for such sums as shall be necessary, which sum
shall be certified to him by the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue, by whom the bounties shall be
disbursed, and no bounty shall be allowed or paid
to any person licensed as aforesaid in any one
year upon any quantity of sugar less than five
hundred pounds.

336. That any person who shall knowingly re-
fine or aid in the refining of sugar imported into
the United States or upon which the bounty
herein provided for has already been paid or ap-
plied for, at the place described in the license
issued by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
and any person not entitled to the bounty herein
provided for, who shall apply for or receive the
same, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and,
upon conviction thereof, shall pay a fine not ex-
ceeding five thousand dollars, or be imprisoned
for a period not exceeding five years, or both, in
the discretion of the court. [Note. — All the
foregoing of this schedule is new legislation.]

337. All sugars above number sixteen Dutch
standard in color shall pay a duty of five-tenths
of one cent per pound: Provided, That all such
sugars above sixteen Dutch standard in color
shall pay one-tenth of one cent per pound in addi-
tion to the rate herein provided for, when ex-
ported from or the product of any country when
and so long as such country pays, or shall here-
after pay, directly or indirectly, a bounty on the
exportation of any sugar that may be included in
this grade which is greater than is paid on raw
sugars of a lower saccharine strength; and the
Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe suitable
rules and regulations to carry this provision into
effect: And provided further, That all ma-
chinery purchased abroad and erected in a beet-
sugar factory and used in the production of raw
sugar in the United States from beets produced
therein shall be admitted duty free until the first
day of July, eighteen hundred and ninety-two:
Provided, That any duty collected on any of the
above described machinery purchased abroad and
imported into the United States for the uses
above indicated since January first, eighteen hun-
dred and ninety, shall be refunded. [Old law:
sixteen to twenty Dutch standard, three cents
per pound; above twenty, three and fifty-one hun-
dredths cents per pound. Beet sugar machinery
dutiable at forty-five per centum.]

318. Sugar candy and all confectionery , in-
cluding chocolate confectionery, made wholly or
in part of sugar, valued at twelve cents or less
per pound, and on sugars after being refined,
when tinctured, colored, or in any way adulter-
ated, five cents per pound.

339. All other confectionery, including choco-
late confectionery, not specially provided for in
this act, fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law
for paragraphs 338 and 339: Sugar randy, not
colored, five cents per pound All other con-
fectionery, not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, made wholly or in part of sugar,
and of sugars after being refined, when nurtured,
colored, or in any way adulterated valued at
thirty cents per pound or less, ten cents per
pound. Conm tlooAry valued above thirty cents
prr jK'iiml, or when sold by the box, package, or

otherwise than by the pound, fifty per centum ad
valorem]

340. Glucose or grape sugar, three-fourths of
one cent per pound. [Old law; Glucose, twenty-
per centum.]

341. That the provisions of- this act providing
terms for the admission of imported sugars and
molasses and for the payment of a bounty on
sugars of domestic production shall take effect
on the first day of April, eighteen hundred and
ninety-one: Provided, That on and after the
first d;iy of March, eighteen hundred and ninety-
one, and prior to the first day of April, eighteen
hundred and ninety-one, sugars not exceeding
number sixteen I >utch standard in color may be
refined in bond without payment of duty, and
such refined sugars may be transported in bond
and stored in bonded warehouse at such points of
destination as are provided in existing laws re-
lating to the immediate transportation of dutiable
goods in bond, under such rules and regulations
as shall be prescribed by the Secretary of the
Treasury. [Note— All new matter]

Schedule F. — Tobacco and Manufact-
ures of.

342. Leaf tobacco suitable for cigar-wrappers,
if not stemmed, two dollars per pound; if
stemmed, two dollars and seventy-five cents per
pound: Provided, That if any portion of any to-
bacco imported in any bale, box, or package, or
in bulk shall be suitable for cigar-wrappers, the
entire quantity of tobacco contained in such bale,
box or package, or bulk, shall be dutiable, if not
stemmed, at two dollars,per pound; if stemmed, at
two dollars and seventy-five cents per pound.
[Old law: Leaf tobacco, of which eighty-five per
centum is of the requisite size and of the neces-
sary fineness of texture to be suitable for wrap-
pers, and of which more than one hundred leaves
are required to weigh a pound, if not stemmed,
seventy-five cents per pound; if stemmed, one
dollar per pound.]

243. All other tobacco in leaf, unmanufactured
and not stemmed, thirty-five cents per pound: if
stemmed, fifty cents per pound. [Old law:
Stemmed, forty cents per pound]

244. Tobacco, manufactured, of all descriptions,
not specially enumerated or provided fur in this
act, forty cents per pound.

345. Snuff and snuff flour, manufactured of to-
bacco, ground dry, or damp, and pickled,
scented, or otherwise, of all descriptions, fifty
cent? per pound.

346. Cigars, cigarettes, and cheroots of all
kinds, four dollars and fifty cents per pound and
twenty-five per centum ad valorem; and paper
cigars and cigarettes, including wrappers, shall
be subject to the same duties as are herein im-
posed upon cigars. [Old law: Two dollars and
fifty cents per pound and twenty-five per centum ]

Schedule G. — Agricultural Products
and Provisions.

ANIMALS, LIVE.

347. Horses and mules, thirty dollars per head:
Provided, That horses valued at one hundred
and fifty dollars and over shall pay a duty of
thirty per centum ad valorem.

248. Cattle, more than one year otd, ten dol'ars
per head; one year old or less, two dollars per
head.

349. Hogs, one dollar and fifty cents per head.

350. Sheep, one ysar old or more, one dollar
and tidy rem* per head; less than one year old,
seventy-five cents per head.

351. All othrr live animals, not specially pro-
vided for in this act, twenty per centum ad valo-
rem. [Old law, covering paragraphs 23510239:
Animals, liw. IwnutJ per centum ]

BKEADSTUPPS AND FARINACFni/S StTKSTANCBS.

252. Barley, thinv < rut-, per bushel of forty-
eight pounds [Old law: laaottti pit bushel ]

253. Barley mutt, forty five cent* per bushel of
thirty lour pound*. [ow law: TwtM] > -ems per
bushel. I

254. Barley, pearled, patent or hulled, two
cents per pound. [Old law; One-half cent per
pound. 1

355. Buckwheat, fifteen cents per bushel of

forty-eight pounds. [Old law: Ln
ten per centum.)

256. Corn or maize, fifteen cents per bushel of
fifty -six pounds. [Old law: Ten cents per

bushel. 1

257. Corn-meal, twenty cents oer bushel of
forty-eight pounds. [Old law: Ten cents per
bushel T

258. Macaroni, vermicelli, and all similar prep-
arations, two cents per pound. [Otd law: Free.]

359. Oats, fifteen cents per bushel. [Old law:
Ten cents per bushel]

360. Oatmeal, one cent per pound. [Old law:
One-half cent per pound.]

361. Rice, cleaned, two cents per pound; un-
cleancd rice, one and one-quarter cents per pound;
paddy, three-quarters of one cent per pound; rice-
flour, rice-meal and rice broken, which will p—
through a sieve known commercially as 1
twelve wire sieve, one-fourth of one cent per
pound. [Old law: Cleaned, two and one-quarter
cents per pound: uncleaned, one and one-halt
cents per pound; paddy, one and one-quarter
cents per pound; rice-flour, rice-meal, twenty per
cemum.j

362. Rye, ten cents per bushel.

363. Rye-flour, one-naif of one cent per pound.

364. Wheat, twenty-fire cents per bushel.
[Old law: Twenty cents per bushel ]

365. Wheat-flour, twenty-five per centum ad
valorem. [Old law: Twenty per centum]

dairy nam

266. Butter, and substitutes therefor, aix *-*.»
per pound. [Old law: Four cents per pound.]

367. Cheese, six cents per pound. [Old law:
Four cents per pound.]

268. Milk, fresh, five cents per gallon. [Old
law: Ten per centum (unenumerated). J

260. Milk, preserved or condensed, including
weight of packages, three cents per pound: sugar
of milk, eight cents per pound. [Old law: Milk,
condensed, twenty per centum; milk, sugar of,
free.]

FARM AND FIELD FRODt'CTS.

270. Beans, forty cents per bushel of sixty
pounds . [Old law: Uncnumerated , ten per
centumj

271. Beans, peas, and mushrooms, prepared or
preserved, in tins, jars, bottles or otherwise, forty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Vegetables,
prepared or preserved, of all kinds not otherwise
provided for, thirty per centum]

273. Broom-corn, eight dollars per ton. [Old

law: Ten per centum (unenumerated) J

273. Cabbages, three cents each. [Ol
Ten per centum {unenumcrated V]

^74. Cider, five cents per gallon. [Old law;
Twenty per centum (unenumerated).]

275. Eggs, five cents per do/en. [Old law:
Free.]

276. Eggs, yelk of, twenty-five per centum ad
valorem. [Old law: Unenumerated, twenty per
centum]

377. Hay, four dollars per ton. [Old law:
Two dollars per ton. ]

278. Honey, twenty cents per gallon.

279. Hops, fifteen cents per pound. [Old law:
BhnM > -rnts pm 1

380. Onions, forty cents per bushel. [Old law :
Ten per centum (tim-numcrated).]

381. Peas, green, in bulk or in barrel v

or similar packages, forty cents per bushel of
sixty pounds; peas, dried, twenty cents per
bushel; split peas, fifty cents per bushel of sixty
pounds: peas in cartoons, papers, or other small
packages, one cent per pound. [Old law: Veg-
11 natural state, ten per centum; put peas,
twenty twr MM) ' 'Hum. j

282. Plants, trees, shrubs- i kinds,

rnmmnnly known .is nursery rack, hoi specially
provided for in this a< t , t«rnt> \*-t centum ad
valorem [Old law: Plant-., ure*. shrubs and
vines of all kind*, not otherwise pro \ » led lor, and
' a]| kinds, exrept ni<-th< m.d seeds not
■pacmlry enumerated Of provided t. 1 <n this act,
her I

V—

THE TARIFF.

4*7

U-

[83. Potatoes, twenty-five cents per bushel ot
ty pounds. [Old law: Fifteen cents per

sixt,
bushel

284. Castor beans or seeds, fifty cents per bushel
of fifty pounds.

285. Flaxseed or linseed, Poppy seed and other
oil seeds, not specially provided for in this act,
thirty cents per bushel of fifty -six pounds; but no
drawback shall be allowed on oil-cake made from
imported seed. [Old law: Twenty cents per
bushel.]

286. Garden seeds, agricultural seeds, and
other seeds not specially provided for in this act,
twenty per centum au valorem. [Old law:
Garden seeds, twenty per centum, and most other
seeds free.]

287. Vegetables of all kinds, prepared or pre-
served, including pickles and sauces of all
kinds, not specially provided for in this act,
forty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Vegetables of all kinds, thirty per centum; pickles
and sauces, and so forth, thirty-five per centum;
vegetables in salt or brine, ten per centum.]

288. Vegetables in their natural state, not
specially provided for in this act, twenty-five per
centum ad valorem. [Old law: Vegetables in
their natural state or in salt or brine, ten per
centum.]

289. Straw, thirty per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Unmanufactured free.]

290. Teazles, thirty per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Free.]

291. Anchovies and sardines, packed in oil or
otherwise, in tin boxes measuring not more than
five inches long, four inches wide, and three and
one-half inches deep, ten cents per whole box; in
half-boxes, measuring not more than five inches
long, four inches wide, and one and five-eighths
inches deep, five cents each; in quarter boxes
measuring not more than four and three-fourths
inches long, three and one-half inches wide, and
one and one-fourth inches deep, two and one-half
cents each; when imported in any other form,
forty per centum ad valorem.

202. Fish, pickled, in barrels or half barrels,
and mackerel or salmon, pickled or salted, one
cent per pound. [Old law: Mackerel, one cent
per pound; salmon pickled, one cent per pound;
Other fish pickled or salted, one cent per pound.]

293. Fish, smoked, dried, salted ,pickled, frozen,
packed in ice, or otherwise prepared for preserva-
tion, and fresh fish, not specially provided for in
this act, three-fourths of one cent per pound. [Old
law: Foreign -caught fish imported otherwise
than in barrels or half barrels, whether fresh,
smoked, dried, salted, or pickled, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, fifty cents
per hundred pounds.]

294. Herrings, pickled or salted, one-half of one
cent per pound; herrings, fresh, one-fourth of one
cent per pound. [Old law: Herrings, fresh, fifty
cents per hundred pounds.]

295. Fish in cans or packages made of tin or
other material, except anchovies and sardines and
fish packed in any other manner, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty per
centum ad valorem. [Old law: Fish preserved
in oil, except anchovies and sardines, thirty per
centum. Old law: Salmon and all other fish
prepared or preserved not otherwise provided for,
twenty-five per centum.]

296. Cans or packages made of tin or other
metal, containing shell fish admitted free of duty,
not exceeding one quart in contents, shall be sub-
ject to a duty of eight cents per dozen cans or
packages; and when exceeding one quart, shall be
subject to an additional duty of four cents per
dozen for each additional half quart or fractional
part thereof: Provided, That until June thirtieth,
eighteen hundred and ninety-one, such cans or
packages shall be admitted as now provided by
law. [Old law: Cans or packages made ot tin
or other material containing fish of any kind ad-
mitted free ol duty under any existing law or
treaty, not exceeding one quart in contents, shall
be subject to a duty of one cent and a half on
each can or package; and when exceeding one
quart, shall be subject to an additional duty of

one cent and a half for each additional quart or
fractional part thereof.]

FRUITS AND NUTS.

297. Apples, green or ripe, twenty-five cents
per bushel. [Old law: Free.unenumerated.l

298. Apples, dried, dessiccated, evaporated, or
prepared in any manner, and not otherwise pro-
vided for in this act, two cents per pound. [Old
law: Thirty-five per centum or free, unenum-
erated.] ,

299. Grapes, sixty cents per barrel of three
cubic feet capacity or fractional part thereof;

Fjlums, and prunes, two cents per pound. [Old
aw: Preserved prunes, one cent per pound;
grapes, twenty per centum.]

300. Figs, two and one-half cents per pound.
[Old law: Two cents per pound.]

301. Oranges, lemons, and limes, in packages
of capacity of one and one-fourth cubic feet or
less, thirteen cents per package; in packages of
capacity exceeding one and one-fourth, cubic feet
and not exceeding two and one-half cubic feet,
twenty-five cents per package; in packages of
capacity exceeding two and one-half cubic feet
and not exceeding five cubic feet, fifty cents per
package, in packages of capacity exceeding five
cubic feet, for every additional cubic foot or frac-
tional part thereof, ten cents; in bulk, one dollar
and fifty cents per one thousand; and in addition
thereto a duty of thirty per centum ad valorem
upon the boxes or barrels containing such oranges,
lemons, or limes. [Old law: Oranges, in boxes
of capacity not exceeding two and one-half cubic
feet, twenty-five cents per box; in one-half boxes,
capacity not exceeding one and one-fourth cubic
feet, thirteen cents per [half box; in bulk, one dol-
lar and sixty cents per thousand; in barrels, ca-
pacity not exceeding that of the one hundred and
ninety-six pounds flour barrel, fifty-five cents per
barrel. Lemons, in boxes of capacity not ex-
ceeding two and one-half cubic feet, thirty cents
per box; in one-half boxes, capacity not exceeding
one and one-fourth cubic feet, sixteen cents per
half box; in bulk, two dollars per thousand. Lem-
ons and oranges, in packages, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty
per centum ad valorem. Limes, twenty per
centum ad valorem.]

302. Raisens,two and one-half cents per pound.
Id law: Two cents per pound.]

303. Comfits, sweetmeats, and fruits preserved
in sugar, sirup, molasses, or spirits not specially
provided for in this act, and jellies of all kinds,
thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

304. Fruits preserved in their own juices, thirty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Twenty per
centum.]

305. Orange peel and lemon peel, preserved or
candied, two cents per pound. [Old law: Thirty-
five per centum, j

306. Almonds, not shelled, five cents per pound;
clear almonds, shelled, seven and one-half cents
per pound.

307. Filberts and walnuts of all kinds, not
shelled, three cents per pound; shelled, six cents
per pound. [Old law: Shelled, three cents per
pound.]

308. Peanuts or ground beans unshelled, one
cent per pound; shelled, one and one-half cents
per pound. [Old law: Shelled, one cent per
pound.

309. Nuts of all kinds, sbelled or unshelled, not
specially provided for in this act, one and one-
half cents per pound. [Old law: Two cents per
pound.]

MEAT PRODUCTS.

310. Bacon and hams, five cents per pound.
[Old law: Two cents per pound.]

311. Beef, mutton, and pork, two cents per
pound. [Old law: One cent per pound; mutton
(unenumerated), ten per centum.]

312. Meats of all kinds, prepared or preserved,
not specially provided for in this act, twenty-five
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Prepared
meats of all kinds, not specially provided for,
twenty-five per centum.

313. Extract of meat, all not specially provided
for in this act, thirty-five cents per pound; fluid
extract of meat, fifteen cents per pound; and no
separate or additional duty shall be collected on

[did

such coverings unless as such they are suitable and
apparently designed for use other than in the im-
portation of meat extracts. [Old law, text: Ex-
tract of meat, twenty per centum.]

314. Lard, two cents per pound.

315. Poultry, live, three cents per pound;
dressed, five cents per pound. [Old law: Poul-
try, dressed (unenumerated), ten per centum.]

316. Tallow, one cent per pound; wool grease ,
including that knoiuft commercially as degras
or brown wool grease , one-half of one cent per
pound. [Old law: Degras (unenumeratedj, ten
per centum.]

MISCELLANEOUS PRODUCTS.

317. Chicory-root, burnt or roasted, ground or
granulated, or in rolls, or otherwise prepared, and
not specially provided for in this act, two cents
per pound. [Old law: Chicory-root, ground or
unground, "burnt or prepared, two cents per
pound. Change of text.]

318. Chocolate {other than chocolate confec-
tionery and chocolate commercially known as
sweetened chocolate), two cents per pound.

319. Cocoa prepared or manufactured, not spe-
cially provided for in this act, two cents per
pound.

320. Cocoa-butter, or cocoa-butterine, three
and one-half cents per pound. [Old law: Not
enumerated, twenty-five per centum.]

321. Dandelion root and acorns prepared, and
other articles used as coffee, or as substitutes for
coffee, not specially provided for in this act, one
and one-half cents per pound. [Old law: Acorns,
and dandelion root, raw or prepared, and all
other articles used or intended to be used as
coffee, or as substitutes therefor, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, two cents
per pound.]

322. Salt in bags, sacks, barrels, or other pack-
ages, twelve cents per one hundred pounds; in
bulk, eight cents per one hundred pounds: Pro-
vided, That imported salt in bond may be used
in curing fish taken by vessels licensed to en-
gage in the fisheries, and in curing fish on the
shores of the navigable waters 01 the United
States, under such regulations as the Secretary of
the Treasury shall prescribe; and upon proof
that the salt has been used for either of the pur-
poses stated in this proviso, the duties on the
same shall be remitted: Provided further , That
exporters of meats, whether packed or smoked,
which have been cured in the United States with
imported salt, shall, upon satisfactory proof, under
such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury
shall prescribe, that such meats have been cured
with imported salt, have refunded to them from
the Treasury the duties paid on the salt so used
in curing such exported meats, in amounts not
less than one hundred dollars.

323. Starch, including all preparations, from
whatever substance produced, fit for use as starch,
two cents per pound. [Old law: Potato or corn
starch, two cents per pound; rice starch, two and
a half cents per pound; other starch, two and a
half cents per pound. Root flour free.]

324. Dextrine, burnt starch, gum substitute, or
British gum, one and one-half cents per pound.
[Old law: One cent per pound.]

325. Mustard, ground or preserved, in bottles
or otherwise, ten cents per pound.

326. Spices, ground or powdered, not specially
provided for in this act, four cents per pound,
cayenne pepper, two and one-half cents per
pound, unground; sage, three cents per pound.
[Old law: Spices, five cents per pound. Old
law: Sage not enumerated but free by Treasury
ruling when unground.]

327. Vinegar, seven and one-half cents per gallon.
The standard for vinegar shall be taken to be that
strength which requires thirty-five grains of bi-
carbonate of potash to neutralize one ounce troy
of vinegar. [Omitted from new law, "and all
import duties that may by law be imposed on
vinegar imported from foreign countries shall be
collected according to this standard."]

328. There shall be allowed on the imported
tin-plate used in the manufacture of cans, boxes,
packages, and all articles of tinware exported,
either empty or filled with domestic products, a

,*£.£—

4iv-

4*8

THK TARIFF.

;£,

drawback equal to the duty paid on such tin-
plate, Irs* one per centum of such duty, which
shall be retained for the use of the United States.

Schedule H. — Spirits, Wines, and Other
Beyer ages

320. Brandy and other spirits manufactured or
distilled from grain or other materials and not
specially provided for in this act. two dollars and
fifty cents per proof gallon. [Old law: Two
dollars ixr gallon.]

330. Kach and every gauge or wine gallon of
measurement shall be counted as at least one
proof gallon; and the standard for determining the
proof of brandy and other spirits or liquors ofany
Rind imported sliall be the same as that which is
defined in the laws relating to internal revenue; but
any brandy or other spirituous liquors, imported
in casks of less capacity than fourteen gallons,
shall be forfeited to the United States: Pro-
vided, that it shall be lawful for the Secretary
of the Treasury, in his discretion, to authorize
the ascertainment of the proof of wines, cor~
dials, or other liquors by distillation or other-
wise, in case where it is impracticable to ascer-
tain such proof by the means prescribed by ex-
isting law or regulations,

331. On all compounds or preparations of which
distilled spirits are a component part of chief
value not specially provided for in this act, there
shall be levied a duty not less than that imposed
Hpon distilled spirits.

332. Cordials, liquors, arrack, absinthe, kirsch-
wasser, ratafia, and other spirituous beverages or
bitters of all kinds containing spirits, and not
specially provided for in this act, two dollars and
fifty cents per proof gallon. [Old law: Two
dollars per gallon.]

333. No lower rate or amount of duty shall be
levied, collected, and paid on brandy, spirits, and
other spirituous beverages than that fixed by law
for the description of first proof; but it shall be in-
creased in proportion for any greater strength
than the strength of first proof 1 , and all imitations
of brandy or spirits or wines imported by any
names whatever shall be subject to the highest
rate of duty provided for the genuine articles re-
spectively intended to be represented, and in no
case less than one dollar and fifty cents per gal-
lon. [Old law: One dollar per gallon. Old law:
Distilled spirits, containing fifty per centum of
anhydrous alcohol, one dollar per gallon. Alco-
hol, containing ninety-four per cent, anhydrous
alcohol, two dollars per gallon.]

334. Bay rum or bay water, whether distilled
or compounded, of first proof, and in proportion
for any greater strength than first proof, one dol-
lar and fifty cents per gallon. [Old law: One
dollar per gallon.]

335. Champagne and all other sparkling wines,
in bottles containing each not more than one

auart and more than one pint, eight dollars per
oxen; containing not more than one pint each and
more than one-half pint, four dollars per dozen; con-
taining one-half pint each or less, two dollars per
dozen; in bottles or other vessels containing more
than one quart each, in addition to ei^ht dollars
per dozen bottles, on the quantity in excess of one
quart, at the rate of two dollars and fifty cents per
jallon. [Old law: Seven dollars, three dollars and
ifty cents, and one dollar and seventy-five cents in
bottles, and two dollars and twenty-five cents per
gallon.]

336. Still wines, including ginger win* or
ginger 1 mdia i and \cnuuth, m casks, fifty cents
per gallon; in bottles or jugs, per case of one
dozen bottles or jugs, containing each not more
than one quart and mote than one pint, or twen-
ty tour Ixjttles or jugs containing each not more
than one pint, one dollar and sixty OMUl per case;
and any excess beyond these quantities found in
such bottles or jugs shall lie subject to ft duty of
five cents per pint or 1 factional part thereof, but
no separate or additional duty shall be assessed
on the bottles or jugs: Proxnded, That any

wines, ginger cordial or vermuth imported con-
taining more than twenty-four per centum of alco-
hol shall be forfeited to the United States: And
provided further, That there shall be no con-
structive or other allowance for breakage, leak-
age, or damage on wines, liquors, cordials or dis-
tilled spirits. Wines, cordials, brandy, and
other spirituous liquors imported in bottles or
jugs shall be packed in packages containing not
less than one dozen bottles or jugs in each pack-
age; and all such bottles or jugs shall pay an ad-
ditional duty of three cents for each bottle or jug
unless specially pro^rided for in this act.

337. Ale, porter, and beer, in bottles or jugs,
forty cents per gallon, but no separate or addi-
tional duty shall be assessed on the bottles or
jugs; otherwise than in bottles or jugs, twenty
cents per gallon. [Old law: Thirty-five cents per
gallon; twenty cents per gallon. Note. — The
words of limitation, "glass stone or earthenware,"
omitted from the new law. ]

338. Malt extract, fluid, in casks, twenty cents
per gallon; in bottles or jugs, forty cents per gal-
lon; solid or condensed, forty per centum ad
valorem. [Old law: Same as ale, beer, and
porter, unless proprietary, which was fifty per
centum.]

339. Cherry juice and prune juice, or prune
wine, and other fruit juice, not specially provided
for in this act, containing not more than eighteen
per centum of alcohol, sixty cents per gallon; if
containing more than eighteen per centum of
alcohol, two dollars and fifty cents per proof
gallon. [Old law: Cherry juice, twenty per
centum; prune juice, unenumcrated, twenty per
centum.]

340. Ginger ale, ginger beer, lemonade, soda-
water, and other similar waters in plain green or
colored, molded or pressed glass bottles, contain-
ing each not more than three-fourths of a pint,
thirteen cents per dozen; containing more than
three-fourths of a pint each and not more than one
and one-half pints, twenty-six cents per dozen; but
no separate or additional duty shall be assessed on
the bottles; if imported otherwise than in plain green
or colored, molded or pressed glass bottles, or
in such bottles containing more than one and one-
half pints each, fifty cents per gallon, and in addi-
tion thereto, duty shall be collected on the liottles,
or other coverings, at the rates which would be
chargeable thereon if imported empty. [Old law:
Ginger ale or ginger beer, twenty per centum ad
valorem, but no separate or additional duty shall
l»e collected on bottles or jugs containing the
same.]

341. All mineral waters, and all Imitation of
natural mineral waters, and all artificial mineral
waters not specially provided for in this act, in
plain or colored glass bottles, containing not
more than one pint, sixteen cents per dozen bot-
tles. If containing more than one pint and not
more than one quart, twenty-five cents per dozen
bottles. But no separate duty shall I >e assessed
upon the bottles. If imported o'Serwise than in
plain green or colored glass bottle.*, or If imported
in such bottles containing more than one quart,
twenty cents per gallon, and in addition thereto
duty shall be collected upon the bottles or other
covering at the same rates that would be charged
if imported empty or separately. [Old law: All
imitations of natural mineral waters and all arti-
ficial mineral waters, thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.]

Schedule I. — Cotton Manufacture!.

34a. Cotton thread, yarn, warps, or warp-yarn,
whether single or advanced beyond the COWUon
of single, by grouping or twisting two or more
single yarns together, whether on bssUM or in
bundles, skeins, or cops, or in any other form,
except spool-thread of cotton hereinafter pro-
vided for, valued at not exceeding twenty-five
cents per pound, ten cents per pound; valued at
over twenty-five cents per pound and not exceed-
ing forty cents per pvur'\ eighteen cents per
pound; valued at over *">rty cents per pound and
not exceeding fifty cenct per i-nind, t w-enty -three
cents pet pound; valued «t over fifty CM
pound and not exceeding sixty cents per pound,
twenty-eight cents per pound; valued at over
sixty cents per pound and not exceeding seventy

.£

cents per pound, thirty-three cents per pound;
valued at over seventy cents per pound and nut
exceeding eighty cents per pound, thirty-eight
cents per pound; valued at over eighty cents per
pound and not exceeding one dollar per pound,
forty-eight cents per pound; valued at over one
dollar per pound, fifty per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Valued at twenty-five to tony cents,
eighteen cents per pound; valued at forty to fifty
cents, twenty cents per pound: valued at fifty to
sixty cents, twenty-five cents per pound.]

341. Spool-thread of cotton, containing on each
•pool not exceeding one hundred yards of* thread,
seven tents per dozen; exceeding one hundred
yards on each spool, for every additional one hun-
dred yards of thread or fractional part thereof in
excess of one hundred yards, seven cent* per
dozen spools.

344. Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed, and not exceeding
fifty threads to the square inch, counting the
warp and filling, two cents per square yard: if
bleached, two and one-half cents per square yard;
if dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed,
four cents per square yard. [Old law: ']»-,
and one-half cents per square yard; three and
one-half cents per square yard, four and one-half
cents per square yard.]

345. Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed, exceeding fifty and
not exceeding one hundred threads to the square
inch, counting the warp and filling, two and one-
fourth cents per square yard: if bleached, three
cents per square yard; if dyed, colored, stained,
painted, or printed, four cents per square yard:
Provided, 'J hat on all cotton cloth not exceed-
ing one hundred thread* to the square inch,
counting the warp and filing, not bleached,
dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed,
valued at over nine cents per square yard; and
dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, val-
ued at over tiveh'e cents per square yard, thtrt
sltull be levied, collected and paid a auty of
thirty-five per centum ad vaJorem. [Old law;
Two and one-half cents per square yard; three
and one-half cents per square yard; four and one-

t* per square yard]

346. Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed, exceeding one hun-
dred and not exceeding one hundred and fifty
threads to the square inch, counting the warp
and filling, three cents per square yard; if bleached,
four cents per square yard; if dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed, five cents per square
yard: I'ro-.ided, That on all cotton cloth ex
cecding one hundred and not exceeding one hun-
dred and fifty threads to the square inch, count-
ing the warp and filling, not bleached, dyed, col-
ored, stained, painted, or printed, valued at over
seven and one-half cents per square yard; bleach-
ed, valued at over ten cents per square yard;
dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, val-
ued at over twelve and one-half cents per square
yard, there shall be levied, collected, and paid, a
duty of forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Three cents per square yard, four cents per

Snare yard, five cents per square yard; if valued
ove eight cents ten cent-., and thirteen cents
per square yard, respectively, to pay forty per
centum 1

347. Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed. exceeding one hun-
dred and fifty and not exceeding two hundred
threads to the square inch, counting the wasp and
tilling, three and a half Lents per square yard; if
bleached, four and one-half cents per square
yard; if dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed,
five and one-half cents per square yard: /V#-
vided. That on all cotton cloth exceeding one
hundred and fifty and not exceeding two hundred
threads to the squat? inch, counting the warp and
filling, not bleached, dyrd, colored,

painted, or printed, valued at over eight cents per
square yard; bleached, v.ilurd at overt
per square yard; dyed, colored, stained,
or primed, valued at over twelve cents per
yard, there shall be" levied, collected and paid •
duty of forty-five per centum ad valorem. (»Wd
law: Three cents per square yard, four cents par
square yard, five cents per square yard; if valued
<n irnts and thirteen cents
per square yard, respectively, to pay forty par
centum.]

THE TARIFF.

429

- i— t

348. Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed, exceeding two hun-
dred threads to the square inch, counting the
warp and filling, four and one-half cents per
square yard; if bleached, five and one-half cents
per square yard; if dyed, colored, stained,
painted, or printed, six and three-fourths cents per
square yard: Provided, That on all such cotton
cloths not bleached, dyed, colored, stained,
painted, or printed, valued at over ten cents per
square yard; bleached, valued at over twelve
cents per square yard; and dyed, colored, stained,
painted, or printed, valued at over fifteen cents
per square yard, there shall be levied, collected
and paid a duty of forty-five per centum ad
valorem: Provided further. That on cotton
cloth, bleached, dyed, colored, stained ', painted ',
or printed, containing an admixture of silk, and
not otherwise provided for, there shall be
levied, collected and paid a duty 0/ ten cents
Per square yard, and in addition thereto thir-
ty-five Per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Four
cents per square yard, five cents per square yard,
six cents per square yard; if valued above ten
cents, twelve cents and fifteen cents, per square
yard, respectively, to pay forty per centum.]

349. Clothing ready made, and articles of wear-
ing apparei of every description, handkerchiefs,
and neckties or neck wear composed of cotton or
other vegetable fiber, or of which cotton or other
vegetable fiber is the component material of chief
value, made up or manufactured wholly or in part
by the tailor, seamstress, or manufacturer, all of
the foregoing not specially provided for in this act,
fifty per centum ad valorem: Provided, That all
such clothing ready made and articles of wearing
apparel having India rubber as a component ma-
terial (not including gloves or elastic articles that
are specially provided for in this act), shall be
subject to a duty of fifty cents per pound, and in
addition thereto fifty per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Corsets, thirty-five per centum, of
whatever material composed; handkerchiefs, forty
per centum; other items, thirty-five per centum;
hat bodies of cotton, thirty-five per centum.]

350. Plushes, velvets, velveteens, corduroys,
and all pile fabrics composed of cotton or other
vegetable fiber, not bleached, dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed, ten cents per square
yard and twenty per centum ad valorem; on all
such goods if bleached, twelve cents per square
yard and twenty per centum ad valorem; if dyed,
colored, stained, painted, or printed, fourteen
cents per square yard and twenty per centum ad
valorem; but none of the foregoing articles in this
paragraph shall pay a less rate of duty than forty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Cotton vel-
vet, forty per centum; corduroys, thirty-five per
centum; plush, thirty-five per centum.]

351. Chenille curtains, table covers, and all
goods manufactured of cotton chenille, or of
which cotton chenille forms the component ma-
terial of chief value, sixty per centum ad valorem.
[New provision: Treasury ruling forty per
centum.]

352. Stockings, hose, and half-hose, made on
knitting machines or frames, composed of cotton
or other vegetable fiber and not otherwise spe-
cially provided lor in this act, and shirts and
drawers composed of cotton, valued at not more
than one dollar and fifty cents per dozen, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: On stock-
ings, hose, half-hose, shirts, and drawers, and all
goods made on knitting machines or frames com-
posed wholly of cotton, and not herein otherwise
provided for, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.]

353. Stockings, hose, and half-hose, selvedged,
fashioned, narrowed, or shaped, wholly or in part
by knitting-machines or frames, or knit by hand,
including such as are commercially known as
Kttmksfl stockings, hose, or^ialf-hose, all of the
above composed of cotton or other vegetable fiber,
finished or unfinished, valued at not more than
sixty cents per dozen pairs, twenty cents per
dozen pairs, and in addition thereto twenty per
centum ad valorem; valued at more than sixty
cents per dozen pairs, and not more than two
dollars per dozen pairs fifty cents per dozen pairs
and in addition thereto, thirty per centum ad va-
lorem; valued at more than two dollars per dozen
pairs and not more than four dollars per dozen
pairs, seventy-five cents per dozen pairs, and in
addition thereto, forty per centum ad valorem;

valued at more than four dollars per dozen pairs,
one dollar per dozen pairs, and in addition
thereto, forty per centum ad valorem; and all
shirts and drawers composed of cotton or other
vegetable fiber, valued at more than one dollar
and fifty cents per dozen and not more than three
dollars per dozen, one dollar per dozen, and in
addition thereto,thirty-five per centum ad valorem:
valued at more than three dollars per dozen, and
not more than five dollars per dozen, one dollar
and twenty-five cents per dozen, and in addition
thereto, forty per centum ad valorem; valued at
more than five dollars per dozen, and nor more
than seven dollars per dozen, one dollar and fifty
cents per dozen, and in addition thereto, forty per
centum ad valorem; valued at more than seven
dollars per dozen, two dollars per dozen, and in
addition thereto.forty per centum ad valorem. [Old
law: On stockings, hose, half-hose, shirts, and
drawers, fashioned, narrowed, or shaped wholly
or in part by knitting-machines or frames, or knit
by hand, and composed wholly of cotton, forty
per centum ad valorem.]

354. Cotton cords, braids, boot, shoe, and cor-
set-lacings, thirty-five cents per pound; cotton
gimps, galloons, webbing, goring, suspenders,
and braces, any of the foregoing which are elastic
or non-elastic, forty per centum ad valorem: Pro-
vided, That none of the articles included in this
paragraph shall pay a less rate of duty than forty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Cotton
cords, braids, gimps, galloons, webbing, goring,
suspenders, braces, thirty-five per centum ad va-
lorem; webbing not otherwise provided for, thirty-
five per centum.]

355. Cotton damask, in the piece or otherwise,
and all manufactures of cotton not specially pro-
vided for in this act, forty per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Cotton damask, forty per centum; all
manufactures not specially provided for, thirty-
five per centum. Old law: Sail, duck or canvas
for sails, thirty per centum.]

Schedule J. — Flax, Hemp, and Jute,
and Manufactures of.

356. Flax-straw, five dollars per ton.

357. Flax, not hackled or dressed, one cent per
pound. [Old law: Twenty dollarsper ton]

358. Flax, hackled, known as "dressed line,"
three cents per pound. [Old law: Forty dollars
per tonj

359. Tow, of flax or hemp, one-half of one cent
per pound. [Old law: Ten dollars per ton.]

360. Hemp, twenty-five dollars per ton; hemp,
hackled, known as line of hemp, fifty dollars per
ton. [Old law: Hemp, manila and other like
substitutes for hemp not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, twenty-five dollars per
ton J

361. Yarn made of jute, thirty-five per centum
ad valorem.

362. Cables, cordage, and twine (except bind-
ing twine, composed in whole or in part of istle or
Tampico fiber, manila, sisal grass or sunn), one
and one-half cents per pound; all binding twine
manufactured in whole or in part from istle or
Tampico fiber, manila, sisal grass, or sunn, seven-
tenths of one cent per pound; cables and cordage,
made of hemp, two and one-half cents per pound;
tarred cables and cordage, three cents per pound.
[Old law: Tarred cables or cordage, three cents
per pound; untarred manila cordage, two and
one-half cents per pound. All other untarred
cordage, three and one-half cents per pound.]

363. Hemp and jute carpets andcarpetings, six
cents per square yard.

364. Burlaps, not exceeding sixty inches in
width, of flax, jute, or hemp, or of which flax,
jute, or hemp, or either of them, shall be the com-
ponent material of chief value (except such as
may be suitable for bagging for cotton) , one and
five-eighths cents per pound. [Old law: Bur-
laps not over sixty inches, thirty per centum.
Oil-cloth foundations, or floor-cloth canvas, or
burlaps exceeding sixty inches in width, made of
flax, jute, or hemp, or of which flax, jute, or
hemp, or either of them , shall be the component ma-
terial of chief value, forty per centum ad valorem.
Bags and bagging, and like manufactures, not

specially enumerated or provided for in this act
(except bagging for cotton), composed wholly or
in part of flax, hemp, jute, gunny cloth, gunny
bags, or other material, forty per centum ad va-
lorem. J

365. Bags for grain, made ot burlaps, two cents
per pound. [Old law: Forty per centum.]

366. Bagging for cotton, gunny cloth, and all
similar material suitable for covering cotton, com-
posed in whole or in part ot hemp, flax, jute, or
jute butts, valued at six cents or less per square
yard, one and six-tenths cents per square yard;
valued at more than six cents per square yard,
one and eight-tenths cents per square yard. [Old
law: Gunny cloth, not bagging, valued at ten
cents or less per square yard, three cents per
pound; valued at over ten cents per square yard,
fourcents perpound. Bagging for cotton or other
manufactures not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act , suitable to the uses for which cotton
bagging is applied, composed in whole or in partot
hemp, jute, jute butts, flax, gunny bags, gunny
cloth, or other material, and valued at seven cents
or less per square yard, one and one-half cents per
pound; valued at over seven ( cents per square
yard, two cents per pound.]

367. Flax gill-netting, nets, webs, and seines,
when the thread or twine of which they are
composed is made of yarn ot a number not higher
than twenty, fifteen cents per pound, and thirty-
five per centum ad valorem; when made of
threads or twines, the yarn of which is finer than
number twenty, twenty cents per pound and in
addition thereto forty-five per centum ad valorem.
[Text of old law: Seines, and seine and gilling
twine, twenty-five per centum.]

368. Linen hydraulic hose, made in whole or in
part of flax, hemp, or jute, twenty cents per
pound. [New provision.]

369. Oil-cloths for floors, stamped, painted, or
printed, including linoleum, corticene, cork-
carpets, figured or plain, and all other oil-cloth
(except silk oil-cloth), and water -proof cloth, not
specially provided for in this act, valued at
twenty-five cents or less per square yard, forty
per centum ad valorem; valued above twenty-
five cents per square yard, fifteen cents per square
yard and thirty per centum ad valorem. [Old
law: Forty per centum.]

370. Yarns or threads composed of flax or
hemp, or of a mixture of either of these sub-
stances, valued at thirteen cents or less per pound;
six cents per pound; valued at more than thirteen
cents per pound, forty-five per centum ad va-
lorem. [Old law: Yarns, thirty-five per centum,
flax or linen thread, twine or pack-thread, forty
per centum.]

371. All manufactures of flax or hemp, or of
which these substances, or either of them, is the
component materia! of chief value, not specially

fjrovided for in this act, fifty per centum ad va-
orem: Provided, That until January first, eight-
een hundred and ninety-four, such manufactures
of flax containing more than one. hundred threads
to the square inch, counting both warp and
filling, shall be subject to a duty of thirty-rive per
centum ad valorem in lieu of the duty herein pro-
vided. [Old law: Brown and bleached linens,
ducks, canvas, paddings, cot-bottoms, diapers,
crash, huckabacks, handkerchiefs, lawns, or
other manufactures of flax, jute, or hemp, or of
which flax, jute, or hemp shall be the component
materia! of chief value, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum
ad valorem; manufactures of flax or of which flax
shall be the component material of chief value,
not specially provided for, forty per centum. Rus-
sia and other sheetings of flax or hemp, brown or
white, thirty-five per centum. Webbings com-
posed of cotton, flax, or any other material, not
otherwise provided for, thirty-five per centum.]

372. Collars and cuffs, composed entirely of
cotton, fifteen cents per dozen pieces and thirty-
five per centum ad valorem: composed in whole
or in part of linen, thirty cents per dozen pieces
and forty per centum ad valorem; shirts, and all
articles of wearing apparel of every description,
not specially provided for in this act, composed
wholly or in part of linen, fifty-five per centum
ad valorem. [New provision. Old law; Rul-
ings of Treasury Department, thirty-five per
centum on cotton goods, thirty and forty per
centum on linen.]

430

THE TARIFF.

373. Laces, edgings, embroideries, insertings,
neck rutflings, ruchings, trimmings, meltings,
lace window-curtains, and other similar tam-
boured articles, and articles embroidered by hand
or machinery, embroidered and hemstitched hand-
kerchiefs and articles made wholly or in part of lace,
runnings, tuckings, or ruchings, all of the above-
namecT articles, composed of flax, jute, cotton or
other vegetable fiber, or of which these substances
or either of them, or a mixture of any o them, is
the component material of chief value, not spe-
cially provided for in this act, sixty per centum
ad valorem: Provided, That articles ofVearing
apparel, and textile fabrics, when embroidered
by hand or machinery, and whether specially or
otherwise provided for in this act, shall not pay a
less rate of duty than that fixed by the respective
paragraphs and schedules of this act upon em-
broideries of the materials of which they are re-
spectively composed. [Old law: Cotton laces,
embroideries, insertings, trimmings, lace window-
curtains, forty per centum ad valorem. Flax or
linen laces and insertings, embroideries, or manu-
factures of linen, if embroidered or tamboured in
the loom or otherwise, by machinery or with the
needle or other process, and not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty per
centum ad valorem.]

374. All manufactures of jute, or other vege-
table fiber, except flax, hemp, or cotton, or of
which jute, or other vegetable fiber, except flax,
hemp, or cotton, is the component material of chiet
value, not specially provided for in this act, valued
at five cents per pound or less, two cents per
pound; valued above five cents per pound, forty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: All other
manufactures of hemp, or nianila, or of which
hemp or manila shall be a component material of
chief value not especially enumerated or provided
for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.
Grass-cloth and other manufactures of jute, ramie,
China, and sisal grass, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum
ad valorem.]

Schedule K -

-Wool and Manufactures of
Wool.

375. All wools, hair of the camel, goat, alpaca,
and other like animals shall be divided for the
purpose of fixing the duties, to be charged
thereon into the three following classes:

376. Class one, that is to say, Merino, mestiza,
metz or metis wools, or other wools, of Merino
blood, immediate or remote, Down clothing wools,
and wools of like character, with any of the pre-
ceding, including such as have been heretofore
usually imported into the United States from
Buenos Ayres, New Zealand, Australia, Cape of
Good Hope, Russia, Great Britain, Canada, and
elsewhere, and also including all wools not here-
inafter described or designated in classes two and
three.

377. Class two, that is to say, I^eicester, Cots-
wold, Lincolnshire, Down Combing wools,
Canada long wools, or other like combing wools
of English blood, and usually known by the terms
herein used, and also hair of camel, goat, alpaca,
and other like animals.

_ 378. Class three, that is to say, Donskoi, na-
tive South American, Cordova, Valpar.'
tive Smyrna, Russian camel's hair, and including
all inch wools of like character as have been
heretofore usually imported into the United
States from Turkey, Grate*, Egypt, Syria, and
elsewhere, excepting improved wools hereinafter
provided for, |< ►id law: Class three, carpet
Mil other similar wools. — Such as Donskoi,
DJttivt South American, Cordova, Valparaiso, na-
tive Smyrna, and including nil such wools of like
Character as have been heretofore usually im-
ported inl'i the I 'Tilled Si.it.-; from Ti'irkry,
Greece, Egypt, Syria, and elsewhere.]

379. The standard samples of all wools which
are now or may be baml I In the

principal custom houses of the United
under the authority "t the Secretary of th-
ury, shall l>e the standards forthe ilas-.ith.iiMu
of wools under this net, and th* Secretary of the
Treasury shall have the authority to rem
■tandtrdt and to make such additions to them

from time to time as may be required, and he
shall cause to be deposited like standards in other
custom houses of the United States when they
may be needed. [New pro-.

380. Whenever wools of class three shall have
been improved by the admixture of Merino or
English blood from their present character as
represented by the standard samples now or here-
after to be deposited in the principal custom-
houses of the United States, such improved wools
shall be classified for duty either as class one
or as class two, as the case may be. [New pro-
vision.]

381. The duty on wools of the first class which
shall be imported washed shall be twice the
amount of the duty to which they would be sub-
jected if imported unwashed; and the duty on
wools of the first and second classes which shall
be imported scoured shall be three times the
duty to which they would be subjected if
imported unwashed. [Old law: The duty on
wools of the first class which shall be imported
washed shall be twice the amount of the duty
to which they would be subjected if imported
unwashed; and the duty on wools of all classes
which shall be imported scoured shall be three
times the duty to which they would be subjected
if imported unwashed.]

382. Unwashed wools shall be considered such
as shall have been shorn from the sheep without
any cleansing; that is, in their natural condition.
Washed wools shall be considered such as have
been washed with water on the sheep's back.
Wool washed in any other manner than on the
sheep's back shall be considered as scoured wool.
[New provision.]

383. The duty upon wool of the sheep or hair
of the camel, goat, alpaca, and other like animals,
which shall be imported in any other than ordi-
nary condition, or which shall be changed in its
character or condition for the purpose of
evading the duty, or which shall be reduced in
value by the admixture of dirt, or any other for-
eign substance, or which has been sorted or in-
creased in value by the rejection of any part ot
the original fleece, shall be twice the duty to which
it would be otherwise subject: Provided, That
skirted wools as now imported are hereby ex-
cepted. Wools on which a duty is assessed
amounting to three times or more than that which
would be assessed if said wool was imported un-
washed, such duty shall not be doubled on ac-
count of its being sorted. If any bale or package
of wool or hair specified in this act imported as of
any specified class, or claimed by the importer to
be dutiable as of any specified class shall contain
any wool or hair subject to a higher rate of duty
than the class so specified, the whole bale or
package shall be subject to the highest rate of
duty chargeable on wool of the class subject to
such higher rate of duty, and if any bale or
package be claimed by the importer to be shoddy,
mungo, flocks, wool, hair, or other material of
any class specified in this act, and such bale con-
tain any admixture of any one or more of said
materials, or of any other material, the whole bale
or package shall be subject to duty at the highest
rate imposed upon any article in said bale or
package. [Old law: The duty upon wool of the
sheep, or hair of the alpaca, goat, and other like
animals, which shall be imported in anyotherthan
ordinary condition, as now and heretofore prac-
ticed, or which shall be changed in its character or
condition for the purpose of evading the duty, or
which shall be reduced in value by the admixture
of dirt or any other foreign substance, shall be
twice the duty to which it would be otherwise
subject.]

384. The duty upon alt wools and hair of the
first class shall be eleven cents per pound, and
upon a! wools or hair of the second class twelve
cents per pound. [Old law: Wools of the first
class, the value whereof at the last port or place
whence exported to the United States, rv
charges in such port, shall be thirn

per pound, ten cents per pound: wools of the
same class the value whereof at the last 1
place whence exported to the United States, ex-
cluding charges in such port, shall exceed thirty
cents per pound, twelve cents per pound. WOOM
of the second class, and all hair of the alpaca,
goat, and other like animals, the value whereof,
at the last port or place whence exported to the

United States, excluding charges in such port,
shall be thirty cents or less per pound, tea cents
per pound; wools of the same class, the value
whereof at the last port or place whence exported
to the United States, excluding charges in such
port, shall exceed thirty cents per pound, twelve
cents per pound.]

385. On wools of the third class and on camel's
hair of the third class the value whereof shall be
thirteen cents or less per pound,
charges, the duty shall be thirty-two per 1
ad valorem.

386. On wools oft he third class, and on camel's
hair of the third ciass, the value whereof shall ex-

ceed thirteen cents per pound including charges,
the duty shall be fifty per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Wools of the third class, the value

whereof, at the last port or place
ported to the United States, excluding charge* in
such port, shall be twelve cents or less per pound,
two and a half cents per pound; wools of the same
class, the value whereof, at the last port or place
whence exported to the United States, excluding
charges in such port, shall exceed twcive cents
per pound, five cents per pound. ]

387. Wools on the skin shall pay the same rate
as other wools, the quantity and value to be as-
certained under such rules as the Secretary of the
Treasury may prescribe.

388. On noils, shoddy, top waste, stubbing
waste, roving waste, ring waste, yarn waste, gar-
netted waste, and all other wastes composed
wholly or in part of wool, the duty shall be thirty
cents per pound. [Old law: Shoddy and waste,
ten cents per pound.

389. On woolen rags, mungo, and flocks, the
duty shall be ten cents per pound. [Old law:
Shoddy and waste have been transferred to pre*
ceding paragragh.]

390. wools and hair ofnhe camel, goat, alpaca,
or other like animals in the form of roping, roving,
or tops, and all wool and hair which have been
advanced in any manner or by any process of
manufacture beyond the washed or scoured con-
dition, not specially provided for in this act, shall
be subject to the same duties as are imposed upon
manufactures of wool not specially provided for
in this act. [New provision.]

301 . On woolen and worsted yarns made wholly
or in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel,
goat, alpaca, or other animals, valued at not
more than thirty cents per pound, the duty per
pound shall be two and one-half times the duty
imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool
of the first class, and in addition thereto, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem; valued at more than
thirty cents and not more than forty cents per
pound, the duty per pound shall be three times
the duty imposed by this act on a pound of un-

washed wool of the first class, and in 1
thereto thirty-five per centum ad valorem; valued
at more than forty cents per pound, the duty per
pound shall be three and one-half times the duty
imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed
wool of the first class and in addition thereto forty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: For rates
see paragraph 305.]

392. On woolen or worsted cloths, shawls, knit
fabrics, and all fabrics made on knitting machines
or frames, and all manufactures of every descrip-

sted, the

tion made wholly or in part of wool,
hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other a*««— ,
not specially provided for in this act, valued at
not more than thirty cents per pound, the duty
per pound shall be three times the duty imposed
by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the
first class, and In addition thereto forty per cen-
tum ad valorem; valued at more than thirty and
not more than forty cents per pound, the duty
per pound shall be three and one-half times the
duty imposed by this set on a pound of unwashed
wool of the first class, and in addition thereto
1 centum ad valorem; valued at ab«^

1 \ , the duty per pound shall be four
times the duty imposed by this act on a pound of
unwashed wool of the first class, and In addition
thereto fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Woolen cloths, woolen shawls, and all manufact-
ures of wool of every description , made wholly or
in part of wool, not specially enumerated or pro-
vided for in this act, valued at not exceeding
eighty cents per pound, thirty-five cents per
pound and -hirty-five per centum ad valorem;

V-

TIIK TAKIKF.

43t

*f"

valued ;tt above eighty cents per pound, thirty-
five cents per pound, and in addition thereto
forty per centum ad valorem.

303. On blankets, hats of wool, and flannels for
underwear composed wholly or in part of wool,
the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other ani-
mals, valued at not more than thirty cents per
pound , the duty per pound shall be the same as the
duty imposed by this act on one pound and one-
half of unwashed wool of the first class, and in ad-
dition thereto thirty per centum ad valorem;
valued at more than thirty and not more than
forty cents per pound, the duty per pound
shall be twice the duty imposed by this act
on a pound of unwashed wool of the first
class; valued at more than forty cents and
not more tnan fifty cents per pound, the duty per
pound shall be three times the duty imposed by
this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first
class, and in addition thereto upon alt the above-
named articles thirty-five per centum ad valorem,
( >n blankets and hats of wool composed wholly or
in part of wool, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca,
or other animal , valued at more than fifty cents per
pound, the duty per pound shall be three and a
half times the duty imposed by this act on a pound
of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addi-
tion thereto forty per centum ad valorem. Flan-
nels composed wholly or in part of wool, the hair
of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animals,
valued at above fifty cents per pound, shall be
classified and pay the same duty as women's and
children's dress goods, coat lining, Italian cloths,
and goods of similar character and description
provided by this act. [Flannels, blankets, hats of
wool, knit goods and all goods made on knitting
frames, balmorafs, woolen and worsted yarns,
and all manufactures of every description, com-
posed wholly or in part of worsted, the hair of the
alpaca, goat, orotheranimals (except suchasare
composed in part of wool), not specially enum-
erated or provided for in this act, valued at not
exceeding thirty cents per pound, ten cents per
pound; valued at above thirty cents per pound,
and not exceeding forty cents per pound, twelve
cents per pound; valued at above forty cents per
pound and not exceeding sixty cents per pound,
eighteen cents per pound; valued at above
sixty cents per pound, and not exceeding
eighty cents per pound, twenty-four cents per
pound; and in addition thereto, upon all the
above-named articles, thirty-five per centum ad
valorem; valued at above eighty cents per pound,
thirty-five cents per pound and in addition thereto
forty per centum ad valorem.]

394. On women's and children's dress goods,
coat linings, Italian cloths, and goods of similar
character or description of which the warp con-
sists wholly of cotton or other vegetable material,
with the remainder of the fabric composed wholly
or in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel,
goat, alpaca, or other animals, valued at not ex-
ceeding fifteen cents per square yard, seven cents
per square yard, and in addition thereto forty
per centum ad valorem; valued at above fifteen
cents per square yard, eight cents per square yard,
and in addition thereto titty per centum ad va-
lorem: Provided, That on all such goods weigh-
ing over four ounces per square yard the duty per
pound shall be four times the duty imposed by this
act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class,
and in addition thereto fifty per centum ad va-
lorem. [Old law: Women's and children's dress
goods, coat linings, Italian cloths, and goods of
like description, composed in part of wool,
worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat, or other
animals, valued at not exceeding twenty cents
per square yard, five cents per square yard, and
in addition thereto thirty-five per centum ad va-
lorem; valued at above twenty cents per square
yard, seven cents per square yard, and forty per
centum ad valorem; if composed wholly of wool,
worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat, or other ani-
mals, or of a mixture of them, nine cents per square
yard, and forty per centum ad valorem, but all
such goods with selvedges .made wholly or in part of
other materials, or with threads of other materials
introduced for the purpose of changing the classi-
fication, shall be dutiable at nine cents per square
yard, and forty per centum ad valorem: Provided,
That all such goods weighing over four ounces per
square yard shall pay a duty of thirty-five cents
per pound and forty per centum ad valorem.]

395. On women's and children's dress goods,
coat linings, Italian cloth, bunting, and goods of
similar description or character composed wholly or
in part of wool, worsted, the hairof the camel, »oat,
alpaca, or other animals, and not specially provid-
ed for in this act, the duty shall be twelve cents per
square yard, and in addition thereto fifty per cen-
tum ad valorem: Provided, That on all suchgoods
weighing over four ounces per square yard the
duty per pound shall be four times the duty im-
posed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool
of the first class and in addition thereto, fifty per
centum ad valorem. [Old law: See preceding par-
agraph. Bunting, ten cents per square yard, and
in addition thereto thirty-five per centum ad va-
lorem.]

396. On clothing, ready made, and articles of
wearing :apparel of every description, made up
or manufactured wholly or in part, not specially
provided for in this act, felts not woven, and not
specially providedfor in thisact.plushesand other
pile fabrics, all of the foregoing composed wholly
or in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel,
goat, alpaca, or other animals, the duty per pound
shall be four and one-half times the duty imposed
by this act, on a pound of unwashed wool of the
first class, and in addition thereto sixty per centum
ad valorem. [Old law: Clothing ready made,
and wearing apparel of every description, not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
and balmoral skirts, and skirting, and goods of
similar description, orused for like purposes, com-
posed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hair
of the alpaca, goat, or other animals, made up or
manufactured wholly or in part by the tailor,
seamstress or manufacturer, except knit goods,
forty cents per pound, and in addition thereto,
thirty -five per centum ad valorem; endless belts
or felts for paper or printing machines, twenty
cents per pound and thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.]

397. On cloaks, dolmans, jackets, talmas,
ulsters, or other outside garments for ladies' and
children's apparel and goods of similar description
or used for like purposes composed wholly or in
part of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel, goat,
alpaca, or other animals, made up or manufac-
tured wholly or in part, the duty per pound shall
be four and one-half times the duty imposed by
this acton a pound of unwashed wool of the first
class and in addition thereto sixty per centum ad
valorem. [Old law: Cloaks, dolmans, jackets,
talmas, ulsters, or other outside garments for
ladies' and children's apparel and goods of similar
description, orused for like purposes, composed
wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hairof the
alpaca, goat, or other animals, made up or man-
ufactured wholly or in part by the tailor, seam-
stress, or manufacturer (except knit goods), forty-
five cents per pound, and in addition thereto, forty
per centum ad valorem.]

398. On webbings, gorings, suspenders, braces,
beltings, bindings, braids.lgalloons, fringes, gimps,
cords, cords and tassels, dress trimmings, laces,
and embroideries, head nets, buttons, or barrel
buttons, or buttons of other forms, for tassels or
ornaments, wrought bytiand or braided by ma-
chinery, any of the foregoing which arc elastic or
non-elastic, made of wool, worsted, the hair of
the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animals, or of
which wool, worsted, the hair of the camel, goat,
alpaca, or other animals is a component material,
the duty shall be sixty cents per pound, and in
addition thereto, sixty per centum ad valorem.
[Webbings, gorings, suspenders, braces, beltings,
bindings, braids, galloons, fringes, gimps, cords
and tassels, dress trimmings, head-nets, buttons,
or barrel buttons, or buttons of other forms for
tassels or ornaments wrought by hand, or braided
by machinery, made of wool, worsted, the hair of
the alpaca, goat, or other animals, or of which
wool, worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat, or
other animals is a component material, thirty
cents per pound and in addition thereto, fifty per
centum ad valorem.]

399. Aubusson, Axminster, Moquette, and
Chenille carpets, figured or plain, carpets woven
whole for rooms, and all carpets or carpeting of
like character or description, and oriental, Berlin,
and other similar rugs, sixty cents per square
yard, and in addition thereto, forty per centum
ad valorem. [Old law: Forty-five cents per
square yard and thirty per centum ad valorem.]

400. Saxony, Wilton, and Tournay velvet car-
pets, figured or plain, and all carpets or carpeting
of like character or description, sixty cents per
square yard and in addition thereto forty pet
centum ad valorem. [Old law: Forty-five cents
square yard and thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.]

401. Brussels carpets, figured or plain, and all
carpet s or carpeting of like character or description ,
forty-four cents per square yard, and in addition
thereto forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law;
Thirty cents square yard and thirty per centum
ad valorem.]

402. Velvet and tapestry velvet carpets, figured
or *ain, printed on the warp or otherwise, and all
carpets or carpeting of like character or descrip-
tion, forty cents per square yard, and in addition
thereto, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Twenty-five cents square yard and thirty per cen-
tum ad valorem.]

403. Tapestry Brussels carpets figured or plain,
and all carpets or carpeting of like character or
description, printed on the warp or otherwise,
twenty-eight cents per square yard, and in ad-
dition thereto, forty per centum ad valorem,
[Old law: Twenty cents square yard and thirty
per centum ad valorem.]

404. Treble Ingrain, three-ply and all chain
Venetian carpets, nineteen cents per square yard,
and in addition thereto, forty per centum ad va-
lorem. [Old law: Twelve cents per square yard
and thirty per centum.]

405. Wool Dutch and two-ply ingrain carpets,
fourteen cents per square yard, and in addition
thereto, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Eight cents per square yard and thirty per
centum J

406. Druggets and bockings, printed, colored,
or otherwise, twenty-two cents per square yard,
and in addition thereto forty per centum ad va-
lorem. Felt carpeting, figured or plain, eleven
cents per square yard, and in addition thereto,
forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Drug-
gets and bockings, fifteen cents per square yard
and thirty per centum; felt carpeting, fifteen cents
per square yard and thirty per centum, by ruling
of Treasury Department.]

407. Carpets and carpeting of wool, flax or cot-
ton, or composed in part of either, not specially

(irovided for in this act, fifty per centum ad va-
orem. [Old law: Carpets and carpetings of
wool, flax or cotton, or parts of either or other
material not otherwise herein specified, forty per
centum ad valorem.]

408. Mats, rugs, screens, covers, hassocks,
bedsides, art squares, and other portions of car-
pets or carpeting made wholly or in part of wool,
and not specially provided for in this act, shall be
subjected to the rate of duty herein imposed on
carpets or carpetings of like character or descrip-
tion. [Old law: Mats, rugs, screens, covers,
hassocks, bedsides, and other portions of carpets
or carpetings, shall be subjected to the rate of
duty herein imposed on carpets or carpeting of
like character or description; and the duty on all
other mats not exclusively of vegetable material,
screens, hassocks, arid rugs, shall be forty per
centum ad valorem.]

Schedule L. — Silk and Silk Goods.

409. Silk partially manufactured from cocoons
or from waste-silk, and not further advanced or
manufactured than carded or combed siltt, fifty
cents per pound.

410. Thrown silk, not more advanced than
singles, tram, organzine, sewing silk, twist, floss,
and silk threads or yarns of every description, ex-
cept spun silk, thirty per centum ad valorem; spun
silk in skeins or cops or on beams, thirty-five per
centum ad valorem. [Old law: All this para-
graph thirty-five per centum.]

411. Velvets, plushes, or other pile fabrics con-
taining, exclusive of selvedges, less than seventy-
five per centum in weight of silk, one dollar and
fifty cents per pound and fifteen per centum ad
valorem; containing, exclusive of selvedges,
seventy-five per centum or more in weight of silk,
three dollars and fifty cents per pound, and fif-
teen per centum ad valorem; but in no case
shall any of the foregoing articles pay a less rate
of duty than fifty per centum ad valorem. [New

43*

THE TAniFP.

provision. [Old law: Classified as manufactures
at fifty per centum.]

412. Webbings, gorings, suspenders, braces,
belting*, bindings, braids, galloons, fringes, cords
and tassels, any of the foregoing which are elastic
or non-elastic, buttons, and ornaments, made of
silk, or of which silk is the component material of
chief value, fifty per centum ad valorem. [New
provision. [Old law: Classified as manufactures
at fifty per centum.]

413. Laces and embroideries, handkerchiefs,
neck rufflings and ruchings, clothing ready-made
and articles of wearing apparel of every descrip-
tion, including knit goods, made up or manufac-
tured wholly or in part by the tailor, seamstress, or
manufacturer, composed of silk, or of which silk is
the component material of chief value; not spe-
cially provided for in this act, sixty per centum ad
valorem: Provided, That all such clothing ready
made and articles of wearing apparel when com-
posed in part of India rubber (not including gloves
or elastic articles that are specially provided for
in this act) shall be subject to a duty of eight cents
per ounce, and in addition thereto sixty per
centum ad valorem. [New provision. Old law:
Classified as manufactures at fifty per centum]

414. All manufactures of silk, or of which silk is
the component material of chief value, not spe-
cially provided for in this act, fifty per centum ad
valorem: Provided, That all such manufactures
of which wool, or the hair of the camel, goat, or
other like animals is a component material, shall
1"- classified as manufactures of wool. [Old law:
All goods, wares, and merchandise, not ■pecialry
enumerated or provided for in this act, made of
silk, or of which silk is the component material of
chief value, fifty per centum ad valorem.]

Schedule M. — Pulp, Papers and Books.

FTJLP AND PAPER.

415. Mechanically ground wood pulp, two dol-
lars and fifty cents per ton dry weight; chemical
wood pulp unbleached, six dollars per ton dry
weight; bleached, seven dollars per ton dry
weight. [Old law: Pulp dried for papermakers'
use, ten per centum.*]

416. Sheathing paper, ten per centum ad va-
lorem.

417. Printing paper unsized, suitable only for
hooks and newspapers, fifteen per centum ad va-
lurern. [Slight change in text.]

418. Printingpapcr sized or glued, suitable only
for books and newspapers, twenty per centum ad
valorem. [Old law: Limited to printing papers.]

419. Papers known commercially as copying
altering paper, silver paper, and all tissue

white or colored, whether made up in
copying books, reams, or in any other form, eight
cents per pound, and in addition thereto, fifteen
per centum ad valorem; allmmenized or sensitized
paper, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old
law: Blank-books for press copying twenty per
centum; on all other of above paragraph twenty-
five per centum as manufactures of paper.]

430, Papers known commercially as surface-
coated papers, and manufactures thereof, card-
boards, lithographic prints from either stone or
zinc, bound or unbound (except illustrations when
forming apart of a periodical, newspaper, or in
prbMM l>ooks accompanying the same), and all
artit let produced either in whole or in part by
lithographic process, and photograph, autograph,
and scrap albums, wholly or partially manu-
factured, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old
law: Paper boxes and all other fancy boxes, if of
surface coated papers, principally twenty-five per
centum. Paper-hangings and paper for screens
or fire boards, paper antiquarian, demy, drawing,
tlaphaat, foolscap, imperial, letter, note and all
Otter paper not specially enumerated or provided
fur in this [act, twenty-five per centum ad va-
lorem.]

MANItHAl TURKS Of PAPER.

431. Paper envelopes, twenty-five cents per
thousand. (Old law: Tunny tive yrx centum ]

43a. Paper hnngmga and paper for screens or
fW-boards, writing -paper, drawing-paper, and nil

other paper not specially provided for in this act,
twenty-five per centum ad valorem. [Change of
text.]

423. Books, including blank books of all kinds,
pamphlets and engravings, bound or unbound,
photographs, etchings, maps, charts, and all
printed matter not specially provided tor in this
act, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Illustrated books, twenty-five per centum; blank
books, bound or unbound, twenty per centum. 1

424. Playing cards, fifty rents per pack. [Old
law: One hundred pet centum.]

425. Manufactures of paper, or of which paper
is the component material of chief value, not spe-
cially provided for in this act, twenty-five per cen-
tum ad valorem. [Old law: Fifteen per centum,
also twenty-five per centum, paper boxes and all
other fancy boxes, thirty-five per centum.]

Schedule N. — Sundries.

426. Bristles, ten cents per pound. [Old law:
Fifteen cents per pound.]

427. Brushes, and brooms of all kinds, includ-
ing feather dusters and hair pencils in quills, forty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Brushes thirty
per centum; brooms, twenty-five per centum;
hair pencils, thirty per centum.]

BtTTTONSAND BUTTON FORMS.

428. Button forms: listings, mohair, cloth, silk,
or other manufactures of cloth, woven or made in
patterns of such siz-, shape or form, 01 i*Jt in such
manner as to be fit for buttons exclusively, ten
per centum ad valorem.

429. Buttons commercially known as agate
buttons, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.
Pearl and shell buttons, two and one-half cents
per line button measure of one-fortieth of one* inch
per gross, and in addition thereto twenty -five per
centum ad valorem. [Old law: Buttons and but-
ton-molds, not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, not including brass, gilt, or silk
buttons, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.
Pearl and shell buttons as manufactures of shell,
twenty-five per centum. J

430. Ivory, vegetable ivory, bone or horn but-
tons, fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: See
preceding paragraph.]

431. Shoe-buttons, made of paper board, papier
111.11. he , pulp or other similar material not specially
provided tor in this act, valued at not exceeding
three cents per gross, one cent per grov>. [Old
law: Not enumerated, at twenty five per centum.]

433. Coal, bituminous, and shale, seventy-five
cents per ton of twenty-eight bushels, eighty
pounds to the bushel; coal slack or culm, HM \\ .is
will pass through a half inch screen, thiii 1
per ion of twenty-eight bushels, eighty pounds to
the bushel.

433. Coke, twenty per centum ad valorem.

434. Cork bark, cut into squares or cubes, ten
cents per pound; manufactured corks, fifteen cents
per pound. [Old law-: Twenty-five per centum ]

415. Dice, draughts, chess-men, < hess-balls,
and billiard, pool, and bagatelle balls, of ivory,
bone, or other materials, fifty per . .nitum ad va-
lorem.

436. Dolls, doll-heads, toy marbles of whatever
material composed, and all other toys not com-
posed of rubber, china, porcelain, panan. Ust|DS*.
earthen or stoneware, and Ml sp*'t i.illy provided
fof in this .1, t thirty five per ■ rnium ad valorem
[Old law; Dolls and toys, thirty five per cen-
tum. 1

437. F.merv grains, and emery manufactured,
ground, pulverized, or refined, one cent per
pound.

rXrLOSIVUMUMAKCBS.

438. Fire-crackers of all kinds, eight cents per
I pound, hut mo allowance shall he made

->•- dama&t thereon. [Old law: < me hundred

Bttra.1

430. Fulminates, fulminating powders, and like

provided for in this act, thirty

per cat DM

440. Gunpowder, and ail explosive substances

> mining, blasting, artillery, or sporting

purposes, when valued at twenty cents or less per
pound, five cents per pound; valued above twenty
cents per pound, eight cents per pound. [Old law:
Six and eight dbOM ]

441. Matches, friction or luciser, of all descrip-
tions, per gross of one hundred and forty -four
bona*, containing not more than one hundred
matches per box, ten cents per gross; when im-
ported otherwise than in boxes containing not
more than • tie hundred matches each, one cost
per one thousand matches. [Old law: Friction
or lucifr-r matches of all descriptions, thirty-five
per centum ]

442. Percussion caps. Forty per centum ad
valorem .

443. Feathers and downs of all kinds, crude or
not dressed, colored, or manufactured, not spe-
cially provided for in this act, ten per centum ad
valorem; when dressed, colored, or manufactured,
including quilt*, of down and other manufactures
of down, and also including dressed and finished
birds suitable for millinery ornaments, and artifi-
cial and ornamental feathers and flowers, or parts
thereof, of whatever material composed, not spe-
cially provided for in this act, fifty per centum ad
valorem. [Old law: Feathers of all kinds crude
or not dressed, colored or manufactured, twenty-
five per centum ad valorem; when dressed, colored,
or manufactured, including dressed and finished
birds, for milliner)' ornaments, and artificial and
ornamental leathers and flowers, or parts thereof,
of whatever material composed, for millinery use,
not specialty enumerated or provided for in this
act, fiftv per centum ad valorem.!

444. Furs dressed on the skin out mot made */
into articles, and fun. not on the skin, prepared
for hatters* use, twenty per centum ad valorem.

445. Giant beads, loose, unthreaded or un-
strung, ten per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Beads, and bead ornaments of all kinds, except
amber, fifty per centum ]

446. i .1111 wads of all descriptions, thirty-five
per centum ad valorem

447. Hair, human, if clean or drawn but not
manufactured, twerm per centum ad valorem.
[Old law: Thirty per centum.]

448. Hair cloth, known as "crinoline-cloth,"
eight cents per square yard. [Old law: Thirty
per centum.]

449. Hair cloth, known as "hair -seating,"
thirty cents per square yard.

450. Hair, curled suitable for beds or mattresses,
fifteen per centum ad valorem. (Old law: Curled
hair, except of hogs, used for beds or mattresses,
twenty-five per centum]

451. Hats, for men's, women's, and children's
wear, composed ol the fur of the rabbit , beaver,
or other animals or of which such fur is the com-
ponent material of chiet value, wholly or partially
manufactured, including fur hat bodies, ntt> tne
per centum ad valorem. (Old law: Twenty per
centum by Treasury ruling: bonnets, hats, and
hoods of hair not specially provided for, thirty per
centum.

JEWELRY AND RBCtOtSJ

45a. Jewelry: All articles, not elsewhere spe-
cially provided for in this act * ompewedof precious
i unit at ions thereof, whether sei with coral,
jet or pearls, or with diamond*, rubies, cameos,
or other precious ston< *** thereof, or

otherwise, mm) whiih shall he known commcr-
,.iallv as "jewelry." and cameos in frames, fifty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Jewelry of
all kinds, twenty-five |wr centum ]

boa BjSji centum ad valorem |Old
rj .it t« n pet centum and ritt\ per
centum ,u\ valorem ]

4s 4 Pre. ions stones of all kmdv cut hut not
set, ten per centum I and not

specially provided tor in this act, lv

centum ad valorem. '

compos

in dimensions not set, ten per centum ad »
[Old law: rVecious stones of all kinds.
centum; compositions of glass or paste * bus not

set ten per centum.]

LKATIIKR AMI KAMI V It RM ^r.

4«. Bend or belting leather and sole leather,
and leather not specially provKlrd for in this act,
ten per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Leather

THE TARIFF.

433

bend or belting leather, and Spanish or other sole
leather, and leather not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, fifteen per centum ad
valorem.]

456. Calf-skins, tanned, or tanned and dressed,
dressed upper leather, including patent, enameled
.md japanned leather, dressed or undressed, and
finished; chamois or other skins not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty
per centum ad valorem; book-binders' calf-skins,
kangaroo, sheep and goat skins, including lamb
and kid skins, dressed and finished, twenty per
centum ad valorem; skins for morocco, tanned
but unfinished, ten per centum ad valorem; piano-
forte leather and piano-forte action leather, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem; japanned calf-skins,
thirty per centum ad valorem; boots and shoes
made of leather, twenty-five per centum ad va-
lorem.]

457. But leather cut into shoe uppers or vamps,
or other forms, suitable for conversion into manu-
factured art i«les, shall be classified as manufact-
ures of leather, and paydutyaccordingly. [Calf-
skins, tanned, or tanned and dressed, and dressed
upper leather of all other kinds, and skins dressed
and finished, of all kinds not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, and skins of morocco,
finished, twenty per centum ad valorem. Skins
for morroco, tanned, but unfinished, ten per
centum ad valorem. All manufactures and ar-
ticles of leather, or of which leather shall be a
cemponent part, not specially enumerated or

fwovided for in this act, thirty per centum ad va-
orem,]

458. Gloves of all descriptions, composed wholly
or in part of kid or other leather, and whether
wholly or partly manufactured, shall pay duty at
the rates fixed in connection with the following
specified kinds thereof, fourteen inches in extreme
length when stretched to the full extent, being in
each case hereby fixed as the standard, and one
dozen pairs as the basis, namely; Ladies' and chil-
dren's schma a tli«n of said length or under ,one dol-
lar and seventy-five cents per dozen; ladies' and
children's Iamb of said length or under, two dol-
lars and twenty-five cents per dozen: ladies' and
children's kid of said length or under, three dol-
lars and twenty-five cents per dozen; ladies' and
children's suedes of said length or under, fifty per
centum ad valorem; all other ladies' and children's
leather gloves, and all men's leather gloves of said
length or under, fifty per centum ad valorem; all
leather gloves over fourteen inches in length, fifty
per centum ad valorem; and in addition to the
above rates there shall be paid on all men's gloves
one dollar* per dozen; on all lined gloves, one
dollar per dozen; on all pique or prick seam
gloves, fifty cents per dozen; on all embroidered
gloves with more than three singlestrands or cords,
fifty cents per dozen pairs. Provided, That all
gloves represented to be of a kind or grade below
their actual Kind or grade shall pay an additional
duty of five dollars per dozen pairs: Provided

further, That none of the articles named in this
paragraph shall pay a less rate of duty than'fifty
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Gloves, kid
or leather, of all descriptions, wholly or partially
manufactured, fifty per centum ad valorem.]

MISCELLANEOUS MANUPACTT'RES.

459. Manufactures of alabaster, amber, asbes-
tos, bladders, coral, cat -gut or whip-ijiit or
worm-gut, jet, paste, spar, wax, or of which these
substances or either of them is a component ma-
terial of chief value, not specially provided for in
this ;i< t . twenty-five per centum ad valorem; osier
or willow prepared for basketmakers' use, thirty
per centum ad valorem; manufactures of osier or
willow, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Baskets and all other articles composed of osier
or willow not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, thirty per centum ad valorem.
Alabaster and spar statuary and ornaments, ten
per centum; manufactures of bladders, twenty-five
per centum; bonnets, hats and hoods for men,
women and children, composed of willow,
thirty per centum; wax candles and tapers,
twenty per centum; willow sheets or squares,
twenty per centum; osier or willow prepared for
basketmakers' use, twenty-five per centum; gut
and worm-gut, manufactures, free; asbestos
manufactures, twenty-five per centum; jet m.mu-

factures and imitations of, twenty-five per cen-
tum.]

460. Manufactures of bone, chip, grass, horn,
India-rubber, palm-leaf, straw, weeds, or whale-
bone, or of which these substances or either of
them is the component material of chief value; not
specially provided tor in this act, thirty per cen-
tum ad valorem. [Old law; Manufactures of
bone and horn, compositions of, thirty per centum;
paste, ten per centum; coral, cut, manufactured,
twenty-five per centum; baskets and all other
articles composed of grass, palm-leaf, whale-
bone, or straw, thirty per centum. India-rubber
fabric! composed wholly or in part uf indi;; rub
ber, not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act, thirty per centum ad valorem. Arti-
cles composed of ludia-rubber, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty-
five per centum ad valorem. India-rubber
boots and shoes, twenty-five per centum
ad valorem. Bonnets, hats and hoods for men,
women and children composed of chip, grass,
palm-leaf, or straw or any other vegetable
substance, whale-bone, or other material, not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
thirty per centum ad valorem.]

461. Manufactures of leather, fur, gutta-percha,
vulcanized India-rubber, known as hard rubber,
human hair, papier-mache, and indurated fiber
wares and other manufactures composed of wood
or other pulp, or of which these substances
or either of them is the component material of
chief value, all of the above not specially provided
for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

tOld law: Fur, articles of, thirty per centum;
iiiman hair, when manufactured, thirty-five per
centum; gutta-percha, manufactured, and all ar-
ticles of, thirty-five per centum; papier-mache
manufactures, articles and wares, thirty per
centum. Hair, human, bracelets, braids, chains,
rings, curls, and ringlets, composed of hair, or of
which hair is the component material of chief
value, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.]

462. Manufactures of ivory, vegetable ivory,
mother-of-pearl, and shell, or of which these sub-
stances or either of them is the component ma-
terial of chief value, not specially provided for in
this act, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law:
Manufactures of ivory and vegetable ivory, thirty
per centum; shells, whole or parts of, manufact-
ured, of every description not specially provided
for, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. 1

463. Masks, composed of paper or pulp, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem. [New provision. ]

464. Matting made of cocoa-fiber or rattan,
twelve cents per square yard: mats made of cocoa-
fiber or rattan, eight cents per square foot. [Old
law: Floor matting and floor mats, exclusively of
vegetable substances, twenty per centum.]

465. Paintings, in oil or water colors, and
statuary, not otherwise provided for in this act,
fifteen per centum ad valorem; but the term "stat-
uary" as herein used shall be understood to in-
clude only such statuary as is cut, carved, or other-
wise wrought by hand from a solid block or mass
of marble, stone or alabaster, or from metal, and
as is the professional production of a statuary or
sculptor only. [Old law: Thirty per centum.]

466. Pencils of wood filled with lead or other
material, and pencils of lead, fifty cents per gross
and thirty per centum ad valorem; slate pencils,
four cents per gross. [Old law: Slate pencils,
thirty per centum.]

467. Pencil-leads, not in wood, ten per centum
ad valorem

PIPES AND SMOKERS* ARTICLES.

468. Pipes, pipe-l>owls, of all materials, and all
smokers' articles whatsoever, not specially pro-
vided for in this act, including cigarette-books,
cigarette book-covers, pouches for smoking or
chewing tobacco, and cigarette paper in all forms,
seventy per centum ad valorem; all common to-
bacco pipes of clay, fifteen cents per gross. Pipes,
pipe bowls, and all smokers' articles whatsoever,
not specially enumerated or provided for in this
act, seventy per centum ad valorem; all common
pipes of clay, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

469. Plush, black, known commercially as
hatters' plush, composed of *ilk, or of silk and cot-
ton, and used exclusively for waking- men's hats,
ten per centum ad valorem. [Old law; Twenty-
five per centum.]

470. Umbrellas, parasols, and MBshjU

ered with silk or alpaca, fifty-five per centum ad
valorem; if covered with other material, forty-fiv<-
per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Fifty per
centum and forty per centum.]

471. Umbrellas, parasols, and sunshades, sticks
for, if f>lain, finished or unfinished, thirty-five
per centum ad valorem; if carved, fifty /a
centum ad valorem. [Old law: Thirty per
centum.]

472. Waste, not specially provided for in this
act, ten per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Items
specially provided for under the old law, which
will be classified under the new law according to
the component material of chief value: Card-cas«6,
pocfeet-DOoks, shell-boxes, and all similar arti-
cles, of whatever material composed, and by what-
ever name known, not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad
valorem. Carriages, and parts of, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty-five
per centum ad valorem. Coach and harness fur-
niture of all kinds, saddlery, coach, and harness
hardware, silver-plated, brass, bntss-plated, or
covered, common, tinned, burnished, or japanned,
not specially enumerated or provided for in this
act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Combs, of
all kinds, thirty per centum ad valorem. Cray-
ons, of all kinds, twenty per centum ad valorem.
Fans of all kinds except common palm-leaf fans,
of whatever material composed, thirty-five per
centum ad valorem. Finishing powder, twenty per
centum ad valorem. Japanned ware of all kinds,
not specially enumerated or provided fwr in tins
act, forty per centum ad valorem. Musical in-
struments of all kinds, twenty-five per centum ad
valorem. Philosophical apparatus and instru-
ments, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Polish-
ing powders of every description, by whatever
name known, including Frankfort-black, and Ber-
lin, Chinese, fig, and wash blue, twenty per centum
ad valorem. Scagliola, and composition tops for
tables or for other articles of furniture, thirty -five
per centum ad valorem. Teeth, manufactured,
twenty per centum ad valorem.

The Free List.

(Figures in brackets show the rate of duty under
the old law.)

Sec. a. On and after the sixth day ef October,
eighteen hundred and ninety, unless otherwise
specially provided for in this act, the following
articles when imported shall be exempt from duty:

Acid used for medicinal, chemical, or manufac-
turing purposes not specially provided for in this
act.

Aconite.

Acorns, raw, dried or undried, but ungreund.

Agates, unmanufactured.

Albumen .

Alizarine, natural or artificial, and dyes com-
mercially known as Alizarine yellow, Aliza-
rine orange, Alizarine green, Alizarine blue r
Alizarine brown , . Mizarine black.

Amber, unmanufactured, or crude, gum. [Old
law: Amber beads and gum.]

Ambergris.

Aniline salts. [Old law: Aniline salts, or
black salts or black tares.]

Any animal imported specially (or breeding
purposes shall be admitted free: Prmided, That
no3uch animal shall be admitted free unless pure
bred of a recognized breed and duly registered in
a book of record established for that breed: And
Provided further \ That certificate of such record
and of the pedigree of such animal shall be pro-
duced and submitted to the customs officer, duly
authenticated by the proper custodian of such
book of record, together with the affidavit of the
owner, agent or importer that such animal is the
identical animal described in said certificate of
record and pedigree. The Secretary of the Tn m
ury may prescribe such additional regulations as
maybe required for the strict enforcement of this
provision. [Old law: Animals specially Im-
ported for breeding purposes shall be admitted
free upon proof thereof satisfactory to the Secre-
tary of the Treasury, and under such regulations
as he may prescribe, and teams of animals, includ-

4±

434

THE TARIFF.

i tackle nd the vehicles or
wagons actually owned >y persons ami

I'lgij countries tO the I tatted St.ilrs with
their Utilities, and in actual use lor tin* pur]
mk.1i --migration, shall I so l«r admitted free of
duty, under such regulations as the Secretary of
the Treasury may prescribe.]

Animals brought to the United fitates tem-
poral ily for a period not exceeding six months,
purpose "i < xhibition or competition for
prizes o tiered by at, agricultural or racing associ-
ation; but a bond shall 3a ;iven in accordance
with regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the
l'r<- tsury; also teams ol :.nimals, including their
harness and tackle, and the erayOOJ rf :.>ther ve-
il tually owned by persons emigrating from
foreign countries to the United States with their
families, iiul in actual use tor 'he purpose of such
emigration under ;uch 'emulations us he Secre-
tary of .be Treasury may prescribe; and wUd
animals intended /or exhibition in yological
collections f,->r scientific .md educational Pur-
poses, and not fir sate or profit.

Annatto oucou, rocoa, or Orleans, and al' ex-
tracts 01.

Antimony, ore, crude sulphide of.

Apatite.

Argal,or argol, or crude tartar.

/irrowroot, raw or u n manufactured.

Arsenic and sulphide of ororDiment.

Arseniate of aniline.

Ar* educational stops :omposed of ^las* and
metal and valued at not more than six cents oer
gross. [New provision.]

Articles in a crude state used in dyeing or tan-
Ming not specially provided for in this act.

Articles the growth, produce, and manufacture
in the United States, when returned after having
been exported, without having l>een advanced in
value or improved in condition by any process of
manufacture or other means; casks, barrels, car-
boys, bags, and other vessels of American manu-
facture exported filled with American products, or
exported empty and returned filled with foreign
products,including shooks when returned as barrels
or boxes; also quicksilviT flasks or bottles, of
either domestic or foreign manufacture, which
shall have been actually exported from the United
States; but proof of the identity of such articles
shall be made, under general regulations t« be
preserved by the Secretary of the Treasury; and if
any such articles are subject to internal tax at the
time of exportation such tax shall be proved to
have been paid before exportation and not re-
funded: /'roT'ided, That this paragraph shall
not apply to any article upon which an allowance
of drawback has been made, the re-importation of
which is hereby prohibited except upon payment
of duties equal to the drawbacks allowed; or to
any article manufactured in bonded warehouse
and exported under any provision of law; And
Provided further , That when manufactured to-
hacco which has been exported without payment
of internal-revenue tax shall be re-imported it
shall be retained in the custody of the collector ot
customs until internal-revenue stamps in payment
cf the legal duties shall l>e placed theqeon. [Old
law: liarrels of American manufacture, exported
filled with domestic petroleum, and returned
empty under such regulations as the Sen
the '1 reasury may prescribe, and without room-
ing the filing of a declaration at time of export
ofintcnt to return the same empty. Artii
growth, produce, and manufacture of the United
States, when returned in the same condition as
exported. Casks, barrels, carboys, bags and
ssels of Amerii an manufacture, exported
filled with American products, or exported
empty and returned filled with foreign products,
including shooks when re tur ne d as barrels or

but proof of the identity of such
shall be made under the regulations to be pre-
acrtbodbythe Secretary of the Treasury andii
Dm t to interna] tax at the
time of exportation, such tax shall l>e proved to
bare been paid before exportation :nd not re-
funded. i'i Attdprp rid- d further, Th

other th in ol Amerfc an manufacture, in which
d nail have been actually exported from the

trued empty to the
United States, free ofdaty, under ragwarJooa to
. ribed by the I the Treasury.

Sec. 7, act of Feb. 8, i«7s.)

Asbestos, unmanufactured. Joldlaw: Articles
imported for the use of the United States, pro-
vided that the *jrice of the same did riot include
the duty.]

Ashes, wood and lye of, and licet root ashes.

Asphaltum .nd bitumen crude.

Asa! |

Balm of (iilead.

Harks, i in. bona or other troin whi. li quinine
may be extracted. (Old law: DaiSi, rim tanas
or other barks used in the manufacture of quin-
ine.]

Baryta, carbonate of, or withcrite.

Bauxite, or 'x::.uxite.

Heeswax. Old law: Twenty per centum 1

Bells broken, and bell metal, broken ana fit
only 'o be ^manufactured.

Birds, stuffed, not suitable for millinery orna-
ments, and birds' shins, prepared or preserva-
tion ,but not further adratu ed tcauufacture.

Buda and .and and water loerla.

Bismuth.

Bladders, including fish bladders si fish sounds,
crude, and all integuments n nuiial* nut spe-
cially provided for in this ict.

Blood, dried.

Bologna laniaajna.

Bolting cloths, especially for milling pur-
Poses, but not suitable for the manufacture of
ivearing apparel.

Bones crude, or not burned, calcined, ground,
steamed or otherwise manufactured, and bone-
dust or animal carbon and bone ash, fit only tor
fertilizing ptirpe es. [Old law; Bones, crude, not
manufactured, burned, calcined, -p-ound or
steamed. Bone-dust and bone-ash or manufact-
ure of phosphate and fertilizers.]

Books, engravings, photographs, bound or un-
boiiud etchings, maps and charts, which shall
have been printed and bound or manufactured
more than twenty yearsat the date of importation.

Books and pamphlets printed exclusively in
languages other than English; also books and mu-
sk m i used prim, used exclusively by the blind.

Books, engravings, photographs, etchings,
bound or umhound, maps and charts imported uy
authority or for the use of the United Si
for the use of the Library of Congress. [Note —
The Allowing words are omitted from new law:
"But the duty shall not have been included in the

ontract of price paid."]
Books, maps, lithographic prints and charts
specially imported, not more two copies in any
one invoice, in good faith, for the use of any so-
ciety incorporated orcstablished ."or educational,
philosophical, literary, jr religious purposes, or for
the encouragement of the fine arts, or tor the
use or by ordet of any college, academy,
school, or seminary of learning in the United
States, subject to such regulations as the See re*
tary of the Treasury shall prescribe.

Books or libraries, or parts of libraries, and

other household effects of persons or families rom

foreign countries, if actually used abroad by them

• ;han one year, and not intended for any

other person or persons, nor for sate.

Braids', plaits, laces, and similar manufactures
l s, palm leaf, willow,
osier, or rattan, suitable KMT making or 01 n
ing hats.bonmt 'Oldlaw; Twenty

per centum,''

bVaaillan pebble, un wrought or uninunu-
factured. [< Id law: Uia/ilian oebbles for spec-
tacles and pebbles for spectacle* rough |
r slabs.

I'.romine.

Hulli.

Burgundy pit. h

Cabinets or old coins nnd medal* and other col-
of antiquities, but the term "antiquities"
asused in this hide only such articles

as are suit

end wliii h shall i d at any period

priof to the year aereuteer bundn d

- td all other collections

uttes.J

* ladmmm,

(.Calamine.
Camphor, crude.

tor, or castoreum.
Catgut, whipgut or wonngut, unmanufactured,

or not tint her ■jauuUcint'-d than in siring- ■

H >!d law; Catgut strings or gut cord or musical
instruments.. strings. All strings of catgut or any
other like material, other than string* for musical
instruments, twenty-rive per centum ad valorem.]

Cerium.

Chalk , unmanufact ured [Old law contains
I ItlTan— it ]

Charcoal.

Chicoryroot, raw, dried or undricd, but un-
ground.

Civet, crude.

Clay — common blue clay in casks suitable for
the manufacture of crucible* [New pro vision.]

Coal, anthracite.

Coal stores of American vessels, but none
shall be unloaded. ■

Coal tar, crude.

Cobalt and cobalt ore. [Old taw: Cobah,orc
of; cobalt as metallic arsenic]

Cocculus mdicus.

Cochineal .

Cocoa, or cacoa, crude and fiber, leave* and
shells of.

Coffee.

Coins, gold, silver and copper.

Coir and coir yarn.

Copper, old, taken from the bottom of Ameri-
can vessels compelled by marine disaster to repair
in foreign ports.

Coral, marine, uncut and unmanufactured.

Cork wood or cork bark, unmanufactured.

Cotton and c>tton-u\n:e or flocks.

Cryolite or kryotith.

Cudbear.

Curling-stones, or quoits, and curling-atone
handles.

Curry and curry powdisr.

Cutch.

Cuttlefish bone.

Dandelion roots, raw, dried or uodried, but un-
ground.

Diamonds and other precious stents, rough or
uncut, including glaziers' and engravrrs' dia-
monds not set, and diamond dust or bort, and
■ Sensed in the manufacture of notches .

1 »ivi di\i.

Dragon's blood.

Drugs, such as barks, beans, berries, balsams,
buds, bulbs, and bulbous roots, excrescences,
such as nut-galls, fruits, flowers, dried fibers, and
dried insects, grains, jum* and gum-resin, herbs,
leaves, lichens, mosses, nut-, roots, and stems,
spices, vegetables, seeds, aromatic and seeds of
morbid growth, weeds and woods used expressly
for dyeing; any of the foregoing which are not edi-
ble and arc in a crude state, and not advanced in
value or condition by refining or grinding, or by
other process of manufacture ana not specially
provided tor in this act.

Eggs of birds, fish and insects

Emery ore.'

Ergot.

Eans, common palm-leaf and palm-leaf un-
manufactured.

Farina.

Fashion plates, engraved on steel, or copper, or
on wood, colored or plain

Feathers and downs for beds. [iV.a law: Bed
feathers and down-
Feldspar.

Felt, adhesive, for sheathing vessels.

Fibrin in all forms.

fi-h, the product of American fisheries and
fre>h or froicn fish (except salmon) caught in
fresh waters by American vessels, or with nets or
other devices owned by citizen* of the United
States. [Old law. Fish, fresh, for iaiawhste
. ..n-timption 1

Flail lor bait

Fish skins. [Also shark skins under old law]

Mint, flints and ground flint stones.

Floor matting manufactured tiom round or
split straw, including what » commonly known
as Chinese matting [Old law: Floor asartmsj
and floor matscxctusively of vegetable substances,
twenty per centum ]

Fossils.

Fruit plants, tropical and semi tropical, for the
purpose of propagation or a

FKV1T* ANI>

Currants. Zante or other {Old law: One
cent ;»cr pound ]

1!\

=**

THE TARIFF.

=7?

435

Dates. [Old law: One cent per poand \

Fruits, green, ripe or dried, nut specially pro-
vided for in this act.

Tamarinds.

Cocoanuts.

Brazil nuts.

Cream nut-.

Palm nuts.

Palm nut kernels.

Furs, undressed.

Fur skins of all kinds not dressed in any man-
ner.

Gambier.

< Haas, broken, and old glass, which cannot be
cut for use, and fit only to be remanutactured.

Glass plates or disks, rough cut or unwrought,
for use in the manufacture of optical instru-
ments, spectacles and eyeglasses, and suitable
only or such use: Provided however. That such
disks exceeding eight inches in diameter may be
polished sufficiently to enable the character of the
glass to be determined. [Old law; Glass plates
or disks, unwrought, for use in the manufacture of
optical instruments.]

GRASSES AND FIBERS.

Istle, or Tampico fiber.

Jute. [Old law: Twenty per centum. j
ute butts. [Old law: Five dollars per ton.]
laniia.

Sisal grass. [Old law: Fifteen dollars per
ton.]

Sunn. [Old law: Fifteen dollars per ton.]

And all other textile grasses or fibrous vegetable
substances, unmanufactured or undressed, not
specially provided for in this act. [Old law: Fif-
teen dollars per ton. Esparto or Spanish grass
and other grasses, and pulp of, for the manufact-
ure of paper.]

Gold-beaters' molds and gold-beaters' skins.

Grease and oilj such as are commonly used in
soap-making or in wire-drawing, or for stuffing or
dressing leather, and which are fit only for such
uses, not specially provided for in this act. [Old
law: Grease for use as soap stock only, not
specially provided for; soap stocks free; grease all
not specially enumerated or provided for, ten per
centum.]

Guano, manures and all substances expressly
used for manure.

t iunny bags and gunny cloths, old or refuse, fit
only for remanufacture.

Guts, salted.

Gutta-percha, crude.

Hair of horse, cattle, and other animals,
cleaned or uncleaned, drawn or undrawn, but un-
manufactured, not specially provided for in this
act; and human hair, raw, uncleaned and not
drawn. [Old law: Hair, horse or cattle, and
hair of all kinds, cleaned or uncleaned, drawn or
undrawn, but unmanufactured, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act; of hogs,
curled for beds and mattresses, and not fit for
bristles.]

Hides, raw or uncured, whether dry, salted or
pickled. Angora goatskins, raw without the
wool, unmanufactured, asses' skins, raw or un-
manufactured, and skins, except sheepskins, with
the wool on. [Old law: Also goat-skins raw.]

Hide-cuttings, raw, with or without hair, and
all other glue stock.

Hide rope.

Hones and whetstones.

Hoofs, unmanufactured.

Hop roots for cultivation.

Horns and parts of, unmanufactured, including
horn strips and tips.

Ice.

India-rubber, crude and milk of, and old scrap
or refuse India-rubber which has been worn out by-
use and is fit only for remanufacture.

Indigo. [Old law; Indigo and artificial in-
digo.]

Iodine, crude.

Ipecac.

Iridium.

Ivory and vegetable ivory, not salved, cut, or
otherwise manufactured. [Old law contained
word unmanufactured. ,]

Jalap.

Jet , un man ufactured .

Joss-stick, or Joss-light.

Junk, old.

Kelp.

Kieserite.

Kyanite, or cyanite, andkainice.

Lac dye, crude, seed, button, ttick and shell.

Lac spirits.

Lactarine.

Lava, unmanufactured.

Leeches.

Lemon juice, lime juice, and sour orange
iuice.

Licorice root, unground.

Lifeboat and life-saving apparatus specially im-
ported by societies incorporated or established to
encourage the saving of human life.

Lime, citrate of.

Lime, chloride of, or bleaching powder.

Lithographic stones not engraved.

Litmus, prepared or not prepared.

Lodestones.

Madder and munjeet, or Indian madder, ground
or prepared, and all extracts of.

Magnesite, or native mineral carbonate of mag-
nesia.

Magnesium.

Magnets.

Manganese, oxide and ore of.

Manna.

Manuscripts.

Marrow, crude.

Marshmallows.

Medals of gold, silver or copper, such as tro-
phies or Prizes.

Meerschaum, crude or unmanufactured. [Old
law says raw instead of unmanufactured.]

Mineral waters, all not artificial.

Minerals, crude or not advanced in value or
condition by refining or grinding, or by other pro-
cess of manufacture, not specially provided for
in this act.

Models of inventions and ofotherimprovements
in the arts, including patterns for machinery, but
no article shall be deemed a model or pattern
which can be fitted for use otherwise. [Old law :
Changed from improvement to pattern.]

Moss, sea weeds, and vegetable substances,
crude or unmanufactured, not otherwise specially
provided for in this act. [Old law: Moss, sea-
weeds, and all other vegetable substances used for
beds and matresses.]

Musk, crude, in natural pods.

Myrobolan.

Needles, hand-sewing and darning.

Newspapers and periodicals but the term
" periodicals" as herein used shall be under-
stood to embrace only unbound or paper-coz'-
ered publications, containing current litera-
ture of the day and issued regularly at stated
Periods as iveekly, monthly, or quarterly,

Nux vomica.

Oakum.

Oilcake.

Oils—Almond, amber, crude and rectified am-
bergris, anise or anise seed, aniline, aspic or spike
lavender, bergamot, cajeput, caraway, cassia, cin-
amon, cedrat, chamomile, citronella or lemon
grass, civet, fennel, jasmine or jasimine,
juglandium, juniper, lavender, lemon, limes, mace,
neroli, or orange flower, nut oil or oil of nuts not
otherwise specially provided for in this act, orange
oil, olive oil for manufacturing or mechanical pur-
poses, unfit for eating and not otherwise provided
for in this act, attar of roses, palm and cocoanut,
rosemary or anthoss, sesame or sesamum seed or
bene, thyme, origanum, red or white ; valerian,
and also spermaceti, whale and other fish oils of
American fisheries, and all other articles the pro-
duce of such fisheries.

Olives, green or prepared.

Opium, crude or unmanufactured, and not adul-
terated, containing nine per centum and over of
morphia.

Orange and lemon peel, not preserved, candied,
or otherwise prepared.

Orchil or orchil liquid.

Orchids, lily of the valley, azaleas, palms, and
other plants used for forcing under glass for cut
flowers or decorative purposes.

Ores of gold, silver and nickel and nickel
matte: Provided, That ores of nickel and
nickel matte, containing more than two Per
centum of copper, shall pay a duty of one-half
of one cent per pound on the copper contained

th.-vein, [Old law: Ail tonus of nickel, fifteen
per pound]

' Minium.
Palladium.

Taper stock, crude, of ever)' description, in-
cluding all grasses, fibers, rags (other than wool),
havings, clippings, old paper, rope ends,
waste rope, waste bagging, old or refuse gunny
bags or gunny cloth, and poplar or other woods,
fit only to be converted into paper. [Old law :
leather, old scraps, enumerated. Sea-weed not
specially provided for. Paper-stock, crude, of
every description, including all grasses, fibers,
rags of all kinds, other than wool, waste, shavings,
clippings, old paper, rope ends, waste rope, waste
bagging, gunny bags, gunny cloth, old or refuse,
to be used in making, and fit only to be converted
into paper, and unfit for any other manufacture,
and cotton waste, whether for paper stock or
other purposes. Rags of whatever material com-
posed, and not specially provided for in this act,
ten per centum. [See fibers and grasses.]

Paraffine.

Parchment and vellum.

Pearl, mother of, not sa-zued, cut, polished, or
other:,'/ se manufactured.

Peltries and other usual goods and effects of
Indians passing or repassing the boundary line of
the United States, under such regulations as the
Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe : Pro-
7'ided, That this exemption shall not apply to

foods in bales or other packages unusual among
ndians.

Personal and household effects not merchandise
of citizens of the United States dying in foreign
countries.

Pewter and britannia metal old, and fit only to
be remanufactured.

Philosophical and scientific apparatus, instru-
ments and preparations; statuary, casts of marble,
bronze, alabaster or plaster of Paris; paintings,
drawings andetchings, specially imported in good
faith for the use of any society or institutiop incor-
porated or established for religious, philosophical,
educational, scientific on literary purposes, or foe
encouragement of the fine arts and not intended
for sale.

Phosphates, crude or native. [Old law con-
tains words; "For fertilizing purposes."]

Plants, trees, shrubs, roots, seed cane and
seeds, all of the foregoing imported by the De-
partment of Agriculture or the United States Bo-
tnnic Garden.

Plaster of Paris andisulphate of lime, unground.

Platina, in ingots, bars, sheets, and wire. [Old
law: Platina, unmanufactured.]

Platinum, unmanufactured, and vases, retorts
and other apparatus, vessels and parts thereof
composed of platinum for chemical uses.

Plumbago.

Polishing stones.

Potash, crude, carbonate of, or "black salts."
Caustic potash or hydrate of, not including re-
fined, in sticks or rolls. Nitrate of potash or
saltpeter, crude. Sulphate of potash, crude or re-
fined. Chlorate of potash. Muriate of potash.
[Old law: Caustic, and so forth, twenty per
centum; chlorate, three cents per pound; sulphate
twenty per centum; nitrate of, or saltpeter crude,
one cent per pound.]

Professional books, implements, instruments,
and tools of trade, occupation, or employment in
the actual possession at the time of persons ar-
riving in the United States; but this exemption
shall not be construed to include machinery or
other articles imported for use in any manufactur-
ing establishment, or for any other person or per-
sons, or for sale. [Old law; Professional books
only.]

Pulu.

Pumice.

Quills, prepared or unprepared, but not made
up into complete articles.

Quinia, sulphate of, and all alkaloids or salts of
cinchona bark. [Old law: Quinia, sulphate of,
salts of andcinchonidia.]

Rags not otherwise specially provided for in
this act. [Old law: Rags of all kinds other
than wool.]

Regalia and gems, statues, statuary, and spec-
imens of sculpture where specially imported in
good faith for the use of any society incorporated
or established solely for educational, philosoph-

-M

436

THE TARIFF.

~7\

ical, literary or religious purposes, or for the en-
couragement of fine arts, or for the use or by order
of any college, academy, schoot, seminary of
learning, or public library in the United States;
but the term "regalia." at herein used shall be
held to embrace only such insignia of rank or
office or emblems t as maybe 7uorn upon the per-
son or borne in the hand during public exer-
cises 0/ the society or institution f and shall not .
include articles 0/ furniture or fixtures t or oj
regular wearing apparel ', not personal property
of individuals .

Rennets, raw or prepared.

Saffron and safflower and extract of, and saf-
fron cake.

Sago, crude, and sago flour.

Salactne.

Sauerkraut

Sausage skins.

Seeds, anise, canary, caraway, cardamon, cori-
ander, cotton, cummin, fennel, fenugreek, hemp,
hoarhound, mustard, rape, St. John's bread or
bene, sugar beet, mangel wurzel, sorghum or
sugar cane for seed, and all flower and grass
seeds; bulbs and bulbous roots, not edible; all the
foregoing not specially provided for in this act.
[Old law; Bulbs and bulbous roots, not medici-
nal, not otherwise provided for, twenty per
Centum.]

Selep or saloup.

Shells of all kinds, not cut, ground or otherwise
manufactured. [Old law: Shells of every de-
scription, not manufactured; tortoise and other
shells, unmanufactured, free.]

Shotgun -barrels, forged, rough bored. [Old
law: Ten per centum.]

Shrimps and other shell fish.

Silk, raw or as reeled from the cocoon, but
liot doubted, twisted, or advanced in manufacture
in any way.

Silk cocoons and silk-waste.

Silkworms' eggs.

Skeletons and other preparations of anatomy.

Snails.

Soda, nitrate or cubic nitrate and chlorate of.

Sodium.

Sparterre, suitable for making or ornamenting
hats.

Specimens of natural history, botany, and min-
eralogy, when imported for cabinets or as objects
of science, and not for sale. [Old law extended to
objects of taste.]

Cassia, cassia vera and cassia buds, unground.

Cinnamon and chips of, unground.

Cloves and clove-stems, unground.

Ginger root, unground a/id not preserved or
Candied.

Mace.

Nutmegs.

Pepper, black or white, unground.

Pimento, unground.

Spunk.

Spurs and stilts used in the manufacture ol
earthen, porcelain, and stoneware. [Old law was
crockery instead of porcelain.]

Stone and sand. Hurrstone in blocks, rough or
manufactured and not bound up into millstones;
cliff stone, unmanufactured; pumice stone, rotten
■tone, and sand, 1 rude Of mamilai tured.

Storax, or styrax.

Strontia, oxide of, and protoxide of strontian,
and strontianite, or mineral carbonite of strontia.

SugVi, all not above No. 16 Dutch standard in
color, all tank bottoms, all sugar draining* and
sugar sweepings; sirups of cane juice, melada.
Concentrated melada and concrete ami COD*
centrated molasses and molasses. [Old law;
All sugars not above No. 13 Hutch standard in
color shall pay duty on their polariscopic test as
follows, viz: All sugars not above No. 13 Dutch
standard fan oolor, all lank bottoms, sirups of
cane juice or of beet juice, melada, concen-
trated melada, concrete and concentrated mo-
lasses, testing by the polariscope not above
seventy- five degree*, shall pay a d»ty of one and
forty -hundredths cents j>er pound, and for every
additional degree or fraction of a degree shown by
the polariscopic test, they shall pay four hun-
dredths of a cent per pound additional; (a. Pro*
tided. That concentrated melada, or concrete,

ugi

m-lada shall be known and defined as an art. c
made in the process of sugar-making being the
cane juice boiled down to the sugar point and
containing all the sugar and molasses resulting
from the boiling process and without any process
of purging or clarification, and any and all pro-
ducts of the sugar cane imported in bags, mats,
baskets, or other than tight packages shall be
considered sugar and dutiable as such. Andfro-
vided further t That of the drawback on refined
sugars exported allowed by section three thou-
sand and nineteen of the Revised Statutes of the
United States, only one per centum of the amount
so allowed shall be retained by the United States.
Act of March 3, 1875, sec. 3.) Sugar, thirteen to
sixteen Dutch standard, two and seventy-five
one-hundredths cents per pound. [Old law; Mo-
lasses testing not above fifty-six degrees by the
polariscope, shall pay a duty of four cents per
gallon; molasses testing above fifty-six degrees,
shall pay a duty of eight cents per gallon.]

Sulphur, lac or precipitated, and sulphur of
brimstone, crude, in bulk, sulphur ore, as pyrites,
or sulphuret of iron in its natural state, containing
in excess of twenty-five Der centum of sulphur
(except on the copper contained therein) and
sulphur not otherwise provided for. [Old law;
Sulphur, or brimstone, not especially enumerated
or provided for in this act; sulphur, lac or precip-
itated, free.]

Sulphuric acid, which at the temperature of 00
degrees Fahrenheit does not exceed the specific
gravity of one and three hundred and eighty
thousandths, for use in manufacturing superphos-
phate of lime or artificial manures of any kind or
for any agricultural purposes. [Old law; 1'rce
under general provision for acid.]
Sweepings of silver and gold.
Tapioca, cassava or cassady.
Tar and pitch of wood and pitch of coal tar.
[Old law: Wood tar, ten per centum; coal tar,
crude, ten percentumad valorem.]
Tea and tea plants.
Teeth, natural or unmanufactured.
Terra alba. [Word aluminous omitted.]
Terra japonica.

Tin ore, cassiteriteor black oxide of tin, and tin
In bars, blocks, pigs or grain or granulated, until
July the first, 1893, and thereafter as otherwise
provided for in this act.
Tinsel wire, lame or lahn.

Tobacco stems. [Old law: Fifteen cents per
pound.]
Tonouin, tonqua or tonka beans.
Tripoli.
Turmeric

Turpentine, Venice.

Turpentine, spirits of. [Old law: Twenty
cents per gallon.]
T'irtles.

Types, oldand fit only to be remanufactured.
Uranium, oxide and salts of.
Vaccina, virus
Valonia

Verdigris or suhacetateof copper
Wafers, unmedicated.
Wax, vegetable or mineral.
Wearing apparel and other personal effects (not
merchandise) of persons arriving in the United
States, but this exemption shall not be held to in-
clude articles not actually in dm and necessary
and appropriate for the use of such persons for
the purposes of their journey and present comfort
and convenience, or which are intended for any
other person or persons, or for sale; Provided.
Ao:.'tT'er, That all sn. h wearing apparel and
other personal effects as may have been once im-
ported into the United States and subjected to
Stent of duty, and whu h may have been
a< ttialfy used and taken or exported to foreign
countries by the persons returning therewith to
the United States, shall, if not advanced in value
or improved in condition by any means situ e
their exportation from the 1 , be en-

titled to I

being established, BndffUCA raise and regulations
as may be prescribed by the Secretary of the
Treasury. [Old law: Wearing apparel, in actual
use. and other personal effects (not merchandised.
professional books, implements, instruments, and
tools of trade, occupation or employment of per-
sons arriving in the United States. But this ex-

ception shall not be construed to Include ma-
chinery or other articles imported for use in any
manufacturing establishment, or for sale.]

Whalebone, unmanufactured.

Wood — Logs and round unmanufactured timber,
not specially enumerated or provided for in this

Firewood, handle bolts, heading bolts, stave
bolts, shingle bolts, bop poles, fence posts, railroad
ties, ship timber, and snip planking, not specially
led for in this act.

Woods — Namely, cedar, lignumvitse, lance-
wood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rose-
wood, satin wood, and %\\ forms of ca&m**. woods,
in the log, rough or hewn; bamboo and rattan, un-
manufactured; briar root or briar wood, and simi-
lar wood unmanufactured, or not farther man-
ufactured than cut into blocks suitable for the ar-
ticles into which they are intended to be con-
vened; bamboo, reeds, and sticks of partridge,
hair wood, pimento, orange, myrtle, and other
woods not otherwise specially provided for in this
act, in the rough, or not further manufactured
than cut into lengths suitable for sticks for um-
brellas, parasols, sun-shades, whips, or walking-
canes; and India malacca joints not further man-
ufactured than cut into suitable lengths for the
manufactures into which they are intended to be
converted.

Works of art, the production of American artists
residing temporarily abroad or other works of art,
including pictorial paintings on glass, imported
expressly for presentation to a national institution
or to any State or municipal corporation or in-
corporated religious society, college, or other pub-
lic institution, except stained or painted window-
glass or stained or painted glass windows; bat such
exception shall be subject to such regulations as
the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe.
[Old law: Works of art, painting, statuary,
fountains and other works of art, the production
of American artists. Hut the fact of such pro-
duction must be verified by the certificate of a
consul or minister of the United States indorsed
upon the written declaration of the artist;
paintings, statuary, fountains, and other works of
art, imported expressly for presentation to na-
tional institutions, or to any State, or to any mu-
nicipal corporation or religious corporation or
society.]

Works of art, drawings, engravings, photo-
graphic pictures and philosophical and scientific
apparatus brought by profession si artists, lec-
turers, or scientists arriving ftcest abroad f- n e by
them temporarily for exhibiiio* .fthd
promotion, and encourages*^ ax. . -rrmce, or
industry in the United State* r<-*d act r sale,
and photographic pictures, -Intingr » statu-
ary. Imported for exhibition by aviy assoriition
established in good faith an an.v authorised
under the laws of the Unit* dS.mes oTsVany
State, expressly and solel f> r th -o - "Of. "or and
encouragement of scienc -, rr! In nsti and
not intended for sal-, aha?* b a **- . ee of
duty, under such s* lotion a »*;• r-ecretary
of the Treasury shat vreacrll; ;b !«nds h M be
r the pa; meet t Unit-.* States of
such duties as may* * unpoeca * - Uw upon any
and all of suchaftiVea a aVt no be exported
within six nv^jssi a er sue' Importation: Pro*
I o^ n.-tary of the Treasury may,
in his discretion .tend such period for a further
term of six mont'is In cases where applications
therefor shall be made.

Works of art, collections ta fllusrration of the
progress of the arts, science, or manufactures,
photogtaphs, works in terra cotta, panan, •
or porcelain and artistic copies of annuities sn
metal or other material, h

good faith for permanent exhibition at s fixed
place by any society or institution established for
the encouragement of the arts or of science, and
all tike articles imported in good faith by any so-
ciety or association for the purpose of erecting a
public monument, and not intended for sale, nor
for any other purpose than herein expressed; but
bonds shall be given under such rules and regula-
tions as the Secretary of the Treasury may pre-
scribe, for the payment of lawful duties which may
accrue should any of the articles aforesaid be sold,
transferred, or used contrary to this provision,
and such articles shall be subject, at any time, to
examination and inspection by the proper officers

THE TARIFF.

437

of the customs; Provided, That the privileges oi
this and the preceding section shall not be allowed
to associations or corporations engaged in or con-
nected with business of a private or commercial
character.
Yams.
Zaffsr.

Sec. 3. That with a view to secure reciprocal
trade with countries producing the following ar-
ticles, and for this purpose, on and after the first
day of January, eighteen hundred and ninety-two,
whenever and so often as the President shall be
satisfied that the government of any country pro-
ducing and exporting sugars, molasses, coffees,
teas, and hides, raw and uncured, or any of such
articles, imposes duties or other exactions upon the
agricultural or other products of the United States,
which in view of the free introduction of such
sugar, molasses, coffee, tea, and hides into the
United States he may deem to be reciprocally
unequal and unreasonable, he shall have the
power and it shall be his duty to suspend, by
proclamation to that effect, the provisions of this
act relating to the free introduction of such sugar,
molasses, coffee, tea, and hides, the production of
such country, for such time as he shall deem just,
and in such case and during such suspension
duties shall be levied, collected, and paid upon
sugar, molasses, coffee, tea, and hides, the pro-
duct of or exported from such designated country,
as follows — namely:

All sugars not above number thirteen Dutch
standard in color shall pay duty on their polari-
scopic tests as follows, namely:

All sugars not above number thirteen Dutch
standard in color, all tank bottoms, sirups of cane
juice or of beet juice, melada, concentrated melada,
concrete and concentrated molasses, testing by
the polariscope not above seventy-five degrees,
seven-tenths of one cent per pound, and for
every additional degree or fraction of a degree
shown by the polariscopic test, two hundredths of
one cent per pound additional.

All sugars above number thirteen Dutch stand-
ard in color shall be classified by the Dutch stand-
ard of color and pay duty as follows — namely:
AH sugar above number thirteen and not above
number sixteen Dutch standard of color, one and
three-eighths cents per pound.

All sugar above number sixteen and not above
number twenty Dutch standard of color, one and
five-eighths cents per pound.

All sugar above number twenty Dutch stand-
ard of color, two cents per pound.

Molasses testing above fifty-six degrees, four
cents per gallon.

Sugar (trainings and sugar sweepings shall be
subject to duty either as molasses or sugar, as
the case may be, accordingto polariscopic test.
On coffee, three cents per pound.
On tea, ten cents per pound.
Hides, raw or uncured, whether dry, saltea or
pickled. Angora goat-skins, raw, without the
wool, unmanufactured, asses* skins, raw or un-
manufactured, and skins, except sheep-skins,
with the wool on, one and one-half cents per
pound. [Section 3 is new matter.]

Sec, 4. That there shall be levied, collected and
paid on the importation of all raw or unmanufact-
ured articles, not enumerated or provided for in
this act, a duty often per centum ad valorem; and
on all articles manufactured, in whole or in part,
not provided for in this act, a duty of twenty per
centum ad valorem. [Old law: Ammonia, aqua
or water of, twenty per centum. Ammonia,
anhydrous, liquefied by pressure, twenty per
centum. Coal-tar, products of, such as naptna,
benzine, benzole, dead oil and pitch, twenty per
centum ad valorem. All non-dutiable crude min-
< rate, bat which have been advanced in value or
condition by refining or grinding, or by other
process of manufacture, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, ten per centum. Can-
dles and tapers of all kinds, twenty per centum.

Sec. 5. That each and every imported ar-
ticle, not 'enumerated in this act, which is
similar, either in material, quality, texture, or
the use to which it may be applied, to any article
enumerated in this act as chargeable with duty
shall pay the same rate of duty which is levied on
the enumerated article which it most resembles
in any of the particulars before mentioned; and if
any non-enumerated article equally resembles

two or more enumerated articles on which different
rates of duty are chargeable there shall be levied
on such non-enumerated article the same rate of
duty as is chargeable on the article which it re-
sembles paying the highest rate of duty; and on
articles not enumerated, manufactured of two or
more materials, the duty shall be assessed at the
highest rate at which the same would be charge-
able if composed wholly of the component ma-
terial thereof of chief value; and the words "com-
ponent material of chief value," wherever used in
this act , shall be held to mean that component mate-
rial which shall exceed in value any other single
component material of the article; and the value of
each:component material shall be determined by the
ascertained value of such material in its condition
as found in the article. If two or more rates of
duty shall be applicable to any imported article, it
shall pay duty at the highest of such rates. [Old
law: Sec. 2,499. There shall be levied, collected
and paid on each and every non-enumerated arti-
cle which bears a similitude either in material,
quality, texture, or the use to which it may be
applied, to any article enumerated in this title as
chargeable with duty, the same rate of duty which
is levied and charged on the enumerated article
which it most resembles in any of the particulars be-
fore mentioned; and if any non-enumerated article
equally resembles two or more enumerated articles
on which different rates are chargeable, there
shall be levied, collected, and paid on such non-
enumerated article the same rate of duty as is
chargeable upon the article which it resembles
paying the highest duty; and on all articles manu-
factured from two or more materials the duty shall
be assessed at the highest rates at which thecom-

?onent material of chief value may be chargeable,
f two or more rates of duty should be applicable
to any imported article, it shall be classified for
duty under the highest of such rates. Provided,
That non -enumerated articles similar in material
and quality and texture, and the use to which
they may be applied, to articles on the free list,
and in the manufacture of which no dutiable ma-
terials are used, shall be free.]

Sec. 6. That on and alter the first day of March,
eighteen hundred and ninety-one, all articles ol
foreign manufacture, such as are usually or ordi-
narily marked, stamped, branded, or labeled, and
all packages containing such or other imported ar-
ticles, shall, respectively, be plainly marked,
stamped, branded, or labeled in legible English
words, so as to indicate the country' of their origin;
and unless so marked, stamped, branded or labeled
they shall not be admitted to entry. [Section 6 is
new matter.]

Sec. 7. That on and after March first, eighteen
hundred and ninety-one, no article of imported
merchandise which shall copy or simulate the
name or trade-mark of any domestic manufacture
or manufacturer, shall be admitted to entry at any
custom house of the United States. And in order
to aid the officers of the customs in enforcing this
prohibition any domestic manufacturer who has
adopted trade-marks may require his name and
residence and a description of his trade-marks to
be recorded in books which shall be kept for
that purpose in the Department of the Treasury
under such regulations as the Secretary of the
Treasury shall prescribe, and may furnish to the
Department fac-similes of such trade-marks; and
thereupon the Secretary of the Treasury shall
cause one or more copies of the same to be trans-
mitted to each collector or other proper officer of
the customs. [Old law: Sec. 2,496. No watches,
watch-cases, watch-movements, or parts of
watch-movements, or any other articles of foreign
manufacture, which shall copy or simulate the
name or trade-mark of any domestic manufacture
(manufacturer), shall be admitted to entry at
the custom house of the United States, unless
such domestic manufacturer is the importer of the
same. And in order to aid the officers of the
customs in enforcing this prohibition, any domes-
tic manufacturer who has adopted trade-marks*
may require his name and residence and a de-
scription of his trade-marks to be Jrecorded in
books which shall be kept for that purpose in the
Department of ithe Treasury, under such regula-
tions as the Secretary of the Treasury shall pre-
scribe, and may furnish to the Department fac-
similes of such trade-marks; and thereupon the
Secretary of the Treasury shall cause one or more

copies of the same to be transmitted to each col-
lector or other proper officer of the customs. ]

Sec. 8. That all lumber, timber, hemp, nianil.i
wire ropes and iron and steel rods, bars, spikes,
nails, plates, tees, angles, beams, and bolts anc
copper and composition metal which may be nec-
essary for the construction and equipment of ves-
sels built in the United States /or foreign account
and ownership or for the purpose of being em-

Sloyed in the foreign trade, including the trade
etween the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the
United States; after the passage of this act, may
be imported in bond under such regulations as the
Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe; and
upon proof that such materials have been used
for such purpose no duties shall be paid thereon.
But vessels receiving the benefit of this section
shall not be allowed to engage in the coastwise
trade of the United States more than two months
in any one year, except upon the payment to the
United States of the duties on which a rebate is
herein allowed: Provided, That vessels built in
the I 'nited States for foreign account and own-
ership shall not be all&ioed to engage in the
coastwise trade of the United States.

Sec. q. That all articles of foreign production
needed for the repair of American vessels engaged
in foreign trade, including the trade betzveen the
Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United States,
may be withdrawn from bonded warehouses free ot
duty, under such regulations as the Secretary of
the Treasury may prescribe.

Sec. 10. That all medicines, preparations, com-
positions, perfumery, cosmetics, cordials and
other liquors manufactured wholly or in part of
domestic spirits, intended for exportation, as pro-
vided by law, in order to be manufactured and
sold or removed, without being charged with duty
and without having a stamp affixed thereto, shall,
under such regulations as the Secretary of the
Treasury may prescribe be made and manufact-
ured in warehouses similarly constructed to those
known and designated in Treasury regulations as
bonded warehouses, class two: Provided , That
such manufacturer shall first give satisfactory
bonds to the collector of internal revenue for the
faithful observance of all the provisions of law,
and the regulations as aforesaid, in amount not
less than half of that required by the regulations of
the Secretary of the 1 reasury from persons al-
lowed bonded warehouses. Such goods, when
manufactured in such warehouses, may be removed
for exportation under the direction of the proper
officer having charge thereof, who shall be des-
ignated by the Secretary of the Treasury, without
being charged with duty, and without having a
stamp affixed thereto. Any manufacturer of the
articles aforesaid, or any of them, having such
bonded warehouse as aforesaid, shall be at liberty
under such regulations as the Secretary of the
Treasury may prescribe, to convey therein any
materials to be used in such manufacture which
are allowed by the provisions of law to be ex-
ported free from tax or duty, as well as the neces-
sary materials, implements, packages, vessels,
brands, and labels for the preparation, putting up,
and export of the said manufactured articles; and
every article so used shall be exempt from the pay-
ment of stamp and excise duty by such manufact-
urer. Articles and materials so to be used may
be transferred from any bonded warehouse in which
the same may be, under such regulation as the
Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, into
any bonded warehouse in which such manufacture,
may be conducted and may be used in such manu-
facture, and when so used shall be exempt from
stamp and excise duty; and the receipt of the officer
in charge as aforesaid shall be received as a voucher
for the manufacture of such articles. Any mate-
rials imported into the United States may, tinder
such rules as the Secretary of the Treasury may
prescribe, and under the direction of the proper
officer, be removed in original packages rfrom on
shipboard, or from the bonded warehouse in which
the same may be, into the bonded warehouse in
which such manufacture maybe carried on, for the
purpose;ofbeing[usedin such manufacture, without
payment of duties thereon, and may there be used
in such manufacture. No article so removed, nor
any article manufactured in said bonded ware-
house, shall be taken therefrom except for expor-
tation, under the direction of the proper officer
having charge thereof as aforesaid, whose certifi-

^==SSv?

438

THE TAIUKI-

cate, describing the articles by their mark or other-
wise, th«- quantity, the date of importation, and
name of vessel, with such additional particulars as
nny hum time to time be required, shall be re-
ceived by the collector of customs in cut,.
of the bond or return of the amount of foreign im-
port duties. All labor performed and services
rendered under these regulations shall be under
the supervision of an officer of the customs, and at
the expense of the manufacturer. [Some change

in text, 1

Sec. 11. All persons are prohibited from import-
ing into the United States from any foreign
country any obscene book, pamphlet, paper, writ-
ing, advertisement, circular .print, picture, drawing
or other representation, figure or image on or of
paper or other material, or any cast, instrument
or other article of an immoral nature, or any
drug or medicine, or any article whatever, for the
prevention of conception, or for causing unlawful
abortion. No such articles, whether imported
separately or contained in packages with other
goods entitled to entry, shall be admitted to entry;
and all such articles shall be proceeded against,
seized and forfeited by due course of law. All
such prohibited articles and the package in which
they are contained in the course of importation
shall be detained by the officer of customs, and
proceedings taken against the same as prescribed
in the following section, unless it appears to the
satisfaction of the collector of customs that the
obscene articles contained in the package were
inclosed therein without the knowledge or consent
of the importer, owner, agent or consignee;
Provided, That the drugs hereinbefore men-
tioned, when imported in bulk and not put up for
any of the purposes hereinbefore specified are
excepted from the operation of this section.
[Note — Changes text of sections 3,491, 2,492,
2,493, Revised Statutes.]

Sec. 13. That whoever, being an officer, agent
or employe of the government of the United
States, shall knowingly aid or abet any person en-
gaged in any violation of any of the provisions of
law prohibiting importing, advertising, dealing in,
exhibiting or sending or receiving by mail obscene
or indecent publications, or representations, or
means for preventing conception or procuring abor-
tion, or other articles of indecent or immoral use
or tendency, shall be deemed guilty of a misde-
meanor, and shall for every offence be punishable
by a fine of not more than five thousand dollars,
or by imprisonment at hard labor for not more
than ten years, or both.

Sec. 13. That any judge of any district or cir-
cuit court of the United States, within the proper
district, before whom complaint in writing of any
violation of the two preceding sections is made,
to the satisfaction of such judge, and founded on
knowledge or belief, and if upon belief, setting
forth the grounds of such belief, and supported by
oath or affirmation of the complainant, may issue
conformably to the constitution , a warrant directed
to the marshal or any deputy marshal, in the
proper district, directing him to search for, seize
and take possession of any such article or thing
mentioned in the two preceding sections, and to
make due and immediate return thereof to the
end that the same may be condemned and de-
stroyed by proceedings, which shall be conducted
in the same manner as other proceedings in the
case of municipal seizure, and with the same right
of appeal or writ of error.

Sec. 14. That machinery for repair may be im-
ported into the United States without payment of
duty, under bond, to be given in double the ap-
praised value thereof, to be withdrawn and ex-
ported nfter said machinery shall have been re-
and tiie Secretary of the Treasury is au-
and directed to prescribe such rules and
regulations as may be necessary to proiei t the
revenue against fraud, and secure the identity and
character of all such Importation* when again
withdrawn and exported, restricting and !
the export and withdrawal to the tame j
entry where Importi d. and alto limiting ill bonds
1 not more than six months
from the date of the importation.

S< 1 15. That the produce of the forests of the
State of Mama upon the St John rives
trfDOtarfee. owned be American citizens, and
sawed or hewed in the province of New Bruns-

wick by American citizens, the same being
unmanufactured in whole or pan ,
admitted into the ports of the United States free
of duty, shall continue to be so admitted under
such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury
•ball from time to time, prescribe.

Thai the produce of the forests of the
State of Maine upon the St. Croix river and its
tributaries owned by American citizens, and
sawed in the Province of New Brunswick by
American citizens, the same being unmanufact-
ured in whole or in part, shall be admitted into
the ports of the United States free of duty, under
such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury
shall, from time to time, prescribe.

Sec. 17. That a discriminating duty often per
centum ad valorem, in addition to the duties im-
posed by law, shall be levied, collected and paid
on all goods, wan I or merchandise which shall be
imported in reatshtBOt of the United States; but
this discriminating duty shall not apply to goods,
wares and merchandise which shall be imported in
vessels not of the United States, entitled, by treaty
or any act of congress, to be entered in the
ports of the United States on payment of the
same duties as shall then be paid on goods, wares
and merchandise imported in vessels of the United
Stales.

Sec. 18. That no goods, wares or merchandise,
unless in cases provided for by treaty, shall be
imported Into the United States, from any foretgn
port or place, except in vessels of the United
States, or in sin h foreign vessels as truly and
wholly belong to the citizens or subjects of that
country of which the goods are the growth, pro-
duction or nun. rom which such goods,
wares or merchandise can only be, or most
usually arc, first shipped for transportation. All
goods, wares or merchandise imported contrary
to this section, and the vessel wherein the same
shall be imported, together with her cargo, tackle,
apparel and furniture, shall be forfeited 10 the
United States; and such goods, wares or mer-
chandise, ship or vessel and cargo shall be liable to
be seized, prosecuted and condemned, in like
manner and under the same regulations, re-
strictions and rrovisons as have been h<
established for the recovery, collection, distribu-
tion and remission of forfeitures to the United
States by the several revenue Ian s.

Sec. 19. That the preceding section shall not
apply to vessels or gift r merchandise

imported in vessels of a foreign nation which does
not maintain a similar regulation against vessels
of the United States.

Sec. 20. That the importation ot neat cattle
and the hides of neat cattle from any foreign
country Into the United Stales is prohibited: Pro-
vtdtd, That the operation of thai ascthmabaJI be
suspended as to any foreign country or countries,
or any pans of such country or countries, when-
ever the Secretary of the Treasury shall officially
determine, and give publice notice thereof that
such importation will not tend to the introduction
or spread of contagious or infectious diseases
among the cattle of the United States; and the
Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized
and empowered, and it shall be his duty, to make
all necessary orders and regulations to cany this
section into effect, or to suspend the same as
therein provided, and to send copies thereof to the
proper or at, and to such

officers or agents of the United States in foreign
countries as ne shall judge necessary.

Sec. 21. That any 1 ted of a* willful

violation of any of the - 1 ceding

•hall be fined not exceeding five hundred

dollars, or imprisoned not exceeding one year, or

both, in tin- discretion of the court.

Sec. 2 j. That upon the reimportation of articles
once exported of the. | tact or manu-

fat ture 1 -t the Unhed States, upon whfc h no inter-
i.l ti , or upon which

toch tax has Urn paid and refunded by allow-

drawhack, there shall be levied, collected

(] to the tax imposed by the
internal-rcvenu< . except

tirticits manufactured m ^eaaaW wm rtk m u tt

and exf»orttd pmrtm • •Mkk j*«7/rV

suh'ret to the same rate <fdnty at (/ originally
imported.

\, That whenever any vessel ladened

with merchandise in whole or in pan sol
duty has been sunk in any river, harbor, bay or
water subject to the jurisdiction of the United
States, arid within its limits, for the period of two
years, and' is abandoned by the owner thereof,
any person who may raise such vessel shall be per*
milled to bring any merchandise recovered there-
from into the port nearest to the place where such
vessel was so raised, free from the payment of any
duty thereupon, and without being obliged to
enter the same at the custom house; but under
such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury
may prescribe.

4. That the works of manufacturers en-
gaged in smelting or refining metals in the Unhed
States may be designated as bonded warebooscs
under sucn regulations as tha Secretary of the
Treasury may prescribe; Provided, That 1

manufacturers shall first give satisfactory I
to the Secretary of the Treasury. Metals in any
crude form requiring smelting or refining to
make them readily available in the arts, imported
inio the United States to be smelted or refined
and intended to be exported in a refined Lot on-
manufactured state, shall, under such rules as the
Secretary of the Treasury maypresoibe and under
the direction of the proper officer be removed in
original packages or in bulk from the vessel or
ot her vehicle on which it has been imported, or from
the bonded warehouse in which the same may be,
into the bonded warehouse in which such smelting
and refining may be carried on, for the purpose of
being smelted and refined without payment of
duties thereon, and may there be smelted and re-
fined together with other metals of home or
foreign production: Pror-ided, That each day a
quantity of refined metal equal to the amount of
imported metal refined that day shall beset aside,
and such metal so set aside shall not be taken
from said works except for exportation, tinder the
direction of the proper officer having charge
thereof as aforesaid, whose certificate, describing
the articles by their marks or otherwise, the
quantity, the date of importation and the name of
vessel or other vehicle by which it was imported,
m ah such additional particulars as may from time
to time be required, shall be received by the collec-
tor of customs as sufficient evidence of the expor-
tation of the metal, or it may be removed, under
such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury-
may prescribe, to any other bonded w .1 rehouse , or
upon entry for, and payment of dune-, for domes-
tic consumption. All labor performed and serv-
ices rendered under these regulations shall be
under the supervision of an officer of the <
to be appointed by the Secretary of the T: _
and at the expense ot the manufacturer. [No
New provision.]

Sec. 25. That where imported materials, on
which duties have been paid, are used in the man-
ufacture of articles manufactured or produced in
the United States, there shall be allowed on the
exportation of such articles a drawback equal
in amount to the duties paid on the materials
used, less one per centum of such duties: Pro-
-ided. That when the articles exported are
made in part from domestic materials, the im-
ported materials, or the parts of the articles made
from such materials shall so appear in the com-
pleted articles that the quantity or measure
thereof may l>e ascertained: And /rorided
further. That the drawback on any article al-
lowed under existing law shall be continued at the
rate herein provided. That the imported mate-
rials used in the manufacture or production of
articles entitled to drawback of customs duties
when exported shall in all cases where drawback
of duties paid on such materials is claimed, be
identified, the quantity of such materials used and
the amount of duties paid thereon shall be as-
certained, ihe facts of the manufacture or pro-
of such ankles in t •** and
their exportation therefrom shall be determined,
and the drawback due thereon shall be paid to the
turer, producer or exporter, to the agent
of either or 10 the person to whom such manu-
exporter i»r agent shall
in wrttr ach drawback paid, under
such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury"
shall prescnl>e. [This is an enlargement of the
tti ot sections 3,019 and 3,oao Revised
Statutes.]

<s *~

A LIGHTNING CALCULATOR.

439

IRIE^IDTZ" I3ECaZ©3*TE.ie.

For Computing the Price of Cattle, Hogs, Cotton, or Any Commodity Sold by the Hundred or Part of the Hundred.

If the desired amount or quantity is not in the table, add two numbers together.

$ Cls.

$ Cts.

t Cts.

$ C;..

S Ct>.

$ Ctg.

* Cts.

g il...

t? Cls.

* t'L.

$ Cts.

• (1 .

LBS.

3'i

*«

t>ii

. r .'i

ro2~

!02~

"ST"

T6F"

.05

.03
.06

J>3~
.06

"oi -

.04

.05

.'15

.10 -

.15~"~

.io -

.16

.06

.04
.06 -

04
,(T

.07
10

.07
.11

.08
.13

.09
.13

.09
.14

.07
.10

.09

.10

.17

.08

(19

.12

.13

.15

.16

.20

.17

.18

.19
.21
.28

.20
.2S -
.30 -
.35 _

.11

.31
•T"

.22

.21

.23

.10

.12

.14

.15

.16
.19

.17
.21

.24

.19

.22
.26

.21

.22
5T"

.12
.14

.13

Tie -

.15
.17 -

.16

.18

.24

.25

.31

.19

.21

.28

.30

.31

.33

.08

.40

.16

.18

.2<P

.22

.24

.26

.28

.30

.32

.34

.36

.38
.43

.40
.45

.42

.44

.46

.25

.27

.29

.31

.36

.34

.36

.38

.40

.47

.49

.52

.22

.25
50 -

.27
.55

.30

.32

.37

.40

.42

.45

.47

.50

.82

.55

.57

.60

■ .65

.70

.75
1 12

.90

.95

1 00

1 05
1.57

1.10

165

1 15

.60

Tbo -

1.00
1 20

.67
90

.75
1 00

.82

.90

.97

I 05

1.20

i n

1 35

1.42

I 50

1 72

1.10
1 37
1 65

1 20
V.bO~
1 SO

1 30

1.40

1.(0

1.87
2 26

1 60

too

2 40

1 70
S.1S

2*55

1 80
2.25

2 70

1.90

T37 -

2.85

1 f)0~

3" 00

:T.6d -

•: id

3 11 t

2 20
2~75 —

2.30

1 12
1.35

1 25
1 50

1 62
1 96

1 75

2 10

2.87

8 l".

3 67

3 30
3 85

3.45

1 40
1 60

1 80

2 00
4 00

6 00~

8 00
10 OO
12 00
14 00
16 00
18 00

20 00 -
22T00 -

21 00
26 00 -

a oo

30 00

1 57

1 80

2 02

2 25 _
4 50
6 75

1 75

2 00

2 25

1 92

2 10

2 27

2.45

2 62

2 80

2.97

3.15

3.32

4.02

2.20
2 47

2.40
2.70

2 60
2 92

2 80

3 15

3 00
3.37

3 20

3.40

3 60

3.80

4.00

4 20

4 40

4.60

3 60

3.82

4 05

4.27

4.50

4 95

5 17

100

2 50

2 75

3.00

3 25

3 50

3 78
7.50
11 25
15 00
18 75

i 00
8 00
12 00
16 00

4 25

4 50

4 75

5 OO

6 25
10 50~

15.75

5 50
11.00

l»; oil -

5 75

200

5 00

7.50

5 50

6.00

6 50

7 00
11 50
14 00

8 50
12 75

n.oo

9 00

9 50

111 (HI

11.80

300

8 25
11 00
13 75

~fi so-

9 00
12 00
15 00

9.76
U 00

13 50
18 00

14 26
19 00

15 OO
20 00~"

17.25

400

9 00

1125

10 00
12 50

n in

■ a

a i«i

27.50

23 00

500

to a

17 50

20 00

21 25

22 50

a 76

2S i»l

28.75

600

13 50

15 00

18 OO

19 50

21 OO

a jo

24 00

25 50

27 00

a a

30 00

31 50

a.oo

34.50

too

15 75
18 00

20*25
22.50
24.75

n oo

29 25
31 50

17 50

la 26

21.00

22.75

24 50

26 25
30 00
S3 75
37 50

1 1 .a

■If, 1)0

29 76

31 50

33 25

a is

38.50

40.25

800

20 00
J2.58

25 00
27 50
30 00

tS 1)0
24 75
27.50
30.25
33.00

24 00
27.00
90 M~
S3 do
36.00

26 00
29 25
32.50
85.75

28 00
31 50
35 00
38.50

32 00
36 00
40 00
44 00

34 00

36 00

38 00
42 75

40 00
45 00
50.00

42.00
47 25~~
52 50

57 75~~

44.00
49 50
5570O -

wHo -

411 0"

900

38 26

40 50

51.75

1,000
1,100

42.50
46 76

45 00
49 50

51 ST"

17 M
57 00

67.50
63.26

1,200

:-11t 110

42.00

45 00

48.00

51 00

00.00

63 00

66 00

69.00

1,3011

32 50
35 00

35 75
38.50
41.25

39 00
42.00
45 00

42.25
45 ST*

45 50
49 OO -

48.75
52.50

5s~ a -

52.00

a a

H M

61 75

a m

ts- 2:".
73 50

71.50

74 75

1,100

56 00
60 00

59 50

a mi

M H

70 00

77.00

80.50

1,500

a n

37 50

48 75

52.50

63.75

67 50
72~00
7610 -
81.00
85 50

71 25

in BT

8550

75 00

a i»i
a no

900C -

a m

100 <>o

78 75
84 00

a n~

94 50
9T75 -
105 00

a .Ml

86.25

1,600

32.00
34. OO -

aToo -

40 (HI -

36 00
38.25
40 50
42.75~
45 00

10 00

44 00

48.00

52,00

56 00

:■:. s>~
63.00

60 00
63 75

64 00

68 00

68 00
72T25 -

ot a

93 50

S ..r

to.OO

1,700

42 50

M Tfi

51 00

55 25

97.75

1,800

45 00

49 50

54 00

68.60

67 50

72 00

76.50

103.50

1.900

47.50
50.00

52.25
55.00

57.00
60 00

01.78

66 50

71.25

76 00

80.75

tH.M
110.00

109.25

1,000

65.00

70 00

10., mi

— itu 55"

76.00
112 50

i;.u ("i

SO 00
120 00
160 00

— 20(1 00

08 00
127.50

n a
ia 00

116.00

3,000

60.00
80~00

mxfoo -

67.50
MOO

75 00
HO m"

82.58
110 00

90 00

- no otT"

97 50

200 B"

250.00

. 107 50

jio 5T

203 s3

165 00

172.50

4,000

1711 110

— aiiTso ■

160 iKt

225.00

1911 00

220.00
275 00

no.oo

5,000

112.50

125.00

137 50

150 00

162.50

175.00

187 00

m.50

287.50

E.B8.

6'i

8 '4

9)4

.06

.06
13 -
.19

.07

.08

.6.

.09

.10

.12

.19 -

.25 -

.13
.20

.14

.15

.16

.24

.16
.25

.17
.25

.18

.19

.18

.21

.22

.22
TJ7 -

.23
T31 -

.26

.27

.28

.29

.24

.30

.26

.27

.28

.29
.36

.32

.33
.41 —

.31

.35

.36

.37

.38

.39

.31

.32

■35

.39

.40

.42

.44

.45

.46

.47

.49

.36

.37

.39

.47

.42

.43

.45

.46

.49

.51

.62

.54

.55

.57

.68

.42

.44

.15

.47

.49

.51

.52
.60 -

.54
.62

.56

"ST

.58
T66~

.59

.76

.61

.65

.66

.68

.48

.52

.54

.56

.58

.70

?79~

.72

.74

.76

.78

.64

.56

.58

.61

.65

.67

.72

.74

.81

.83

.85

.88

44°

READY RECKONER.

ISE^A-ID-Z- RECICOasrEie.— Ooatlaa-aedL

< Cl«.

t IT.

t CI..

» cu:

t Cu.

8 Cu.

* Cu.

« Bar.

» 1 •-.

• Cu.

8 I ••

" *6mT

I. ns.

6!i

7«

»X

.62

.65

.67

.72

-2

.87

»2

1.20

1 25

1 SO

1.35

1 40

1 15

1 50

1 55

1 Ml

1 65

1 70

i.n

1 XI

1 -5

1 «

1 M)

1 87

1.05

2.02

2 10

I 17

2 25

2 32

2.40

1.49

2 55

».«-

2 70

2 77

a oo

; »2

2.40

2 60

I 711

2 N

2 90

3 00

I 10

3 20

3 .91

3 10

3 50

■
.50

a 70

a m

3 88

I 00

a 12

3.25

| 37

I Ml

a 62

3 75

a 87

4 Mi

4 12

4 ■

4 37

4 62

4 78

4 «7

I 00

3.00

4.05

I 211

4 35

i m

. at.

l.fj

4 86

'., 10

5 25

5 10

5 15

5 70

8.88

4 20

4.37

4.55

4.72

4 1)0

5 07

5 25

5 42

5 Ml

5 77

5 95

6 12

8.80

6 47

808

4 M

5 00

:, in

5 40

I M

5 80

• 00

| 20

• 40

I 60

6 «!

7 08

7 JO

7 40

7 4*.

7 -,

5 40

5 62

6 ■

« "7

ii ■

6 52

., 75

• 87

7 .-)

7 41

7 61

7 87

lit

- 32

100

1, Ml

6 25

6 50

6 75

7 00

7.25

7 50

7,75

6 00

- 35

!■ 50

- 75

800

9 ■

> 50

8 78

1200

12 50

13.00

II H

14 00

Ii 10

15 50

16 mi

17 M)

17 50

l- 00

1- Ml

1» 00

1» 50

500

1- Ml
21 Ml

1" Ml '

l« T.i

25 Mi

19 50
26 Ml
2.2 H

111 2.5

21 M

21 75

22.50

23 25

21 80

25 N

26 25

87.00

27 75

H 5o

3 21

400

27 Ml

2- Ml
35 00

20 00
50 75

30.00
45 W

31 00

81 88

83 00

31 DO

So 00

88 00

37 00

38 W

3* M)

500

■ 75
40 Ml

40 Ml
48 Ml

41 2..
4» 50

42 »

41 75

45 IMI

4« 25

17 10

1- 71

•00

H Ml
42.00

ST 50
3 75

121 Ml
42, Ml

40 50
47 25

" ID Ml

11 OO

52 50

54 00

15 50

57 M)

> 10

700

54 a

57 75

59 OJ

..I M,

64 75

46 50

n.n

»fci

Mil

Ml Ml

M Ml

58 50

54 00
60 75

81 00

S3 Ml

M Ml

li'l g~

' 72 50

07 50

" 75 .«r

OJ Ml

•7 75
77 50

64 00

72 M)

o, 88
71 25

N •»
76 50

7» 75

72 80

81 M)

71 00

7« 00

7- M)

•00

54 00

1,11 Ml

H 00

72.00

M It

83 25

15 50

•7 75

I 000

62 Ml

im ;-,

R Ml

65.00
71.50
78 00

117 Ml

75 Ml

Ml 00

62 50

•5 00

► 7 M

It 00

82 58

9, Ml

81 88

1,100

71 25

77 00

7» 75

"7 HO

82 50
911 00

85 25

■ Ml

80 75

M N

99 MJ

mi 75

1»4 Ml

107 25

81.00

84 Ml

93 Ml

H no

v.. Ml

ttl w

on M.

111 OX

114 M.

117 00

1,900

n mi

81.25

84.50

87.75

91 Ml

84.25

87 50

104 Ml

107 M

113 75

117 00
126 00

MS ■
128 58

123 58

126 71

1,400

HI Ml

87 M

'.II Ml

98 Ml

mi mi

lo5 00

lo« 80

112 Ml

115 5(1

118 00

122 50

133 00

1M 58

1,500

Ml Ml

M 19

07.50

Hll .'.'I

105 Ml

100 75

112 in

11., 25

120 00

12.1 7 5

127 50

131 25

135 00

188 25

111M

146 ■

1,600

96 08

IMI Ml

Iiil 1)0

111.-" Ml

112 Ml

110 Ml

1211 Ml

12" 00

122 Ml

1.16 00
" 111 5o

1411 Ml

1.4 Mi

U» 00
157 25

U8 Ml

114 .,

1,710

III' Ml

IN at

110 50

III 77,

llll Ml

180 Mi

101 2,

1 18 |8

157. ...

■•5 75

I.HJMI

100 Ml

112 50

117 Ml

121 50

185.00

139 18

114 Ml

148 50

153 00

157 ill

i«2 n

]!», Ml

175 M

l MO

HI Ml
1211 Oil"

n» ;:,

122 H

128 2".

133 Ml
11.1 Ml

137 75

11, Ml

HI 50

147 25

152 Ml

III 7 5

161 50

1.* 25

171 0»

175 75

1M. .50

185 88

1,000

125 00

135 Ml

DO no

155 HO

IMI Ml

It, 00

170 00

175 00

1-0 00

M oo

1W 08

185 88

: ON

181 50

r... mi

an M

no mi

225 00

232 Ml

247 Ml

255 OO

an so

270 OO

277 50

885W

an 88

;imi 93 '

no mi

200 Ml

2711 Ml

2911 Ml

..in 88

120 00

ajo mi

.110 00

O.l ...

.9.1 Ml

370 go

888 88

an w

5,000

:H2 ..ii

325 00

187.68

(U Ml

202 50

375 00

3-7 88

4,.i ...

412 -1

425 Ml

437 50

4Ml N

482 50

.: ■ ■.

4-' 50

l.ll.s.

10J 4 -

llll.

lu-

11 '4

iiH

1'2',

1-".

1:1 '4

.10

.11

.18

.14

211

.20

.21

.22

2:1

.23

.881

.27

.30

.81

.31

.33

.34

.87

.88

.41

.40

.42

.43

.44

.56

.47

■

.60

.51

.52

.64

•■

.57

.81

.75

•4

.18

.86

.IT

.60 ,

•1

.66
.77

,67
.78 '

.60

.70

7 2

.73

.78

.81

.70

.72

.78

.80

-4

-3

.81

111

.80
.80

.62

.84

.88
.87

'19

1 10

2 20

.84

1 00

1 03

1 04
1 17

1 06

1.0*

1.18

•

.04

1 01
1 12

1 03
1.15

IK
1 17

1 12

1 15

1 IS

1 tl

1 21

1 00

2 Ml

1 112

2 06

1 113

2 10

1 07

1 25

I.l)

13*

1 .12

1 35

1.37

2 25

1 n

■2 35

a 46

1 50

2 55

286

2 70

1.75

3 Ml

3 07

8 15

1 311

3 .I"

3.37

3 45

3 52

4 70

.1 Ml
. -11

8.16

2 -2

3 »o

.1 97

4 05

1.12

4 00

1 111

4.40

4 50

4 80

5 l»

8 10

5 JO

1 SO

1.50

5 00

6.12
6 15

5 25

" " 1. 7,0

7 3.7

1, 1 5
T52 -

f.70 -

5 62

6 75

5 87

1. Ml

• 12

886

7 50

6 ST

• 5*

6 61

4-7

II Ml

8 75

7 87

9 Ml
10 12

• SO

|g .,
11 60

33 Ml

7 n

7 SO

7 35

7 90

1 IS

-24

7 Ml

7 17

in 57
47 oc

7 ". , Ml

1711 Ml

17 i.l
4- i.l

-, Ml

600 H

8 57

8 75

9 1.1

» 27

8 45

8 Ml

8^5o —

10.00

8 20

8 1.1

i 1..

1(1.50

I 6.1

8.80

24 B

" « 75

117 00

100 Ml '

*TB K

175 i\)
•25 00

10 20

11 17

10 40

lo 60

ion

11.00

9 22
III 2..

10 75

II 78

17 57

Ii. 1

II Ml

12 75

II oil

11.73

211 M

41 Ml
1,1 Ml

3, B

I! Ml
33 .50

..1 00

2 1 Ml
32 25

22 Ml

■35 .50

■ 50

27 (»

17.50

3MI

.1.1 Ml

5 1 Ml

S3 75

S- 25

39 75

68 as

64 n

11.71

400

Ml Ml

(3 Ml

41 Ml

4. Ml
U 25

101 3

8C Ml

93 Ml

11 . oo

6.1 75
74 50

89 25
102 Ml
111 75
177 50

17- Ml
637 7*

5i.n

600

53 75
64 Ml

86 Ml

11- 26
138 : .

161 '.

173 Ml

215 Ml

88 Ml

11" Ml

1 '1 Ml

1 IS Ml
151 Ml

1«7 00

2311 Ml
3311 Ml
(HI Ml

88 25

87. M

6-71

600

7- Ml

79 5.

IUI'

.11 ,.l

ST Tl

94 50

--•»

8MI

"II I.I

IMI l"l

1 311 Ml

130 Ml
llll Ml

IMI Ml
170 Ml
180 Ml

2181 Ml

" 9-2 25 '
I"/ ....

1 !3 Ml

I'll Ml
(III Ml

517 Ml

105 Ml

l.'ll Ml
1 ,0 Ml

11. Ml
10- Ml

178 50

211' Ml
4211 Ml

inn

m 00

laUi

m 10'

113 75

135 0."

117 5.

its n

14.50

111.25

135 Ml
III, 25

1 .- ...

161 00

sal aj

nan

165 00

16* in

1:1 ■

HUI

1,400

I.21W

185 Ml

"aas 5» -

ss5 n

inn

1*1.3*

16- 75
18

|8| Ml

7311 Ml

m.so

21. 2 5

* 141 OO

28' Ml

11ST5

247 1.

ISO. 58

~no.n-

stilt

"»■»

112.58

54.. .«

...«.

5 .0 Ml

.,: . I.I

4*77.58

4 k=

■f « — •-

AN INSTANTANEOUS METHOD OF COMPUTING INTEREST.

441

<""" " "---'•' •~yBM*SB^»*aaa^*A***s*^*M*******M*i*3S

To compute interest at three per cent, divide the figures in the six per cent table bv two. To compute interest at eight per cent, double the figures
in the four per cent table ; at ten per cent, double the figures in the five per cent table ; at nine per cent, make the computation at three per cent and
multiplv the result bv three.

TABLES OF INTEREST.

-A.T TOXTTS PEB CE1TT.

DAYS. MONTHS.

Ye»r.
1

12 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 i 1 2 3 1 a 6 7 8 9 10 11

Anil.

INTEREST.

t $1 1

00000000000000000000

00111222333

000000

00000000000000000000

01 2 284 45667

*:;

11 1) 11 6 11

000000000 0001111111

12 3 456 789 10 11

12
16~

•4

00000000

000000001111111111111

12 4 5 6 8 9 10 12 1 1 1 1

00000000

00000111111. 1111111111

13 5 6 8 10 11 13 15 16 18

00000000

000111111111111222222

14 9 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

00000000

011111111112 22 2 222222

'2 4 7 9 11 14 16 18 21 23 25

00000000

1 111111112 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 24 27 29

0, 1

1 111111122 2 2 222222333

3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33

■10

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 22 2 2222 2 233333

3 6 10 13 16 20 23 26 80 33 37

$100

12 3 4 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 15 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 29 30 31 32

33 67 1.00 1.33 1.67 2.00 2.33 2.67 3.00 8.33 3.67

4.00

S1.000

11 22 33 14 56 60 74 89 l.im 1.11 l.ll 1.33 1.44 LM 1.H7 1.7s 1 .s<4 1,00 '.Ml 2.22 MB 144 IM M7 L7I LSI MOMl Ml

Ml «.*>! in. mi IMI it.'iT SMI SMI SM7 ;i "."" *■'■■■'■* SMI

40.00

-A.T PIVE FES OE1TT.

DATS. MONTHS.

Year
1

12 3 4 6 6 7

8 9 10 11 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Ami.

INTEREST.

0000000000000000000000

01112233444
11234566769

5
15"

•1

11 1) 11

0000000000000000001111

0000000001111 11111 1111

11 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 14

0000011111111111111111

13 5 6 8 10 11 13 15 16 18

000111111111111112 2 222

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 19 21 23

111111111112 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22 25 27

11111111112 2 2222222223

3 6 9 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 32

:i.i

•a

1 11 1 1 1 1 12 222 2 22 2233333

3 6 10 13 16 20 23 27 30 33 IT

••

I 1 1 1 112 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 S 3 3

4 7 11 15 19 22 26 30 34 37 41

$10

1 1 1 1 122 2222 2 333 333 3 444

4 8 12 16 21 25 29 33 37 42 46

$100 1 1 3 4 5 7 8 9

11 11 14 la 16 18 19 21 22 23 2a 26 28 29 30 32 33 34 36 37 89 40

41 83 1.25 1.67 2.09 2.50 2.91 3.83 3.76 4.17 4.59

5.00
MUM

81,000 |l4 28 41 55 70 83 97 1.11 1.2a 1.39 I.5S 1.66 1.86 1.94 2.08 2.22 2.36 2.502.64 2.78 2.91 3.05 3.203.333.47 3.61 3.7a 3.89 4.03

4.16 6.83 12.50 16.67 20.83 25.00 29.16 33.33 37.50 41.67 45.88

-A.T SI2C PEB CENT.

DAYS. MONTHS.

Yt-ar.

12 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 | 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11

Am'l.

INTEREST.

0000000000000000000000

11223 3 44556

000000011111111111 1 I 1 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1

2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14 U 17

18
24

1111111111111112 222222

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 U

1 1

1111111111222 2 22223222

3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 S3 18

1 1 1

1111111222222222238833

3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33

S7
(8

1 1 1

111112 22 2 2222233333333

4 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32 35 39

111

1 1 1 12 2 2222.2333 8 383 3 4 4 4

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44

11 1 1

11222222 2 333333344 4 4 4 4

5 9 11 18 23 27 32 36 41 45 50

(10

lioo"

I 1 1 1 1

122 2 222333333444444555

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 65

2 3 5 7 8 10 12

irusor 8:1 i.k 1.17

13 15 17 18 20 22 23 25 27 28 80 32 33 35 37 38 40 42 43 45 47 48

50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50

COO

•1,000

.33 1.50 1.67 1.83 2.00 2.17 2.33 2.50 2.67 2.83 3.00 3.17 3.33 3.50 3.67 3.83 4.00 4.17 4.33 4.50 4.67 4.83

5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 65.00

•Ml

-A.T SEVE1T tE»BI5 CENT.

DAYS. MONTHS.

Ye»r.

12 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 la 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2a 26 27 28 29 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Am'l.

INTEREST.

0000O000000000O000 1 1 1 1

112 2 3445567

00000111 ill 1 11 11 111 I 11

1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13

01111111111111111 12122

2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16 18 19

11111111111122222 2 2222

S 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21 23 26

•1

1 1

1111111122 22 2 222223333

3 6 9 12 15 18 20 23 26 29 32

1 1 1

1111122222222 2333 3 3 333

4 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32 35 39

«7

11 1 1

11112222222333333 3 4444

4 8 12 16 20 25 29 83 37 41 45

11 1 1

1 1 22222 2 233333344 4 4 4 4 5

5 9 14 19 23 28 S3 37 42 47 51

111 1 1

1222222333334444445555

5 11 16 21 26 32 37 42 47 53 58

•it

111 1 1

2222233333444444555550

6 12 18 23 29 35 41 47 53 58 64

•100

2 4 6 810 12 14

16 18 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 54 56

58 1.17 1.75 2.33 2.92 3.50 4.08 4.67 6.25 5.83 6.42

7.00

91.000

19 39 58 78 97 1.17 1.36 1.56 1.76 1.94 2.14 2.33 2.53 2.72 2.92 3.11 3.31 3.50 3.69 3.80 4.06 4.28 4.47 4.67 4.86 5.06 5.25 5.44 5.64

5.83 11.67 17.50 23.33 29.17 35.00 40.81 46.67 52.50 58.83 64.17

70.00

•

r Fr

442

COMPOUND INTEREST, ETC.

COTTON PICKER'S CALCULATOR. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES.

Rate per Hundred Pounds.

-J

1.00

1.26

1R0

e.ts

cts

eti

Otl

'■ts

els

rts

0U>

ills

cts

eti

cts

'»

•1

.'.

■1

'.)

III

111

l'i

«J

111

1;>

2.".

|ii

11;

111

211

2(1

lid

ill

11(1

211

2.".

211

111

IIS

■III

21,

Hi 1

4(1

■lv

111

3(1

in;

lis

III!

:k;

: :n

4.'

■Is

.',1

9rt

I'.i

211

112

III',

111

lis

•in

.Ml

7(1

1 06

211

III

4.5

41)

1 12

2-1

■.',.!

,',<;

(Is

1 no

1 ill

Ill

•12

-17

.',:>

.V.I

III

1 06

1 27

llll

411

III

6-1

711

!«l

1 12

1 86

.',7

1 19

1 42

SHORT INSURANCE RATES.

Policy for
1 year.

Policy for
2 years.

Policy for
3 years.

Policy for
4 years.

Policy for
5 years.

Charge this pro-
portion of whole
Premium.

1 mo.

2 mo.

3 1110.

4 mo.

5 mo.

20 per cent.

2 "

4 "

6 "

8 '•

10 "

«T "

8 "

6 "

9 "

12 "

15 "

40 "

4 "

8 "

12 "

16 "

20 "

50 "

5 "

10 "

16 "

20 "

25 "

60 "

6 "

12 "

18 "

24 "

SO "

70 "

7 "

14 "

21 "

2S •'

35 "

8 "

16 "

24 "

32 "

40 "

80 "

9 "

18 "

27 "

36 "

45 "

10 "

20 "

SO "

40 "

60 "

»n

11 "

22 "

33 "

44 "

56 "

116

HOW INTEREST ACCUMULATES.

If one dollnr be invested and the interest added to the princi-
pal, annually, at the rates named, wo shall have the following
1 i'miII as the accumulation of one hundred years:
One Dollar 100 years, at 1 per cent

3
8*

H
5

II
10
12
15
18
24

$2.75
7.25
11.75

111.2.-.
50.60
81.60

aiM

340.00

SOS. 00
2,203.00
5,543.00

I i.sootm

1,171,405.00

16, 145,007.00

2,561,799,404.00

ll.llls

3 per cent.

4 per cent.

6 per cent.

e per cent.

T per cent.

1.03000

1.04000

1.09000

1.06000

1.070000

1.06090

1.08160

1.10250

1.12360

1.144900

1.0! (273

1.12486

l.li.

1.19102

1. 328043

1.12551

1.16686

121551

1.26248

1.310796

Lift

1.21666

1.27628

1.38823

1.402962

1.19406

1.26632

1.34010

1.41892

1.500730

1.22087

131693

1.40710

1-50363

1.609781

1.21.677

1.36867

1.47745

1.68889

1.718186

1.30477

1.42it;l

una

1.68818

1.838459

1.34

1.48024

1.62889

1.79085

1.967151

138423

1.63945

1.71034

1.89830

2.10483*

1.42676

1.00103

1.79586

2.01-

2.262192

1.46863

1.66607

1.88565

2.13298

2.409849

1.51259

17U68

197993

U8880

2.578534

1.55797

1.80094

2.07893

2.S9658

2.759031

1.60471

187188

2.18287

2.54035.

2.992164

1. 65283

1.94790

2.29262

2.69277

3.158819

. 1I!

1.70313

2.02582

2.40602

2.85134

Lsnan

1.75361

2.106S5

J698

2.02660

3.61(938

1.80611

2.19112

2.66330

3.20713

...-*.'*. "-4

Example. — At 5 per cent compound interest what will $1,000
amount to in seven years? The table shows that $1 in seven years
at 5 per cent compound interest amounts to $1.40710, which
amount multiplied by 1,000 equals $1,407.10.

Time in which Money Doublet*.

Simple Int.

Comp. Int.

3
6

8
9

Simple Int.

Comp. Int.

2t
3

34.

50 years.
40 years.
33 yrs. 4 mos.
28 yrs. 208 da.
25 years.
22 yrs. 81 da.

35 years.
28 yrs. 26 da.
23 yrs. 164 da. ;
20 yrs. 64 da.
17 yrs. 246 da.
15 yrs. 273 da.

20 years.
16 yra. 8 mos.
14 yrs. 104 da.
12) years.
11 yrs. 40 da.
in year-.

14 yrs. 79 da.
11 yrs. 327 da.
10 yra. 89 da.
9 yrs. 2 days.
8 yrs. 16 days.
7 yra. 100 da.

Daily Savings at Compound Interest.

I.AII-l SAVIN. .s.

2X seats

8* "
II

$1.10 . . .

1.37 . . .

2.74 . . .

VEAHI.Y. TEX TEARS. FIFTY TEAHS

$ 10

100

200

400

500

1,000

$ 130

M
390
540
650

urn

2.6MI

tjtoa

6,50(1

l.l.OOo

I M
8,700
11.600

14,500
29.000
58,00(1
116,000
145,000

SHORT INTEREST RULE.

To And the interest on a given sum (or any number of days, at
any rate of interest, multiply the principal by the number of days
and divide as follows:

. . M
. . 30
. . 24
. . 18

At 5 per cent, by 72

At per cent, by 60

At 7 per cent, by 52

At s per ceut. In .... 45

At 9 per rent, by 40

A 1 in per cent, by
At 12 per cent, by
At 15 per cent, by
At 20 per cent, by

V-

WAGES BOARD LUMBER MEASURE.

443

A QUICK METHOD OF COMPUTING WAGES,

On a Basis of Ten Hours' Labor per Day.

HOUBS.

$1.00| $1.50
.01 | .01}

| $2.00 | $2.50 | $3.00 | $3.50 | $4.00 | $4.50 | $5,110 | $5.50 | $6.00 | $6.50 | $7.00 | $7.50 | $8.00 | $9.00 |

$10 | $11 |

«ri

.01f | .02 | .0241 -03 | .03J| .03} | .04 J | .0141 05 1 -OoJ | .06 | .06} | .06} | .074 1

.0841 -09 1

.10

.01| | .02}

.0341 .044 1 .05 | .06 | .06} | .0741 -«Si 1 -<»4 1 -10 | .11 | .11} | .1241 .1341 -16 1

.16} | .1841

.20

.03il -05

.06} | .0841 -10 I -11} | .1341 -18 1 -16} | .1841 -20 1 -21J | .2341 •'■» 1 -Sfe» 1 -30 |

■334 1 -36} 1

.40

.05 | .074

.10 | .1241 -I* 1 -1"4I -20 1 -22* 1 -25 I .2741 ■*» 1 -3241 -35 | .3741 .40 | .45 |

.50 I .55 |

.60

.06} | .10

.18JI -l«il -20 1 -23il .26} | .30 | .3341 -36} | .40 | .43} | .46} | .50 | .88)1 .00 |

.66} | .734 |
.834 1 -914 1

i.oo | l.io |

.80

.084 | .12)

.165 | .21 | .2(5 | .294 | .334 | -3"i 1 -41} I .46 | .50 | .544 | .584 1 «'-4 1 Mi 1 ■'■' 1

1.00

.10 | .15
.ll|.l .17.J

.20 | .25 | .80 | .35 | .40 | .45 | .50 | .55 | .60 | .68 1 .70 I .75 ! .80 i .90 I

1.20

.23J| -2941 -35 | .41 | .46} | .524 1 -58* | .644 1 -70 | .76 | .81} | .874 1 .934 | 1.0". \

1.16)1 1.2841

1.40

.mil .20

.2li}| .3341 -4« 1 •«fl -5341 .60 | .66} | .7341 -80 1 -86} I .934 | 1.00 1 1.06} | 1.20 |

1.3341 l-*6} )

1.60

.15 | .22)

.30 | .3741 -45 I .5241 • 6 " 1 - 6 HI -'S 1 -8241 .90 | .9741 1.05 1 1-1241 1.20 U-35 |

1.50 | 1.65 |

1.80

DAYS.

1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

.16|| .25

.3341 -4111 -60 I .5841 -«6f ) .75 | .8341 .91} I 1.00 | 1.08} | 1.16} | 1.25 | 1.3*411.50 |

1.66} | 1 8341

2.00

•SSI I .50

.66} | .83411.00 | 1.16} | 1.3341 1.50 | 1.66} | 1.834 | 2.00 1 2.16} | 2.334 | 2.50 I 2.66} | 3.00 j

3.3341 3.66} |

4.00

.50 | .75

1.00 |1.25 |1.50 |1.75 |2.00 | 2.25 | 2.50 1 2.75 |3.00 | 3.25 |3.50 | 3.75 | 4.00 | 4.50 |

5.00 | 5.60 |

6.00

.66} | 1.00

1.3341 1.66} | 2.00 | 2.334 | 2.66} ! 3.00 1 3.334 | 3.66} | 4.00 1 4.334 | 4.66} | 5.00 1 5.334 | 6.00 i

6.66} | 7.3341

8.00

.88| I 1.25
1.00 | 1.50

1.66} 12.0841 2.50 | 2.91} | 3.334 | 3.75 | 4.16} | 4.584 | 5.00 | 5.41} | 5.83} | 6.26 | 6.66} 1 7.50 |
2.00 |2.50 |3 00 |3.50 | 4 00 | 4.60 | 5.00 | 5.50 | 6.00 | 6.50 | 7.00 | 7.50 | 8.00 | 9.00 |

8.3341 9.16} |
10.00 | 11.90

10. (X)

12.00

To find

wages at 813, 814, 815, 816, or more, per week, find the amount at 86.50, 87, 87.50, 88, etc. and multiply by 2

EXPENSE OF BOARD PER DAY.

50c. | 75c. | $1.00 | $1.25 | $1.60 | $1.75 | $2.00 | $2.25 | $2.50 | $3.00 | $3.50 | $4.00 | $4.50 | $5.00 [ $6.00 | $7.00 | $8.00 | $9.00 | $10

.07 | .11 | .14 | .18 | .21 | .25 | .29 | .32 | .36 I .43 | .50 [ .57 | .64 | .71 | .86 | 1.00 | 1.14 | 1 .29 |

.14

.21

■29 | .36 | .43 | .50 | .57 | .64 | .71 |

1.001 1.14 | 1.5

1.43 | 1.71 I 2.00 | 2.29 | 2.57 I

1.43
2.88

.21

■32 | .43 | .54 1 .64 | .75 |

| .98 | 1.07 | 1.29 | 1 .50 [ 1.71 | 1.93 | 2.14 | 2.57 | 3 .00 | 3.43 | 3 . 86 | 4.29

.29 | .43 | .57 | .71 | .86 | 1.00 | 1.14 | 1.2 9 | 1.43 | 1.71 I 2 .0 | 2.29 | 2.57 I 2.86 | 3.43 | 4.00 | 4.57 | 5.14 | 6.71

.36 | .54 | .71 |

| 1.07 | 1.25 | 1.43 | 1.61 I 1.79 | 2.14 | 2.50 | 2.86 | 3.21

.48 |

.50 |

.64 | .82 |_1.07

.75" I i.oe I 1.25

1.29 | 1.50 | 1.71
1.50 | 1.73 | 2.00

l_3.57J_4.29_L 5.00
[38 j 2.14 | 2.57 | 3.00 | 3.43 | 3.86 1 4.2 9 | 5.14" | 6.00 |
2.25 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 3.80 | 4.00 | 4.50 | 5.00 | 6.00 | 7.00 |

5. 71 |
6.86 |

6.43

7.71 I

7.14
8.57

8.00 | 9.00 | 10.00

For rates not given in this table the result may be obtained by addition or multiplication.

LUMBER MEASURE.

LENGTH IN FEET.

3 inches wide..,

4 inches wide...

5 inches wide...

6 inches wide...

7 inches wide..,

8 inches wide...

9 Inches wide...

10 inches wide...

11 inehes wide..

12 inches wide..,

13 inches wide..,

14 inches wide..

15 inches wide..

16 inches wide..

17 inches wide..

18 inches wide..

19 inches wide..

20 inches wide..

21 inches wide..

22 inches wide..

23 inches wide..

24 inches wide..

25 inches wide..

26 inches wide..

27 inches wide..

28 inches wide..

29 inches wide..

30 inches wide..

4 it.

ft. in.
1..00
1..04
1..08
2. .00
2. .04
2.. 08
3.. 00
3. .04
3. .08
4.. 00
4. .04
4.. 08
5.. 00
5. .04
5.. 08
6. .00
6.. 04
6.. 08
7. .00
7. .04
7.. 08
8.. 00
8.. 04
8.. 08
9. .00
9.. 04
9.. I
10.. 00

5 ft.

6 ft.

.03
.08

.in
.08
.11
.ill
.08
.02
.117
.1)11
,08
.l»
.08
OS
.01
.00

.11

.04

.09
.09
.0

.00
.09

.10
.03
.0814
.01 14
.06 15

7 ft. 8 ft. 9 ft.

8.
9.
9.

10.

11.
11.

12.
12.

0613.

00'H.
.0614.
.00 15.
.08 15.
.00 16.
.06.16.
.00.17.

in. ft.

.mi

.04

.11

.08

.in

.08

.10

.05

.IK)
.07

.09

.0.1

.04

.11
.06

.01

.68
.08

.10

.05

in. ft. in.

10 ft.

.00 16
.07116
.02J17
.99 18
.04 18
.11,19
.06,20

10.
.0011.
.08:12.
.04 12.
.00 13.
.08 14.
.04:15.
.00 15.
.08il6,
.0417,
.00 18,
.0818,
.04; 19
.00 20
.08 21
.0421
.00 22

.08
.00

.mi
.08
.08

.011
.09

.0)1
.03
.00 10

.00 10.

.0611.
.03 12.
.00 13.
.0.1 14.
.06,15.
.03115.
.00.16.
.Ofl! 17.
.08 18.
.03 19.
.00 20.
.09 20.
.0621.
.03 22.
.00,23
.09 24
.0625
I

lift.

10,

11,
11,

12,
.08 13,

.04 11
.02115
.00 16
.10 17
.08,18
.06 19
.0420
.02 21
.00 22
.10 22
.08:23
.06124
..04:25
.02 26
.00J27

12 ft.

.03 16.
.07(17.
.06)18.
.05ll9.
.01 20.
.03 21.
.02 23.
.01 23.
.00 24.
.1125.
.1026.
.09127.
.08 28.
.07 29.
.06 30.

13 ft.

14 ft. 15 ft. 16 ft.

in. ft.

.06

.00 27
.00,28
.00 29
.00130
.00131
.00:32
I

.05 111.
.06 21.
.07 22.
.08 98.
.09 24.
.10 25.
.11]26.
.00 ! 28.
.01! 29
.02:30.
.0331.

5
6.
7.
8.
10.

.oe'n.
.08112.

.10 13.
.0015.
.02! 16.
.04 17.
.06118.
.08 20.
.I1121.
.00 22 .
.02 23.
.0125.
.08 96.
.0827.
.10 28.
.00 30.
.02 31.
.04 32.
.08 33.
.08 35.
.10 36.
.00,37.

17 ft.

ft. in. ft. in.
4
5
6.
8.
9

00!10
.03|12.
.06[13.
.09114.
.0016.
.03 17.
,08 18.
.IK) 20.
.00 21.
.03122.
.06|24.
.09 96.

.00:26.
.03128.
.08:29.
.09,30.
.00'32.
.0.133.
.06 34.
.09 36.
.00 37.
.03J38.
.06 40.

..00

.01

.08 : 11
.00 1

-HI It

.OS 16
.00:17
.04'l8
.08 1!)
.00 21
.04 22
.08 24
.00 25
.04 26
.08 28
.00 29
.04131
.08,32
.00 34
.04 35
.0836
.00 38
.04 39
.0841
.00 42

.07
.01

.08

.11
.04
. .09 13

18 ft. 19 ft,

in. ft.

.06 4.
.00 6.

.03 7.

,07
.00
.08
.10

.03

.08124
.01125
.06127
.1128
.04 30
.09,31
.02 33

,00;22
.08 23
.0025
.06J26
.0028
.06 30

20 ft. 21 ft.

,00

.06 33
.00 34
.0*36
.00 38
.06 39
.00141
.06 42
.00 44
.06:45
.00147

18
15
16
18
90

23
26
98
28
30
.01)31
,08|33
.03!S5
.10136
.06]38
.0040
.07141
.0243
.09 ! 45
.04 40
.11|48
.0650

7.
8.
10.
12.
14.
15.
17.
19.
21.
99 .
24.
28.
28.
29.
St.
88.
85.
86.
88.
40.
00:42
.08)43

."I 15

.0047.
.08149.
.04 50.

.00 52.

22 ft.

ft. in.
5. .06
7.. 05
9.. 02

11. .00
.03 12.. 10
.00 14.. 08
.09 16.. 06
.06 18. .04
.03 20. .00
.00 22.. 00
.09 23.. 10
.06 25.. 08
.03 27.. 06
.00 29. .04
.09 31.. 02
.06 33.. 00
.03 34. .10
.00 36.. 08
.09 38.. 06
.06 40.. 04
.03 43.. 02
.00 44. .00
..09 45. .10
.06 47.. 08
.03 49. .06
.00 51. .04
.09 53.. 02
.06 55. .00

Explanation. — To ascertain the number of feet multiply the number of feet in length by the number of inches in width, and divide
the product by 12 ; the result will be the number in feet and inches. Thus, multiply » inches wide by 26 feet long, and the result will
be 234. Divide this by 12 and we have the product 10 feet and 6 inches.

**7

Y-

-v

444

PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS.

g=^-»^ l Qg?jgaP£«-»-=3

PRACTICAL + 6AL6ULATI0NS >.

*Zr<

*=~-**%£ffi?&r^*

To Measure Wells or Cisterns.

Square the diameter in inches, multiply by the decimal .7854, and the
product by the depth of the well or cistern in inches. The result will be
the full capacity of the well in cubic inches. If the actual quantity of
water be sought, multiply by the depth of water in inches, and in either
case divide by 231 for the number of gallons.

Circular Cisterns, One Foot in Depth, Computed.

DIAMETER
IN INCHES.

'5
16

CONTENTS
IN GALLONS.

.... 5-875

9.18

IO.44

DIAMETER

IN INCHES.

18 ....

CONTENTS
IN GALLONS.

.13.218
• 16.32

For any greater depth than one foot, multiply by the number of feet and
fractions of a foot. As the areas of circles, and consequently the capaci-
ties of circular cisterns of equal depth, vary as the squares of their diame-
ters, it is unnecessary to multiply calculations. For instance, should it
be required to find the contents of a circular cistern of two feet in diame-
ter, say as the square of 1 : to the square of 2 : 5.875, that is, as 1 ; 4 : :
5.875, and 5.875 X 4=23.5= the contents of such cistern. This formula
will apply to any diameter; for three feet, multiply by 9; for four feet,
multiply by 16, etc. ; for 5, by 25.

The Amount of Rainfall on a Building.

In this calculation the amount of annual rainfall is assumed to be thirty-
six inches, which is about the average for the Northern States. Find the
area covered by the building, in square inches. Multiply it by 36, the
depth of rainfall; divide the product by 231, the cubic inches in a gallon,
and the quotient will be the number of gallons of water shed by the roof
in one year.

The Diameter of a Circular Cistern that will Contain the
Rainfall on a Building.

The side of a square is to the diameter* of a circle of equal area as
1 : 1. 128. The square root of the area of the building, multiplied by 1. 128,
will be the required diameter, assuming depth of cistern and rainfall to be
•qual. Allowance must of course be made for greater or less depth of
cistern than three (bet, as well as for daily or occasional use of rainwater.

The Per Cent of Profit or Loss.

Add two ciphers to the difference between the cost and selling price,
divide by the cost, and the quotient will be the gain or loss per cent.

Weights of Hay by Measurement.

Four hundred cubic feet of dry meadow hay are estimated at one ton
weight. The actual measurement to make a ton will be modified by the
density of the volume of hay, the pressure it has been subjected to as in
a large or long-standing suck, and the like. In barns the volume
is variously estimated from 400 to 550, according to coarseness and
the length of time it has been piled up. Find the cubic contents by
II nig the three dimensions of the pile in feet, and divide by 400, 450,
500 or 550 (according to circumstances, as explained), and the quotient
will be the number of tons, approximately.

Weights of Cattle by Measurement.
To find the approximate weight, measure as follows : 1. The girth be-
hind the shoulder*. 2. The length from the fore part of the shoulder-
blade along the back to the bone at the tail, in a vertical line with the
buttocks. Then multiply the square of the girth, in feet, by five times
the length, in feet. Divide the product by 1.5 for average cattle (if
cattle be very fat, by 1.425; if very lean, by 1.575) ; and the quotient will
be the dressed weight of the quarters. Thus: The girth of a steer is
6.5 feet, and the length from the shoulder-blade to the tail-bone is 5.25.
The square of 6.5 is 42.25, and 5 times 5.25 is 26.35. Multiplying these
together gives 1109.0625, which, when divided by 1.5, produces 739.375
lbs., the approximate net weight of the steer after being dressed.

The Number of Shingles Required for a Roof.

Multiply the length of the ridge-pole by twice the length of the rafter,
and the product by eight if the shingle is to be exposed \% inches to the
weather, and by 7 1-5 if exposed five inches.

The Number of Square Yards in a Floor or Wall.
Multiply the length and width of the floor, or height and width of the
wall, in feet and fractions of a foot, divide by nine, and the quotient is
the number of square jrmfds.

The Number of Bricks Required for a Building.
The average brick is eight inches long, four inches wide, and two inches
thick, or 64 (8 X 4 X a) cubic inches. 1728 cubic inches make one cubic foot,
and 27 bricks make 1728 (64X27) cubic inches. In laying bricks, 1-6
is allowed for mortar, or 4^ out of every 27, leaving %*% actual
bricks for each cubic foot Therefore, multiply the dimensions— length,
height and thickness— in feet and fraction of a foot, of the several brick
walls, and the product by aa#, and the result will be the number of bricks
required. Multiply by 30, instead of aa#, if the bricks are larger than
the average above given. Allowance should be made for chimneys, pro-
jections for mantels, and the like, on the same basis.

The Number of Perches of Stone Required for a Wall or
Cellar.
The perch of stone is now com;. 1. 1 rt t a perch, or 16.5 feet in length.
by 1.5 feet in width and 1 foot inherit, or 24.75(16.5 X 1.5 X 1) cubic feet.
Of this amount one-ninth, a. 75 cubic feet, is allowed for mortar and fill-
ing. Multiply the three dimensions of the wall or walls in feet— width,
height and thickness— and divide by 2a (24.75 — a.75) if the needed qual-
ity of stone is the subject of enquirj'i or by 24.75 if it be sought to ascer-
tain the amount of masonry in the wall or cellar.

The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Lot of Boards.
Planks, Flooring, Scantling, Joists, Sills or Beams.

The foot of board measure is a superficial or square foot, one inch
thick. Multiply the product of the width and thickness of each board,
plank or other article, in inches, by the length in feet and fraction* of a
foot, divide by ta, and the quotient will be the number of feet of board
measure. In flooring, allowance muM he made for rabbeting, the pro-
portion varying with the depth of the groove and the width of the boards.

The Cubic Feet in Squared Timber or Beams.

Multiply as in board measure, but divide by 144 instead of ta, or multi-
ply the three dimensions in feet a>id fractions of a foot

7 t — «"-

The Number of Cubic Feet in a Round Log of Uniform
Diameter.

Square the diameter, in inches, multiply by .7854, and multiply this
product by the length in feet, divide by 144, and the quotient is the
number of cubic feet.

Estimate of the Number of Cubic Feet in the Trunk of a
Standing Tree.

Find the circumference in inches, divide by 3.1416, square the quotient,
multiply by the length in feet, divide by 144, deduct about one-tenth for
thickness of bark, and the result will be, approximately, the number of
cubic feet.

The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Log of
Unequal Diameters.

Square the smallest diameter in inches, multiply by .7854, and the
product by the length of the log in feet, divid« by 12, and the quotient
will be the number of feet of board measure, approximately.

The Area of a Circle.

Of all plane figures, the circle is the" most capacious, or has the greatest
area within the same limits. It is geometrically demonstrable that it has
the same arc£ as a right-angled triangle with a base equal to its circum-
ference, and a perpendicular equal to its radius, that is, half the product
of the radius and circumference. It is obviously larger than any figure,
of however many sides, inscribed within its perimeter, and smaller than
any circumscribed polygon. As a result of laborious calculations on this
basis (pushed in one instance to 600 places of decimals without reaching
the end ), it has been ascertained that the ratio of the diameter to the cir-
cumference of any circle (sufficiently* exact for all practical purposes), is
as 1 :3.i4i6 (3.141592653X) or in whole numbers, approximately, as 7:22,
or more nearly as 113:355. Hence, to find the circumference or diameter,
the other quantity being known, multiply or divide by 3.1416 ; and to find
the area, multiply half the diameter by half the circumference, or the
square of the diameter by .7854 (3. 1416-74).

Capacity or Contents of a Granary, Bin, Crib or Wagon.

Multiply the three dimensions — the length, width and depth — in feet
(the inches, if any, being reduced to fractions of a foot), multiply the
product by the decimal .803564 — or deduct one-fifth, which is sufficiently
exact for ordinary purposes— and the result is the number of bushels.
Where the wagon or crib flares considerably in length or width, it will be
necessary to obtain a mean dimension. This is done by taking the longest
and shortest measures, with one or more intermediate ones, and dividing
the sum of all by the number taken. The quotient will be the mean dimen-
sion sought. The greater the flare the larger the number of intermediate
dimensions that should be taken to insure accuracy. Corn in the ear,
when first cribbed, is estimated at twice the bulk of shelled corn.

To Measure Corn or Similar Commodity on a Floor.

Pile up the commodity in the form of a cone; find the diameter in feet;
multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the product by one-third
the height of the cone in feet; from this last product deduct one-fifth of
itself, or multiply it by .803564, and the result will be the number of
bushels.

To Measure Casks or Barrels.

Find mean diameter by adding to head diameter two-thirds (if staves
are but slightly curved, three-fifths) of difference between head and bung
diameters, and dividing by two. Multiply square of mean diameter in
inches by .7854, and the product by the height of the cask in inches. The
result will be the number of cubic inches. Divide by 231 for standard or
wine gallons, and by 282 for beer gallons.

The Number of Cords in a Pile of Wood.
A cord of wood is four feet wide, four feet high and eight feet long, or
138 (4X4X8) cubic feet. Multiply the three dimensions — length, height

and width — of the pile in feet, divide by 128, and the quotient will be the
number of cords. The odd inches in any or all of the three dimensions
must be reduced to decimals or common fractions of a foot, before begin-
ning to multiply.

Contents of Fields and Lots.

The following table will assi
of the amount of land in diffei

st farmers in making an accurate estimate
ent fields under cultivation :

10 rods

16 rods =

8 " X

5 M X 32 ■ =

4 " X 40 M =

5 yards X 968 " =
10 " X 484 yards =

80 M

70 M
220 feet

440 M

no **

60 «

120 "

240 **

200 **

X 242 -

X 121 u
X 60^ -
X 6g%«

X 198 feet
X 99 ■

X 369 "

X 726 M

x 363 "

X 181 % feet

X 108 ft- = %

X 145 ft" = X

100 feet

.08 ft

fee

M a.

25 "

IOO

■

■0574 "

25 "

J JO

.0631 M

25 "

X20

.0688 "

25 "

125

.0717 "

=5 "

ISO

■

.109 "

2178 square feet

• 05

435*

■

.xo "

6534

.15 "

8713

■

.20 "

10890

■

.25 "

13068

•30

15246

■35 "

17424

■

•40 "

19603

■

•45 "

21780

•

■

■ 50

32670

■

■75 "

34848

.80 "

Boxes of Different Measure.

A box 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, and 28 inches deep, will con-
tain a barrel (3 bushels).

A box 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, and 14 inches deep, will con-
tain half a barrel.

A box 16 inches square and 8 2-5 inches deep will contain one bushel.

A box 16 inches by 8 2-5 inches wide, and 8 inches d<ep, will contain
half a bushel.

A box 8 inches by 8 2-5 inches square, and 8 inches deep, will contain
one peck.

A box 8 inches by 8 inches square, and 4 1-5 inches deep, will contain
one gallon.

A box 7 inches by 4 inches square, and 4 4-5 inches deep, will contain
half a gallon.

A box 4 inches by 4 inches square, and 4 1-5 inches deep, will contain
one quart.

In purchasing anthracite coal, 20 bushels are generally allowed for a
ton.

A Key to the Metric System.

It may not be generally known that we have in the nickel five-cent piece
of our coinage a key to the tables of linear measures and weights.
The diameter of this coin is two centimeters, and its weight is five
grammes. Five of them placed in a row will, of course, give the length
of the decimeter; and two of them will weigh a. decagramme. As the
kiloliter is a cubic meter, the key to the measure of length is also the key
to the measures of capacity. Any person, therefore, who is fortunate
enough to own a five-cent nickel, may carry in his pocket the entire metric
system of weights and measures.

Comparison of Thermometric Scales.

To convert the degrees of Centigrade into those of Fahrenheit, multiply
by 9, divide by 5, and add 32.

To convert degrees of Centigrade into those of Reaumur, multiply by
4 and divide by 5.

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Centigrade, deduct 32,
multiply by 5, and divide by 9.

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Reaumur, deduct 32,
divide by 9, and multiply by 4.

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Centigrade, multiply by 5,
and divide by 4.

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 9,
divide by 4, and add 32.

In De Lisle's thermometer, used in Russia, the gradation begins at
boiling point, which is marked zero, and the freezing point is 150.

446

STANDARD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

&&7QW

-=«»■

^f^r^.

STANDARD WEIGHTS & MEASURES.

^i^s^r

T^ZZZT

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.

16 drachms i ounce (oz.), = 28.35 gr'nTs.

16 ounces i pound (lb.). =453-° **

25 pounds 1 quarter

4 quarters 1 hundrcdw't. "

20 hundred-w't. 1 ton, 2,000 pounds.

The standard avoirdupois pound of the
United States, copied from the British stand-
ard, is 0.00734 grain too heavy. The gramme
is legal at 15.432 grains, and the kilogramme
at 2.2046 pounds. In some States the ton rates
at 2,240 pounds. In that case, the quarter,
of course, consists of 2S lbs., or 2 stone.

TROY WEIGHT.

24 grains 1 pennyweight (dwt).

20 pennyweights r ounce, = 480 grains.

12 ounces 1 pound, = 5,760 grains.

Gold, silver, platinum, and some gems, are
weighed by this scale. Pearls and diamonds
arc weighed by the carat of 4 grains, 5 dia-
mond grains being equal to 4 grains troy.

APOTHECARIES* WEIGHT.

20 grains 1 scruple.

3 scruple 1 drachm.

8 drachms* 1 ounce.

12 ounces* 1 pound.

* Same as in troy weight, as is also the grain.

LINEAR MEASURE.

3 barleycorns 1 inch.

7.92 inches 1 link.

12 inches 1 foot, = 0.3047 metre.

3 feet 1 yard, =0.91438 metre.

5J yards 1 rod, perch, or pole.

4 poles, or 100 links 1 chain.
10 chains 1 furlong.

8 furlongs 1 mile = 1.6093 kilom'rs.

3 miles 1 league.

liine 1/12 inch.

1 nail (cloth measure) 2J inches.

1 palm j ««

1 hand (used tor h'ht of horses) .4 •*

1 span 9 «

1 cubit 18 ■■

1 pace (military) 2 ft.6inchcs.

1 pace (geometrical) 5 feet.

1 Scotch ell 37.06 inches.

1 Bnjgttfh^U 45 4 *

1 fathom 6 feet.

1 cable's length 120 fathoms.

1 league 3 mile*.

1 degree of the equator... .....69.1613 miles,

or 60 nautical knots or geographical
miles.
1 degree of meridian...* 69.046 miles.

SQUARE OR SURFACE MEASURE.

144 square inches ..1 sq. foot, = 9.29 square
decimetres.

9 *' feet 1 sq. yard, =0.836 square

metre.
304 " yards ..1 square rod.
16 " rods ...1 chain.
40 " " ...1 rood.

4 roods 1 acre, or 43,560 sq. ft.

640 acres 1 sq. mile, = 259 hectares.

The acre = 0.405 hectare.

CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE.

172S cubic inches 1 cubic foot.

27 " feet 1 " yard.

40 " " of rough, or i . , ,

50 " ft. of hewn timber j ■ tonorload.

42 " feet of timber 1 British ship-
ping ton.

40 cubic feet j American

shipping ton.

10S cubic feet 1 stack wood.

12$ " " 1 cord wood.

APOTHECARIES' MEASURE.

60 minims 1 fluid drachm.

8 drachms 1 '* ounce.

20 ounces 1 pint.

S pints 1 imperial gallon.

LIQUID MEASURE.

4 gills I pint (pt.)

2 pints 1 quart (qt.)

4 quarts 1 gallon (gal.)

42 gallons 1 tierce.

63 " 1 hogshead (hhd.)

84 " 1 puncheon,

126 " 1 pipe.

252 " 1 ton.

10 " 1 anker.

18 " 1 runlet.

32* M 1 barrel (bbl.orbrl.)

* In some of the States 31^ gallons make a
barrel.

DRY MEASURE.

The bushel is 2150.42 cubic inches, that of
England being 221S.192 cubic inches. The
imperial bushel is, therefore, I.0315 United
States bushels. In dry measure the litre is
tegal at 0.90S quart. The following table is
grin-rally used:

2 pints 1 quart.

4 quarts . . . 1 gallon of 268.8 cubic Inches.

a gallons . . 1 peck (pk.)

4 peeks....! bosh*] (hush, or bu.)
36 bushels . .1 chaldron (for coke and coal).
CIRCULAR MEASURE.

60 seconds 1 minute.

60 minutes 1 degree.

360 degrees 1 circle.

30 degrees 1 sign of zodiac

12 signs , 1 zodiac circle.

360 degrees, the circumference of the earth.

24,899 statute miles, circumference of the earth
at the equator.

69,124 statute miles, 1 degree of the equator.

1. 1527 statute miles, 1 geographic mile.

60 geographic miles, 1 degree.

MEASURES OF TIME.

60 seconds 1 minute.

60 minutes 1 hour.

24 hours 1 day.

7 days t week.

28 days 1 lunar month.

3 S, 29, 30 or 3 t days 1 calendar month.

1 2 calendar months 1 year.

365.25 days 1 common year.

366 days 1 leap year.

LONGITUDE AND TIME COMPARED.

LONGITUDE. TIME.

i second 0666 second.

1 minute 4 seconds.

15 minutes 1 minute.

1 degree 4 minutes.

360 degrees 1 day.

Add difference of time for places east, and
subtract for places west, of the given place.

ODD \VI K.IITn

14 pounds 1 stone of iron or lead.

56 pounds 1 firkin of butter.

100 pounds 1 quintal of fish.

196 pounds 1 barrel of flour.

200 pounds 1 barrel of beef or pork.

250 pounds 1 pig of iron or lead.

FOR HOUSEKEEPERS.

Wheat flour t pound = 1 quart.

Indian meal 1 pound 2 01.= 1

Butter, when soft 1 pound = 1

Loaf sugar, broken 1 pound = 1

White sugar, pwd .1 pound 1 oz. = i

Brown sugar 1 pound 2 ox. = 1

Eggs 10 eggs = 1 povnd.

Flour 8 quarts = 1 peck.

•• 4 pecks =e 1 bushel.

LIQUIDS.

«6 large tablespoonfuls S p**t

8 «• " 1 gill.

4 <• «« *» gilt

a gills H P'nt.

3 pints » quart.

4 quart.-. 1 gallon.

1 common-sited tumbler holds ...*»' P»**t.

1 " *' wine-glass holds H' g*H.
25 drops are equal to 1 teaspoonful.

THE LEGAL BUSHEL.

447

LEGAL WEIGHT OF A BUSHEL IN ALL THE STATES.*

PRODUCT.

g
~z

r.
c

U 5

a I
5 -

•a

■e

■ J< G
11

c '5

u, ,3
424 •-

d 47 32
6 45 ..
60 ..

.5 £•

« rt

.. 28
4848
..46

64 63

3 d
•5 «
| .»•

1 *

. . 22
4848
..46
.. 60
.. 60

..;:
48

4«

So
6a

20
46
4-'

'2-
a

'-'4

4B
46
6..
60

20
■»6
52

22
1

48
46

20
52

8,,

-c

>
V.

J;
2-
5

s
2-

■-■-
48

u ;

1 :

S 1

; z

2 2 2
■!■• 4
4-'. .
60 .

2m .
52 4

-i
8

-.- 1

— /

S !

5 1

' i
j 1

.H
6 26

5 48

6 ..
> 60

6 5

■s.
\j

28
48

20
42
22
Bo

-J-

32
56

45
44

57
28

56
50
SO

55
60

48
>",

60
42

3 2
54

60
35

70
60

'z
>

(,':

4»

5°
56

14
64

45
44

53
■

56
5 5
50

56
6..

25
48

u',

z.
a

so
♦6

SO
5'-
22

4
5<

■4

6,
48
5"
'4

Pi
si

22 '. .

4848
46..
02 ..

20 . .
46 ..
48 «>

3 24!.. 2
5 47148 4
• 46... 4

. 60 .. 6

»4

»s

4,,

4«

-'4
4*
46
60
So

25 24 2
48485
46 46 4
60 60 (

So So

<R tH

4s .

46
60

f.,

. 2-:

. . .

20 20 2
5052 5

<fi

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56 ..

4848

. .

7>j
50
6 56

6 sfi
4 14

D . .
.. 48

■ 45

4 •■

8 ..

5 3-'

7 56

■ 33

3 •■

(,J,

' 7"

. 80

70 80 8

7' ■
5" •
5«5

S* ■

fc.f
5" ■

4= •

44 ■

7" ■
;4 .

5-' 3
56 .

33 2

■ 7"
• 5«

■ ■ ■<

5" !

56:

-■ !

6870 7
5°48 5
56 56 5

4"
68

♦8

5(>
33

50
56

So
48

14
M

45
9
44

70
50

'4
6.
So

8
!4

57
= 5

.•-
33

52
32

5f
55
64

4"
70

...

55
M

5"
it
M
44

8.,
34

82
57

-.8

46
54

64
' [

■1

46
33

76
73
48

1 fi

70
50

5«

j 70 . .
50 ..
65656

.. 70

5048
5656

.. 70

50 50
5656

SO 4

565

i ..
4 •

6 ..

5fi

tfi ««

6 56 ..

4 M •■
60 . .

5 5° ••
5 So •■

.. 56

M
64 64
..48

5<J

..56

•• M
.. 60

.. 50
.. 50
.. 14

: 14
• 45

.. 8

• • 44

.. 70
.. 28

32 3'
52 54

48
50
■4
M
45

j =

56 56 5

■4
60

14
60
(8
50

■4

32
57

14 14 1
60 60 6
4845 5
5° 45 5
14 14 .

45 45 4
8 8
44 44 4

80808
3S..3

33 33 3
48 57 5

Grass Seeds : —

CloTer

- 62

.. (
. i

45
45

48
SO

• 45

• 44

. S
. 38

S 3 c

• 57

B j,t
! ..

.. 1

3-- :

SO :

45 '45

7i«

44 44

45
44

8.,

5 45 ••
8 8..
4 44 ..

42 45
11 7

•• 44
.. 80

8
44

34 34

2 32 ..

2 32 32
7 57 ••

•• 34

3° 32
52 57

ft ■

50 ■

35
57

Oats

32 32

3^32
..]5o

. .28

..44

38 28

.. l 6o

&'&
..54

..'56
5656
.. 50
.. 66
..(..

6j 42

5-'
57

28
33
55

28 28

ll
33

•• 33

33 33 3
33 33 •

.. 28

4«

60 60 .

. 60 ..

6060

.. 60

So
60

5-'.

5°

5"
5"

6
5"

s«

5"
5<J

55
60

6-
So

S6
So

56
6a

j6
Bj

56
5°
50

55
60

.V,

60 6
50 .

56 5
5" •

59 •
606

.> 56

■ 55

656
. 8;
. 62

■ 55
1 60

. . :

56 s
■ • 5

5°

60 .

56
So

60606
55 46 5

60 ..

5 55 •■

6 56 32
50 ..
55 ..

60 60
..56

5656
80 70
• ■ 55

60 60
.. 56

5656
.. 56
.. 56

5«

56 .

• j6

36
5«
5«

56
5°
55
46

56 56 s
5° 5°5
50 50 5
46 30 -

Rye

5"
5°

5«

5"
42

56
80

Salt, Fine

5«

.. (

> . .

5 60 ..
60 60

60 56
60 60

..58
60 60

55
60

35
So

6o«

J . .

55 55 5
60 60 6

Wheat

* Local usage sometimes varies from kgal enactment. All the States recognize the use of the standard U. S. bushel, withou' reference to weights
of articles measured, and some of the States no longer legalize any other, f Used by railroad companies when it is not convenient to ascertain
actual weights.

-. ~~*3&^®@\&$

France.

/. Measure of Length.
i Myrlametre.. = 10,000 metres,
i Kilometre ... = 1,000 metres.
1 Decametre... = 10 metres.

1 Metre = The 10,000,000th part of the

quarter of the meridian of the earth.
1 Decimetre . .. = i-ioth of a metre.
1 Centimetre. . . = 1 - 100th of a metre,
i M illimetre . . . = 1 • 1 ,000th of a metre.
//. Measure of Surface*

1 Hectare = too ares.

1 Are = 100 square metres.

1 Centiare = 1 square metre.

///. Measure of Solidity.

1 Stere = 1 cuhic metre.

1 Dscistere . . . . = j • 10th of a stere.

IV. Measure of Capacity.

1 Kilolitre = 1 cubic metre.

1 Hectolitre , . . = 10 decalitres.
1 Decalitre ....=: 10 litres.

1 Litre = 1 cubic decimetre.

1 Decilitre m i-ioth of a litre.

V. Measure of Weight.

1 Millia = 1 ,000 kilogrammes, and is

the weight of a ton of sea -water.

1 Quintal = 100 kilogrammes.

1 Kilogramme = Weight of a cubic decimetre
of water, at the temperature of 4 above
inciting ice, or about 40 Fahrenheit.

1 Hectogramme = 100 grammes.

1 Decagramme = 10 grammes.

1 Gramme = 1 -1,000th of a kilogramme.

1 Decigramme, = i-ioth of a gramme.

These measures may be compared with the
English measures by means of the following
table :

1 Metre =39.38 English inches, nearly.

I Are = 3.9 English perches, nearly.

1 Stere =35.32 English cubic feet.

1 Litre = 1.76 English pints.

1 Gramme.... =15.44 English grains.

The French Metrie System has been
either introduced or legalized in the Argen-
tine Confederation, Austria, Belgium, Boli-
via, Brazil, Chili, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt,
the German Empire, Greece, Italy, Mexico,
Portugal and Spain. The present system of
Switzerland is upon a semi -metric basis. In
the United States the metric system was le-
galized by an act of Congress passed in 1S66.

Kelgium.— The metrical system is used
hen ; but the kilogramme is termed a Iivre ;
the litre, a litron ; and the metre, an aune.

Nethei -liiiifls. II, n , also, the metric sys-
tern has been adopted; but Flemish names
are employed instead of those used in France.

Lombardo-Venettan Kingdom. — The
metric system, with Italian names substituted
for the most of the original terras, is used of-
ficially; but the old measures are also used.
See Venice.

A nutria— The ell = 30.6 inches. The joch
= 1 acre 1 .75 rood. The metzen = 1 -7th bushel.
The eimcr=i2.4 gallons. The pfund=H
pound. Gold and silver are weighed bv the
mark of Vienna, which =4333 grains.

Rasle.— too pounds = 108.6 pounds avoirdu-
1"> I'll' ohm = 10.7 gallons. Thcsack = 3.6
bushels. The large and small ells =40.4 and
j 1. 4 inches respectively.

Bavaria. — The long and short ells = 34 and
13.3 inches respectively. The schaff of 8 met-
icns 5.6 bushels. The muid of 48 mass = 15

gallons. 100 pounds heavy and lightweight
= 108.3 anQl >°4-2 pounds avoirdupois respect-
ively. The mark of Augsburg = 3,643 grains.

Bremen. — The foot or half ell =11.4 in.
The ohm =31.5 gallons. The last= 10.3 quar-
ters. 100 pounds = 109.9 pounds avoirdupois.

Cape of Good Hope. — The centner or
too pounds Dutch weight = 10S.9 pounds
avoirdupois. The leager of 15 ankers = 126.5
gallons. The II HI Id — J bushels. The ell 01
27 Rhynland inches = 27.8 inches.

China. — The chang of 10 chih = 4 yards,
nearly. The shing sa 1 pint, 10 ho= 1 shing;
10 shing = 1 tow; 10 tow = 1 hwuh or 120 cat-
ties. The catty = 1.33 pound avoirdupois. 16
tacls= 1 catty ; 100 catties = 1 pecul. Liquids
are sold by weight; but the English gallon is
used in trading with foreigners.

Denmark. — The foot=i2.3 inches. 100
ells = 6S.6 yards. The viertel = 1.7 gallon. 100
tonnen = 47.8 quarters. The pound! = 1.1 pound
avoirdupois. The pound for gold and silver
weighs 7,266 grains.

Kant Indies. — Bengal. — The factbry
maund = 74.06 pounds avoirdupois. 10 bazar
maunds= 11 factory maunds. 16 chittacks =
1 seer ; 40 seers = 1 maund. The guz of two
cubits = 1 yard. Bombay. — The maund = 28
pounds avoirdupois. 40 "seers = 1 maund; 20
maunds= 1 candy. The candy = 24.5 bushels.
Madras.— The maund = 25 pounds avoirdu-
pois. 40 pollams = 1 vi ; Svis=i maund; 20
maunds = 1 candy. The covid = 18.6 inches.
The gars of 80 parahs = 16.S75 quarters, and
weighs 8,400 pounds avoirdupois.

Egypt.— The Turkish pike m 27 in. The
ardeb of 24 Cairo rubbie = 6 quarters. The
cuntar = 100 pounds avoirdupois. 216 drams
or 144 meticals=i rottole" 100 rottoli or 36
okes = 1 cantar.

Frankfort on the Main. — The c!I=2i.2
inches. The foot = 11.2 inches. The matter
= 3 bushels, nearly. The viertel= 1.6 gallon,
nearly. The pound, light and heavy weight,
= 1.03 and 1.1 pound avoirdupois. The Zoll-
centner = 1 10.2 pounds avoirdupois. The
Cologne mark, used for gold and silver,
weighs 3,609 grains.

Geneva.— The ell =45 Inches. The acre mm
1 acre 1.1 rood. The coupe, or sack, = 2.1
bushels. The setier= 10 gallons. The heavy
pound = i.j pound avoirdupois; the light
pound I -6th less. The mark weighs 3,785
grains.

Genoa.— The braccto of 2.5 palmi = 22.9
inches. The mina = 3. 3 bushels. The barile
— IO -3 gallons. The pound =0.7 pound avoir-
dupois. 1.5 pound ss« 1 rottole. The pound
BOtttte, for'gold and silver, weighs 4891.5

grains.

Greece. — The Venetian measures of length
are used, the hraccio being called a piehc.
1--) kil. 1=11.4 quarters. The cantaro of 40
okes = 112 pounds avoirdupois.

Ifnmhnrfr.— The foot = 11.3 In. nearly:
t.*> , Us —o.'.o yards. I he srlieffel=i acre* o
perches. The viertcl = 1.6 gallon. The pound
= 1.06 pound avoirdupois. For the Cologne
in.uk, see I'rankfort. 2 marks = I pound troy.

I,uheck.— The ell = 22.9 inches. The last
= 11 quarter!. The viertel= 1.6 gallon. The
pound = 1.07 pounds avoirdupois, nearly.

Malta. —The pat me = 10.15 inches ; 3.5 pal-
ml ail vard;8 palmi = 1 canna. I
7.8 bushcis The caffiso = 4. < gallon
barile ~y-3t gallons. 04 rottoli = 1 hundred-
weight. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoirdu-

Mauritltift — Besides the English weight!
and measures, those of France before the late
alteration are used. The aune = 1.3 yard. The
velte = 1.7 gallon. The poid dc marc = 1.0S
pound avoirdupois.

Naples.— The canna = 83.1 inches. The
moggia — 3 roods 12 perches. The tomolos
cl. The barile=9.i gallons. The
cantaro grosso and piccolo = 196.5 and 106
pounds avoirdupois, respectively. The pound
used in weighing gold and silver contains
4,950 grains.

Portugal.— The covado = 25.8 inches. The
almude = ^.6 gallons. The pound =1.01
pound avoirdupois.

Prussia,— The ell = 26.5 inches. The mor-
gen =2 roods 21 perches. The scheffel = 1.5
bushel. The cimcr = 15.1 gallons. The pound
— 1.03 pound avoirdupois. The mark of
Cologne is used for gold and silver.

Rome. — The canna of 8 palmi = 2.2 yards.
The canna of 10 palma = 88 inches, nearly.
Therubbio = 8.1 bushcis. The boccalc=o*4
gallon. The pound = 0.7 pound avoirdupois.

Russia.— The arshine=2S inches. The
foot = ij.Tcinches. The dcssetnia= 2 acres
2. S roods. The t*chetwert = 5.7 bushels. The
wedro = 2.7 gallons. The pound = 0.0 pound
avoirdupois. The pood sst 36 pounds avoirdu-
pois.

St. Gallen.— The ells for silks and wool*
ens =31. 5 and 24.25 inches, respectively. The
mutt of 4 viertels= 2.09 bushels. The eimer
= 11.25 gallons. The pound, light and heavy
weight, = 1.03 jind impound avoirdupois, re-
spectively.

Saxony. — The foot =11.1 inches. The acre
= 1 acre 1.5 rood, near! v. The eimer, at Drrs-
den,= 14.9 gallons; at Leipsic= 16.8 gallons.
The wispel, at Dresden, = 69.9 bushels; at
Leipsic = qi.7 bushels. The pound =1.03
pound avoirdupois.

Sicily. — The canna =?6c inches. The
salma = 7.6 bushcis. The barrel = 8 gallons,
nearly. The pound of 12 ounces = 7 pound;
avoirdupois. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoir*
dupois.

Smyrna.— The pike = 27 inches. The kil*
lnw= 1 1 .3 gallons. The rottolo = i.J pound
avoirdupois.

South America.— The Spanish and Por-
tuguese measures are most generally employ-
ed? The use of the English prevails in some
parts.

Spain.— The vara or ell = 33.3 inches. The
fanegada=i acre 31 perches. The arroba =
3 5 gallons. The f ancga = 1.5 bushel. The
pound = 1 .01 pound avoirdupois.

Sweden and Norway.— The ell = 33.3
inches. The tunneland = 1 acre 1 rood, nearlv.
The tunnu =0.6 quarter. The kanrsxo.O gal-
lon. The pound x= 0.9 pound avoirdupois.

Turkey.— The pike = 16 -2$ Inches, The
killow =0.9 bushel. The almud= 1.1 ^r*llon.
The okc = j.S pounds avoirdupois. The rot-
tolo = 1.3 pound avoirdu p

Tuscany.— The hraccio= 23 Inches, nearly.
The saccata = 1 acre 0.9 rood. The sacche »
2 bushels. The nasche = 4 pints. The pound
= 12 ounces avoirdupois.

Venice.— Besides the metrical system, the
following measures are used: Thebraccio,
for woolens = 26.6 Inches; for silks = 24. S
inches. The su»o = 3. 1 bushels. The sec-
chia = 3.4 gallons. The pound s©ttiles»o.y
pound avoirdupois, nearly; gTosso^i.05
pound avoirdupois.

THE METRIC SYSTEM.

449

The Metric System originated In France about 1700. In 1799, on the invitation of the Government, an international convention, at which
were present representatives from Prance, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, Savoy and the Roman Republics, assembled at
Paris to settle, from the results of the great Meridian Survey, the exact length of the " definitive metre." As a result of the investigations of
this learned body, the Metric System was based upon the length of the fourth part of a terrestrial meridian. The ten-millionth part of this arc
was chosen as the unit of measures of length, and called Metre. The cube of the tenth part of the metre was adopted as the unit of capacity,
and denominated Litre. The weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density was called Kilogramme, of which the thousandth part,
or Gramme, was adopted as the unit of weight. The multiples of these, proceeding in decimal progression, are distinguished by the employ-
ment of the prefixes deca, hecto, kilo and myria (ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand), from the Greek, and the subdivisions oy deci t cents'
and milli (tenth, hundredth, thousandth), from the Latin.

Measures of Length (Unit, Metre).

equal to Inches.

0.03937

0.39371

3-937oS

39-37079

393-70790

Hectometre 3,937.07900

Kilometre. 39,370.79000

Myriametre 393,707.90000

Millimetre .
Centimetre .
Decimetre .,

Metre

Decametre.

Yards.

0.0010936

0.0109363

0. 1003633

1. 093633 1

10.9363306

109.3633056

1.093-6330556

10,936.3305556

Cubic Measures, or Measures of Capacity (Unit, Litre).

jai. to Cubic Inches.

0.06103

0.61027

6.10271

61.02705

610.27052

Hectolitre, or Decistere 6,102.70515

Kilolitre, or Stere, or cubic metre 61,027.05152

Myrialitre, or Decastere 610,270.51519

Millilitre.or cubic centimetre...
Centilitre, 10 cubic centimetres. .
Decilitre, 100 cubic centimetres.,

Litre, cr cubic Decimetre

Decalitre, or Centtstere.

Cubic Feet.
0.000035
0.000353

0.003532

0.0353' 7
0.353166

3-531658

35-316581

353.165807

Pints.

0.00176

0.01761

0.17608

1.76077

17.60773

176.07734

1,760.77341

17,607.73414

Measures of Weight (Unit, Gramme).

EQUAL TO

Milligramme

Centigramme

Decigramme

Gramme

Decagramme ,

Hectogramme 1, 543.2348^

Kilogramme 1 5,432 .34880

Myriagrainme 154,323.48800

Grains.

0.01543

0-15433

1-54323

15.43235

154.323-

Troy Oz.
0.000032
0.000322
0.003315
0.032151
0.321507

3.215073

32.150727

321.507267

Avoirdupois Lbs.
0.0000022
0.0000220
0.0002205
0.0022046
0.0220462
0.2204621
2.2046213
22.0462129

Square Measures, or Measures of Surface (Unit, Are).

equal to Sq. Feet. Sq. Yards. Sq. Perches,

Centiare, or square metre 10.794299 .. 1.196033 .. 0.0395383

Are, or 100 square metres 1,076.429934 .. 119. 603326 .. 3.953S290

Hectare, or io,ooosquare metres 107,642.993419 .. 11,960.332602 .. 395.3S2S959

Fathoms.

0.0005468

O.0054682

O.0546816

0.5^68165

5.4681653

54.6816528

546.8165278

5,468.1652778

Gallons.

0.0002201

0.0022010

0.0220097

0.2200967

2.2009668

22.0096677

220.0966767

2,200.9667675

Cvtt. of 113 Lbs*
0.0000000
0.0000002
0.0000020
0.0000197
0.0001968
0.00196S4
, 0,0106841

0.190S412

Bushels.
0.0000275
0.0002751
0.0027512
0.0275121
0.275 1 208
2.7512085
27.5120846
275.1208459

0.0098421

Sq. Acret.
0.0002471
0.02471 11
2.471 1434

CONVERSION OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO ENGLISH.

METRES INTO

KILOMETRES INTO

LITRES INTO GALLONS

HECTOLITRES INTO

KILOGRAMMES

INTO

HECTARES INTO

YARDS.

MILES

AND

YARDS.

AND QUARTS.

QUARTS AND

BUSHELS.

CWTS.

, QRS.,

LBS., OZ.

ACRES

ROODS, 1

'CH'S.

I.O94

'.094

I O

o.SSo

2-75'

2.187

427

2 O

1. 761

5-502

(>y.

3-281

I,|2I

2.641

0.254

4-374

5 . 4 6§

3 521

3.005

1S8

0.402

5-756

1 1

6.562

1,282

6 1

1.2S2

0.507
3-25S

9-k.

615

i :

2.163

'.=;

'.709

3-043

6.010

■7

10 "i

■9

i.<H3

9 1

3-923

0.761

<3H

10.936

*' -873

376

10 2

3-512

■a

o'4

753

20 j

30 6

1.60S

7.024

32.809

1,129

2.412

2-536

2«

43-745

■>5°5

40 S

3-215

4°

6.048

■5

54-6S2

122

50 11

0.C19

1.560

14S

65.61S

49S

§74

1,251

60 13

0.S23

5-072
0.5S5
4.097

76-554
87.491

98-427

70 15
So 17

1.627
2-431

24
27

I
I

173
'97

3
2

1,627

90 19

3-235

9°

.30

7.609

t>H

222

109.363
218.727

IOO

2 i*

487

100 22

0.039

100

3. 121

IOO

100

247

200

200 44
300 66

0.077

200

6.242

200

494

300

328.090

300

730

0. 116

300

>o,3

1.362

300

«J

300

400

437-453
546.816

400

24s

973

400 88

0.IS5

400

'37

4-+S3

400

500

3"o

1,217

500 no

0.193

500

181

7.604

500

.235

• In the majority of States the hundred weight rates at 100 lbs. and the ton accordingly at 2,000 lbs., but in this table the computation has been made at 112 and 2,2*0 lbs.

respectively, as the computation en the other basis is very simple.

45°

A CALENDAR FOR THE CENTURY.

To And the days of the week corresponding to the days of the month for any year of the century, find the year in the left-hand upper
division. Follow the Index (or hand) to the right, to the month sought ; then downward to the day of the week, and to the left for the
corresponding days of the month. In leap-years, if seeking the day of the month, after the 29th of February, subtract one day ; but if
the day of the week is sought, go forward one day. The heavy figures are leap years. The civil year is 365.2422414 days ; but on the
basis of an added day (for leap-year) every fourth year, it is reckoned as 36.1.25 days, an excess of .0077586 of a day, or one day in 1S0
years, and threo day* in 3X7 (or roundly, 400) years. To correct this excess, Instead of 100 leap-years in 400 years only 97 are reckoned,
the three century-years that are not exact multiples of 400 being treated as common years.

1800
■51
•06

•12
•98

•17
•62

•23
•88

•45

•73

•34

•79

•40

•90

**r

June.

Sept.
Dec.

April.
July.

Jan.
Oct.

May.

Aug.

Feb.
Mar.

Nov.

'•5

•50

'11
'68

•95
'61

•22

'67

•28

•89

•33
'78

•39
•84

*a-

Sept.
Dec.

April.
July.

Jan.
Oct.

May.

Aug.

Feb.
Mar.
Nov.

June.

•49
1900

•10
•55

•18

•94

•21

•66

•27
•72

'44

'77

•38
•83

April.
July.

Jan.
Oct.

May.

Aug.

Feb.
Mar.
Nor.

June.

Sept,

I ><•••.

'04

•93
•99

•09
'54

•16
•80

•43
•65

•26
•71

•32
•88

•37
•82

«r

Jan.
Oct.

May.

Aug.

Feb.
Mar.
Nov.

June.

Sept.
Dec

April.
July.

•03
'48

•42
•53

•14

'59

•20

•87

•25
•70

•31
•78

•98
'81

**■

May.

Aug.

Feb.
Mar.
Nov.

Juno.

Sept.
Dec.

April.
July.

Jan.
Oct.

•02

'(B

•97

'08

•86

•13
•58

•19
'84

•41

•69

•30
•75

•38
•92

*»•

Aug.

Feb.
Mar.
Nov.

June.

Sept.
Dec.

April.
July.

Jan.
Oct.

May.

•01
•85

•07
•52

•46
•57

•18
•63

•24

•91

'29
'74

•35
•80

Feb.
Mar.
Nov.

June.

Sept.
Dec.

April.
July.

Jan.
Oct,

May.

Aug.

* *

-e»

Sun.

Mon.

Tues.

Wed.

Thurs.

Fri.

Sat.

-w

Mon.

Tues.

Wed.

Thurs.

Fri.

Sat.

.-on.

-w

Tues.

Wed.

Thurs.

Fri.

Sat.

Sun.

Mon.

-s»

Wed.

Thurs.

Fri.

Sat.

Sun.

Mon.

Tues.

••

-w

Thurs.

Fri.

Sat.

Sun.

Mon.

Tar-.

Wed.

-w

Fri.

Sat. Sun.

Mon. Tues.

Wed.

Thurs.

••

-«•

Sat.

Sun.

Mon.

Tues.

Wad.

Thurs.

Tri.

£=

=_j

LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT.

451

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

ABfMINT

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2*0 • AVOID LITIS

fNTIL the millennium begins, men will not be
... able to exist without courts, law and lawyers.
II When man was in a state of nature, before
p what the philosophers call the social com-
pact was entered into, the law that prevailed was the
strong hand. Property belonged not necessarily to
him who manufactured it or found it, but to him who
had the physical ability to prevent other people from
depriving him of it. As the verse runs, humanity be-
gan with

— The good old plan,
That they shall take who have the power,
And they shall keep who can.

And much as we may talk about the reasonableness and
light of our civilization, that theory lies underneath every legal
process we use today. First the man righted his own wrongs
according to his natural reason — a sort of wild justice that
was made up of all injustice, and in which capital punishment
was the only penalty recognized. Next the family took up the
administration of the law — a step in the right direction, but only
a step — and so, as men grew older in wisdom and experience,
a man's wrongs were redressed first by himself, next by his
family, next by his tribe, and lastly by his nation. Each of these
changes was a change for the better, an approach toward impar-
tiality and justice Even in the night of time wise judges were
at work making precedents which grew gradually into law, and

that great system which we have to-day is as much a natural out-
growth of humanity as our civilization. It was seen early in our
history as a race that the wisdom of the umpires to whom men
addressed their disputes was not alone enough to insure peace and
tranquillity to the land, and hence great law-givers appeared from
time to time in every nation, who have left codes out of which
we have built our common law and statute law of the nineteenth
century. Each family of nations had its own statutes, differing
widely in practice, but all founded upon justice and common
sense. The English law, which we in America have brought
with us from the old home, is, like the English language, an
olla podrida of many elements. The Saxon code lies under all
with its strong tendency to personal liberty, and exact and equal
justice to high and low, just as the Saxon tongue is the basis and
foundation of our language.

The Norman Conquest brought in changes in the tenure of land,
together with the martial law, the game laws and the criminal
and the feudal laws of France. Mixing in this hotch-potch, the
Roman Church added the ecclesiastical and part of the criminal
law, drawn directly, as the French laws came indirectly, from the
great Codex Justiniani, of the Roman Empire, and this strange
mixture has grown in the centuries that have passed into the
great guarantee of liberty and justice which our law to-day
represents.

Always seeking after right and common sense, our law is not
perfect, nor is it perfectly administered, but the whole world
admits that the English-speaking people have the best laws
known to man. Perfection erring humanity will never attain.

Jl«

^ %

45 2

LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT.

Our criminal law has been built upon the theory that the
criminal must be protected, and it is for his protection that the
statutes run. At first the only punishment that men knew was
death or maiming. In the middle ages thieves were boiled in
oil, and robbers were impaled alive. Witnesses were questioned
on Ihe rack, and evidence extorted with thumbscrew and the
iron boot, crushing the flesh
in the search for truth. As
the years rolled by all of this
was ameliorated, and to-day
mercy is tempered with jus-
tice, and the shameful bar-
barisms of the courts of the
middle ages are becoming
rarer and rarer.

It is not the purpose of
this work to make any man
a lawyer learned in the law.
It were idle, and worthy only
of a catchpenny mountebank,
to pretend that in a volume
like this could be compressed
the whole of a great science which demands of its professors
years of toil and years of study and experience. Once involved
in litigation, go to a lawyer, and to the best lawyer you can
afford. Any one who gives the reader different advice is dis-
honest and knavish, and common sense must recognize this
indictment.

An ounce of prevention,
however, is worth a pound
of cure, and we verily believe
that in the pages that follow
many ounces of prevention
will be found. Law is a
costly luxury that should only
be indulged in as a last re-
sort, when justice cannot be
gained by less expensive
means. The wise man avoids
it as he would avoid bank-
ruptcy or fire, and he takes
all the prudent precautions
that he can to escape litiga-
tion. We claim that the
student of these pages will be fully equipped for that purpose.

Law is a costly luxury, we have said ; and the wisdom of an-
tiquity, which built the law, has built also on this truism. One
of the earliest fables the child is told, is the story of the two cats
who referred a cheese case to a monkey learned in the law, and
whose chosc-in-action gradually went into the digestive system

THE SUIT BEGINS : The Lawyer gets the Milk foe his Fees.

of the court. The story we illustrate below conveys a moral
that all should heed.

Observe the obstinate litigants pulling at the head and tail of
the disputed cow ; how determined each is, not to win the ani-
mal, but to prevent the other from getting her, and see the attor-
ney, learned and gentlemanly, industriously milking fees and

retainers into his bucket and
advising the plaintiff to hold
hard and steady. And when
the cow is milked, see how
the litigation ends : one man
has the horns and a severe
fall, the other has the tail
and an equally unpleasant
tumble, while the lawwr
walks off with the cow and
the milk and an exceedingly
good opinion of the law.
The satire may be rather
broad, but it teaches what
every sensible man will tell
you, that there is no dearer
commodity in this world than justice.

No matter what transaction you are about to engage in, study
the forms we give, read the hints we publish. Do nothing
blindly. In no case is knowledge power so much as in busi-
ness law. Who are the men that succeed ? They are those who
understand it. Which of your friends is tangled up in costly,

perhaps ruinous, litigation ?
Ask him how it began, and
he will point out to you
some trifling error, made in
a culpable ignorance, which,
had he the lesson we teach
before him, he would have
avoided. Then study these
pages if you would gain the
benefit that lies before you.
A half hour's attention be-
fore a transaction is con-
summated may save you
thousands afterwards. The
diligent student may be sure
of one thing, that, with this
manual at command, its hints obeyed, its instructions followed,
its forma used, it will take a very much better lawyer than the
average business man to force him into a lawsuit, Mid yet his
lights will be as thoroughly secure as though they had Ix-cn
vindicated and asserted by all the supreme courts of the Re-
public.

END OF THE SUIT : The Lawyer gets both Cow and Milk.

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LEGAL BUSINESS FORMS.

453

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-t^J-foco tfieij are properfu, ©racoi} anc} Gxee-ufec|..es3»-

AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS.

CONTRACT is legally defined to be
XI an agreement between persons com-
petent to contract to do or not to
do, for a consideration, some speci-
fied thing. Following upon this definition,
it is evident that those things to be specially
examined about a contract are the parties,
their legal ability and their consent. There
must be two or more persons concerned, and
it is vital that they must be able to contract.
"Persons" is here taken in the legal meaning,
which includes artificial persons, such as cor-
porations and States. Corporations can only
contract as they are empowered by their char-
ters ; States, as they are permitted by their
constitutions. Persons not of legal age can
not usually contract, but when of age they
may, in certain cases, ratify contracts made
in infancy. The contract of marriage may be
entered into under age. Idiots and insane
persons cannot contract.

Consent is vital to a contract. It may be
given by a word or a nod, by the shaking of
hands or by a sign. Often, in law, the old
saying that " silence gives consent " is upheld.
In a written contract assent is proven by the
signature or mark of the persons.

The first step toward a contract is the propo-
sition or offer, which may be withdrawn at
any time before it is agreed to. When the
proposition is verbal, and no time is specified,
it is not binding unless accepted at once. To
give one the option or refusal of property at
a specified price, is simply to give him a cer-
tain time to make up his mind whether he will
buy the property or not. To make the option
binding he must accept within the time named.
The party giving the option has the right to
withdraw it, and sell the property to another,
at any time previous to its acceptance, even
within the time for which the refusal was
given, because the offer is gratuitous, and
there is no consideration to support it.

A written proposition may be accepted at
any time before notice of withdrawal. But
the proposer can retract at any time before it
is accepted. If a letter of acceptance is mailed,
however, and immediately after a letter with-
drawing the offer is received, the contract is
binding. An acceptance takes effect from the
time it is mailed, not from the time it is re-
ceived ; it must be in accordance with the
original proposition, for any new matter intro-
duced would constitute a new offer. When
the offer is accepted, either verbally or in

454

LEGAL BUSINESS FORMS.

writing, it is an express assent, and is bind-
ing. Express assent is not affected by custom
or usage of trade. Implied assent is accepted
by the law when common sense seems to de-
mand it. For instance, if John Jones draws a
draft on Abraham Swift, which Swift refuses
to accept, and James Smith accepts the draft
to save John Jones' credit, there is an im-
plied assent on the part of Jones to indemnify
Smith.

A contract made under a mistake of law is
not void. Everybody is presumed to know the
law, and ignorance is no excuse. This, how-
ever, applies only to contracts permitted by
law and clear of fraud. A refusal of an offer
cannot be retracted without the consent of the
second party. Once a proposition is refused,
the matter is ended. And no one has the right
to accept an offer except the person to whom
it was made.

The consideration is the reason or thing for
which the parties bind themselves in the con-
tract, and it is either a benefit to the promisor
or an injury to the other party. Considera-
tions arc technically divided into valuable and
good, and it sometimes happens that the con-
sideration need not be expressed, but is im-
plied. A valuable consideration is either
money or property or service to be given, or
some injury to be endured. A promise to
marry, for instance, is a valuable considera-
tion. A good consideration means that the
contract is entered into because of consan-
guinity or affection, which will support the
contract when executed, but will not support
•in action to enforce an executory contract.
Whether a consideration is sufficient or not is
tested by its being a benefit to the promisor or
an injury to the other party. If it has a legal
value, it makes no difference how small that
value may be. The promisor need not always
be benefited, as, for instance, the endorser of a
note, who is liable although he gets no benefit.
Hut if a person promise to do something him-

self for which no consideration is to be received,
there is no cause of action for breach of
the contract. Among sufficient considerations
we may include " forbearance," the waiting
for payment or for the execution of another
contract, and " mutual promises," if made si-
multaneously, not otherwise, and finally a pre-
existing " moral obligation," as, for instance,
when a debt has become outlawed through the
statute of limitations, a promise to pay it will
renew the liability of the debtor.

THE STATUTE OF FRAUDS.
The English Statute of Frauds, which has
been re-enacted in most of the American
States, provides that " no action shall be
brought whereby to charge the defendant upon
any special promise to answer for the debt,
default or miscarriage of another person, un-
less the agreement upon which such action
shall be brought, or some memorandum or
note thereof, shall be in writing, and signed
by the party to be charged therewith, or some
other person thereunto by him lawfully author-
ized. " This is held not to apply to original
promises, but only to collateral engagements
or cases where a debt already exists on the
part of a third person. As in the case of a
note already given to Brown by Jones, a
promise from Smith to pay must be in writing
to be binding. If Brown tells Jones to deliver
goods to Smith, saying: " I will pay if he
doesn't," or " I will see you paid," it is a mere
offer of guaranty, and is a collateral undertak-
ing, which comes within the statute ; but it is
different if he says: " Charge them to me,"
or "I will pay." The latter is an original
promise, and need not be in writing. No
consideration is necessary, so far as the person
who guarantees is concerned, if it is a benefit
to the person in whose favor the promise i-
made. This statute does not apply in cases
where an original promise is mule at the time
the debt is created. The statute of frauds

I GAL BUSINESS FORMS.

455

also provides that no sale shall be binding un-
less the buyer shall first accept part of the
goods so sold, and actually receive them ; or,
2d, give something in earnest, to bind the bar-
gain, or in part payment; or, 3d, that some
note or memorandum, in writing, of the said
bargain be made and signed by the parties
or their agents. The writing must state the
promise, and also the consideration. Where
goods exist in the condition in which they are
to be delivered, and the delivery is to take
place in the future, a sale of such goods comes
within the statute.

CAUSES WHICH VITIATE CONTRACTS.

There are several causes which void con-
tracts, first among which is fraud. Fraud is
defined to be " every kind of artifice employed
by one person for the purpose of wilfully
deceiving another to his injury." No fraudu-
lent contract will stand in law or in equity.
The party upon whom the fraud has been
practiced must void the contract as soon as he
discovers the fraud, for if he goes on after
having knowledge of the fraud he cannot after-
wards avoid it. But the one who perpetrates
the fraud cannot plead that ground for voiding
it. Contracts in restraint of trade are void,
as also are contracts in opposition to public
policy, impeding the course of justice, in
restraint of marriage, contrary to the insolvent
acts, or for immoral purposes. Any violation
of the essential requisites of a contract, or the
omission of an essential requisite, will void it.

THE DEFENCES

which may be set up against an action on con-
tract are eleven in number, and may be sum-
marized thus: Performance, Payment, Re-
ceipts, Accord and Satisfaction, Arbitrament
and Award, Pendency of Another Action, Re-
lease, Tender, Statute of Limitations, Set-OfT,
Recoupment.

A Building Contract.

Memorandum of Agreement, made this 10th day of May, one thou-
sand eight hundred and eighty-three, between Henry Davis, of St. Louis,
of the first part, and Joseph Stephenson, of the same place, builder, of the
second part. The said party of the second part covenants and agrees
with the said party of the first part to make, erect, build and finish in
good, substantial and workmanlike manner, on the lot belonging to the
party of the first part, and known as No. 243 North Nineteenth street, one
brick house, agreeable to the draft, plan and explanation hereto annexed,
of good and substantial materials (or of such materials as the party of the
first part may find and provide therefor), by the 1st day of September
next. And the said party of the first part covenants and agrees to pay
unto the said party of the second part, for the same, the sum of one
thousand dollars lawful money of the United States, as follows : the sum
of $200 on the 1st of June, $200 on the 1st of July, $200 on the 1st of
August, $400 on the completion of the house.

( If the owner is to furnish materials, add: and, also, that he will
furnish and procure the necessary materials for the said work, in such
reasonable quantities, and at such reasonable time, or times, as the said
party of the second part shall or may require.)

And for the true and faithful performance of all and every of the
covenants and agreements above mentioned, the parties to these presents
bind themselves, each unto the other, in the penal sum of $200, a.i liqui-
dated damages to be paid by the failing party.

In witness wherof The parties to these presents have hereunto set
their hands (and seals) the day and year first above written.

Henry Davis.

Signed, sealed and delivered in presence of ) Joseph Stephbnson.
Tames Wilson.
«. C. Boyd.

: of J Jo

Contract with Employe.

This Agreement^ made this 22d day of December, 1883, between J,
F. Townley, of Chicago, of the first part, and Campen, Strauss & Co., of
St. Louis, Mo., of the second part, witnesseth: That the said J. F.
Townley agrees faithfully ;md diligently to serve the said Campen, Strauss
& Co., as clerk, in the store of said Campen, Strauss & Co. (or other-
wise), at St. Louis, for the period of one year, from and af'.er the ist day
of January next, for the sum of $1,500 per year. In consideration of
which service, so to be performed, the said Campen, Strauss & Co.
agree to pay the said J. F. Townley the sum of $125 per month, payable
on the first day of each month, during said term.

And it is understood and agreed that the death of either of them,
occurring prior to the expiration of said term of one year, shall terminate
this agreement.

In witness whereof, etc. Campen, Strauss & Co.

J. F. TOWMLBV.

Contract for the Sale of Property.

This Agreement, made this 5th day of March, 1883, between Alan
McDowell, of St. Louis, and C. S. Wheeler & Co., of New York, wit-
nesseth: That the said Alan McDowell agrees to sell and deliver to
the said C. S. Wheeler & Co., at their store in New York, five thousand
bushels of potatoes on or before the 2d day of May, 1883, and the said
C. S. Wheeler & Co., in consideration thereof, agree to pay to the said
Alan McDowell fifty cents per bushel for said potatoes, immediately upon
the completion of the delivery thereof.

In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands, this 5th day of

March, 1883, at New York City. C. S. Wheeler & Co.

\lan McDowell.

Short Form of Contract.

John D. Simons hereby agrees to sell one thousand head of two-year-
old cattle, to be delivered in Chicago before February 1, 1883, to Knox,
Stout & Co., at $20 a head, and the said Knox, Stout & Co. agree to pay
$20 per head for all two-year-old cattle, up to one thousand head, deliv-
ered by said John D. Simons, prior to February 1, 1883.
Signed at Chicago, 111., this 20th day of September, 1881.

Knox. Stout & Co.
John D. Simons.

45 6

AGENCY AND ATTORNEY.

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ffieney •> and •> flttopney.

'HEN one person is authorized to act
in a business capacity for another,
under a contract either express or
implied, he becomes the agent of
the latter, and the act of the agent, when
legally authorized, is the same as if done
by the principal. For ordinary contracts
constituting an agency, a written or verbal
agreement or appointment is required, but
contracts required to be under seal can only
be made by an agent whose appointment is
established by a sealed instrument. An agent
may be so constituted by his acts without a
formal appointment. Where a principal will-

ingly and knowingly allows a person to do
acts in his name, he will be presumed to have
given him authority. Where several persons
are appointed by law as agents, the thing to
be done may generally be executed by a
majority of them.

The extent to which the agent's authority
binds the principal is to be gathered from the
appointment, and depends upon the power
which has been delegated to him by express
or implied contract. The principal is not
bound if the agent go beyond his authority,
unless, with knowledge of the fact, he has
taken the benefit of it.

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fHE various kinds of agency are called
special and general ; limited and un-
limited ; factor and broker. A special
agency is an agency to do a single act,
and every person doing business with a special
agent must ascertain what the extent of his
authority is, and at his own risk. A general
agency consists of delegated authority to do

anything about a particular business, the prin-
cipal being bound for all acts of the agent that
come within the scope of the business. Lim-
ited agency is that in which particular instruc-
tions restrict and limit the agent's authority.
Unlimited agency is one in which a special
agent is given authority to use any means he
may find necessary to accomplish the desired

•-

IN-

DIFFERENT KINDS OF AGENCY.

>t*

457

end. The factor, commonly called commis-
sion merchant, is one who has the property of
his principal in his own possession, for sale,
such property being called a consignment.
Such agent, accompanying a cargo on a voy-
age, is called a supercargo. A broker is one
who is employed to negotiate sales between
the buyer and seller. He does not have
possession of the property which he nego-
tiates, nor authority to sell in his own name.

With few exceptions to the rule, an agent is
not obliged to account for the price of goods
he has sold until he has recovered the money
from the purchaser.

When an agent makes the contract in the
name of the principal, and under his authority,
he generally avoids personal liability.

The agent is given the right of lien on the
property in his possession, and also the right
to insure it, to secure the payment of his com-
mission. He is also entitled to reimbursement
for costs and damages which, through no fault
of his, he has been obliged to pay in relation
to the agency.

The principal has reciprocal rights against
third persons, corresponding with his own lia-
bilities, and may sue them, when they are
responsible, or their contracts made with the
agency. He is liable to third persons for the
negligence or unskilfulness of the agent, when
he is acting in the fulfilment of the agency
business, even if he is not under his immedi-
ate direction. The general principle is, that for
all torts, frauds, misfeasances and defaults of
the agent, done in the regular course of the
agency business, the principal is liable, whether
he participated in it or not, provided it were
not the agent's wilful act. The agent is liable
equally with the principal for all wrongs done
by him under order of his principal.

Unless expressly authorized, the agent has
no right to delegate his own powers to a sub-
agent.

A notice to an agent is generally considered
notice to the principal.

Money paid by an agent can be recovered
by the principal, if it has been paid by mis-
take ; if the consideration has failed ; if the
money was illegally extorted from him as agent;
or if it was fraudulently applied to some illegal
purpose by the agent.

An agency may be dissolved : by a revoca-
tion by the principal of the power of the agent;
by operation of law.

Power of Attorney — Short and Simple Form.

Know all men by these presents : That I, the undersigned, of Minne-
apolis, Minn., do hereby make, constitute and appoint R. J. Belford, of
St Paul, Minn., my true and lawful attorney, for me, and in my name

and stead (here insert the subject-matter of the poiver ) ; to do and

perform all the necessary acts in the execution and prosecution of the
aforesaid business, and in as full and ample a manner as I might do if I
were personally present

Howard Belden.
Executed in presence of I

Henry Lemson. 1

Letter of Substitution.

( To be endorsed on the power 0/ attorney. J
I hereby appoint Geo. W. Jones as my substitute and in my stead to
do and perform every act and thing which I might or could do by virtue
of the within power of attorney. (Signed) R. J. Belford.

Power of Attorney to Collect Debts, Rents, Etc.

Know all men by these presents : That I, Samuel Adams, of Boston,
Mass., do by these presents make, constitute and appoint Chas. E. Foster
my true and lawful attorney, for me, and in my name, place and stead,
to demand, ask, sue for, collect and receive all sums of money, accounts,
debts, dues, rents and demands of every description, kind and nature
whatsoever, which are due, owing or payable from any person or persons
whomsoever, and to give good and sufficient receipts, acquittances and
discharges therefor; giving and granting unto my said attorney full
authority and power to do and perform every act and thing whatsoever
necessary and requisite to be done in the premises, as I might or could do
if personally present.

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this

day of , 188 — . Samuel Adams. [l.s.]

Signed and sealed j

in presence of >

Jerome Beasey. )

Letter of Revocation.

Know all men by these presents : That I, R. S. Miller, of Covington,

Tenn., in and by my letter of attorney, bearing date the day of ,

did make, constitute and appoint J. H. Pitt my attorney, as by said
letter more fully appears.

That I, the said R. S. Miller, do by these presents annul, countermand,
revoke and make void said letter of attorney and all authority and power
thereby given said attorney, J. H. PitL

In witness, etc. R. S. Miller. [l.s.]

Power of Attorney to Sell Stock.

Know all men by these presents : That I, J. E. Hartman, of Cen-
tralia, HI., do by these presents make, constitute and appoint J. A. L.
Romig my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my stead to sell and
transfer unto any persons whomsoever, and for such price as my said
attorney shall think fit. all and any of the following stocks (describing
them.)

458

AFFIDAVITS.

And also for me, and in my name, to make and pass all necessary acts of
assignment, and to give and receive receipts and releases for the consider*
ation money arising from the sale thereof.

And also for mc, and in my name, to give receipts for all interest and
dividends now due or that shall hereafter become due on said capital
stock, until the sale and transfer thereof.

In witness, etc.

Power to Vote as Proxy at an Election.

Knotv all men by these presents : That I, Homer Huston, of Paxton,
III., do hereby appoint 1'. M. Elliott to vote as my proxy at any election
of directors or other officers of the (name the company or corporation)
according to the number of votes I should be entitled to if I were then
personally present.

IIomkr Huston. [i..s.]

Power to Take Charge of and Carry on Business.

Know all men hy these presents : That I, Julius Schonfeld. of Jeffer-
son, Texas, do by these presents appoint, constitute and make R. V.
Jennings my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my place and stead,
to take charge of my business of general merchandising, at Mar*hall,
Texas; to purchase and sell, for cash or on credit, all such articles, goods,
merchandise and wares as he shall deem proper, necessary and useful to
said business: to sign, accept and endorse all notes, drafts and bills; to
state accounts; v, mm and prosecute, compromise, collect and settle all
claims or demands due or to become due, now existing or hereafter to
exist in my favor; to adjust and pay all claims or demands which now
exist or may hereafter arise against me, either connected with said busi-
ness or otherwise.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this day

of , 188—. Julius Schokpxld. lL.a.J

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yN affidavit is a sworn declaration, taken
before a competent official, which dif-
fers from a deposition in the fact
that no cross-examination is possible.
When an affidavit is amended by order of court,
it must be re-sworn. It should be positive in
the description of amounts, places,, persons,
etc. ; even if an amount is uncertain, some sum
must be named. It must also specify the day
and place whereon it was sworn. The date is
given in what is called the jurat, and the place
in the venue of the affidavit. Where a person
is unable to read or write, or is blind, the jurat
must show that the affidavit was read over to
the affiant, and his mark or signature must be
properly witnessed, and the jurat must be also
signed in all cases by the officer before whom
the affidavit is made. The jurat .is that part
of an affidavit which tells how, when, by whom
and before whom the oath was taken. The
venue simply states the place where, thus :

State of , )

County of , ) "•

An omission of the venue is fatal, as it is
the only evidence that the person administer-
ing the oath had power to swear witnesses.

Where an affidavit is required by law, the
maker of a false one can be punished for per-
jury, although in courts of law or equity affi-
davits are not considered as testimony.

General Form of Affidavit.

Statf of Missouri, Franklin County, Town of Washington, //.

Bernard Mcn.sc, being duly sworn, deposes and says for alleges and
says) : Thai — (Here set out in full and accurate language tke mat-
ters to be alleged.)

[Seal.] Bernard Minsk.

Sworn for affirmed) before roe, this twenty-ninth day of August,
A. D. 1883. John Willenkamf,

Justice 0/ tke Pesue.

(If the affiant is unable to read, the subscription should be as follows:)

Subscribed and sworn to before mc, this day of , A.D. 18 — ,

the same having been by me for in my presence) read to this affiant, be
being illiterate for blind), and understanding the same.

t Officer's signature and title.,

Affidavit to Accounts.

State of Illinois. Polabu Count*, ss.

Before me, the undersigned, one of the justices of the peace in and for
said county, personally came Theodore Wehrfriti, of Mound City, and,
being duty sworn according to law, deposes and says : That the above
account, as staled, isjust and true.

That the above sum of seventy-nine dollars is now justly due and
owing to this deponent by the above named Robert Robinson.

That he, the said Theodore Wchrfriu, has never received the same or
any part thereof, either directly or indirectly, nor any person for him, by
his direction or order, knowledge or consent.

Theodore Wehrfriti.

Sworn and subscribed before me, this thirteenth day of August, A.D.
li,J ^ William Western

Justice of tke Pomc-e.

APPRENTICES.

459

Affidavit to Petition.

State of Illinois, Clinton County, ss.

Theodore Volmer, being duly sworn, says : That the facts set forth
in the foregoing petition are true to the best of his knowledge and belief.

Theodore Volmer.

Sworn, etc. (as in preceding forms ).

Affidavit to Signature of Absent or Deceased Witness.

State of Kansas, Crawford County, ss.

Beit remembered. That on the fourth day of September, A.D. 1883,
before me, the undersigned, James Atkinson, one of the justices of the
peace in said county, personally appeared William Hawley, who, being

duly sworn, deposes and says : That Alexander Stuart, one of the sub-
scribing witnesses to the within ( 'will or deed ) is i dead or absent from
the State, as the case may be).

That he has frequently seen said Alexander Stuart write, and that he
is well acquainted with the handwriting of said Alexander Stuart.

That to the best of his knowledge and belief (or he verily believes)
the name of Alexander Stuart, signed to the same as one of the subscrib-
ing witnesses, is the proper and individual handwriting of said Alexander
Stuart. William Hawley.

Subscribed and sworn to before me, this fourth day of September,
A.D. 1883. James Atkinson,

Justice of the Peace.

«^f

K ^pppentiee^. ?k -+~+

J^N APPRENTICE is one bound out to
|f service in due form of law, to learn some
art, trade or business. The contract con-
tinues for no longer time than the minor-
ity of the apprentice, and the instrument should
be signed by the apprentice and his father, or, in
case of death or incapacity of the latter, by the
mother or legally constituted guardian.

The master stands toward the apprentice in
the relation of a parent, and cannot dismiss the
latter, except by decree of the proper tribunal,
assigned by the laws of the particular State.
An apprentice, on his part, is under obligation
to obey all the lawful commands of the master,
to advance, as far as he may, his interests, to en-
deavor to learn his art, trade or business, and
perform all the covenants entered into.

The death of the master terminates the appren-
ticeship, unless the indenture run to the execu-
tors or administrators. An apprentice will be
discharged by the proper authority for acts of the
master injurious to his mind or morals.

Indenture of an Apprentice.

This indenture of apprenticeship between John Garrett, father of Philip
Garrett, on the one part, and William Nead, of the other part, witnesseth .
That the said Philip Garrett, aged 15 years on the 20th day of August,
A.D. 1882, is hereby bound as an apprentice under the said William

Nead, from the date hereof until the 20th day of August, i88fi, to learn
the trade and art of a printer; and is faithfully to serve the said William
Nead and correctly to conduct himself during the term of his apprentice-
ship.

And the said William Nead hereby covenants that he will teach the
said Philip Garrett the said trade and art, and will furnish him, during
said apprenticeship, with board, lodging, washing, clothing, medicine,
and other necessaries suitable for an apprentice in sickness and in health ;
and will send him to a suitable public school at least three months during
each of the first two years of the said term ; and at the expiration of the
said apprenticeship will furnish him with two new suits of common wear-
ing apparel and one hundred dollars in money."

In testimony whereof, the parties hereto have set their hands and
seals this twentieth day of August, A.D. 1882.

Executed in presence of )

Peter Day, J-

Notary Public. )

John Garrett, [l.s.1
William Nead. [l.s.J

Consent of the Minor.

I hereby consent to the foregoing indenture, and agree to conform to
the terms thereof in all things on my part to be performed.
Dated the 20th day of August, in the year 1882.

Philip Garrett.

Release of an Apprentice.

Know all men by these presents : That Philip Garrett, son of John

Garrett, did by his agreement, bearing date the day of , bind

himself as an apprentice unto William Nead, of , for a term of

from the date thereof, as by said indenture more fully appears.

That, complaint having been made to the undersigned Justice of the
Peace upon oath of Philip Garrett, apprentice of William Nead, to whom
said Garrett is bound, that ( here state the cause for release ). That by
reason thereof, said William Nead does hereby release and forever dis-
charge said Philip Garrett and John Garrett, his father, of and from said
agreement and all service and all other agreements, covenants, matters
and things therein contained, on their or either of their parts to be
observed and performed, whatsoever, from the beginning of the world
unto the date hereof.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, this day of ,

A-D. . William Nead.

460

ARBITRATION.

■»*#*»• *#* ##*| -£**#«,*£- |*#«,|*#* **#**

/l\

^pkitration.

* 7i\ *

*»»»»■ ***|»*»l -&***&■ |»*fr|*#* [■**#»#-

'HEN it becomes necessary or expe-
dient in matters of dispute to have
an equitable settlement without the
interposition of the courts, what are
termed arbitrators are selected by the parties
in interest. In ordinary cases the question is
usually referred to a single person who has the
confidence of both parties, and is conversant
with the law and the rules of evidence. Ar-
bitrators are not bound by legal rules in the
admission or exclusion of evidence, unless it
is so stipulated in the agreement. An award
must be conformable to the terms of the
submission, and only the precise questions
submitted to them should be answered. A sub-
mission to arbitration, voluntarily entered into
by the parties, without the aid of the statutes
or rules of court, may be revoked by either of
the parties at any time before the publication
of the award, though this would render the
revoking parties liable in damages, which would
include all the expenses incurred by the other
party and all he could prove he had lost in any
way by the revocation.

Form of Submission to Arbitration.

Kmoiv all men, That a controversy exists between the undersigned,
Lewis Anderson and James Ray, concerning the boundary and division
lines of the following tract of land, situated in (here describe tht land,
and state the portion in controversy ).

Th;it said Lewis Anderson and James Ray do hereby submit said con-
troversy to the abitrament of Nelson West and John Farnsworth.

That said award shall be made in writing under the hands of said arbi-
trators, ready to be delivered to said parties, or such of them as may de-
sire the same, on or before the second day of February nexL

That said award shall in all things by us and each of us be well and
faithfully kept, observed and performed.

Witness our hands, etc
In presence of 1 Lewis AMD

Walter Rex, > James Rat.

Notary Public. I

Form of Arbitration Bond.

Knotv all men by these presents : That I-ewi* Anderson and Ja

Ray have, this day of , A. D. , submitted their matters in

controversy, concerning the boundary and division lines of a certain tract
of land (describe it), to Nelson West and John Farnsworth, to arbitrate,
award, order, judge and determine of and concerning the same.

That we, the undersigned, bind ourselves, in the sum of dollars,

that said Lewis Anderson and James Ray shall submit to the decision and
award of said arbitrators, provided said award be made in writing on or

before the second day of February, A. D. .

(Signed) Eugene Small.

Jldsos Willis.

Form of Notice to Arbitrators.

Gentlemen — You have been chosen arbitrators on behalf of the under-
signed, to arbitrate and award between them, in divers matters and things,
set forth in their submission, which will be produced for your inspection

when you meet at , in , on the day of , at — o'clock

— M., to hear the allegations and proofs.

Dated, etc Lewis Akhison.

James Ray.

General Form of Arbitrators' Award.

To all to whom these /resents shall come, or may concern, knar* ye :

That the matter in controversy existing between Lewis Anderson, of ,

and James Ray, of , as by their submission in writing, bearing date

the day of , more fully appears, was submitted to Nels..

and John Farnsworth. as arbitrators.

That said arbitrators, being sworn according to law, and having heard
the proofs and allegations of the parties, and examined the matter in con-
troversy by them submitted, do make this, their award, in writing:
( H rite out in full the award.)

In fitness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names, thi>

day of , A.D. .

Nelson West,
John Farnsworth.

ArbitrmUre.

••

-£.

ASSIGNMENTS.

461

.NY transfer of property made in writing
|f is properly called an assignment, thus
1 distinguishing the act from a transfer
made by delivery. In effect, it is pass-
ing to another person all of one's title or inter-
est in any sort of real or personal property,
rights, actions or estates. However, some
things are not assignable ; an officer's pay or
commission, a judge's salary, fishing claims,
Government bounties, or claims arising out of
frauds or torts. Personal trusts cannot be
assigned, as a guardianship or the right of a
master in his apprentice.

Unlike many other legal devices, the holder
of an assignment is not bound to show that a
valuable consideration was given. The owner
of a cause of action may give it away if he
pleases, and in the absence of positive evi-
dence to the contrary the court will presume
that the assignment was for a sufficient con-
sideration. Proof will only be called for when
it appears that the assignment was . a mere
sham or fraudulent. No formality is required
by law in an assignment. Any instrument
between the contracting parties which goes to
show their intention to pass the property from
one to another will be sufficient. It may be
proved, for instance, by the payee of a note,
that he endorsed (or deliverea without endorse-
ment) the note to the assignee, and this is
sufficient evidence of assignment

In every assignment of an instrument, even
not negotiable, the assignee impliedly war-
rants the validity of the instrument and the
obligation of the third party to pay it. He war-
rants that there is no legal defence against its
collection arising out of his connection with the
parties ; that all parties were legally able to con-
tract, and that the amount is unpaid.

An assignment carries with it all the collat-
eral securities and guaranties of the original
debt, even though they are not mentioned in
the instrument.

It is usual to use as operative words in an
assignment the phrase, " assign, transfer and
set over ; " but " give, grant, bargain and sell, "
or any other words indicating an intention on
the part of the parties to transfer the property,
are sufficient in law.

Where property is assigned for the benefit
of creditors, its actual transfer to the assignee
must be made immediately. When an assign-
ment is made under the common law, the as-
signor may prefer certain creditors; but in a
State where this sort of an assignment is gov-
erned by statute, no preference can be shown.
An assignment for the benefit of creditors cov-
ers all of the assignor's property, wherever or
whatever it may be, that is not exempt from
execution.

When insured property is sold, the insurance
policy should be assigned. This can only be

=^L

462

BILLS "I SALE.

done with the consent of the insurer, and that
consent must be at once obtained.

Correct schedules of the property assigned
should accompany and be attached to every as-
signment.

Assignment of a Note.

I hereby, for value received, assign and transfer the within written
(or above written), together with all my rights under the same, to John
Dobson. William Atwood.

Assignment with Power of Attorney.

In consideration of the sum of one thousand dollars (the receipt of
which is hereby acknowledged), I do hereby assign, transfer and set over
to John G. Stewart (of St. Louis, Mo.), all my right, title and interest in
and to (here describe 71'hatJ.

(And I do hereby constitute said John G. Stewart my attorney, in my
name or otherwise, but at his own costs and charges, to take all legal
measures which may be proper or necessary for the complete recovery and
enjoyment of the premises.)

Witness my hand (and seal) this 28th day of August, 1883.

(Witnesses. J William Snyder, [l.s.]

Assignment with Guaranty of Assignor.

For value received, I do hereby assign, transfer and set over to John
G. Stewart the within obligation, and all moneys due and to become due
thereon.

In case the same cannot be recovered of the within named Edwin
Byron, I agree and promise to pay to said John G. Stewart the pnTJMIlM
thereof, together with all necessary and reasonable charges thereupon
accruing.

Witness my hand, etc. William Snyder,

(Witnesses.)

Shorter Form.

For value received, I hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G.
Stewart the within obligation, hereby guaranteeing payment thereof.
(Witnesses.) William Ssydci.

Assignment Without Recourse.

\- <>v value received, I hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G.
Stewart the within obligation, and all moneys due (and to become due)
thereon. All failure of recovery, liabilities, losses, wholly at tho risk of
said John G. Stewart, without recourse in any event upon me.

(Witnesses.) William Snyder.

Assignment of Wages.

Know alt men by these presents; That I, William Snyder (of Sl
Joseph, Mo.), in consideration of one hundred dollar*, the receipt of
which I hereby acknowledge, do hereby assign, transfer and set over to
John G. Stewart (of St. Louis, Mo.) all claims and demands which I now
have, and all which, at any time between the date hereof and the 30th day
of December next, I may or shall have, against Edwin Byron, for all sums
of money due or to become due to me for services as - .

That I do hereby appoint and constitute said John G. Stewart and
his assigns my attorney, irrevocable, to do and perform all acts, matters
and things in the premises, in like manner and to all intents and pur-
poses as I could if personally present.

In witness whereof, etc.

Assignment of Money Due on Account.

Know all men by these presents: That William Snyder, in con-
sideration of the sum of one hundred dollars to him in hand paid, docs
hereby assign, transfer and set over all his title and interest in and rights
under an account for (state what) in the sum of one hundred and fifty
dollars, hereunto annexed, and all other sum and sums of money remain-
ing due and payable upon said account, unto John G. Stewart, with full
power to ask, demand and receive the same (at his own costs and ex-
penses) to his own use, and to give discharges and receipts for the same,
or any part thereof.

That there is due said William Snyder, on said account, at the date ol
these presents, the sum of one hundred and fifty dollars, and thai he hat
not received or discharged the same.

In witness, etc

-^^x&^-h

:• ^ill^vof *$ale. •:• *

BILL OF SALE is a formal written con-
veyance of personal property. If the
property is delivered when sold, or if
part of the purchase-money is paid, a
written instrument is not necessary to make
the conveyance, but it is convenient evidence
of the transfer of title. But, to protect the
interests of the purchaser against the creditors

of the seller, the bill is not sufficient of itself;
then- should also be a delivery of the prop-
erty. If an actual and continued change of
possession does not accompany the sale, it is
void as against the creditors of the seller and
subsequent purchasers uul mortgagees in good
faith, unless the buyer can show th.it his pur-
chase was made in good faith, without intent

V-

BONDS.

4<53

to defraud, and that there was some good rea-
son for leaving the property in the hands of
the seller.

Short Form of Bill of Sale.

I, Henry Anderson, of Chester, Pa., in consideration of two hundred
and fifty dollars, paid by A. D. Criste, of Minister, Pa., hereby sell and
convey to said A. D. Criste one bay horse (give sex, size, color, age, etc.),
warranted against adverse claims.

Witness my hand, this 4th day of Sept, A.D. 1883.

(Witness.) (Signed) Henry Anderson. [l.s.J

Common Form — With Warranty.

Know ait men by these presents : That in consideration of one thou-
sand dollars, the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, I do hereby
grant, sell, transfer and deliver unto A. A. McHatton, his heirs, execu-
tors, administrators and assigns, the following goods and chattels, viz. :
(here describe the property ).

To have and to hold all and singular the saij goods and chattels for-
ever. And the said grantor hereby covenants with said grantee that he is
the lawful owner of said goods and chattels; that they are free from all
encumbrances; that he has good right to sell the same, as aforesaid; and
that he will warrant and defend the same against the lawful claims and
demands of all persons whomsoever.

In witness whereof, the said grantor has hereunto set his hand, this
12th day of December, A.D. 1883.

(Witness.) N. R. Jennek.

Sale of Personal Property.

Knoiv all ttten by these presents : That I, Peter Dolan, of the city of
Cleveland, county of Cuyahoga, State of Ohio, farmer, in consideration of
four hundred dollars, to me in hand paid by Conrad Ullner, the receipt
whereof I hereby acknowledge, have bargained, sold, granted and con-
veyed unto the said Conrad Ullner the following property, to-wit : two
horses; to have and to hold the same; unto the said party of the second
part, his executors, administrators and assigns forever.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this 20th
day of March, 1883. Peter Dolan.

S— GQ_

-O-

s— &

•or

§OQg^.

•^

JS— j

%■

"©
^

•O-

Te— I

WRITTEN instrument, admitting an
(vf obligation on the part of the maker
to pay a certain sum of money to
another specified person at a fixed
time, for a valuable consideration, is called
a bond. The obligor is the one giving the
bond; the beneficiary is called the obligee.
This definition applies to all bonds, but gen-
erally these instruments are given to guarantee
the performance or non-performance of cer-
tain acts by the obligor, which being done,
or left undone, as the case may be, the bond
becomes void, but if the conditions are broken,
it remains in full force. As a rule, the bond
is made out for a sum twice the amount of any
debt which is apt to be incurred by the obligor
under its conditions, the statement being set
forth that the sum named is the penalty, as
liquidated or settled damages, in the event of
the failure of the obligor to carry out the con-
ditions.

An act of Providence, whereby the accom-
plishment of a bond is rendered impossible,
relieves the obligor of all liability.

A bond may be sued upon twenty years
after right of action begins.

A bond simply for the payment of money
only differs from a promissory note in having
a seal.

Short Form of Bond.

Kno™ all men by these presents : That we, John Smith, as principal,
and William Meeser and A. J. Driscoll, as sureties, all of Bladensburg,
in the county of Prince George, State of Maryland, are holden and
stand firmly bound unto David Wright, of said county, in the sum of nine
hundred dollars to be paid to the said David Wright, to the payment
whereof we jointly and severally bind ourselves and our respective heirs
firmly by these presents. Sealed with our seals.

Dated at Bladensburg, this tenth day of June, 1882.

(The condition attached is the same as in the succeeding forms.)

Executed and delivered J

in presence of >

Walter Wren. )

John Smith.
William Meeser.
A. J. Driscoll.

Bond Secured by Mortgage.

Know all men by these presents ; That I, Arthur Dean, of Towanda,
IN Bradford county, and State of Pennsylvania, am held and firmly bound
unto Samuel Crafts, of Wyoming, in the same county and State, in the
sum of two thousand dollars, to be paid to the said Samuel Crafts, his

_vJ

464

BONDS.

heirs, executors, administrators or assigns, and to thus payment I hereby
bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, firmly by these pres-
ents.

Sealed with my seal, this iath day of November, A.D. 1883.

The condition of the above obligation is:

That if I, the said Arthur Dean, or my heirs, executors or adminis-
trators, shall pay or cause to be paid unto the said Samuel Crafts the

sum of one thousand dollars on the day of , with interest at the

rate of per cent per annum, payable six months from the date hereof,

and every months afterwards, until the said sum is paid, then the

above obligation shall be void and of no effect; and otherwise it shall
remain in full force.

And I further agree and covenant, that if any payment of interest be
withheld or delayed for ■ — days after such payment shall fall due, the
said principal sum and all arrearage of interest thereon shall be and
become due immediately on the expiration of — — days, at the option of
said Samuel Crafts, his executors, administrators or assigns.

Executed and delivered
in presence of
John Simmons

Arthur Dean. [i..s.]

General Form of Bond.

Know all men by these presents : That I, John Grubb, of the town
of Mound City, in the county of Pulaski, and State of Illinois, am held
and firmly bound unto J. A. Williams, of Cairo, in the sum of one thousand
dollars, to be paid to the said J. A. Williams, his executors or assigns; for
which payment, well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, ex-
ecutors and administrators, firmly by these presents.

Sealed with my seal. Dated the 28th day of July, 1883.

The condition of the above obligation is such:

That if the above-bounden John Grubb, his heirs, executors or admin-
istrators, shall well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, unto the above-
named J. A. Williams, his executors, administrators or assigns, the just
and full sum of one thousand dollars, in five equal annual payments, from
the date hereof, with annual interest, then the above obligation to be void ;
otherwise to remain in full force and virtue.

Sealed and delivered in
presence of
Jno. G. Stewart,
W. F. George.

John Grubb. [l.s.]

A Bond to Execute a Deed.

Know alt men by these presents: That I, John T. Nixon, of the
city of St. Ixniis, in the State of Missouri, am held and firmly bound unto
George Kline, of the same place, in the sum of nine hundred dollars,
to be paid to the said George Kline, his executors, administrators or
assigns; for which payment, welt and truly to be made, I bind myself, my
heirs, executors and administrators, firmly by these presents.

Sealed with my seal. Dated the 30th day of July, 1883.

The condition of the above obligation is such :

That if the ibove-boundcn John T. Nixon shall well and truly make,
execute and deliver to the said George Kline a deed of release and
quit-claim of said John T. Nixon's interest in ( designating the property )
and shall suffer and permit the said George Kline, his heirs and as-
signs, to peaceably occupy and possess said interest, then this obligation
is to be void ; otherwise to remain in full force.

Sealed and delivered \ John T. Nixon, [u*.]

in presence of

Jos. Peterson.

A Bond to Execute an Assignment.

Know alt men by these /resents : That I, Chas. Curtman, of the
town of Washington, in the county of Franklin, State of Missouri, am
held and firmly bound unto William T. Smith, of the town of Pacific,
in the sum of two thousand dollars, to be paid to the said William T.
Smith, his executors, administrators or assigns; for which payment, well
and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administra-
tors, firmly by these presents.

Sealed with my seal. Dated the 14th day of August, 1883.

The condition of the above obligation is such :

That if the above-bounden Chas. Curtman, his executors, adminis-
trators or assigns, pn 'or before the day of next, shall, upon the

reasonable request, and at the proper cost and charges of the said Will-
iam T. Smith, his heirs or assigns, make, execute and deliver, or cause so to
be, to the said William T. Smith, his heirs or assigns, or to such person or
persons as he or they shall nominate and appoint, and to such uses as he or
they shall direct, a good and sufficient assignment of all such estate and
interest as he, the said Chas. Curtman, now has in the lands and tene-
ments of John Thompson at Washington, Mo., then this obligation to be
void ; otherwise to remain in full force.

Sealed and delivered ) Chas. Curtman. [us.]

in presence of >

Sou Winston. \

v r •-

-r

CORPORATIONS.

465

Co ppo patio 115. •> )*-

jSJfl EVERAL persons joining together for
the accomplishment of any business
or social purpose can, if they wish,
legally organize themselves into a cor-
poration, a form of partnership which com-
bines the resources of all, and yet gives a
limited pecuniary liability, amounting only to
the amount of stock owned by each stock-
holder. In the States, the legislature of each
Commonwealth enjoys the power of regulating
the corporations, and in the Territories this
power is, of course, vested in the General
Government. The actual cost of organization
amounts to something less than $10, most of
which is in fees to the Secretary of State.
When the stock has been subscribed a meeting
is called, where each shareholder casts a vote
for every share which he owns or holds a
proxy for, for each person who is to be elected
director, or he may give one director as many
votes as the number of shares he is voting,
multiplied by the number of directors to be
elected, amounts to, or distribute his votes as
he chooses. Thus, if he owns ten shares of
stock and there are six directors to be elected,
he has sixty votes, which he can give, either
ten for each director, or twenty for each of
three, or sixty for one, or in any other way
that he sees fit, so that his whole vote will not
be more than sixty votes. These directors
meet as soon after the election as possible and
choose a president, vice-president, secretary

and treasurer, whereupon the corporation is
ready for business.

FORMS FOR INCORPORATING.

The law in all the States on the subject of
incorporating companies is very similar, and
the following forms of the Milwaukee Water
Gas Company will furnish a good example of
how this important public act is accomplished:

STATE OF WISCONSIN,
City of Milwaukee.

To-

, Secretary of State :

Wc, the undersigned, John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James
Bell, John O'Nei!, propose to form a corporation under an act of the Gen-
eral Assembly of the State of Wisconsin, entitled " An act concerning cor-
porations," approved May 24th, 1880, and all acts amendatory thereof, and
that, for the purpose of such organization, we hereby state as follows, to-
wit:
The name of such corporation is Milwaukee Water Gas Company.
The object for which it is formed is to carry on the business of manu-
facturing water gas, or hydrogen, and to sell the product so manufactured.
The capital stock shall be five hundred thousand ($500,000) dollars,
divided into five thousand shares of one hundred dollars each.

John Smith.
John Jones.
Charles Ford.
James Hell.
John O'Neil.

( Endorsed on the back by the notary.)
STATE OF WISCONSIN, I
City of Milwaukee. (

I, a notary public, in and for the said city of Milwaukee, and State
aforesaid, do hereby certify that on this 30th of November, A.D. 1880,
personally appeared before me John Smith. John Jones, Charles Ford,
James Hell, John O'Neil, to me personally known to be the same persons
who executed the foregoing statement, and severally acknowledged that
they executed the same for the purposes therein set forth.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, the day and

year above written. ,

Notary Public.

Also, there must be a further endorsement describing the nature of
the corporation thus : Statement of incorporation of the Milwaukee Water
Gas Co. Location, City of Milwaukee, State of Wisconsin. Capital
stock, $500,000. Object, manufacture of water gas.

466

CORPORATION

State License for Incorporating.

STATE OF WISCONSIN, J c „. ^^ • , «-*,

Department ok State. \ Secretary 0/ State.

To all to whom these presents shall come— Greeting ;

Wmkrbas, It being proposed by the persons hereinafter named to
form a corporation under an act of the General Assembly of the State of
Wisconsin, entitled "An act concerning corporations," approved M;iy
24th, 1880, the object and purposes of which corporation arc set forth in a
statement duly signed and acknowledged according to law, and filed this
day in the office of the Secretary of State.

Now, therefore, I, , Secretary of State of the State of Wisconsin,

by virtue of the powers and duties vested in me by law, do hereby author-
ize, empower and license John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James
Hell and John O'Neil, the persons whose names are signed to the
before mentioned statement, as commissioners to open books for subscrip-
tion to the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Co., such being the
name of the proposed corporation as contained in the said statement, at
such times and places as the said commissioners may determine.

In testimony whereof, I hereto set my hand and
cause to be affixed the great seal of State.
, —**— . . Done at the city of Madison, this 6th day

J great ( of December, in the year of our Lord one

"j seal. C thousand eight hundred and eighty-one, and

* — »-v-»- ' of the independence of the United States

the one hundred and sixth.

Secretary 0/ State.

To ,

Secretary of State:
The commissioners duly authorized to open books of subscription to
the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, pursuant to
license heretofore issued, bearing date of the sixth day of December, A.
D. 1881, do hereby report that they opened books of subscription to the
capital stock of the said company, and that the said stock was fully sub-
scribed ; that the following is a true copy of such subscription, viz. : We,
the undersigned, hereby severally subscribe for the number of shares
set opposite our respective names to the capital stock of the Milwaukee
Water Gas Company, and we severally agree to pay the said company on
each share the sum of one hundred dollars.

SHARES AMOUNT.

John Smith i.ooo $100,000

John Jones 1,000 100,000

Chas. Ford 1,000 100,000

James Hell 1,000 100,000

John O'Neill 1,000 100,000

5,000 $500,000

That said subscriber* met at the time and place specified and pro-
ceeded to elect directors, and that the following persons were duly elected
for the term of one year : Joho Smith, John Jones, Chas. Ford, James
Hell, John O'Neil.

(Signed) John Smith.

John Jokes.
Chas. Foko.
James Bell.
John O'Neil.

When this document, properly endorsed, is sent to the Secretary of
State, he at once issues a charter to the corporation, which reads as
follows :

E OF WISCONSIN, ( S *cr,tarv of State

Dept. op State. j Secret * r y •/ s **"-

To all to whom these presents shall come — Greeting:

Whp.rkas, A statement duly signed and acknowledged nas been filed
in the office of the Secretary of State on the 30th day of November, 1881,
for the organization of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, under and
in accordance with the provisions of "An act concerning corporation*."
approved May 24, 1880, and in force July 1, 1880, and all acts amenda-
tory thereof, a copy of which statement is hereto attached ; and

Whereas, A license having been issued to John Smith, John Jones,
Charles Ford, James Hell, John O'Neil, as commissioners, to open books
for subscription to the capital stock of said company ; and

Whereas, The said commissioners having, on the 20th day of Decem-
ber, A.D. 1881, filed in the office of the Secretary of State a report of
their proceedings under the said license, a copy of which report is hereto
attached ;

Now, therefore, I, , Secretary of State of the State of Wiscon-
sin, by virtue of the powers and duties vested in me by law, do hereby
certify that the said Milwaukee Water Gas Company is a legally organ-
ized corporation under the laws of this State.

In testimony whereof, I hereby set my hand and cause
to be affixed the great seal of State. Done at the
city of Madison this loth day of January, in the year
of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-
two, and of the Independence of the United States
the one hundred and seventh.

Secretary 0/ State,

V <s-

DKEDS.

467

k Mfo-- k

W*~

Jfoca f^ectP Qi&fafe i<*> <UraniSferrec|. eh j?uPP (HoPPeciTon of? eforrrjA ar£o

MoileP<§> of dion^e^ance^.

DEED is a writing by which lands, tene-
ments or hereditaments are conveyed,
i sealed and delivered. It must be written
or printed on parchment or paper ; the
parties must be competent to contract ; there
must be a proper object to grant; a sufficient
consideration ; an agreement properly declared ;
if desired, it must have been read to the party
executing it ; it must be signed and sealed ;
attested by witnesses, in the absence of any stat-
ute regulation to the contrary ; properly acknowl-
edged before a competent officer, and recorded
within the time and in the office prescribed by
the State wherein executed.

The maker of a deed is the grantor ; the party
to whom it is delivered, the grantee. If the
grantor have a wife, she must, in the absence of
a statute to the contrary, sign and acknowledge
the deed ; otherwise, after the husband's death,
she may claim the use of one-third, during her
life.

By a general-warranty deed the grantor cove-
nants to insure the lands against all persons
whatsoever ; by a special-warranty deed, he war-
rants only against himself and those claiming
under him. In deeds made by executors, admin-
istrators or guardians, there is generally no war-
ranty. A quit-claim deed releases all the interest
which the grantor has in the land, whatever it
may be.

A deed of trust is given to a person called a
trustee, to hold in fee simple, or otherwise, for
the use of some other person who is entitled to
the proceeds, profits or use.

A deed may be avoided, by alterations made
in it after its execution ; by the disagreement of
the parties whose concurrence is necessary; or
by the judgment of a competent tribunal.

Interlineations or erasures in a deed, made
before signing, should be mentioned in a note,
and witnessed in proper form. After the acknowl-
edgment of a deed, the parties have no right to
make the slightest alteration. An alteration of
a deed after execution, if made in favor of the
grantee, vitiates the deed. If altered before deliv-
ery, such alteration destroys the deed as to the
party altering it.

The statutory provisions of the several States
and Territories relating to deeds will be found
under the head of "Special Laws."

Chancellor Kent's Deed.

This form is given by Chancellor Kent as sufficient to convey an abso-
. lute fee in any part of the United States.

I, F. H. Hill, in consideration of three thousand dollars, to me paid
by John F. Waite, do bargain and sell to John F. Waite (and his heirs)
the lot of land (bounded or described), etc.
Witness my hand and seal, etc.

Short Deed in California.

I, W. B. Baird, grant to D. D. Parsons all that real property situated
in Et Dorado county, in the State of California, bounded (or described)
as follows :

Witness my hand this day of .

W. B. Baird.

tffS=

-M

ABSTRACT OF TIT IK

Short Form in Indiana.

Enos Baldwin conveys and warrants to William Green t description
of the premises J for the sum of four thousand dollars.

Witness iny hand and seal this day of .

Enos Baldwin. [i..s.]

Short Form Used in Virginia and Texas.

M. F. Crenshaw doth bargain, sell and grant unto W. H. Cavanagh
all (here follows the description of the real estate conveyed).
Witness the following signature and seal.

M. F. Crenshaw, [l.s.]

Short Form Warranty Deed with Full Covenants.

This conveyance, made this 10th day of May, by C. S. Smith, of
Bcloit, Wis., to Wm. Evans, of Lansing, Mich., witnesseth :

That in consideration of (state -what), the said Smith doth with the
said Evans bargain, sell and grant, all, etc. (here describe the property,
and add whatever covenants, conditions, restrictions, limitations,
etc., agreed upon).

And the said Smith covenants, That he has the right to convey said
land to the grantee; that the same is free from all encumbrances; that the
grantee shall have quiet possession of said land; that he will execute
such further assurances of said lands as shall be requisite; and that he
will warrant generally {or specially) the property hereby conveyed.

Witness the following signature and seal, etc.

General Form of Warranty Deed.

Knoiv all men by these presents: That I, J. A. Yarbro, of Tipton
county, in the State of Tennessee, have this 15th day of October, for and
in consideration of the sum of three thousand dollars, to me in hand
paid, granted, bargained and sold, and by these presents do grant,
bargain, sell and convey unto J. B. Coals, of the same place, the following
described tract or parcel of land, situate in the county of Shelby, in the
State of Tennessee, that is to say (here follows the description).

To have and to hold the premises hereby conveyed, with all the rights,
privileges and appurtenances thereto belonging, or in anywise appertain-
ing, unto the said Coals, his heirs and assigns, forever.

And I, the said Yarbro, hereby covenant to and with the said Coal*,
his heirs and assigns, for myself, my heirs, executors and administrator*,
to warrant and defend the title to the premises hereby conveyed against
the claim of every person whomsoever. • •

/* Witness Whereof, I have hereunto subscribed my name and affixed
my seal, this day of . J. A. Yakbxo. [i, s.J

Quit-Claim Deed.

Know all men by these presents: That we, W. H. Cooley, of
Council Bluffs, la,, and Mary E . wife of the said Cooley, in consideration

of the sum of , to us in hand paid by Charles Chapman, of Hastings,

Neb., the receipt whereof we do hereby acknowledge, have bargained,
sold and quit-claimed, and by these presents do bargain, sell and quit-
claim unto the said Chapman, and to his heirs and assigns forever, all our
and each of our right, title, interest, estate, claim and demand, both at
law and in equity, and as well in possession as in expectancy of, in and
to all that certain piece or parcel of land situate, etc. (give description),
with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto
belonging.

In wttness whereof we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the
day and year first above written.

Signed, scaled and delivered, etc.

W. H. Coolbv. [us.]
Mary E. Cooley. [l.*.]

Short Form of Trust Deed.

This conveyance, made this day of , witnesseth:

That Thomas Pritchard, of Mills county, in the State of Iowa, conveys
(and warrants) to S. W. Coleman, of Decatur county, in the State of

Iowa, for the Mini >f dollars, all the following described real estate,

situated in the county of Fremont and State of Iowa, to wit: ikerejW-
lows the description).

In trust, nevertheless, for the following purposes, to-wit: {here set
forth the objects and purposes to be effected).

In witness whereof, said parties ha%c hereunto set their hands, the
day and year first above written. (Signed/ Thomas Pritcharix

N. W. Coleman.

•S^lif*

•:• ^l^paet-of-^itle. *

>•_•+

.BSTRACTS OF TITLE are brief ac-
counts of all the deeds upon which
titles rest, and judgments and instru-
ments affecting such titles — synopses
of the distinctive portions of the various in-
struments which constitute the muniments of
title.

The evidences of title are usually convey-
ances, wills, orders or decrees of courts, judg-
ments, judicial sales, sales by officers appointed

by law, acts of the Legislature and of Cong:

Conveyances. The abstract of convey-
ances should show :

1. Date.

2. Character (whether an absolute or condi-
tional conveyance; as, in fee, mortgage, or a
/ease).

3. Names and residence of parties, and of
executors, administrators, guardians, trustees,
corporations, officers, or the like.

ABSTRACT OF TITLE.

469

4. All recitals which materially affect the title.

5. The testatum clause. This part of the
conveyance embraces :

I. Name of grantor. 2. Name of grantee
and words of limitation ; as to " C. D., his
heirs and assigns," or, to " C. D. and his as-
signs," or, to " C D. and E. F., and the heirs
of C. D. " 3. The consideration. 4. The
description of the premises or parcels. This is
generally done by giving the premises at large
in the abstract of the first conveyance, and in
subsequent conveyances to note each variation.
5- The habendum — carefully and accurately
stated. 6. The declaration of uses, trusts,
limitations, or special agreements, if any. 7.
Powers. If a settlement is made in pursuance
of articles, or an appointment by virtue of a
power, an inspection should be made of the
articles of power. A deed executed by attor-
ney should be produced with evidence that
the power of attorney was recorded, and that
the principal was alive when the deed was exe-
cuted. 8. Covenants which may affect the
vendee, and especially exceptions against en-
cumbrances. 9. By what parties the deed is
executed, the fact of signing, sealing, attesta-
tion and acknowledgment and recording, as
required by statute.

If any of the deeds in the chain of title are
quit-claim, the reason therefor should be as-
certained.

Wills. In abstracting wills it is necessary
to consider :

1. The date of the testator's death.

2. The court in which the probate is made.
The date of letters testamentary, and any
change in the executors or administrators, by
death, removal, or otherwise.

3. Any charge imposed by the payment of
debts, legacies, etc.

4. The persons to whom the lands are de-
vised.

5. Words of limitation, modification, condi-
tions, charges on the devisee, etc.

6. Facts which operate a partial revocation
of the will ; as the birth of a child, or the sub-
sequent alteration of the estate inconsistent
with the terms of the will.

Codicils should be given in the order of their
dates.

Orders or Decrees. Orders or decrees
material to the title should be abstracted.

Judgments. A party claiming title to real
estate under an execution must show :

1. A valid judgment.

2. A levy and sale as required by law.

3. A deed. The sheriff's deed must, in gen-
eral, recite the substance of the execution, the
names of the parties, the action, the amount,
and the date of the rendition of the judgment
by virtue of which the estate was sold, and be
executed and acknowledged as required by
law.

Judicial sales made by officers, executors,
administrators, guardians of miners, lunatics,
etc. —

1. Must be examined for the appointment
and authority of the person making the sale,
and whether his authority continued in force
till the sale.

2. The service of summons, notice, or other
process, upon all defendants, or persons inter-
ested.

3. The appointment of guardians ad litem
for minors when necessary.

4. The order of sale and its confirmation.

5. The deed.

Other sales include those by assignees or
commissioners of insolvents, or assignees of
bankrupts and tax sales. In the latter case,
the proper records should be examined with
the utmost care, in order to detect any omis-
sion or defect in compliance with all the requi-
sitions of the statute ; in the former case, the
leading points are the authority of the assignee,
etc., the order of sale and its confirmation,
and the deed

^IC

47°

GUARANTY.

-7fl

Acts of the Legislature may be consid-
ered in the same manner as private convey-
ances. The abstract should show :

1 . The date of the act.

2. The title of the act.

3. The recitals of the act.

4. The enacting clause in its own terms.

5. A strict compliance with the terms of the
act.

Titles by Descent. In the absence of
deeds pedigree should be ascertained, authen-
ticated and incorporated.

Encumbrances. Encumbrances may be as
follows :

1. Judgments in the county where the land
lies.

2. Judgments in the United States courts.

3. Executions from other counties.

4. Mortgages.

5. Liens of the creditors of deceased per-
sons.

6. Dower.

7. Decrees in chancery.

8. Action pending.

9. Taxes.

10. Mechanics' liens.

11. Lien of executor, administrator, guar-
dian, or agent, who pays taxes upon the estate.

12. Leases.

13. Equity of a vendee in possession.

14. Lien of a vendor for purchase-money.

15. Caveats in case of a contested will.

16. Rents assigned in lieu of dower.

17. The levy of a distress warrant upon the
property of certain debtors of the United
States.

«$*&=>

,£

,@2

Guaranty. • ^ w; ' •*

GUARANTY is an assurance made by
a second party that his principal will
perform some specific act. For in-
i *f^- stance, "A" gives "B" a note, and "C"
by endorsing the instrument guarantees to
" B " that " A " will pay it at maturity. " C "
is the guarantor. His liability is special, and
if " B " renews the note when it becomes due,
then he is no longer liable. A guaranty for
collection is a very different thing from a guar-
anty of payment. The first warrants that the
money is collectible; the latter, that it will be
paid at maturity. In the first case the party
guaranteed must be able to prove that due
diligence was employed in attempting to col-
lect the money; in the second, no such proof
is necessary. The only form necessary in
guaranteeing a note is writing one's name across

it, a process commonly called

the back of

endorsing.

Guaranty of a Note.

For value received, I guarantee the due payment of a promissory note,
dated October 8, 1883, whereby John Paxaon promise* to pay George
Andrew! eighty dollars in three months.

St. Louis, October 10, 1883. Piths Fassc

General Guaranty.

I hereby guarantee payment to any person who shall accept and retain
this instrument as a guaranty, for all goods which he may from time to
time supply to Eugene Parsons, not exceeding at any time the sum of
live hundred dollars, this to be a continuing guaranty till specially
revoked. Notice to be given me within ten days after its acceptance.

St. I-ouis, September 8, 1883. Duiv Cohcu.

Extension of Time.

In consideration that George Andrews gives to John Paxson ad-
ditional time to the extent of one month for payment of the indebtedness
due him from said John Paxson guaranteed by me, 1 hereby continue my
guaranty for due payment thereof.

January 8, 1884. Prrnt Faux.

Guaranty of Fidelity.

In consideration of the performance of the agreements and convenants
specified in the within agreement by M. M.. with my son, A. A., I do hereby
bind myself to said M. M. for the true and faithful observation and )>cr-
form.ux e of all the matters and things by said A. A. agreed and cov-
enanted therein, and that he shall well and truly serve said M. M.

Witness my hand this day of , A.D . 1' \

LANDLORD AND TENANT.

471

I [landlord •> and •:• tenant. <

-# ## #-

^* * »&-

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-# ## #- -^m^-

LEASE is a contract for the possession
and enjoyment of real estate on one
g hand, and for the payment of rent or
other income on the other. A land-
lord is one who holds lands and houses which
he lets out to others. A tenant is one who
has temporary use of real estate belonging to
another, the duration and terms of his occu-
pancy being defined in the lease. In this
instrument no particular form of words is
necessary ; but it is important that all the
conditions be plainly set forth, so that no
misunderstanding can ensue.

Verbal promises amount to nothing ; the law
only considers what the lease states, so that
the importance of clearness and comprehen-
siveness in this document is apparent.

Unless expressly prohibited by the lease,
the lessor can sublet any part of the property
acquired by the lease, or the whole of it.

A married woman cannot lease her prop-
erty, under the common law ; but under the
statute, in many of the States, this prohibi-
tion is removed, as will be found by consult-
ing the section devoted to the rights of married
women. A husband cannot make a lease
which will bind his wife's property after his
death ; even the common law terminates his
control with his life. A guardian cannot
give a lease extending beyond the ward's
majority which the ward cannot annul, if he

wishes. But if the ward does not annul the
lease, the lessee is bound by it.

When no time is specified in a lease, it is
understood to run for one year. A tenancy
at will is terminable by notice given from one
month to six months, in advance, according
to the peculiar statute of the State in which
the property exists. In the Eastern States a
written notice of three months is the general
custom; in the Middle and Southern States,
six months, and in the Western States, one
month.

The phrase " a term of years " is construed
to mean at least two years when the figure is
not given.

Leases on mortgaged property, whereon the
mortgage was given prior to the lease, termi-
nate when the mortgage is foreclosed.

Where a tenant assigns his lease, even with
the landlord's consent, he will remain liable for
the rent unless his lease is surrendered or can-
celled.

There are a great many special features of
the law of landlord and tenant in relation to
agricultural tenancy, which the reader will do
well to read carefully.

Generally an outgoing tenant cannot sell
or take away the manure. A tenant whose
estate has terminated by an uncertain event
which he could neither foresee nor control is
entitled to the annual crop which he sowed

472

LANDLORD AM) TENANT.

while li is estate continued, by the law of em-
blements. He may also, in certain cases, take
the emblements or annual profits of the land
after his tenancy has ended, and, unless
restricted by some stipulation to the contrary,
may remove such fixtures as he has erected
during his occupation for convenience, profit
or comfort. For, in general, what a tenant has
added he may remove, if he- can do so with-
out injury to the premises, unless he has
actually built it in so as to make it an integral
part of what was there originally.

The immovable fixtures are the following :
Agricultural erections. Fold-yard walls, cart
house, barns fixed in the ground, beast house,
carpenter shop, fuel house, pigeon house,
pineries substantially fixed, wagon house,
box borders not belonging to a gardener by
trade, flowers, trees, hedges. Ale-house
bar, dressers, partitions. Locks and keys.
Benches affixed to the house. Statue erected
as an ornament to grounds, sun-dial. Chim-
ney piece not ornamental. Closets affixed to
the house. Conduits. Conservatory, sub-
stantially affixed. Doors. Fruit trees, if a
tenant be not a nurseryman by trade. Glass
windows. Hearths. Millstones. Looms sub-
stantially affixed to the floor of a factory.
Thrashing-machines fixed by bolts and screws
to posts let into the ground.

Short Form of Lease.
John Parks leases to George Drake (description of premises), for a

term of , upon the payment of .

Dated the ist day of May, 1883. John Parks.

Common Form of Lease.

This Instrument, Made the ist day of May, 1883, Witnessetk, That
Dominic Ilolden, of the city of St. Louis, State of Missouri, hath rented
from William Hicks, of St. Louis, aforesaid, the dwelling and lot 8a

Chouteau Avenue, situated in said town of St. Louis, for five years 1 1

the above date, at the yearly rental three hundred) dollars, payable
monthly, on the first day of each month, in advance, at the residence of
the* said William Hicks.

At the expiration of said above mentioned term, the said Holden
agrees to jjivc the laid Hicks peaceable possession of said dwelling, in as
good condition as when taken, ordinary wear and casualties excepted.

In witness whereof, we place our hands and seals the day and year
aforesaid.

Signed, sealed and delivered j Dominic Holdkn. [i.s.]

in presence of
John Doghrrty, I
Notary Public. I

William Hicks. [l.».]

Lease of Farm and Buildings.

This Indsntukk, Made this ninth day of June, one thousand eight
hundred and eighty-two, between Raymond Johnston, of the township of
I.ake, county of Ripley, and State of Missouri, of the first part, and
Anson Lee, of the said township and county, of the second part,

tt'ttnesseth. That the said Raymond Johnston, for and in consider-
ation of the yearly rents and covenants hereinafter mentioned, and re-
served on the part and behalf of the said Raymond Johnston, his heirs,
executors and administrators, to be paid, kept and performed, hath
demised, set and to farm let, and by these presents doth demise, set and
to farm let, unto the said Anson Lee, his heirs and assigns, all that certain
piece, parcel or tract of land situate, lying and being in the township of
Lake aforesaid, known as lot No. (description of farm AereJ, now in the
possession of Joel Hancoe. containing one thousand acres, together with
all and singular the buildings and improvements, to have and to hold the
same unto the said Anson Lee, his heirs, executors and assigns, from the
first day of July next, for and during the term of seven years thence,
next ensuing, and fully to be complete and ended, yielding and paying
for the same, unto the said Raymond Johnston, his heirs and assigns, the
yearly rent, or sum of two thousand dollars, on the first day of July in
each and every year, during the term aforesaid, and at the expiration of
said term, or sooner if determined upon, he, the said Anson Lee, his
heirs or assigns, shall and will quietly and peaceably surrender and
yield up the said demised premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said
Raymond Johnston, his heirs and assigns, in as good order and repair
as the same now arc, reasonable wear, tear and casualties, which may
happen by fire, or otherwise, only excepted.

/« witness whereof, we have hereto set our hands and seals.
Signed, sealed and delivered \ Raymond Johnson, (uj.]

in the presence of I Ansok La*, r^j

Joseph Jaklk*.

Lease of a Mill.

This Agreement, Made this first day of January, between George
Rain, of St. Louis, Mo., in St. Louis county, and State of Missouri, of the
first part, and James Meek, of Marissa, in St. Clair County, and State of
Illinois, of the second part, witnesseth :

That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the
rents, covenants and agreements hereinafter mentioned, reserved and
contained, on the part and behalf of the party of the second part, his
executors, administrators and assigns, to be paid, kept and performed, doth
lease the mill property of the party of the first part, being one of the mills
ki.own and designated as the Atlantic Mills, in the city of St. Louis,
together with all the machinery now in the same belonging to the said party
of the first part, and all stoves, boilers, fixtures, heaters and machinery,
and every article now in the said mill which appertains to the same, and is
necessary to its successful operation; and also all the dwellings and store-
houses used in connection with said mill, which now belong to said party
of the first part

And the said party of the first part further agrees to pay all taxes and
insurances on said premises, and to furnish water-power, water-wheels,
main-shafting and gearing sufficient at all times to keep in constant and
full operation said mill, and all the running works of the same, and all
machinery driven by water-power now in said mill.

And the said party of the first part further agrees to secure to the
said party of the second part iha qni l and peaceable possession of all and
every part of said premise. nl.< luncry and tools, and all grounds apper-
taining to said mill, and all passage-ways to and from the same which are
m»w used and may be necessary for the accommodation of the same, for
five years from the first day of April next.

It is mutually understood and agreed between the parties hereto, that
in case said mill should he necessarily stopped from casualty, or in case
there shall be a want of or failure of water-power, the rent above men-
tioned to be paid shall cease, and not be chargeable during the continu-
ation of such stoppage, want or failure.

/* witness whereof etc.

Landlord's Agreement.

Tab is 10 certify that I have this first day of May, 1883, let and rented
•minlc Holden my house and lot known as number Sj Chouteau

4fc

-a S>

RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN.

473

Avenue, in the city of St. Louis, Missouri, with the appurtenances and
sole and uninterrupted use thereof for five years, to commence on the first
day of June next, at the yearly rental of three hundred dollars, payable
monthly in advance on the first day of each and every month.,

William Hicks.

Tenant's Agreement.

This certifies that I have hired and taken from William Hicks his
house and lot, number 82 Chouteau Avenue, in the city of St. Louis, Mis-
souri, with appurtenances thereto belonging, for five years, to commence
on the first day of June, 1883, at a yearly rental of three hundred dollars,
to be paid monthly in advance.

Dominic Holden.

Notice to Quit.
To Charles Egan :

Sir : Please observe that the term of one year for which the house

and land at No. 380 Walnut Street, and now occupied by you, were rented

to you, expired on the first day of June, 1883, and as I desire to repossess

satd premises, you are hereby requested and required to vacate the same.

Respectfully yours,

St. Louis, June 8, 1883. Amos Norton.

Tenant's Notice of Leaving.

Afr. Amos Norton :

Take notice that I shall, on the first day of May next, deliver up to you
the premises I now occupy as your tenant, known as No. 380 Walnut
Street, in the city of St. Louis. Charles Egan.

St. Louis, April 1, 1883.

4-^B^ g7-» . .\

Ri^ • of • CDa ppied •Women. {^

sSrr

!HE common law of the United States
has some curious provisions regard-
ing the rights of married women,

^P* though in all the States there are statu-
tory provisions essentially modifying this law.
As it now stands the husband is responsible
for necessaries supplied to the wife even should
he not fail to supply them himself, and is held
liable if he turn her from his house, or other-
wise separates himself from her without good
cause. He is not held liable if the wife
deserts him, or if he turns her away for good
cause. If she leaves him through good cause,
then he is liable. If a man lives with a
woman as his wife, and so represents her, even
though this representation is made to one who
knows she is not, he is liable the same way as
if she were his wife.

In many of the States ante - marriage con-
tracts are recognized, and they will secure to
married women even greater privileges than
are intended to be secured by statute, or
greater powers and rights may be secured by
transferring the property owned by them to
trustees. Such instrument should clearly set

forth what the trust is, and should be care-
fully drawn.

When estates are to be settled where the
widow is entitled to a dower interest, some
definite calculation is necessary to learn how
long she will probably live and the present
value of her interest in the estate. For this
purpose the following table is generally used.
When the sum is ascertained the estate can be
promptly settled.

Expectation of Life.

>
V.

Expecta- >
tion in «

Kxurc ra-

>
n
a

Expecta-

tion in

years.

28.15 2 °

34.22

26.04

15-45

5-85

36.78 21

33-84

25.61

14.86

5- 50

38.74 22

33-46

25.19

14.26

5-i6

40.01 23

33.08

24-77

13.66

»3

487

40-73 24

32.70

=4-35

13.05

4-66

40.88 25

32.33

23.92

12.43

4-57

40,69 26

31-93

23.37

11.96

4.21

40-47 2 7

31.50

22.83

t>7

11.48

3-9°

40.14 28

31.08

22.27

ll.OI

3-67

39.72 29

30.66

21.72

10.50

3-56

39- *3 3°

30.25

21.17

10.06

3-43

j i

38.64 31

29.83

20.61

9.60

3-32

38.02 32

39-43

20.05

9- '4

9-'

3-W

«3

37-41 33

29.02

19-49

8.69

2.40

36.79 34

28.62

18.92

8.25

1.98

«s

36.>7 35

28.22

»8-35

7-83

1.62

35-76 36

27.78

17.78

7.40

35-37 37

27-34

17.20

6.99

3498 38

26.91

16.63

6-59

■?

34-59 39

26.47

16.04

6.21

a *r

[

*F?

^ 9

474

REAL ESTATE MORTGAGES.

Real •:• E^tatevCQopt^a^.

*&&&>

CONVEYANCE of property, either
real or personal, made in order to
secure payment of a debt, is called
a mortgage. When the debt is paid
the mortgage becomes void and of no value.
The word, like many others of our legal
terms, comes from the
French. "Mort,"dead,
and " gage," pledge;
a " dead-pledge," so
called because the
property is dead to
the mortgageor unless
he fulfils the condi-
tions necessary to re-
deem it. In real estate
mortgages the person
giving the mortgage
retains possession of
the property, receives
all the rents and other
profits, and pays all
taxes and other ex-
penses. The instru-
ment must be acknowl-
edged, like a deed,
before a proper public
officer, and recorded
in the office of the county clerk or recorder,
or whatever officer's duty it is to record such
instruments. All mortgages must be in writ-
ing. They must contain a redemption clause

HOW THI MoFTIiAr.K GftNKRAI.l.Y TlHMINATBS.

and must be signed and sealed. The time
when the debt becomes due, to secure which
the mortgage is given, must be plainly set
forth, and the property conveyed must be
clearly described, located and scheduled.
Some mortgages contain a clause permit-
ting the sale of the
property without de-
cree of court when a
default is made in the
payment cither of the
principal sum or the
interest.

A foreclosure is a
statement that the
property is forfeited
and must be sold.

When a mortgage is
assigned to another
person, it must be for
a valuable considera-
tion ; and the note or
notes which it was
given to secure must
be given at the sane
time.

If the mo rtg a g ed
property, when fore
closed and brought to sale, brings more money
than is needed to satisfy the debt, interest and
costs, the surplus must be paid to the mort-
gageor.

REAL ESTATE MORTGAGES.

475

Satisfaction of mortgages upon real or per-
sonal property may be either —

1. By an entry upon the margin of the rec-
ord thereof, signed by the mortgagee or his
attorney, assignee or personal representative,
acknowledging the satisfaction of the mort-
gage, in the presence of the recording officer ;
or —

2. By a receipt endorsed upon the mortgage,
signed by the mortgagee, his agent or attorney,
which receipt may be entered upon the margin
of the record ; or —

3. It may be discharged upon the record
thereof whenever there is presented to the prop-
er officer an instrument acknowledging the sat-
isfaction of such mortgage, executed by the
mortgagee, his duly authorized attorney in
fact, assignee or personal representative, and
acknowledged in the same manner as other
instruments affecting real estate.

Mortgages of personal property will be found
set forth at length under the head of Chattel
Mortgages.

Promissory Note Secured by Mortgage.

$1,000. Lansing, Mich., Dec. 1st, 1883.

One year after date I promise to pay to S. H. Moore one thousand
dollars at the First National Bank of Lansing, Mich., with interest at
the rate of ten percent per annum, for value received.

This note is secured by a mortgage of even date herewith, on a cer-
tain tractor parcel of land situate (describe the premises),

(Signed) R. S Marsh.

Mortgage to Secure Payment of Money, with Power to
Sell on Default.

This Indenture, Made this 20th day of Jan' y, A.D. 1884, between
John Stanton, of Norwich, Conn., of the first part, and Lyman Randall,
of the same place, of the second part, witnesseth :

That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration ot the
sum of six thousand dollars, does grant, bargain, sell and convey unto
the said party of the second part, and to his heirs and assigns, all (give a
complete description of the premises mortgaged), together with all and
singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging, or in
anywise appertaining.

This conveyance is intended as a mortgage, to secure the payment of
the sum of dollars, in from the day of the date of these pres-
ents, with interest, according to the conditions of a certain bond,

dated this day, executed by the said John Stanton to the said party of the
second part; and these presents shall be void if such payment be made.

But in case default shall be made in the payment of the principal or
interest, as above provided, then the party of the second part, his execu-
tors, administrators and assigns, are hereby empowered to sell the
premises above described, with alt and every of the appurtenances, or
any part thereof, in the manner prescribed by law ; and out of the money
arising from such sale, to retain the said principal and interest, together
with the costs and charges of making such sale ; and the overplus, if any
there be, shall be paid by the party making such sale, on demand, to the
party of the first part, his heirs or assigns, etc.

In witness whereof, said party of the first part has hereunto set his
hand and seal the day and year first above written.

Executed and delivered 1 John Stanton. [l.s.]

in presence of \

U. S. Gardner. )

Assignment of Mortgage.

Know all men by these presents ; That I, C. V>., of , in

county, State of — ■■ , the mortgagee named in a certain mortgage given

by A. B., of——, in — — county, State of , to said C. D., to secure the

payment of dollars and interest, dated the day of , recorded

in volume , on page , of the registry of deeds for the county

of , in consideration of the sum of dollars, to me paid by E. F.,

of — -, in county, State of , the receipt of which is hereby

acknowledged, do hereby sell, assign, transfer, set over and convey unto
said E. !■'., his heirs and assigns, said mortgage and the real estate there-
by conveyed, together with the promissory note, debt and claim thereby
secured, and the covenants therein contained.

To have and to hold the same to him, the said E. F., and his heirs and
assigns, to his and their use and behoof, forever: subject, nevertheless, to
the conditions therein contained (and to redemption according to law).

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand (and seal), this —

day of .

Executed and delivered 1 [Signature.] [Seal.]

in presence of

Release or Discharge of Mortgage.

This debt, secured by the mortgage dated the twenty-fifth day of Jan-
uary, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-
three, and recorded with mortgage deeds volume two, page two hundred
and six, has been paid to me by Martin Klotc, and in consideration thereof
I do discharge the mo-tgage, and release the mortgaged premises to said
Martin Klotz and his heirs.

Witness my hand and seal, December 5th, 1883.

Benjamin Eaton. [l.s.]
Executed and delivered )
in presence of >

George Smith. )

CITY OF ST. LOUIS, I
State of Missouri, j * December 5th, A.D. 1883.

The said Benjamin Eaton acknowledged the foregoing instrument to be
his free act and will, Bo/ore me,

Gordon Smith,

Clerk of Circuit Court,

Shortest Form of Mortgage.

I, Joseph Smith, in consideration of five hundred dollars, to me paid
by Finley Burke, do mortgage unto Finley Burke, and his heirs, the follow-
ing tract of land (describe it).

To secure the payment of (state what amounts, places, times, etc.)

Joseph Smith. [l.s]

476

CHATTEL MOK I

=7?

IjJ

t.J LJLJUkJLJ LJ LJLJ1LJLJU k^,k^,t^ k^T)

•:• Chattel - CQoptfa^. •>

OpBH BHIBH BBIBHIBBIBIS BHIB1S BSIGBI Ea|E(S|Ea|BB|EBa>

i*ea salna Malhialealea galea galea ualBalBalealKa*!

«MB***

[HATTEL mortgages are mortgages on
personal property. Most of the rules
applicable to mortgages on real
estate apply also to those on personal
property, though in some States there are
laws regulating personal mortgages. Any
instrument will answer the purpose of a chat-
tel mortgage which would answer as a bill of
sale, with a clause attached providing for the
avoidance of the mortgage when the debt is
paid. As with real estate, so with a chattel
mortgage, great care should be taken.

A chattel mortgage will not cover property
subsequently acquired by the mortgageor.
Mortgages of personal property should con-
tain a clause providing for the equity of
redemption. A mortgagee may sell or trans-
fer his mortgage to another party for a con-
sideration, but such property cannot be seized
or sold until the expiration of the period for
which the mortgage was given. Mortgages
given with intent to defraud creditors are void.

Form of Chattel Mortgage.

Know all tften by these presents : That I, John Johnson, of the city
of Chicago, in the county of Cook, and State of Illinois, am justly

indebted unto James Lewis, of the same place, in the sum of dollars,

on account, to be paid on the day of , with interest from this date.

Now, therefore, in consideration of such indebtedness, and in order to
secure the payment of the same, as aforesaid, I do hereby sell, assign,
transfer and set over unto the said James Lewis, his executors, adminis-
trators and assigns, the goods and chattels mentioned in the schedule
hereto annexed, and now at the residence No. 1410 Jackson Street, in the
city of Chicago aforesaid.

Provided, however, that if the said debt and interest be paid, as above
specified, this sale and transfer shall be void; and this conveyance is also
subject to the following conditions:

The property hereby sold and transferred is to remain in my possession
until default be made in the payment of the debt and interest aforesaid,
or some part thereof; but in case of a sale or disposal, or attempt to sell
or dispose of the same, or a removal of or attempt to remove the same
from said residence aforesaid, or an unreasonable depreciation in value
{or if from any other cause the security shall become inadequate), the said
James Lewis may take the said property, or any part thereof, into his own
possession.

Upon taking said property, or any part thereof, into his possession,
either in case of default, or as above provided, the said James Lewis shall
sell the same at public or private sale; and after satisfying the aforesaid
debt and the interest thereon, and all necessary and reasonable costs,
charges and expenses incurred by him, out of the proceeds of such sale,
he shall return the surplus to me or my representative.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this

day of .

Executed in presence of i
Wm. F. Georgk. f

John Johnson. [l.s,]

Release and Satisfaction of Mortgage.

A"*ow all men by these /resents : That the debt secured by mortgage
upon the following described ■ property, situated in ■ , in ■- — —

county, in the State of 1 to wit: (describing it), wherein John

Johnson is grantor, and James Lewis is grantee, and dated , a

of which is in volume , page -^— , in the office of the (register *w

recorder) of deeds of county, , has been fully satisfied, in con-

sideration «f which said mortgage is hereby released.
Witness: .

James Lawn.

MECHANIC'S LIEN— WILLS.

477

^ A>'

:• [Dee^anie^- kien

?HE purpose of all lien laws is to retain
the possession of personal property in
the hands of the owners until it has

^F* been properly paid for. Without pos-
session no lien is admitted at common law. It
is a created right, for the benefit of mechanics,
tavern-keepers, liverymen, pasturers and car-
riers. Builders and persons furnishing mate-
rial are given by statute a lien on both land
and building, if their claim is made within the
time named in the different statutes. These
periods will be found, under their appropriate
heads, in another chapter. No possession is
necessary under this lien, and the right of re-
demption is lost by the sale of the property
under the lien. The surplus, of course, goes to
the owner. Liens are foreclosed by order of
court, upon petition duly made. Liens will
lie against vessels and wharves as well as
other buildings.

When a mechanic desires to draw up a lien for
the recovery of money due him for labor or ma-
terial, the form given below will be found conve-
nient. It is a statement addressed to the county

clerk setting forth his bargain, the failure to
receive his pay, and the fear that he will lose
the money unless the lien be now made. This
paper must be sworn to and filed in the county
clerk's office, and if it is not paid in a reason-
able time the property will be sold for the debt.
It does not make any difference if it is the con-
tractor or the owner of the building who is in
default. The mechanic has nothing to do with
either of them — he holds the property itself for
his money; and even if the owner has paid the
contractor, who should have paid the laborer,
the property will be sold unless the laborer is
paid.

Sub-Contractor's or Workman's Notice.
To :

You are hereby notified that I have been employed by to (here

state whether to labor or furnish material, and substantially the na-
ture of the contract) upon your (here state the building, and where
situated, in general terms J; and that I shall hold the (building, or as
the case may be) and your interest in the ground liable for the amount
that (is or may become) due me on account thereof.

(Signature.)

This notice, with a copy of the contract, if it can be obtained, shall be
served within 40 days after payments should have been made. The owner
may retain money due the contractor to pay such claims, and if there is
not enough to pay them in full, he shall pay tiiem/ro rata. If such pay-
ment shall not be made within ten days after the same may become due,
suit may be brought to enforce it

■^3-*®««§t ■:

— «~ #

'7\\'

WIlsLs,

*7TV

WILL is an instrument of writing de-
claring what a person desires to have
done with his property after his de-
mise. Any one of lawful age and
sound mind can make a valid will, although
in some States during the lifetime of their

■r s ■"

husbands married women cannot do so. A
will only becomes of force upon the death of
the maker, and can be changed or modified at
his pleasure until that event occurs. The last
will annuls all previous ones, unless it be a
codicil or amendment to a previous will. A

JSi

478

KXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS.

great deal of latitude is allowed in the con-
struction of a will. For instance, if the testa-
tor marries after making a will, or has chil-
dren subsequent to its date, it is supposed
that he intended to change the disposition of
his property, and the law accordingly will
change it for him. Courts do not always re-
quire written wills; sometimes what are called
nuncupative wills are admitted to probate.
These depend upon the testimony of witnesses,
and are uncertain and dangerous. Many of
the States will not admit nuncupative wills
unless made within ten days before death, or
by persons in the army cr navy.

A wife cannot be deprived of her right of
dower, which is one-third of the proceeds of
the real estate and appurtenances of her hus-
band. She may be devised property in lieu of
dower, which she can so take or not, as she
may choose ; but if the words " in lieu of

dower " are not used, she may take the
bequest and her dower also.

A corporation cannot accept bequests unless
that power is expressly granted in its charter.

No one can serve as executor of a will who
is under age, a lunatic, a drunkard or a con-
vict. An executor may decline the trust if he
chooses, which declension must be made in the
presence of two witnesses. There is no differ-
ence in the duties of an executor and adminis-
trator ; the names have this origin: the execu-
tor is appointed by the person making the will,
the administrator is appointed by the court.

When a married woman makes a will, her
husband must be appointed administrator in
preference to any one else.

No witness to a will can inherit any prop-
erty under it. They are not required to know
what the will contains, but simply to witness
the signing of the document.

-E^S-

Executors and Administrators. .&£&*

^w-

V S soon after the death of the testator
as may be possible, the will must be
produced in court, and filed there with
affidavits, showing its custody and the
death of the testator. The judge orders pub-
lication to be made, advertising the day when
the will is to be offered for probate, and
notices must be sent to the heirs-at-law. At
the appointed time, all of the persons inter-
ested, including the exetutor or executors,
assemble in court. The witnesses swear to
the signature of the will, and to the state of

the testator's mind at the time the will was
signed. Letters of administration are then
granted to the executor, and a certified copy
of the will and of the letters should be recorded
in every county where the deceased owned
real estate. The person administering must
give a bond in double the amount of the estate
for the faithful discharge of his duties. When
a person owning property dies intestate, that
is, leaving no will, it becomes the duty of the
next of kin, or the widow, to petition the Pro-
bate Court for letters of administration

li-

As soon as the letters are granted, the ad-
ministrator or executor addresses himself to
the settlement of the estate. This is done by
advertising for all persons owing the estate to
settle the same, and for creditors of the estate
to present their claims. At the same time a
careful inventory of the property of the
deceased is made, and the same appraised.
This appraisement and inventory is filed in the
Probate Court. The first money coming in is
applied to the payment of the funeral expenses
and the medical and nurses' bills; next in order
come debts to the Government, liens or mort-
gages, and, last of all, general debts of all
kinds. If there is not enough property to pay
the debts, the Probate Court must be at once
notified of this insolvency, and the estate must
then be settled according to the insolvent laws.

The administrator is responsible for all the
property of the deceased, valued and listed ac-
cording to the inventory and appraisement,
and he must keep very careful accounts of all
his transactions for the estate. He must make
semi-annual reports of the condition of the
property, and when everything is ready for
settlement, he presents a report, called his final
settlement, to the court, and, upon presentation
of the receipts in full of the heirs and credit-
ors, he is discharged from his office and his
bond cancelled and destroyed.

Short Form for a Will.

I, James Dickson, of the city of Chicago, in the county of Cook, and
State of Illinois, being of sound mind and memory and understanding, do
make my last will and testament in manner and form following :

First. I give and bequeath to my daughters Mary and Jane two thou-
sand dollars each after they have attained the age of twenty years.

Second. I give and bequeath to my wife Susan all my household furni-
ture, and all the rest of my personal property, after paying from the same
the legacies already named, to be hers forever: but if there should not be
at my decease sufficient personal property to pay the aforesaid legacies,
then so much of my real estate shall be sold as will raise sufficient money
to pay the same.

Third. I also give, devise and bequeath to my wife Susan all the
rest and residue of my real estate as long as she shall remain unmarried,
and my widow : but on her decease or marriage, the remainder thereof I
give and devise to my said children and their heirs, respectively, to be
divided in equal shares between them.

I appoint my wife Susan sole executrix of this my last will and testa-
ment.

In testimony whereof , I hereunto set my hand and seal, and publish
and decree this to be my last will and testament, in presence of the wit-

nesses named beluw, this eighth day of March, in the year of our Lord
one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three.

Jamks Dickson, [l.s.]

Signed, sealed, declared and published by the said James Dickson as
and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request
and in his presence, and m presence of each other, have subscribed our
names as witnesses hereto.

John Smith, residing at Chicago in Cook County.

Peter Jones, " " " " " **

Another Form of Will.

Knoiv all men by these presents : That I, Joseph Atkinson, of Media,
in the county of Chester, and State of Pennsylvania, merchant, consider-
ing the uncertainty of this life, and being of sound mind and memory, do
make, and declare, and publish, this my last will and testament.

First. I give and bequeath unto my beloved wife Mary the use, im-
provement and income of my dwelling-house, warehouses, lands, and their
appurtenances, situate in Nelson township, Chester county, State of Penn-
sylvania, to have and to hold the same to her for and during her natural
life.

Second. I give and bequeath to my son Robert two thousand dollars,
to be paid to him by my executor, hereinafter named, within six months
after my decease; and I a^Iso give, devise and bequeath to my said son
Robert the reversion or remainder of my dwelling-house, warehouses, lands
and their appurtenances, situate in Nelson township, Chester county, State
of Pennsylvania, and all profit, income and advantage that may result
therefrom, from and after the decease of my beloved wife Mary.

Third. I give, devise and bequeath to my beloved wife Mary all the
residue of my estate, real, personal or mixed, of which I shall be seized or
possessed, or to which I shall be entitled at the time of my decease; to
have and to hold the same to her and her executors and administrators
and assigns forever.

Fourth. I do nominate and appoint my brother James Atkinson to be
the executor of this, my last will and testament.

In testimony whereof, I have to this, my last will and testament, con-
tained on two sheets of paper, and to each sheet thereof, subscribed my
name and set my seal; and to this, the last sheet thereof, I have here sub-
scribed my name and affixed my seal, this eighteenth day of May, in the
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three.

James Atkinson. l l.s.]
Signed, sealed, declared and published by the said James Atkinson,
as and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request
and in his presence, and in presence of each other, have subscribed our
names as witnesses hereto.

Thomas Mav, residing at Media, Pa.
John Nolan, " M " "
Henry Mann, " " " *'

Codicil to a Will.

Whereas, I, Richard Roe, of the city of Pittsburg, in the county of
Allegheny and State of Pennsylvania, have made my last will and testa-
ment, in writing, bearing date the fourteenth day of February, in the year
of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three, in and by which
I have given to the Pennsylvania Institution for Deaf Mutes, in the city of
Philadelphia, the sum of one thousand dollars.

Now, therefore, I do, by this my writing, which I hereby declare
tc be a codicil to my said last will and testament, and to be taken as a
part thereof, order and declare that my will is that only the sum of
five hundred dollars shall be paid to the said Pennsylvania Institution Tor
Deaf Mutes as the full amount bequeathed to the said institution, and that
the residue of the said legacy be given to the person who shall be acting
as treasurer at the time of my decease of the Baptist Publication Society,
located in the city of Philadelphia, to be expended by the society in such
manner as the officers of the said society may deem best for the interests
of said society ; and, lastly, it is my desire that this codicil be annexed to
and made a part of my last will and testament as atoresaid, to all intents
and purposes.

In testimony whereof, etc, (as in the form of a will).

<i a^

480

DUTIES OF AHMIMSTRATORS.

Duties of Administrators in fettling Estates.

>mw*e

*->^

!:HEN a person dies, leaving no valid
will behind him, his estate is dis-
tributed among his heirs by what
I J^, j i s known as operation of laiv. This
is regulated by the statute of the State in
which the deceased resided at the time of hib
death. The distribution must be made by an
administrator duly appointed by law. The
administrator is appointed by the court having
jurisdiction in such cases, on being satisfied
that the person proposed is legally qualified.
The appointment must be made with the con-
sent of the person appointed. It is the gen-
erally accepted rule that any one is legally
competent to be an administrator who is com-
petent to make a contract. Certain classes of
persons are disqualified by statute, as in the
State of New York, for instance, drunkards,
gamblers, spendthrifts, etc. The relatives of
the deceased are considered as entitled to the
appointment to administer the estate, and the
order of precedence is regulated by statute.
The husband is to be granted administration
on the wife's personal estate, and administra-
tion on the husband's estate is to be granted to
the widow and the next of kin in the following
order if they or any of them will accept:

1. To the widow.

2. To the children.

3. To the father.

4. To the brothers.

5. To the sisters.

6. To the grandchildren.

7. To any other of the next of kin who
would be entitled to a share in the distribu-
tion of the estate.

The guardians of minors who are entitled
may administer for them. In case none of the
relatives or guardians will accept, the admin-
istration will be given to the creditors of the
deceased. The creditor who applies first, if
legally competent, is to be preferred. If no
creditor applies, any person who is legally
qualified may be appointed. In the city of
New York the public administrator may ad-
minister the estate after the next of kin. In
the State of New York the surrogate may
select, among the next of kin, any one in
equal degree, and appoint him sole adminis-
trator to the exclusion of the others. In
there arc several persons of the same degree
of kindred to the intestate entitled to admin-
istration, they are preferred in the following
order:

1. Males to females.

2. Relatives of the whole blood to those of
the half blood.

3. Unmarried to married women ; and
should there be several persons equally enti-
tled, the surrogate may grant letters to one
<>r more of them, as his judgment may sug-

If letters of administration should be un-
di;ly granted they may be revoked.

•

PARTNERSHIP.

481

Administration may likewise be granted on
certain conditions, for a certain limited time,
or for a special purpose.

The powers and duties of an administrator
differ from those of an executor only inasmuch
as he must distribute and dispose of the estate
according to the direction of the law, as he
has no will to follow.

First. The administrator must give bond,
with sureties, for the faithful execution of his
trust.

Second. He must make an inventory of the
goods and chattels of the intestate, in accord-
ance with the requirements of the law.

Third. Two copies of this inventory shall

be made, one of which will be lodged with
the judge of the court, and the other will be
kept by the administrator. The latter will be
obliged to account for the property mentioned
in the inventory.

Fourth. Having completed the inventory,
the administrator must then collect the out-
standing debts of the intestate, and also pay
the debts of the same. The order of payment
is regulated by local statutes.

Having liquidated all the debts of the in-
testate, the administrator will divide the re-
mainder of the assets among the surviving
relatives of the deceased. In so doing, he
will act under the direction of the court.

epaptnep^i]®. ®p-«

PARTNERSHIP is an agreement be-
tween two or more persons to share in
' the profit and loss arising from the use
and application of their capital, labor and
skill, in some lawful business, whether the capi-
tal be supplied by one, and the labor and skill
by another, or each contribute both labor or
skill and capital. It is not constituted merely
by an interest of different parties in the same
thing ; the test is, whether there is a participation
in profits and a joint liability to loss.

A general partnership is one formed for trade
or business generally, without limitations; a
special partnership is one in which the joint inter-
est extends only to a particular concern, as, for
example, in the erection of a house ; a limited
partnership is one in which one or more of the
partners put in a certain amount of capital, which
is liable for the contracts of the firm, but beyond

that amount the party or parties advancing are
not liable. The regulations concerning the last-
named species of partnership, in any particular
State where it is recognized, are to be found in
the statutes of such State ; and a strict compli-
ance with the statutes is necessary, in order to
avoid incurring the responsibilities attaching to
the position of general partner.

A person who lends his name as a partner, or
who suffers his name to continue in the firm after
he has actually ceased to be a partner thereof, is
still responsible to third persons as a partner.

A partner may buy and sell partnership effects ;
make contracts in reference to the business
of the firm ; pay and receive money ; draw, and
indorse, and accept bills and notes ; and all acts
of such a nature, even though they be upon his
own private account, will bind the other part-
ners, if connected with matters apparently having

482

PARTNERSHIP.

reference to the business of the firm, and
transacted with other parties ignorant of the fact
that such dealings are for the particular partner's
private account. So, also, the representation
or misrepresentation of any fact made in any
partnership transaction by one partner, or the
commission of any fraud in such transaction, will
bind the entire firm, even though the other
partners may have no connection with, or
knowledge of the same.

If a partner sign his individual name to nego-
tiable paper, all the partners are bound thereby,
if such paper appear upon its face to be on part-
nership account. So, if the negotiable paper of
a firm be given by one partner on his private
account, and in the course of its circulation pass
into the hands of a bona fide holder for value,
without notice or knowledge of the fact attend-
ing its creation, the partnership is bound thereby.

One partner cannot bind the firm by deed,
though he may by deed execute an ordinary
release of a debt due the partnership, thereby
precluding the firm from a recovery of the same.

If no time be fixed in the articles of copart-
nership for the commencement of such partner-
ship, it is presumed to commence from the date
and execution of such articles. If no precise
period is therein mentioned for its continuance,
a partner may withdraw at any time, and dissolve
such partnership at his pleasure; and even if a
definite period be agreed upon, a partner may,
by giving notice, dissolve the partnership as to
all capacity of the firm to bind him by contracts
thereafter made; such partner subjecting himself
thereby to a claim for damages, by reason of his
breach of the covenant.

The death of either partner, also, dissolves the
partnership, unless there be an express stipula-
tion that, in such an event, the representatives of
such deceased partner may continue the business
in connection with the survivors, for the benefit
of the widow and children.

A partnership is dissolved by operation of law;
by a voluntary and bona fide assignment by any

partner of his interest therein ; by the bankrupt-
cy or death of any of the partners ; or by a war
between the countries of which the partners are
subjects.

Immediately after a dissolution, a notice of
the same should be published in the public
papers, and a special notice sent to every person
who has had dealings with the firm. If these
precautions be not taken, each partner will still
continue liable for the acts of the others to all
persons who have had no notice of such dissolu-
tion.

Partnership Agreement.

This Agreement, made this first day of April, lSy3, between Charles
Jean and David Sellers, both of St. Louis, Missouri, witnesseth :

The said parties agree to associate themselves as copartners for two
years from this date, in the business of buying and selling cotton, under the
name and style of Jean & Sellers.

For the purpose of conducting the above-named business, Charles Jean
has at the date of this writing invested ten thousand dollars as capital
stock, and David Sellers has paid in the like sum of ten thousand dollars,
both of which amounts are to be expended and used in common, for the
mutual advantage of the parties hereto in the management of their business.

That the details of the business may be thoroughly understood by each,
it is agreed that during the aforesaid period accurate and full book accounts
shall be kept, wherein each partner shall enter and record, or cause to be
entered and recorded, full mention of all moneys received and expended,
as well as every article purchased and sold belonging to, or in any wise
appertaining to such partnership ; the profits, gains, expenditures and
losses being equally divided between them.

It is further agreed that once a year, or oftener should either partner
desire, a full, just and accurate exhibit shall be made to each other, or to
their executors, administrators or representatives, of the losses, profits and
increase made by reason of such copartnership. And after such an exhibit
is made, the surplus profit, if such there be, resulting from the business,
shall be divided between the subscribing partners, fhare and share alike.

Should either partner desire, or should the death of either of the parties,
or other reasons, make it necessary, they will each to the other, or, in case
of death of either, the surviving partner to the executors or administrators
of the party deceased, make a full, accurate and final account ol the condi-
tion of the partnership as aforesaid and will fairly and accurately adjust the
same.

It is also agreed that in case of a misunderstanding arising with the
parties hereto, which cannot be settled between themselves, such difference
of opinion shall be settled by arbitration, upon the following conditions, to-
wit : Each party to choose one arbitrator, which two thus chosen shall
select a third ; the three thus chosen to determine the merits of the cave
and arrange the basis of a settlement.

In witness tohereo/, the undersigned hereto set their hands the day and
year first above written.

Signed In presence of | Charles Jean.

Frank Smith, I David Sellers.

Henry Stiles. J

Notice of Dissolution.

The partnership heretofore existing under the name of Jean & Sellers Is

this day of , A.D. , dissolved by mutual consent.

Charles Jran.
Pavid Sellers.

—

HOW TO SECURE A PATENT.

;— S) --] X'

M*M*mt*MXXXXXbMJXXM-*tfrttftf^

^f t •:• H ov/ • to • $>eeu ve • a • J)a tent, «

2— «r^

3=3*-

5=~Ts — i *^

«K 0>ompfei"e j^qnop<«>ii> o{? tf\e f^ufe<*> cu^b f^egufafioruS ©[overrurAO* tfie
Unifec] Siafe<& ^afent ©j?f?ice.

sNY PERSON who has invented or dis-
\f covered a new and useful art, machine,
i\£ manufacture or composition of matter^
or any new and useful improvement
thereof, may obtain a patent, provided the
invention or discovery has not been known
or used by others in this country, and not
patented or described in any printed pub-
lication in this or any foreign country, and
not in public use or on sale for more than two
years prior to his application, unless the same
is proved to have been abandoned. A patent
may also be obtained by any person who, by
his own industry, genius, efforts and expense,
has invented and produced any new and orig-
inal design for a manufacture, bust, statue,
alto-relievo or bas-relief; any new and original
design for the printing of woolen, silk, cotton
or other fabrics ; any new and original impres-
sion, ornament, pattern, print or picture to
be printed, painted, cast, or otherwise placed
on or worked into any article of manufacture ;
or any new, useful and original shape or con-
figuration of any article of manufacture, the
same not having been known or used by others
before his invention or production thereof, nor
patented or described in any printed publica-
tion.

In case of the death of the inventor, the
application may be made by his executor or
administrator. In such case the oath will be
made by the executor or administrator.

In case of an assignment of the whole inter-
est in the invention, or of the whole interest
in the patent to be granted, the patent will,
upon request of the applicant or assignee,
issue to the assignee ; and if the assignee hold
an undivided part interest, the patent will,
upon like request, issue jointly to the inventor
and the assignee ; but the assignment in either
case must first have been entered of record,
and of a day not later than the date of the
payment of the final fee. The application
and oath must be made by the actual inventor,
if alive, even if the patent is to issue to an
assignee. If the inventor be dead, it may be
made by the executor or administrator, or by
the assignee of the entire interest.

THE APPLICATION.

All applications for letters patent must be
made to the Commissioner of Patents. A
complete application comprises the petition,
specification, oath and drawings, and the
model or specimen when required.

o "^

484

HOW TO SECURE A PATENT.

An application for a patent will not be placed
upon the files for examination until all its
parts, except the model or specimen, are
received.

THE SPECIFICATION
Is a written description of the invention or
discovery, and of the manner and process of
making, constructing, compounding and using
the same, and is required to be in such full,
clear, concise and exact terms as to enable any
person skilled in the art or science to which it
appertains, or with which it is most nearly
connected, to make, construct, compound and
use the same. It must conclude with a spe-
cific and distinct claim or claims of the part,
improvement or combination which the appli-
cant regards as his invention or discovery.

In framing the specification the applicant
should follow the appended arrangement, such
portions as refer to drawings being omitted
when the invention does not admit of repre-
sentation by drawings. \

1. Preamble giving the name and residence
of the applicant, and the title of the inven-
tion.

2. General statement of the object and
nature of the invention.

3. Brief description of the drawings, show-
ing what each view represents.

4. Detailed description, explaining fully the
alleged invention, and the manner of con-
structing, practicing, operating and using it.

5. Claim, or claims.

6. Signature of inventor.

7. Signatures of two witnesses.

In original applications the applicant must
distinctly state, under oath, whether the in-
vention has been patented to himself, or to
others, with his consent or knowledge, in any
country.

THE OATH.
The applicant, if the inventor, must make
oath that he believes himself to be the first

and original discoverer or inventor of the art,
machine, manufacture, composition or im-
provement for which he desires a patent, and
that to his best knowledge and belief the
same was never before known or used. ^Ie
must also state his place of residence, and the
State or country of which he is a citizen.

When applications are made by an adminis-
trator or executor, the form of oath varies
accordingly.

DRAWINGS.

The applicant for a patent is required by
law to furnish a drawing of his invention,
where the nature of the case admits of it.

1. Drawings must be made upon pure
white paper of a thickness corresponding to
three-sheet Bristol board, and the surface of
the paper must be calendered and smooth.
India ink only must be used, to secure per-
fectly black and solid lines.

2. The size of sheet on which a drawing is
made must be exactly ten by fifteen inches.
One inch from its edges a single marginal line
is to be drawn, leaving the " sight" precisely
eight by thirteen inches. Within this margin
all work and signatures must be included.

3. All drawings must be made with the pen
only.

4. Drawings should be made with the fewest
lines possible consistent with clearness.

5. Letters and figures of reference must be
carefully formed. They must never appear
upon shaded surfaces, and, when it is difficult
to avoid this, a blank space must be left in the
shading where the letter occurs, so that it may
appear perfectly distinct and separate from the
work. If the same part of an invention appear
in more than one view of the drawing, it must
always be represented by the same character,
and the same character must never be used to
designate different parts.

6. The inventor's signature must be placed
at the lower right-hand corner of the sheet,

HOW TO SECURE A PATENT.

48S

and the signatures of witnesses at the lower
left-hand corner; all within marginal line.

7. Drawings should be rolled, not folded,
for transmission to the office.

MODELS

Must clearly exhibit every feature of a ma-
chine which forms the subject of a claim for
letters patent, but should include no other mat-
ter than that covered by the actual invention
or improvement, unless necessary to the exhi-
bition of the invention in a working model.

Very often a working model is desirable in
order to fully and readily understand the opera-
tion

EXAMINATION.

Applications are classified and taken up for
examination in regular order, those in the same
class being examined and disposed of, as far as
practicable, in the order in which they are
presented.

AMENDMENTS, ETC.

The applicant has a right to amend before
or after the first rejection ; and he may amend
as often as the examiner presents any new
references or reasons for rejection.

When an original or reissue application is
rejected on reference to an expired or unex-
pired domestic patent, which substantially
shows or describes but does not claim the re-
jected invention, or to a foreign patent, or to a
printed publication, and the applicant shall
make oath to facts showing a completion of the
invention before the filing of the application
for the domestic patent, or before the date of
the foreign patent, or before the date at which
the printed publication was made, and shall
also make oath that he does not know and does
not believe that the invention has been in pub-
lic use or on sale in this country for more than
two years prior to his application, and that he

has never abandoned the invention, then the
patent or publication cited will not bar the
grant of a patent to the applicant, except upon
interference.

When an application is rejected on reference
to an expired or unexpired domestic patent
which shows or describes, but does not claim,
the rejected invention, or to a foreign patent,
or to a printed publication, or to facts within
the personal knowledge of an employe of the
office, set forth in an affidavit of such em-
ploye, or on the ground of public use or sale,
or upon the mode or capability of operation
attributed to a reference, or because the alleged
invention is held to be inoperative, or frivolous,
or injurious to public health or morals, affida-
vits or depositions supporting or traversing
these references or objections may be received ;
but they will be received in no other cases,
without special permission of the Commis-
sioner.

In case an applicant neglects to prosecute
his application for two. years after the date
when the last official notice of any action by
the office was mailed to him, it will be held
that the application has been abandoned.

DESIGNS.

Patents for designs are granted for three and
one-half years, or for seven years, or for four-
teen years, as the applicant may, in his appli-
cation, elect.

When the design can be sufficiently repre-
sented by drawings or photographs, a model
will not be required.

Whenever a photograph or an engraving is
employed to illustrate the design, it must be
mounted upon Bristol board, 10 by 15 inches
in size, and properly signed and witnessed.
The applicant will be required to furnish ten
extra copies of such photograph or engraving
(not mounted), of a size not exceeding 7^
inches by 1 1.

Tv*

*".~

486

HOW TO SECURE A PATENT.

REISSUES.

When the original patent is invalid or in-
operative by reason of a defective or insuffi-
cient specification, or by reason of the patentee
claiming as his invention or discovery more
than he had a right to claim as new, a reissue
will be granted to the original patentee, his
legal representatives, or the assignees of the
entire interest, provided the error has arisen
from accident, mistake or inadvertence, and
without any fraudulent or deceptive intention.

APPEALS.

An applicant for a patent or a reissue, any
of the claims of whose application have been
twice rejected, may appeal from the decision
of the primary examiner to the Board of Ex-
aminers-in-Chief, having once paid a fee of
$10. The appeal must be made in writing,
signed by the applicant or his attorney, and
must set forth the points of the decision upon
which the appeal is taken.

FORM, DATE AND DURATION OF
PATENTS.

Every patent will bear date as of a day not
later than six months from the time at which
the application was passed and allowed, and
notice mailed to the applicant, if within that
period the final fee be paid.

A patent will not be antedated.

Every patent will contain a short title of
the invention or discovery, and a grant to the
patentee, his heirs and assigns, for the term
of seventeen years, of the exclusive right to
make, use and vend the invention or discovery
throughout the United States and Territories
thereof.

EXTENSIONS.

Patents granted since March 2, 1861, can-
not be extended, except by act of Congress.

CAVEATS.

On payment of a fee of $10, any citizen
of the United States who has made a new
invention or discovery, and desires further
time to mature the same, may file in the
Patent Office a caveat setting forth the distin-
guishing characteristics of the invention and
praying protection of his right until he shall
have matured his invention. Such caveat
shall be filed in the confidential archives of
the Patent Office, and shall be operative for
the term of one year from the filing thereof.

ASSIGNMENTS.

Every patent, or any interest therein, shall
be assignable in law by an instrument in
writing. The patentee or his assigns may
also grant and convey, in like manner, an
exclusive right under his patent for the whole
or any specified part of the United States.

Schedule of Fees.

On filing each application for a Patent $15

On issuing each Original Patent (17 years) *o

On application for Re-issue 30

On application for Extension 50

On granting every extension of Patent (7 years; 30

On each Caveat 10

On appeal to Examiners-in -Chief 10

On appeal to Commissioner of Patents 90

On filing a Disclaimer 10

On application for Design {3% years) 10

On application for Design {7 years) 15

On application for Design (14 years) f 30

On each Trade-Mark (30 years) 15

On each Label {28 years) 6

CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE
PATENT OFFICE.

Personal attendance of applicants at the
Patent Office is unnecessary, as all business is
required to be transacted in writing.

Correspondence should be addressed to
" The Commissioner of Patents. "

Express charges, freight, postage, and all
similar charges, must be fully prepaid to ensure
reception.

PENSION LAWS.

487

"7f

A letter concerning an application should
state the name of the applicant, the title of the
invention, the serial number of the application
and the date of filing the same.

A letter concerning a patent should state the
name of the patentee, the title of the inven-
tion, and the number and date of the patent.

All correspondence of the Patent Office will
be answered without unnecessary delay.
Telegrams must ordinarily be received before

three p m. to insure an answer the same day.

AGENTS AND ATTORNEYS.

Any intelligent person of good moral char-
acter, upon filing a proper power of attorney,
may appear as the agent or attorney in fact
of an applicant.

The power of attorney must be filed in all
cases before an attorney, original or associate,
will be allowed to inspect papers or take action
of any kind.

-+-<*-

spei^ion •> LiaW$. •>>£•>

E&NY person who has been, since the 4th
*Siy of March, 1861, disabled in the mili-
tary or naval service of the United
States, or in its marine corps, shall,
upon making due proof of the fact, be placed
on the list of invalid pensioners of the United
States. No claim for pension on the part of a
State militiaman, or non-enlisted person, on
account of disability from wounds received in
battle, shall be valid unless prosecuted to a
successful issue prior to July 4, 1874.

RATES OF PENSION PER MONTH.-

DISABILITIES.

Loss of both hands ,

Total disability in both hands

Loss of both feet

Total disability in both feet. .
Loss of sight of both eyes —
Loss of sight of one eye, the sight of

the other having been previously lost

Loss of one hand and one foot

Total disability in one hand and one

foot

Any disability equivalent to the loss of
a hand or foot

Any disability incapacitating for the
performance of any manual labor

Any disability resulting in a condition
requiring the regular aid and attend-
ance of another person.

Total deafness

-1

525 00
20 00

25 00

$20 00

SSJ B

$25 00

20 00
25 CO

20 00
15 °°
20 00

'»

$31 *5
31 25
31 25
31 25
3 1 2 5

31 25
24 00

24 00

$72 00

72 00

72 00
36 00

June
4. '74-
31 25 50 00
13 °°

* Rate from June, 1880. in case the disability is permanent and requires
the regular aid and attendance of another person. An applicant for
increase of pension from $31.25 to $72 per month must furnish the testi-
mony of his physician, or of two credible witnesses, to prove the extent
to which he requires the aid and attendance of another person.

The same provision of law which entitles to
$31.25 per month entitles to $72 per month,
provided that in the latter case the disability
is permanent. The loss of a leg above the
knee, or an arm at or abbve the elbow, entitles
the person so disabled to a pension of $24 per
month after June 4, 1874.

The rates of $10, $12, $14 and $16 per
month will be allowed in cases in which the dis-
ability bears the same proportion to that pro-
duced by the loss of a hand or foot that those
rates bear to the rate of $18 per month. •

Under the pension law of 1890 the soldier
who is wholly incapacitated from earning a
living receives the sum of $1 2 a month, whether
the disability was contracted in the service
or not ; for a lesser degree of disability, $10,
$8 or $6.

The first step to be taken by an applicant
for pension is to file a declaration before a
court of record, or before some officer thereof
having custody of its seal, setting forth the
ground upon which he claims a pension. Blank
forms of declaration are furnished upon request
at Commissioner of Pensions office. The iden-
tity of the applicant must be shown by the
testimony of two credible witnesses, who must
appear with him before the officer by whom

•i

488

PENSION LAWS.

the declaration may be taken. A pensioner
who may deem himself entitled to an increase
of pension should file a declaration on a blank
form furnished for the purpose, setting forth
the ground upon which he claims such increase.
A declaration for increase of pension may be
taken before any officer duly authorized to
administer oaths.

All invalid pensions granted under the gen-
eral law will terminate at re-enlistment, or
when the disabilities for which they were al-
lowed shall have ceased.

A widow's pension will end at her remar-
riage, and not be renewable should she again
become a widow.

Pensions allowed to dependent mothers and
sisters end at remarriage, or when dependence
ceases. Pensions allowed to dependent fathers
end when the dependence ceases.

The name of any pensioner shall be stricken
from the roll upon his or her failure to claim
a pension for three years after the same shall
have become due.

To entitle a widow or children to pension,
the death of the soldier does not need to have
been the result of injury received or disease
contracted under such circumstances as would
hava entitled him to an invalid pension had he
been disabled.

A widow is entitled to a pension of $8 per
month, no matter whether the death of the
soldier was due to army service or not. In
addition to this rate, she will be allowed $2
per month for each child of the officer or soldier
under the age of sixteen years.

In the applications of widows and children
for pensions, they are not required to prove
that death of husband resulted from the injury
or disease on account of which his pension was
granted; but, if the husband had not estab-
lished his claim for an invalid pension, the
widow shall prove origin and cause of the fatal
disease. Widows will be required to prove
their marriage to the person on account of

whose service and death the claim is made ;
also proof of dates of birth of children by
copy of church record.

A mother claiming a pension must prove the
cause and date of the death of her son ; her
relationship ; that he left no widow or minor
child or children surviving; and that, if living,
she would be dependent upon him for support.

A father claiming pension on account of the
death of his son, upon whom he was depend-
ent for support, must prove facts similar to
those required of a mother.

The claim on behalf of minor brothers and
sisters should be made by a guardian duly ap-
pointed.

In administration of the pension laws, no
distinction is made between brothers and sisters
of the half blood and those of the whole blood.
Evidence in a claim for pension cannot be veri-
fied before an officer who is engaged in the
prosecution of such claim.

In claims for increase of pension, a fee of
$2 will be allowed. All letters of enquiry
relative to claims pending in Pension Office
should give the number of the claim.

No sum of money due, or to become due,
to any pensioner, shall be liable to attachment,
levy or seizure, under any legal or equitable
process.

Agents for paying pensions shall receive
two per centum on all disbursements made by
them to pensioners.

No agent, or attorney, or other person, shall
demand or receive any other compensation for
his services in prosecuting a claim for pension
or bounty-land than such as the Commissioner
of Pensions shall direct to be paid to him, not
exceeding $10.

Every officer, or enlisted or hired man, who
has lost a limb, or the use of a limb, in the
military or naval service of the United States,
is entitled to receive, once every three years,
an artificial limb or apparatus, or commutation
therefor. The period of three years is reckoned

_^J

THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS.

489

from the filing of first application after March
2, 1891. The commutation allowed in case of
the amputation of a leg is $75 ; in all other

cases, $50. Applications for artificial limbs
should be transmitted through the proper pen-
sion agent to the surgeon-general of the army.

30E

tye ^olle^tioi? of Debt5

HOW TO SETTLE ACCOUNTS.

LEGAL STEPS TO ENFORCE PAYMENT

4fe

■ HE best way to avoid all trouble with
debts, either by owing them or by hav-
ing them due to you, is to avoid debts
altogether. Do not run in debt, and
do not give credit unless it is absolutely un-
avoidable. By following these rules an untold
amount of trouble may be saved and greatly
increased prosperity secured.

But in modern civilized life it is not possible,
as business is done, to prevent debts from being
incurred, for so much is transacted upon longer
or shorter terms of credit, that it is necessary to
give credit and to have money falling due. In
order to avoid trouble and loss, adhere strictly
to the rule of having the payment due at a cer-
tain time and be prompt in collecting. Much
more depends upon prompt collection as a means
of avoiding trouble and loss than any other single
thing It is a mistaken idea that any favor is
really done the debtor by not applying to him at
the agreed time, for it is often the case that the
failure to pay you will simply result in his still
continuing to proceed upon a false basis, and
end, perhaps, in a failure, which the good habit
of paying his debts when due would have
enabled him to prevent.

It is a measure of common prudence to take
some statement in writing from any person to

whom money is loaned, which shall show the
amount, when loaned, by and from whom due,
and when it is to be repaid. This is done either
by taking a due bill or a common promissory
note, and whenever accounts are settled or a
balance struck and agreed upon, it is well to have
something in writing, which should always be
signed by the party to whom the payment is
made or from whom the nayment is due, if any
amount is left unpaid.

In all cases where money is loaned on interest,
a note should be taken, and, unless the lender is
personally acquainted with the business affairs
and standing of the borrower, if the amount is
considerable or the terms of credit more than
a few months, security should be taken. In
arranging for security two things are to be con-
sidered —

1. The title of the party to the property
which he proposes to give as security. This
covers the two points of ownership and all
prior claims or encumbrances, if any. If the
security consists of personal property, it will be
necessary to see whether there are executions
against the owner in the hands of the
proper officers and whether chattel mortgages
have been given, as well as that the property is
in the possession of the person who proposes to

_iJ

V-

** 9

^=7{

490

THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS.

pledge it as security. If this is to be done by
means of a chattel mortgage, then it will be neces-
sary to see that the mortgage is properly acknowl-
edged and recorded, and in every other case the
possession of the property should be transferred
to the one who takes it as security.

In the case of real estate there should be an
Abstract of Title showingthe title to the property
to be in the person who claims to own it, and
that it is clear of all judgments, mortgages and
mechanic's liens. The better way is to have the
abstract brought down to cover the mortgage or
trust deed, which is given as security, after it
has been recorded and before the money is
actually advanced, to guard against all possi-
bility of anything happening between the time
of the execution of the mortgage or trust deed
and when it can be recorded.

2. The security given depends directly upon
the value of the property transferred, and this
should be sufficient in amount to cover all prob-
able contingencies. The rule is not to loan
more than half or two-thirds of the value of
the property given as security. " Fast bind,
fast find," is a good maxim, especially in regard
to loaning money, and where ample security is
held, the lender can sleep in peace. It is often
necessary that fire insurance should be obtained
to protect the lender, in which case the policy
should be made in the. name of the owner and
borrower, and have inserted in it a " mortgage
clause," as it is called, provided that the loss, if
any, shall be paid to the lender as his interest
may appear.

REQUEST FOR PAYMENT.

Those who have much experience in any
kind of business requiring credit to be given,
soon learn, in the dear school of experience,
what is necessary to protect their own interests.
It is those who have but little to do in this way,
or who are about engaging in a new line, that
are most likely to suffer from want of knowledge.

Of course, before any suit is brought to
recover money which is due, a request or
demand for payment should be made, if possible,
and there is any hope the money will be paid
without suit. Politeness and point should be

contained in the request, which may take either
the form of an interview or a note, and as pay-
ment may result, this ought always to be framed
as if payment were expected. If a letter is used,
its form will depend upon what has previously
taken place, because it is seldom the case that a
claim has no previous history, and the kind of
demand to be made depends upon what has been
done, so that it will range from a polite intima-
tion that the money is due and would be thank-
fully received, to a short letter informing the
debtor that to avoid the trouble and costs of a
suit, immediate payment must be made.

COLLECTION AGENCIES.

The tendency of all kinds of business to run
into specialties, and for people to follow par-
ticular lines of business, to which they give their
attention, has led to the formation of what are
known as collection agencies, which devote their
entire time and skill to the collection of debts.

These are of two kinds, namely: those which
are connected with some particular trade or
branch of business, and which seek to enforce
the payment of debts by means of notifying all
those persons who would naturally be called
upon to give credit to the debtor, and also those
which are organized without any particular con-
nection with any branch of the business, but which
have correspondents (chiefly lawyers) through-
out the country, and who charge a fixed per-
centage for collection in ordinary cases. Where
these agencies can be used they are often the
best means to employ for many different reasons.

COLLECTION BY LAW.

When all reasonable hope of obtaining pay-
ment peaceably is gone, consider whether it is
worth while to follow the matter any further;
and this will depend on two things :

Is it worth the necessary trouble and expense ?

Can a judgment be collected ?

Sometimes a suit must be brought for the
sake of the principle involved and to prevent
advantage being taken of you; but if it is merely
a business transaction and the only question is

THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS.

491

whether it will pay, then find out as well as you
can what the result will be before you spend any
money on the suit; aqd learn whether the debtor
has property which is not exempt and out of
which the officer can make the amount of a judg-
ment.

If you are compelled to proceed with your
suit, you can place the account in the hands of
some Justice of the Peace whose jurisdiction
extends over the place where the debtor can be
served with summons, unless the amount is too
large, for Justices of the Peace are generally
authorized and required to collect accounts
placed in their hands; the amount of which a
Justice of the Peace has jurisdiction is fixed by
the laws of the different States.

JURISDICTION OF JUSTICES OF THE PEACE.

Justices of the Peace generally have jurisdic-
tion throughout the County or Township in
which they are elected, and the limit of the
amount is as follows:

Alabama .$

Arizona

Arkansas

California

Colorado

Connecticut ....
Dakota, N. 200-S.

Delaware

Dist. of Columb.

Florida

Georgia

Idaho

Illinois .

a Indiana

b Iowa

Kansas

a By confession,

100 Kentucky 50

300 Louisiana 100

300 Maine 20

300 Maryland 100

300 Massachusetts.. 300

100 Michigan 100

100 Minnesota 100

200 Mississippi .... 150

100 Missouri 250

100 Montana 300

100 Nebraska.. 200

300 Nevada ... 300

200 New Hampshire 13^

200 New J ersey 200

100 New Mexico. .. 100

^oo New York. 200

1 $300. b By consent, $300.

North Carolina. $ 200

Ohio 100

Oregon 500

Pennsylvania. . . 300

Rhode Island.. 300

South Carolina. 100

Tennessee 500

Texas 200

Utah 300

Vermont 200

Virginia 100

Washington .... 300

West Virginia.. 300

c Wisconsin .. . 200

Wyoming 300

c By co fession, $300.

SUMMONS AND SERVICE.

The Justice, on request, will issue a summons
about as follows :

Form of Summons

This summons will be given to a constable
who can only serve it upon the debtor within
the Town or County, as the case may be where
the Justice resides, and in some cases the debtor
must be served in the Town where he lives ; but
all necessary information can be obtained by
asking the Justice about it, who will know, and
will correctly tell you about the law which ap-
plies to himself-

The constable who serves the summons will
proceed to do it by reading or delivering a copy,
or both at once upon payment of his legal fees.
If the debtor is a corporation then the service
must be made by delivering a copy of the sum-
mons to the proper officer, the President, if he
can be found, and in case of his absence the
officer must state that he can not be found and
service can be had upon some other officer or
agent of the corporation.

If the defendant conceals himself to avoid
service or can not be found, the officer will write
upon the summons what has been done under
it, and return it with his written endorsement
upon it, stating the facts to the Justice from
whom it issued. The Justice will also enter in
his docket the names of the parties, the num-
ber of the case, the date of the summons, and
the name of the officer to whom it was delivered
for service ; and when the summons is returned
he enters a statement of that fact together with
the officer's endorsement upon it in his docket.

The summons will state the time and place
for trial which is generally not less than five
nor more than fifteen days from its date ; when
and where the defendant is bound to appear if
he has been notified according to the law, and
generally three days' service before the trial is
sufficient.

State of \

County of. ) ss '

The Feopleof the State of. to any constable 0/ said county—

Greeting :

You are hereby commanded to summon A B to appear before me, at , on the day

of , at o'clock — M , to answer the complaint of C D for a failure to pay him a certain

demand, not exceeding,.. dollars ; and hereof make due return as the law directs. Given under my

hand, this day of. , 18

John Doe,/. P %

492

THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS.

DEFENDANT'S LIABILITY.

It is not safe for any person who has been
legally served with summons to neglect the case,
even if he owes nothing, and has been sued and
served with summons by mistake, for if he does
not appear and make his defense a judgment
may be rendered against him which he will have
to pay. An immediate investigation should
always be made when the summons is served,
and the time and place of the trial should be
written down.

Upon the back of the summons the Justice
will indorse the amount of the demand and all
the costs already incurred before he gives it to
the constable. Payment of this amount to the
constable will discharge the debt and prevent
any further liability.

COSTS OF SUIT.

The Justice is entitled to charge about
twenty-five cents for issuing the summons, and
also a docket fee, and the constable is entitled
to about fifty cents for serving and returning
the same, besides his mileage, which is usually
five cents per mile each way.

APPEARANCE.

If the plaintiff appears and is ready for trial
a judgment will be entered against the defend-
ant, if the claim is proved and he fails to ap-
pear, and the execution will issue upon the
judgment. If the defendant should be present
and the plaintiff fail to appear, then the suit
will be dismissed at plaintiff's cost upon motion
of defendant for want of prosecution. This,
however, will not bar the claim by a new suit
being brought.

CHANGE OF VENUE.

Before the trial is begun the defendant is
ordinarily entitled to take a change of venue to
the nearest Justice who is not connected with
either of the parties to the suit nor interested in
its result. This is to prevent the plaintiff from
obtaining any advantage by being able to select
the Justice to try the case, and to give the de-
fendant the benefit of an impartial trial.

The defendant is required to make an affidavit
that he believes he can not obtain an impartial
trial before the first Justice, in order to have a
change of venue.

CONTINUANCE.

If both parties appear at the time and place
named in the summons, but either one of them
is not ready to go on with the trial because of
the absence of any of his witnesses, or for any
other valid reason, then, upon good cause being
shown by affidavit, the Justice will grant a con-
tinuance of the case to enable the party to pre-
pare for the trial.

The party applying for a continuance must
show that he has used due diligence to be ready,
and that he has subpoenaed the witness or wit-
nesses whose presence he desires ; he must also
show what he expects to be able to prove by
him, and, if he knows, the reason that he did not
attend. It may be that one of the parties may
not be able to attend by reason of sickness or
unavoidable absence, and then an affidavit must
be made on his behalf by some one who appears
for him and applies for the continuance.

The party against whom the continuance is
asked may usually proceed with the trial by
admitting that the absent witness would testify
as the party claims, but that does not admit that
the matters stated are true. The party may dis-
prove the truth of the statements the same as if
the witness had been present and testified to
them. If the continuance is granted, then a
time and place are set for the trial, when the
parties must again appear.

ATTENDANCE OF WITNESSES.

It is very important that the witnesses by
whom the facts in dispute can be established or
disproved should appear and testify. Without
this it is impossible to try the case so as to do
justice between the parties. Therefore, the law
compels witnesses who are properly notified to
appear and testify to the truth so far as they
know the facts in relation to the matters involved.
For this purpose it is necessary that a paper
called a subpoena should be issued by the Jus-

•-

THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS.

493

tice, and served. upon the witness long enough
before the trial to enable, him to appear. The
subpoena is substantially in the following form :

Any free male citizen can serve on a jury,
who lives within the jurisdiction of the Justice
and is between the ages of twenty-one and sixty

Form of

Subpoena.

County of. (■**■

The People of the State of. to A

B...

You are hereby commanded

to appear

before me

at on the

.day

of..

...at

. . .o*

clock

then

and there to testify to the truth in a

matter in

suit, wherein C D is plaintiff,

and

EF,

defendant

and this you are

not to omit, under the penalty of tlu

law.

Given under my hand, this. . .

....8..

John

Doe

This can be served by the party or the con-
stable, and at the same time witness fees, usually
fifty cents and mileage, should be tendered to
the witness. Then, if he refuses to appear, upon
proof of those facts being made, an attachment,
or warrant, for the arrest of the witness will
be issued by the Justice. This will be given to
the officer, who will arrest the witness and bring
him before the Court, where he will be com-
pelled to testify, and will also be punished for
contempt of Court, for failing to obey the sub-
poena, unless he gives some good excuse.

TRIAL OF THE SUIT.

The case may be tried before the Justice with-
out a jury, or a jury may be demanded by either
party, who deposits with the Justice the amount
of the jury fees. The jury consists of not less
than six nor more than twelve men, and if one
party calls for a jury of six, the other party may
call for six more, making twelve in all.

If the case is to be tried by a jury the Justice
will issue what is called a venire or summons
for jurymen and give it to the proper officer,
which will be in the following form:

Form of Venire

years and can read, write and understand the
English language, and is not connected with,
nor prejudiced for or against either party.

Many persons are by law exempt from jury
service, by reason of their employment or offi-
cial station, but this is a personal privilege and
may be waived, so that unless it is claimed by
themselves they can serve.

The jury, when impaneled, will be sworn to
try the cause according to the law and the
evidence, and then the evidence will be produced
before the Justice or jury as the case may be.

In all cases the witnesses are sworn by the
Justice to tell the truth, the whole truth and
nothing but the truth upon the matters in issue
between the parties, and each party is entitled
to cross-examine the witness produced by the
other side, and to argue the case before the
judgment is given.

VERDICT AND JUDGMENT.

If the trial is by jury, they will return a verdict
in writing substantially in the following form:

" We, the jury, find the issues for the plaintiff
and assess his damages at (stating the amount)";
or "We, the jury, find the defendant guilty and

before a Justice.

State of \

County of. ("*

The People of the Stateof. to any constable of saidcounty —

Greeting:

We command you to summon lawful men of your county to appear before me at ,on

the day of 18 at.. ..o'clock, — M., who are not of kin to , plaintiff, or to

defendant, to make a jury between said parties, in a certain cause pending before me ; and have you then and
there the names of the jury and this writ.

Given under my hand, this day of 18. .

John Doe, /. P.

Y-

494

"7f

THE < oi.I.ECTION OF DEBTS.

assess the plaintiff's damages at (stating the
amount)." But if the jury find for the defend-
ant, then their verdict would be:

" We, the jury, find the issues for the defend-
ant"; or "find the defendant not guilty," accord-
ing to the form of action; and the verdict is also
signed by all of the jurymen. If the party who
is beaten desires to do so he can poll the jury, as
it is called, which consists in asking the jury-
men, one at a time, " Was this, and is this your
verdict?" To which the juryman is required
to answer, and if any of the jury upon being
called, state that it is not their verdict, then they
must retire and agree or else they disagree, and
the result is a mis-trial, leaving the case to be
tried again.

If the case is tried by the Justice, then he
enters his finding in writing in his docket, in
about the same form as the verdict, and then
upon the verdict or finding, he enters judgment
or, in other words, writes in his docket that he
considers that the plaintiff should recover the
amount of the verdict or finding with costs from
the defendant; or that the defendant should
recover his costs of the plaintiff, for the victor-
ious party is entitled to recover the costs of the
case from the one who is beaten.

APPEALS.
Either party has a right to appeal his case,
usually to the Circuit Court, and have it tried
over again, if he is not satisfied with the result
of the trial, upon giving bond for double the
amount of the judgment and costs in the form
provided by law, which is about as follows:

. Form of Appeal Bond

As soon as the bond is filed and approved,
which must be given usually within twenty days
from the trial, it operates as a supersedeas, as it
is called, and prevents anything further being
done in the case until judgment is obtained in
the Court above, or the appeal is dismissed.

Sometimes one of the parties will pretend to
be dissatisfied with the judgment and pray an
appeal in order to prevent the other from doing
so, and having allowed the time in which an
appeal can be taken to expire will then dismiss
it and make the judgment final.

The only way to prevent this is for the party
who desires to have an appeal to ask for it
and file his bond himself, in which case he can
control the matter.

EXECUTION.

The writ which issues from the Justice upon
the judgment is called an execution, and runs
either against the goods and chattels, or the
body, of the one against whom judgment was
entered. Whether execution can be obtained in
any tase authorizing the arrest of the defendant
and his imprisonment until the judgment is paid
or he is legally discharged will depend upon the
law of the State and the circumstances of the case,
as this is now an unusual remedy, since impris-
onment for debt has been generally abolished.
If the plaintiff avers that the benefit of the
judgment will be lost, unless execution issue im-
mediately, he may swear to this fact before the
Justice, who will then issue execution at once ;
but unless this is done the execution will not issue

Know all men by these presents, that we, A B and C D, are held and firmly bound unto E F, in the penal sum
of (here insert double the amount of judgment and costs) dollars, lawful money of the United States, for the
payment of which, well and truly to be made, we bind ourselves, g»* heirs and administrators, jointly, severally and
firmly by these presents.

Witness our hands and seals, this day bf ,18..

The condition of the above obligation is such, that whereas the said EFdid, on the day of A. D.

18. ., before. . . Justice of the Peace for the County of recover a judgment against the above bounden A B,

for the sum of dollars (or for costs, as the case may be); from which judgment the said A B has taken an appeal

to the court of the County of lfmwM| now, if the Bid A B shall prosecute his appeal with effect, and

pay whatever judgment may be rendered against him by said Court upon the trial of said appeal or by consent,
or, in case the appeal is dismissed, will pay the judgment rendered against him by said Justice, and all costs occasioned
by said appeal (or, if the judgment appealed from is in favor of the appellant, omit the words "the judgment
rendered against him by said Justice, and '' ) then the above obligation to be void; otherwise to remain in full force
and effect. A B. [seal.]

Approved by me, this day of 18.. CD, 1st* l. J

John Do*,/. P.

V-

• .

THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS.

495

until the expiration of the time for an appeal,
which is usually twenty days.

The execution is directed to the proper officer,
and is in the following form:

to be levied upon, which the officer is not willing
to seize, and in such case an indemnifying bond
is generally required and given, the condition
of which is that the plaintiff will pay all costs

Execution against Property.

State of.

. . County. | **"
The People of the State of , to any constable of said county —

Greeting :

We command you that of the goods and chattels of A B, in your county, you make the sum of dollars

and cents judgment, and dollars and cents costs, which C D lately recovered before me in a

certain plea, against the said A B; and thereof make return to me within seventy days from this date. Given
under my hand this day of ...,18.. John Doe, /. P.

Execution against Body.

State of I

County 1 •

The People of the State of , to any constable of said county —

Greeting :

We command you, that of the goods and chattels of A B, in your county, you make the sum of dollars

and cents judgmei. t, and . dollars and cents costs, which C D lately recovered before me against

the said A B, and for want of such goods and chattels that you take the body of the said A B, and him convey
and deliver unto the keeper of the jail of said county, who is hereby commanded to receive and keep the said A B
in safe custody until the said sum and all legal expenses be paid and satisfied, or until he is discharged by due
course of law; and hereof make return to me within seventy days from this date.

Given under my hand this day of ,18.. John Doe,/. P.

-£

This is placed in the hands of the constable,
and it commands him to levy upon and sell
enough of the personal property of the debtor
to satisfy the judgment and make return within
the time limited, to the Justice, showing what has
been done.

Although the execution has been delivered to
the officer, it is still under the control of the
plaintiff and the officer is bound to obey any
lawful direction he may give; but in case of in-
terference by him he may lose the benefit of the
execution, and also his remedy against the
officer.

The constable must take care that he obtains
sufficient property to satisfy the judgment if the
debtor has it, and it is not exempt by law; and
on the other hand, he must be equally careful
not to levy upon property which belongs to
others or which is exempt from execution by
law. Sometimes the plaintiff desires property

and damages which the officer may incur by
taking such property.

If the constable holds the execution beyond the
time when he is directed by it to return it to the
Justice, he ordinarily makes himself and his
bondsmen personally liable for the amount of
the judgment.

ATTACHMENT.

Where the debtor is a non-resident or con-
ceals himself to evade service of the summons,
or stands in defiance of the officer, or has con-
tracted the debt by means of a ^alse statement in
writing signed by himself, or has fraudulently
concealed or disposed of his property within
two years last past, or is about to do so or to
remove his property or effect from the State for
the purpose of hindering, delaying or defrauding
his creditors, but has property within the juris-

£?

496

THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS.

diction of the Justice which is subject to levy, in
order to prevent the benefit of the judgment
being lost the law provides that a writ of
attachment against the property may issue in
the first instance, upon a proper affidavit having
been made and filed with the Justice by the
plaintiff, which must particularly set forth the
facts and is about as follows:

As soon as the writ is issued it is placed in
the hands of the constable, who will levy upon
sufficient property to pay the claim and all costs.
If the debtor shall be found the writ will be
served on him in the same way as an ordinary
summons and will answer the same purpose, but
if the debtor is no found then the constable
will indorse upon the writ what property he has

Affidavit for Attachment.

State of (

County of. ) "•

A B, being duly sworn, says : That (here state if affiant is agent or attorney of the creditor, and if the suit it
by firm, the name of the partners,) has a just demand against (name of debtor), on account of (here make short
statement of the nature of the demand), and the affiant believes (the name of the creditor) is entitled to recover of said

(name of debtor), after allowing all just credits and set-offs, dollars and cents, which is now due, and

that he has good reason to believe and docs believe that (name of debtor) (here state some one or more of the
causes which authorize an attachment), the said (name of debtor) (here state the residence of the debtor if known, or
if not, that the affiant has made diligent inquiry and can nut ascertain his place of residence).

A bond is usually required from the plaintiff
before an attachment will issue, about as follows:

seized under it, and that he has been unable to
find the debtor, and he will hold possession of

Condition of Bond for Attachment.

The condition of the above obligation is such that, whereas the above bounden hath, on the day of

the date hereof, prayed an attachment at the suit of against the personal estate of the above named

for the sum of , and the same being about to be sued out, returnable on the day of , before

(said Justice). Now, if the said shall prosecute his suit with effect, or in case of failure therein, shall well

and truly pay and satisfy the said all such costs in such suit, and such damages as the said may

sustain, by reason of wrongfully suing out the said attachment, then the above obligation to be void; else to
remain in full force and virtue.

Witness our hands and seals, this day of , 18..

The affidavit and bond having been duly
filed, then the writ of attachment will issue
usually in the following form:

the property so attached until the case is tried.
Notice by publication or posting is usually given
to the debtor, and in case the plaintiff proves

Form of Writ of Attachment.

Y-

State or

County of. . .

The Ptople of the State of. ...to any constable of said county— Gkf.etim, :

Whereas, A B (or agent or attorney of A B, as the case may be) hath complained that E F is justly

indebted to the said A B in the amount of dollars; and that the said E F (here state the cause

as in the affidavit) and the said A B, having given bond and security according to law: We, therefore,
command you that you attach so much of the personal estate of the said E V to be found in your county,
as shall be of value sufficient to satisfy the said debt and costs; and such personal estate so attached in your
hands to secure, or so to provide that the same may be liable to further proceedings thereon, according to law,
before the undersigned Justice of the Peace. And that you summon the said E F to appear before me, at my office,

on the day of , next, and that you also summon, as garnishees, all persons, whom the plaintiff or his agent

shall direct to appear before me at the same time and place, then and there to answer what maybe objected against
him or them, when and where you shall make known huw you have executed this writ: and have you then and
there this writ :

Given under my hand and seal, this day of 18..

C £> s Justice of He t,.i. c. [-sau]

THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS.

497

his claim when the suit comes on for trial then a
special execution directed only against the
property attached is issued, and unless the
debtor has been served, no general or personal
judgment can be rendered against him, but it
only goes against the property which has been
attached.

If the debtor desires it, whether he has been
served or not, he can appear at the time and
place of trial and contest the justice of the claim
or the right of attachment, or both, and the two
issues so presented will be tried and determined
as in ordinary suits, and judgment will be
entered upon the verdict or finding in each case.

GARNISHMENT.

One of the most usual ways of obtaining the
benefit of attachment is by serving the writ on
some one who owes money to the principal
debtor and who is named as a garnishee, and
upon such service, the garnishee, who is usually
entitled to witness fees and mileage, is bound to
appear at the time and place of trial and be ex-
amined upon oath as to any property in his pos-
session which belongs to the debtor, or any
claims due to him from the garnishee, and, upon
proper proceedings being had, a judgment will
be entered, which will bind the garnishee to de-
liver such property or pay such claims for the
benefit of the plaintiff.

In case a final judgment has been obtained
and the execution returned unsatisfied, then, by
making a proper affidavit, a garnishee summons
may be issued and serred in the same manner as
the writ of attachment upon any person or per-
sons who are owing money to the judgment
debtor, or who have in their hands goods or
effects belonging to him.

LIEN OF WRIT.

A writ of execution becomes a valid claim
and binds the property of the person against
whom it is issued from the time it is delivered to
the constable or other proper officer, so that a
sale or purchase from that time is subject to be
set aside and the property applied in payment
of the execution.

This is of great importance in dealing with
persons against whom writs of execution have
been issued and placed in the hands of an offi-
cer, because no valid sale can be made of such
property and the purchaser gets no title. A
writ of attachment, however, only becomes a
Hen from its levy, so that no one is likely to pur-
chase property against which there is an attach-
ment.

ARREST BEFORE SUIT.

Although imprisonment for debt has been
abolished, yet, in certain cases, in most of the
States and Territories, persons, against whom
there are claims exfsting, are liable to be arrested
and held until satisfaction of the claim, either
because the claim grows out of some wrong that
has been done to the plaintiff or because the
debtor refuses to turn over his property in sat-
isfaction of an execution. The writ for arrest
is called a capias, and is very seldom used, and,
in most cases, it would be unsafe to employ this
remedy without legal advice. In all cases an
affidavit and bond are required before the Jus-
tice will issue the capias, which will be about in
the following form:

Form of Capias.

State of »

County of }

The People of tfte State of' to any constable of said county —

Gkeetixg :

You are hereby commanded to take the body of and bring him forthwith before

me, unless special bail be entered ; and if such bail be entered, you will then command him to appear before me

at on the day of : at o'clock. . ..M., to answer the complaint of

A B for failure to pay him a certain demand, not exceeding $.. ; and hereof make due return as the law

directs. Given under my hand this day of 18

John Doe, J. P.

498

THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS.

When the capias or order for the arrest is
placed in the hands of the officer it is a warrant
for that purpose and he is bound to arrest the
defendant if he can be found and bring him
forthwith before the Justice who issued the writ,
unless some responsible person can be found
who will become surety for the appearance of
the defendant forthe trial. This is called "going
bail " and is usually in the form of a short under-
taking signed by the one who becomes surety
or " goes bail."

In all cases the Justice indorses upon the
back of the capias the amount of bail, which
will be required in order to liberate the defend-
ant from arrest pending the trial. The bail is
only held for the appearance of the defendant
at the time and place of trial and that he shall
surrender himself in execution in case he does
not pay the judgment against him, and if he
fails to appear or surrender them the person
who became surety will be bound to pay the
amount of the claim, with costs.

Execution against the body may also be
issued after judgment as above, but this is also
unusual.

PRIVILEGE FROM ARREST.

Many officials and many persons are priv-
ileged from arrest, particularly voters in going
to and returning from elections, attorneys and
witnesses attending Courts on business, and
judges and other officers of the Court and in
many cases militia men while going and return-
ing from general drills or musters.

LEVY AND SALE UNDER EXECUTION.

Although, as we have seen that the execution
becomes a lien from the time of its delivery to
the officer, in order to ripen into a title and
hold the property, it is necessary that a levy
should be made upon the property which is to
be sold to pay the judgment and costs. This
requires that an actual seizure of the property
be made, and that the officer should take such
possession of it as will be notice of his claim and

will exclude the owner and all other persons
from its use and enjoyment.

The constable is required to advertise the sale
generally for ten days, and then he must sell at
public auction, offering the property in such
lots or parcels as will probably bring the great-
est amount. During the time it is in his care,
he must see that it is safely kept for the benefit
of all parties; and in case an unnecessary sacri-
fice must result he must postpone the sale from
time to time.

It is his duty to seize enough property to cover
the amount of the judgment with interest and
costs, remembering that the property is to be
sold at a forced sale and that it will probably
not bring full value; but at the same time he
must be careful not to make an excessive levy
as he would then be liable to the debtor in
damages.

The levy must be made according to the nat-
ure of the things taken, and they must be re-
duced to possession so far as can reasonably be
done, but it is plain that a pile of saw logs or
building materials can not be handled in the
same way that would be required if the property
were portable and easily stored.

Notice of the levy must also be posted show-
ing that the property has been seized and for
what causes.

After the sale the constable should indorse
upon his execution what he has done with the
property upon its sale and the amount realized
and the application of the proceeds, and when-
ever enough is obtained to pay the judgment
with interest and costs, then the sale should be
stopped and the balance of the property be re-
turned to the debtor.

The execution with its indorsement of sale
remains with the files in the hands of the Justice
and is a permanent record of what was done in
the case.

LIEN ON REAL ESTATE.

When the plaintiff fails to obtain satisfaction
of his judgment out of the personal property of
the debtor, he can, in most States, obtain a tran-
script of the judgment or copy of the docket

THE COLLECTION OP DET5TS.

499

entries together with the original papers in the
case from the Justice, and file the same with the
clerk of the Circuit Court.

The judgment will then become a lien upon
the real estate of the debtor in that county in
exactly the same manner as if a judgment ren-
dered in the Circuit Court, and execution will
issue and the land may be sold in the manner
provided by law for the satisfaction of judg-
ments in a Court of Record.

CREDITOR'S BILL.
Where the judgment can not be collected by
ordinary process of law, but the debtor has
assets which can be reached by a bill in chan-
cery or proceeding in equity, then, if the
amount is sufficient, this may be done, and prop-
erty held in the name of others for the benefit of
the debtor ; patent rights and other valuable
interests belonging to him, but which can not
be sold on execution, may be subjected to the
payment of the debt. This is done by putting
the debtor and those who are claimed to hold
rights or property for him upon oath as to the
extent and value of the debtor's interest, and by
the appointment of a receiver, who is entitled to
take possession of the property in question ; and,
through the medium of the Court he obtains
all the rights the debtor had, in order to secure
a sale thereof and the collection of money suf-
ficient to satisfy the judgment with all costs.

This, however, is a somewhat complicated and ex-
pensive proceeding and is not usually resorted to.

DOES IT PAY.
The usual expense of a suit in a Justice's
Court is from two to five dollars, to which must
be added all expense incurred upon execution
or through the other means taken to enforce
collection of a debt, besides lawyer's fees, if one
is employed ; and in case of an appeal to a
higher Court, it will be proportionately greater.
These costs are made up of many small items,
as the Justice is entitled by law to a small fee
for every paper that he issues or files, for every
continuance granted or witness sworn, etc., so
that altogether it will amount to about the
figures stated ; but these costs must be borne
by the party who is beaten, and if a judgment
is obtained and collected the plaintiff receives
them back.

CONCLUSION.

It is plain that in matters of importance
where suit is to be brought in the upper Court,
or difficult points of law are involved, it is neces-
sary, in the first place, to employ a lawyer to
attend to the matter. If this is done, always
take care to secure a competent, honest man,
for nothing in this world is dearer than a cheap
lawyer.

—>+<?+-

THE SINGLE TAX SYSTEM.

We hear much nowadays of the "single tax" agitation. There is a
"single tax" league, which has a considerable membership throughout the
country ; public meetings in the interest of the " single tax " are held, and
several newspapers and many books advocating the " single tax " are pub-
lished or have been published What is this "single tax"?

It is, in brief, a proposition to abolish all taxation except that upon land,
or the value of land. It does not propose that even buildings shall be taxed,
but that all the taxation of the nat on, the state and the municipality shall
be laid upon the land alone, exactly in the same measure whether it be
built upon or vacant, but in proportion to the value which it possesses from
nearness to the centers of population or business.

The "single tax" theory is based upon the doctrine that the land right-
fully belongs to all the people. That the exclusive possession of land by
individuals is not right, and that the separate ownership of land might be
merged into a sort of joint-stock ownership of the public without injustice,
was first suggested, in England, by the social philosopher, Herbert Spencer.
The doctrine received a much fuller statement in this country at the hands
of Mr. Henry George, in a book called " Progress and Poverty," first pub-
lished in 1870. Mr. George is accounted the founder of the single tax sys-
tem, and is the head and front ot the agitation.

Mr. George and his followers maintain that, under the present system of
private ownership of land, the burden of poverty resting upon the mass of
mankind grows heavier as the world makes material progress : that in spite
of the increase in the world's productive power, wages always tend to a
minimum which will give but a bare living. They hold that private owner-
ship of land, with the privilege of holding it for speculative purposes and of
forcing up rents as population and industry advance, has the effect to put a

monopoly ot natural opportunities into the hands ot the land-owners. Tho
natural opportunities being thus monopolized, laborers are compelled to
compete with each other to such an extent as to force wages down to the
lowest possible point

As they hold that wages ot all classes of laborers depend upon the pro-
ductive cultivation of the soil, Mr. George and his followers maintain that
the true remedy for poverty is to make the land common property.

They do not. however, propose to disturb the occupants of land, so long
as the occupants make full use of their land. They propose, on the con-
trary, to allow the possessors of the soil to continue to buy and sell and be-
queath it But they do propose to take all the rent by taxation. To do this
would make the occupant of the land a tenant paying rent to the state

This proposition, which was first known under the name of " land nation-
alization," has since, by the common consent of its advocates, become known
as the " single tax" movement, the efforts of its friends having been di-
rected more specifically to the abolition of all other forms of taxation They
hold that the removal of taxation from industries in general would stimulate
manufactures and business, at the same time that it destroyed the specula-
t'on in land, to such an extent that the general prosperity would be im-
mensely increased and wages greatly raised.

They hold that the revenue from the single tax would be so large as to
enable the government to maintain schools and coll-ges, build and operate
railroads and telegraphs, and do many things which it does not now en-
gage in.

Their plan, also, of course, being a "single tax," involves the abolition
of tariffs upon imports. The "single tax" men are absolute free-traders.

500

THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM.

<§> 5"HE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM

ITS OBJECT TO PREVENT BRIBERY AND INTIMIDATION, TO PLACt ALL CANOIOATCm
OM AW EQUALITY BEfORE TMI LAW, AND TO BMABH POLITICAL MACHINES.

The Australian system of voting, so called because first
used in Australia, has been for several years in successful
operation there, and, with non-essential variations, in
England, Scotland, Ireland and Canada, In 1888 it was
adopted in Massachusetts. Its principal objects are to pre-
vent bribery and intimidation, to place all candidates upon
an equality before ttie law, and to determine the danger-
ous powers of political machines.

The system will be readily understood by reference to
the accompanying drawing:

The voter, upon entering the polling place, turns to his
right at the point marked "Entrance," where he receives
from two election officers selected from opposing political
parties a single ballot or a single set of ballots, according
to the local custom of voting. On the back is indorsed a
stamp or signature, sufficient and only sufficient to identify
the ballot as official; and on the face are plainly printed
the names of the candidates for each office, with a designa-
tion of their respective political parties, after this manner:

KuK M.WdK,

Vote For One.

Democrat it ,

Iota Doc.

Republican,

Richard Roe.

Prohibition*

David Smith.

Independent,

Samuel Jones.

For Coroners.

Vote For Two.

Democratic*

Alanson Jacobs.

Harvey Sylvester.

Republican*

Martin Kawson.

Wyman Simpson.

Prohibition^

Valentino Remsen.

Victor Sampson.

Independent*

Krastus Myers.

Samuel Bixby.

PREPARING A BALLOT.

Having received his ballot, the voter enters one of the
booths back of the railing, where, secluded from observa-
tion, he prepares the ballot by placing in the blank column
a cross opposite the name of each candidate for whom he
desires to vote; or, if he prefers, by writing the nann 1 ol
candidates of his own nomination in place of those already
there. If there are several candidates for the same kind of
office, as Coroners in the sample ballot above, or Presi-
dential Electors, and he wishes to vote the "straight"
ticket of his party, he places the cross under the name of
the party, or draws it through the space in the blank column
alloted to the party's candidates, which signifies thai he
votes for each candidate named in that space. Thus, in
the sample ballot, a cross under the word " Democratic,"
or through the first two spaces of the blank column to the
right, is one vote each for Alanson Jacobs and Harvey
Sylvester.

After preparing his ballot by indicating every candidate
for whom he votes, the voter folds it in such manner .is to
conceal the face and expose the indorsement, and, with-
drawing from the booth, gives the ballot to the inspectors,
who identify it by the indorsement as official. It is then
deposited in the box and the voter passes out at the gate
marked " Exit."

From the time he receives his ballot until he casts it, the
voter is permitted to have no communication with any one
but the election officers, and with them only for official

purposes; and only election officers and persons actually
engaged in voting are ever admitted within the railing.

THE TASMANIA!* DODGE.

Upon proof of inability from physical infirmity or illit-
eracy, a voter may call into the booth officers appointed
and sworn for the purpose to aid him in preparing his
ballot ; and when a ballot is accidentally destroyed or
defaced it may be exchanged for a clean one. The im-
portance of the latter requirement may not at once be
apparent; but to secure secrecy every ballot delivered to a
voter must be either cast or returned. This explains the
necessity for indorsing ballots. But for the indorsement a
blank paper outwardly resembling a ballot might be cast by a
voter, who would then be able surreptitiously to carry away
an official ballot. This could be prepared for a bribed
voter, the proof of its use being his production of a second
official ballot. That could be similarly prepared and used,
and so on. Such a fraud, known as the "Tasmanian
dodge," was successfully perpetrated in Australia in the
early days of the system; but its repetition was prevented
by requiring ballots to be officially indorsed.

As it is essential that ballots be printed at public expense
and distributed by public officers, the system must include
some mode of certifying nominations to the proper authori-
ties a reasonable time before election. That proposed by
the Yates-Saxton bill of New York was perhaps as con-
venient as could be desired. Under it State nominations
were to be certified fifteen days and local nominations ten
days before election; nominations of a political party which
at the next preceding election polled 3 per cent, of the
whole vote were to be certified by party officers; and inde-
pendent nominations, if for a State office, were to be certi-
fied by a thousand voters, and if for a local office by a
hundred.

SECRECY OF THE BALLOT.

Penal laws are ineffectual to prevent bribery and intim-
idation. The primary remedy is a secret ballot. And this
is best secured when the only proof of an elector's vote is
his own uncorroborated assertion. Under the Australian
system no other proof can be made. That fact gives to the
most timid among dependent voters a sense of security
which makes him free. And to briber) - it is fatal. Bribers
are not likely to invest money on the faith of a bribed man's
naked assertion; if there be such a virtue as " honesty
among thieves," it is not acceptable security to the thieves
themselves.

But secrecy, though the primary remedy for briber)' and
intimidation, is not all that is required to purify elections,
nor the only remedy the Australian system offers.

HOW THE TICKETS ARE PRINTED.

The printing and distribution of ballots is a most im-
portant part of election machinery, and, left to private en-
terprise, inevitably tends, as docs the farming out of any
other public function, to breed corruption and build up
monopoly. It makes a necessity for UTesponsibte organi-
zations which come to wield autocratic power over tbi
itical party they claim to serve, and in turn, through
pline almost military In severity, arc dominated by an inner
circle of " leaders.' As ballots can neither be printed n«>r
distributed without money, and may not be faithfully
handled unless trusty workers are rewarded with more
an election day stipend, the organization undrrt.ikii' .
work lias ,1 plausible, if not reasonable, claim for 11
from its bem •ticiarios and official patronage for its retainers.

~7-<

"711

THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM.

50I

It is the necessity of raising these funds and employingthe
" workers " that justifies assessments, gives color of volun-
tary contributions to what in truth are sales of nominations,
excuses the submission of official patronage to the distribution
of the machine, provides ample cover for collecting a corrup-
tion fund, and, through "workers" at the polls, a convenient
channel for disbursing the fund in bribes. And as corrup-
tion funds increase, masked in increasing demands for legit-
imate expenses, assessments grow, the price of nomina-
tions rises, independence is shackled, and the organization
becomes more indifferent to party principle as its monopoly
of political power strengthens. Born of the necessity of
volunteer machinery for preparing and distributing ballots,"
it develops into a powerful instrument, which, in the hands
of political jobbers, enables them to buy and sell office " as
the Praetorians sold the Roman purple."

EXIT THE MACHINE.

The political monster would be destroyed by the
Australian system. If the State assumed its function
of providing ballots there would be no necessity for
"workers" at the
polls, and the ex-
cuse for raising,
as well as the
best mode of using,
corruption funds
would disappear.
Assessments could
not then be levied
upon candidates,
for when " work-
ers " at the polls
are not required ma-
chines can neither
serve nor injure.
Nor would nomi-
nations be sold ;
for when ca ndi-
dates stand upon an
equality in respect
to election machin-
ery, and there is
no opportunity for

bribing voters, organizations merely as organizations, have
nothing worth buying, while organizations as representatives
of principles can not be approached through commercial
channels. Trafficking in office would be replaced by political
discussion, the power of the machine by the voice of the
party.

SOME OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED.

To this system it is objected that by requiring nomina-
tions to be made in advance of elections it denies a consti-
tutional right of voters to select candidates from the whole
body of voters. From such eminent authorities as Judges
Cooley, McCrary and Folger, and the highest courts of
Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and New York, it may be
safely inferred that a restriction of the franchise to candi-
dates nominated a short time before election is a reason-
able regulation and not an unconstituional interference ;
but the inference is not necessary, since the system allows
each voter to reject all candidates and write new names
upon his ballot.

It is objected also that by requiring the blind and illiter-
ate to expose their vote to election officers, secrecy of the
ballot is, as to them, violated. Under our present system
voting is not secret. It was for that reason rejected by the
British Parliament and the Australian system adopted.
The object now is to secure secrecy, but in aiming at that
we are confronted with a class of voters to whom exposure

of their ballots to somebody is necessary, and an exception
must be made in their favor to prevent their disfranchise-
ment. What form, which shall be consistent with the
highest degree of secrecy, can that exception take? If
allowed to carry their ballots away these voters fall into
the hands of irresponsible and, perhaps, dishonest persons,
and may be made, innocently or otherwise, instruments for
perpetrating some form of the " Tasmanian dodge." If,
for their benefit, official ballots are generally circulated, all
efforts for secrecy are frustrated. And, if they are per-
mitted to take a " friend " into the booth, a door is opened
for the bribery of every venal voter, who is or can success-
fully pretend to be unable to read English. Exposure of
ballots must be prevented by every means t^iat ingenuity
can suggest, but, in exceptional cases, in which it can not
be avoided, it may most safely be confided to election
officers, who represent opposing parties, are under oath of
secrecy and fidelity, can be readily detected in malfeasance,
and, when detected, are liable to severe penalties. As to
blind voters, this seems to be the only course, but, respecting
the illiterate, any exception to the general rule may be avoid-
ed by identifying
the names on the
ballots with num-
bers or by printing
them with inks of
different colors.

ITS ADOPTION IN

THE UNITED

STATES.

The Australian
Ballot System was
practically intro-
duced into the
United States in
188S by its adop-
tion by law in the
State of Massachu-
setts and the city
of Louisville, Ky.
The principle of
the system was
embodied in the Saxton bill, which passed the New York
Legislature in the sessions of 18S8 and 1889, and was
vetoed both times on the ground of unconstitutionality.
A modification of the Saxton bill was introduced in the
Legislature in the session of 1889, but was not passed ;
another bill met with success in 1890, and was amended
in some particulars, without changing its general form,
in 1891. In 1889, following the example of Massachu-
setts, the Legislatures of Indiana, Montana, Rhode
Island,Wisconsin, Tennessee, Minnesota, Missouri, Michi-
gan and Connecticut passed laws adopting the system.
Most of the laws passed adhered closely to the Massa-
chusetts form. The Connecticut form varied from it
more than the others. In 1890 laws which are more or
less modifications of the Australian system were adopted
by Washington, New York, Maryland, New Jersey, Ver-
mont, Wyoming and Oklahoma. In 1891 Arkansas, Cal-
ifornia, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho. Illinois, Maine, Ne-
braska, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Ohio,
Oregon, South Dakota, West Virginia and Arizona
adopted laws based on the Australian system. The Au-
stralian rule of placing candidates' names on the ballot
in alphabetical order under the titles of offices prevails in
California, Massachusetts, Kentucky, Minnesota, Mon-
tana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island,
Tennessee, Vermont, Washington and Wyoming.

5=^

502

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

»■,»;,•*».», «;,«>?»*

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c^C\AI MfjJV

:*H

OF THE

1^ WDTsva^aP

&\^'?3$ff

•» V'<

Assignments, Attachments. Chattel Mortgages, Divorce, Exemptions, Rights of Married Women. Deeds and their Acknowledgment.
Wills and Mechanics' Liens. Illustrations: The Coats of Arms of the States.

<P*-

°>°o*o~{.>

-»-e>

ALABAMA.

CteSZSa52SaS2S25ESE53E35F--257I5Z5ES;

ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by statute, which forbids prefer-
ences or any provision for the release of the debtor. There is no
insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS may issue
upon affidavit of the creditor or
his agent that the defendant is
non- resident, has absconded, dis-
posed of, transferred, or attempt-
ed to remove his property out of
flie State, and garnishment pro-
ccss may be issued in aid of exe-
cution. Judgments do not con-
stitute li< us. Stay of execution
is allowed in justices' courts for
thirty to sixty days, but the only
way (o delay the collection of a
judgment of the Circuit Court is
by appeal, which requires a bond for double the amount, legal inter-
est, damages and cost of the appeal. Under the Constitution there can
be no imnrisonment for debt. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace
ia limited to $ioo.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded in the county where
the grantor resides, also where the property is; and if the property is
removed to a different county from the one in which the grantor re-
sides, must there be recorded within six months from the removal.

DEEDS may be acknowledged within the State before judges of a
court of record or their clerks, chancellors and registers in chancery,
yi a ' of tin: p are or notaries public. Out of the State and in the
United States, by the judges and clerks of any court of record in any
State, notaries public or commissioners appointed by the Governor,
Out >f the United States, by the judge of any court of record, mayor or
chi^f > Beer of any city, town, borough or county, notary public or any
di[>l> i uic. Tonsillar or commercial agent of the United States. The
wife may rolfnqnl -U her ri ;!it of dower by joining her husband in a
conveyance and acknowledging the relinquishment. The husband
mutt j-tm in conveyance of the wife's separate property. Neither seal
nor send! is necessary. One witness is required.

DIVORCE may be obtained for the following causes: Impotcncy,
ttdulterv, desertion for two years, lia'-it nil drunkenness, imprison-
ment for tWO vrurs an 1 continued cruelty. An allowance must be
made by the court, out of the husband's estate, lor the support of the
wife pending suit; also an allowance when the decree is made. The

custody of minor children may be giyen to either parent, in the dis-
cretion of the court.

EXEMPTIONS are as follows: A homestead not exceeding 160
acres of land, or a lot in a city, town or village, with a dwelling-
house thereon, not exceeding the value of $2,000. Personal property
to the value cf $i,coo. May be selected by the debtor. Waiver of
exemption is not valid unless joined in by the wife.

MARRIED WOMEN may bold all property,real and personal, ac-
quired before and aftermarriagc. as a separate estate not liable forthe
husband's debts, and it may be devised or bequeathed as by a single
woman, This separate estate is liable for debts contracted by the
woman before marriage, and for contracts after marriage for articles
of comfort and support of family. The wife is entitled to dower of
one-half of husband's real estate, if he leave no lineal descendants,
one-third if there - re any, provided she has no separate estate ; if her
separate estate is less than the dower interest would be, she is entitled
to as much as would make it equal. Women attain their legal ma-
jority at twenty-one, but may marry without consent of their parents
at eighteen.

MECHANICS' LIENS. The process of collecting on liens is by
attachment. Proceedings must be commenced within six months
after the work is finished. Mechanics, contractors and laborers have
a lien for work and labor done, or materials furnished; laborers and
other employes of railroad companies have a lien upon all the prop-
erty of the company for work done, and agricultural laborers have a
lien on the crops for their wages.

WILLS are recorded in the probate judge's office ; two witnesses are
required. All persons over twenty-one years of age can dispose of
real estate; all over eighteen, of personal property. Married women
may bequeath their separate estau-s. No nuncupative will can dis-
pose of more than five hundred dollars* worth of property.

ARIZONA.

ASSIGNMENTS. No insolvent or assignment law in this Territory.

ATTACHMENTS issue in actions upon contract for direct pay-
ment of money whore plaintiff has no security, or when defendant Is
a non-resident. The plaintiff must give bond. Jurisdiction of jus-
tices of the peace is limited to $300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. The statute specifies certain classes of
property on which mortgage can be placed. If mortgagee has pos-
B of property, recording U not necessary.

DEEDS may be acknowledged at any place in the Territory, before
a justice or clerk of the Supreme Court, or of any court of record, a

_^i

a. v
s

justice of the peace, the mayor of a city or a registrar of deeds. The
officer taking the acknowledgment must affix thereto his official seal.
All rights of dower and curtesy are abolished. The wife must be
examined apart from her husband to ascertain if she acts by her own
free will.

MARRIED WOMEN may carry on business and sue and be sued
tn their own names. All property acquired before marriage, and all
afterwards acquired, by gift, grant, devise or inheritance, is separate
estate, liable for her own, but not for her husband's debts. She may
control it and dispose of it in all respects like a, single woman.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Artisans, builders, mechanics, lumber mer-
chants, and all others performing labor or furnishing material for the
construction or repair of any building, have a lien upon the same for
the labor done or material furnished. Besides liens of the usual de-
scription, any mechanic or artisan who alters or repairs any article of
personal property has a lien thereon to secure his just charges, and
may retain possession until he is paid.

WILLS. The statute provides in great detail the manner in which
wills shall be executed. Testators, male or female, must be twenty-
one j'ears of age. Two witnesses are required. Nuncupative wills
cannot dispose of more than three hundred dollars* worth of property.
Married women may devise their separate estate.

ARKANSAS.

ASSIGNMENTS for the benefit of creditors maybe made with or
without preference. Bond must be given by assignee in double the

amount of property assigned, and
all property received under as-
signment must be sold at auction
within 120 days.

ATTACHMENTS may issue
in a civil action , at or after
commencement thereof, against
property, where defendant is a
non-resident of the State, or a
foreign corporation, or has been
absent four months from the State,
or has departed from it with in-
tent to defraud his creditors, or
has left the county of his resi-
dence to avoid service of a summons, or conceals himself so that a
summons cannot be served upon him, or has transferred, sold, con-
veyed or removed his property out of the State, or is about to sell, re-
move or dispose of the same with fraudulent intent. Under a written
attachment debts due the defendant may be garnisheed. Plaintiff
must give bond with sureties to pay all damages defendant may sus-
tain if th'c action is wrongly maintained. Jurisdiction of justices of
the peace is limited to $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be proved as other mortgages.
They may be filed and not recorded, at the option of the mortgagee,
and are liens from time of filing. Before sale under mortgage, the
property must be appraised, and must bring two-thirds of the ap-
praised value, or it is reserved from sale sixty days. At second offer-
ing it is sold for what it will bring.

DEEDS must be acknowledged before a iudge or clerk of the
Supreme or Circuit Court, judge of County Court, justice of the peace
or notary public. Two witnesses are required. No scroll or seal need
be used. When husband and wife convey the lands of the husband,
the certificate must show that the wife acknowledged the relinquish-
ment.

DIVORCE maybe granted for impotency, bigamy, adultery, con-
viction of felony, habitual drunkenness, wilful desertion for one year,
cruel and barbarous treatment. Plaintiff must reside in the State one
year before bringing suit. Court may allow alimony to the wife.

EXEMPTIONS. The homestead of a married person or head of a
family in the country, not exceeding 160 acres, with improvements,
not to exceed $2,500. Personal property of married person, $500 be-

sides wearing apparel, and of a person unmarried, $200 and wearing
apparel.

MARRIED WOMEN have absolute and unqualified right in prop-
erty of every kind and are not liable for debts or contracts of the
husband. But a schedule under oath, and verified by some other
reputable person, must be made by the husband and wife, and filed in
the recorder's office of the county where the property is, and of the
county where they reside. The wife may control her property, may
carry on business on her sole and separate account, may sue and be
sued, may make a will and may insure her husband's life for her ben-
efit. The widow is entitled to one-third part of the estate, unless
legally relinquished by her.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Laborers have a lien on the product of
their' labor; builde-s and mechanics, on all buildings for which they
have furnished work, labor or materials. The original contractor
must file his lien with the circuit clerk within three months after all
the work shall have been done or the material furnished.

WILLS are recorded in the Probate Court of the county in which
most of the bequeathed land is situated ; but if only personal property*
then in the county where the testator died. All over twenty-one
years may devise real estate; all over eighteen, personal property.
Three witnesses are required. Married women may devise their sep-
arate property.

CALIFORNIA.

ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law by which a debtor surrender-
ing his property may receive a discharge from his debts. No
preferences permitted. No dis-
charge in case of fraud, nor from
debts due as a depositary of funds
received as banker, broker or
commission merchant. Assign-
ments are not allowed unless un-
der this law.

ATTACHMENT issues in an
action upon a contract for the
direct payment of money, where
the contract is made or is pay-
able in this State, and is not se-
cured by any mortgage or lien
upon real or personal property,
or any pledge of personal property ; or, if originally so secured, such
security has, without any act of the plaintiff, become valueless. Gar-
nishee process can be had in all cases where property is liable to
attachment. J urisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES, to be valid against third parties, must
show the residence and trade of the mortgageor and mortgagee, the
rate of interest charged and when and where it is payable, and mort-
gageor and mortgagee must each make affidavit that the mortgage is
boTtaJide and made without design to defraud or delay creditors.

DEEDS may be acknowledged within the Stute before any judge
or clerk of a court of record, recorder, justice of the peace or notary
public. Without the State, before any judicial officer, commissioner
or notary. Husband or wife can convey separate property without
the other joining, but both must join when the property is In common.
A conveyance by a married woman has no validity until acknowl-
edged. Deeds are known as grants, and need not be under seal.
Two witnesses are required.

DIVORCES are granted for adultery, extreme cruelty, conviction of
felony, wilful desertion, neglect or habitual intemperance continued
for one year. No divorce can be granted by default.

EXEMPTIONS. The homestead on which debtor resides, to the
value of $5,000, if he is the head of a family; if not, to the value of
$1,000. Personal property exempt includes chairs, tables, desks and
hooks, $200; necessary household and kitchen furniture, sewing-ma-
chines, st:»ves, beds, etc. ; provisions for family forthree months, three
cows, four hogs, two horses, oxen or mules; seed, grain and vege-
tables for sowing, not above $200 in value ; tools and implements of

5°4

SPECIAL LAWS OF THK STATICS AND TKKKITOKIES.

' *

a mechanic or artisan; instruments of a physician, surgeon or den-
tist; professional library of attorney, minister, editor or teacher; a
miner's cabin, not exceeding $500 of value, with all tools and gear
necessary for bis business, not exceeding $500. Two horses or mules
with harness, and the miner's claim worked by him, and not exceed-
ing $1,000 in value, are also exempt.

MARRIED 'WOMEN. AH property acquired in any manner before
marriage, or afterwards by gift, grant, inheritance or devise, is wife's
separate property, controlled by her and not liable for debts of the
husband. The husband's property similarly acquired is not liable for
debts of the wife. All property acquired after marriage by husband
or wife, except as above, shall be common property, but under the
husband's control. Dower and curtesy arc abolished, but the sur-
vivor takes half the common property after payment of debts and
expenses of administration. A married woman may dispose of her
separate estate by will without the consent of her husband and may
Insure her husband's life for her benefit.

MECHANICS* LIENS. Mechanics, laborers and material-men
have a lien on buildings for work done or materials furnished. An
original contractor may file his claim within sixty days ; others, within
thirty day*. Suit must be brought within ninety days from the date
of filing the claim. A lien has precedence over any subsequent or
previous unrecorded encumbrance.

WILLS. Real or personal property may be disposed of by will by
all persons over eighteen years of age. Two witnesses are required.
Married women may dispose of their separate property without con-
sent of their husbands. Nuncupative wills not exceeding $1,000 are
valid, but must be reduced to writing within thirty days.

COLORADO.

ASSIGNMENTS. There is no insolvent or assignment law.
ATTACHMENTS. Where defendant is a non-resident or a foreign

corporation, evades service or at-
tempts to remove his goods with
intent to defraud, plaintiff m;iv
obtain a writ of attachment by
making affidavit and giving suf-
ficient bond. Garnishee process
will issue in aid of attachment
where sufficient property to sat«
isfy the same is not found. No
civil action can be begun by ar-
rest, except in cases where mal-
ice, fraud or wilful deceit is
shown, when execution may issue
against defendant's body, and he
may be imprisoned not exceed-
ing one year, or until the judgment is satisfied. Jurisdiction of
Of the pMCfl [l limited to $300.
CHATTEL MORTGAGES, to be valid as to third parties, must
be acknowledged before a justice of the peace or notary public in the
district where grantor lives, unless possession of the chattels actually
passes. If the mortgageor retain possession the mortgage must ex-
pressly provide for such possession ; otherwise it is void. Mortgage
maybe given for a term of two years, and after default mortgagee
must take possession without delay, or his lien will be void as to third
parties.

DEEDS may be acknowledged before any justice, clerk or deputy
clerk of the Supreme or District courts, county judge, county clerk or
n-< order, justice of the peace or notary public. Outside of the State,
before the Secretary of any State under the seal of the Stud, any
authorized officer in any State or Territory or any commissioner of
deeds. Witnesses are not necessary, but arc desirable. A seal is re-
<] iiirt td| but a scroll will answer,

DIVORCES may be granted for adultery, impotency, bigamy, wil-
ful desertion for one year, habitual drunkenness for two years,
cmivmii' .riirllv or conviction for felony or infamous crime. One
year's residence in the State is required before bringing suit, except

where the offence was committed in the State or while one or both of
the parties resided there.

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead consisting of house snd lot in town
or city, or a farm of any number of acres, in value not exceeding
$2,000, is exempt if occupied by a householder and head of a family,
provided it has been entered on record as a homestead and so speci-
fied in the title. Personal property, including wearing apparel of the
debtor and his family, pictures, school books, library, etc., And house-
hold furniture, not exceeding $100; provisions for six months, tools,
implements or stock in trade, $200; one cow and calf, ten sheep and
necessary food for six months; working animals up to $xx>; the
library and implements of a professional man up to $300. The head
of a family may select personal property to the value of $1,000; others,
to the value of $300.

MARRIED WOMEN are treated, in all respects, as to their prop-
erty rights, as if they were single. A wife may carry on trade or
business, sue or be sued, contract debts, transfer real estate, and in
all ways bind her separate property, without the husband's joining.
She may make a will, but cannot bequeath more than half her prop-
erty away from her husband without his consent in writing. The
husband cannot by will deprive his wife of over one-half of his
property. Dower is abolished. The husband is liable for debts of the
wife contracted before marriage to the extent of the property he may
receive through her, but no further.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person furnishing materials or doing
labor to the amount of more than $25 on any building may hold a Hen
thereon. The principal contractor must file his lien within forty days,
and sub -con tractor within twenty days. Suit must be brought within
six months.

WILLS. To devise real property, the testator, if male, must be
twenty-one; if female, eighteen years of age. Either may bequeath
personal property at .seventeen years of age. Two witnesses are re*
quired. Neither husband nor wife can deprive the other of more
than one-half the property by will, except the wife receive written
consent of the husband allowing her to do so.

CONNECTICUT.

ASSIGNMENTS. In cases of insolvency, the Probate Court may
appoint a trustee, on motion of a judgment-creditor for over $100,
when no property can be found
to attach. On the hearing which
follows, the petition may be
granted, and the trustee takes
posseasion of all property not ex-
empt. An allowance is made to
the debtor for the support of his
famil T ', and if the estate will pay
seventy per cent he receives a
full discharge. The debtor's
property is exempt for two years
from legal process upon debt*
Which might have bom 1
Voluntary assignments 1
made by a debtor to a trustee
chosen by himself, but the court of probate may substitute another.

ATTACHMENTS. In cases of fraud or judgment for damages for
misconduct or ni-^ln t, dl W tnlant maybe arrested, and may give bail
to the person making the arrest. Goods concealed in the hands of
agents, or money due the judgment-debtor, may be reached by foreign
attachment; and no assignment of future earnings, unless recorded
within forty-eight hours, will prevent their attachment when due.
Where goods and lands cannot be found, the person of a defendant
may be attached. J urUdktiou of justices of the peace limited to $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded like deeds of real es-
tate. A chattel mortgage of property not perishable in its nature is
good although the grantor retains possession. Property exempt
from execution is also a proper subject for a chattel mortgage.

•X — -

DEEDS must be in writing; and under seal, a scroll being sufficient.
Two witnesses are required. Acknowledgment in the State is made
before a judge <>f ;i court of record, justice of the peace, notary public,
town clerk, commissioner of the Superior Court or commissioner of
the school fund. The wife need not be privately examined apart
from her husband. She must join with her husband in conveyance of
her separate real estate, but the husband conveys his property without
her signature. Dower attaches only to the separate real estate of the
husband at his death.

DIVORCE. Absolute divorce may be granted by the Superior Court
for adultery, fraud, duress or force in obtaining the marriage, wilful
desertion for three years, seven years' absence without being heard of,
habitual intemperance, intolerable cruelty, sentence to imprisonment
for life, the commission of any crime punishable by imprisonment in
the State penitentiary and any such misconduct as permanently de-
stroys the happiness of the petitioner and defeats the purposes of the
marriage relation. Three years' residence in the State is necessary
before filing a petition. Either party may marry again after divorce,
and the court may change the wife's name and make order for alimony
and custody of children.

EXEMPTIONS. There is no homestead exemption. Personal
property is"exempt as follows: Libraries not above $500 in value; a
cow worth $150; ten sheep, not over $50 in value; two hogs, and 200
pounds of pork. Implements of trade, the horse, harness and buggy
of a practicing physician, and the boat, not exceeding $200 in .aim-,
of a person engaged in fishing, and used for that purpose, are also
exempt.

MARRIED WOMEN. Previous to the year 1877, the husband ac-
quired a right to the use of all the real estate of the wife during her
life, and if he had a child by her and survived her, then during his own
life as tenant by curtesy. By the act of May 20th, 1877, the rights of
married women are materially enlarged. Any woman married after
that date retains her real estate as if unmarried. She may make con-
tracts, convey real estate and sue or be sued in regard to any property
owned by her at the time of marriage, or afterwards acquired. The
estate is liable for her debts, and, jointly with her husband, for debts
contracted for joint benefit of both or household expenses. The sepa-
rate earnings of a wife are her sole property. Dower exists only in
real estate of which the husband is possessed at the time of his decease.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person furnishing materials or rend-
ering services exceeding $25, in the construction or repair of any
building or railroad, may have a lien on such building and land upon
which it stands, or upon the railroad ; provided that no such lien shall
attacli to any estate not owned by the party against whom such claim
exists. A certified claim must be lodged within sixty days, and the
premises may be foreclosed as in the case of a mortgage. A person
wishing to obtain such lien shall hie with the town clerk a certificate
in writing describing the premises, the amount of the claim and the
date of the commencement. Vessels are subject to a lien for work
or materials furnished exceeding $20 in amount, claim to be filed within
ten days of the completion of the work. Liens for mariners' wages
have precedence.

WILLS must be in writing, signed by the testator and attested by
three witnesses in his presence and in presence of each other. All
persons over eighteen years of a^e can bequeath both real and per-
sonal property. Wills are recorde \ in the Probate Court, and ten years
are allowed to probate a will after tfie death of the testator.

NORTH AND SOUTH DAKOTA.

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences are allowed, but are not valid
against any creditor not assenting thereto, if they tend to coerce the
creditor to release his claim, or provide for payment of fraudulent
claim, or reserve any benefit to assignor or confer any power on
assignee which may delay the conversion of the assigned property or
exempt the assignee from liability for neglect of duty. No insolvent
law is in force.

ATTACHMENTS may issue on plaintiff's giving bond when de-
fendant is a non-resident, absconds, conceals or conveys property to
defraud creditors. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to
jjuoo in North Dakota, and to $joo in South Dakota.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES are void unless the original or an
authenticated copy be deposited with the register of deeds in the
county in which the mortgaged property, or any part of it, at such
time is situated. Mortgage must be signed by mortgageor in the pres-
ence of two persons, as witnesses thereto, and no other proof or,
acknowledgment is necessary. A chattel mortgage can be created,
renewed or extended only by a writing subscribed by the mortgageor,
and must be renewed every three years.

DEEDS must be in writing, duly signed by the maker, and re-
corded with the register of deeds of the county in which the properly is
situated. Acknowledgment may be made within the State before
a justice or clerk of the Supreme Court or of any court of record, a
justice of the peace, the mayor of a city, or a register of deeds. The
officer taking the acknowledgment affixes thereto his official seal.
Outside of the State, before a justice, judge or clerk of any court
of record of the United States or of any State or Territory, a notary
public, or any other officer authorized by law to take such proof or
acknowledgment. Outside of the United States, by the represen-
tative thereof or of the country where proof is taken No certifi-
cate of the official character of the officer is needed when acknowl-
edgment is taken out of the State. Conveyance by a married woman
has no validity until acknowledged. Dower and curtesy are un-
known, and the wife need not join in conveying property of the hus-
band, nor the husband in conveyance of land belonging to the wife,
except in case of homesteads, when both must concur in and sign the
same joint instrument, provided the owner is married and both hus-
band and wife are residents of the State.

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead consisting of not more than 16b
acres, with buildings and appurtenances thereon, and personal prop-
erty defined by statute, aggregating in value not to exceed $1,500, is
exempted to a householder. A firm can claim but one exemption,
not a several exemption for each partner. Tools and implements
of a mechanic to the value of $200, books and Instruments of
a professional man to the value of $600, are also exempt from
seizure.

MARRIED WOMEN may transact business in all respect- the
same as if unmarried. Neither husband nor wife has any interest in
the separate estate of the other. The earnings and accumulations of
the wife are her separate property and not liable for the husband's
debts nor even for household debts contracted by her as her husband's
agent. Her separate property is, however, liable for her own debts,
contracted before nr after marriage, if such debts are contracted on
her own responsibility,

MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics, laborers or material • men
who shall perform labor upon, or furnish materials, machinerv or
fixtures for, any building or other improvement, shall have for such
labor performed, or materials, machinery or fixtures furnished, a lien
upon such building or improvement, also upon the land upon which it
is situate. The receiving of collateral security on the same contract
will invalidate the lien.

WILLS. Both real and personal property may be disposed of by
will by all persons above eighteen years of age. Two witnesses are
required, and wills the body of which is in the testator's handwriting,
and signed and dated by him, need not be attested. Married women
may dispose of their separate property without consent of their hus-
bands, A will made by an unmarried woman is revoked by her mar-
riage and not revived by the death of her husband.

DELAWARE.

ASSIGNMENTS must be made for the benefit of all creditors
alike. Voluntary assignments are governed by the common law. ex-

So6

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

cept that a special partnership
may not give preferences. The
assignee must file within thirty
days a schedule of property as-
signed, and two appraisers are
then appointed by the chancellor.
A domestic insolvent law is in
existence, providing for a full
surrender and equal distribution
of all property, but it is seldom
used, and no provision is made
for the discharge of the debtor
upon his making an assignment.
ATTACHMENT may issue in
domestic cases when the debtor cannot be found, when defendant
has fraudulently left the State, etc., and against foreign corporations
or non-residents of the State. In both cases an affidavit setting forth
the above facts must be given by the creditor or some responsible
person in his stead. A capias may not be issued against the body of
any debtor until an execution against his goods has been returned
unsatisfied. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES are a valid lien for three years when
recorded within ten days after acknowledgment. The lien of a pur-
chase-money mortgage recorded within sixty days after it is made
has preference over any judgment against the mortgageor or other un-
known lien of a prior date. Foreclosure is made by order of the
court; no equity of redemption.

DEEDS must be recorded in the county in which the land lies
within one year after the sealing or delivery thereof. A scroll answers
for a seal, and one witness is sufficient. Acknowledgments may be
made before any judge or clerk of record, justice of the peace or
notary public. Outside of the State, the same as in Alabama. The
wife must relinquish her right of dower, must be separately ex-
amined, and the examination certified.

DIVORCE may be granted by the Superior Court for adultery, im-
potency at the time of marriage, habitual drunkenness, extreme
cruelty, desertion for three years or conviction of crime sufficient to
constitute a felony. In the case of marriage by fraud or for want of
age, the wife being less than sixteen, the husband being less than
eighteen, at the time of marriage, absolute divorce or divorce from bed
and board may be granted, at the discretion of the court. The wife
receives all her real estate and such other allowance and alimony as
the court may decree where the husband is proved to be in fault.
Wilful neglect of the husband to provide the necessities of life also
forms sufficient grounds for divorce.

EXEMPTIONS. Family pictures, family Bible and library ; lot in
burial-ground and pew in church ; family wearing apparel and tools
and implements necessary to carry on business, the whole not exceed-
ing $75 in value, arc exempt from attachment. In addition to the above
the head of a family may claim $200 of personal property. In New-
castle county wages of laborers are also exempt. No homestead law.

MARRIED WOMEN, married since 1873, retain all real and per-
sonal property held at marriage, or since acquired from any person
other than the husband, as their separate estate, and not subject to
the disposal of the husband or liable for his debts. They may receive
wages for personal labor, sue or be sued in respect to their own prop-
erty as if unmarried ; and the rents, issues and profits of their separate
estate are not controlled by the husband. The widow is entitled to
one-third dower of all the lands and tenements whereof her husband
was seized at any time during her marriage, unless she shall have re-
linquished such right for and during the term of her natural life. She
may be an administratrix, and the husband's life may be insured for
her benefit if premium docs not exceed $150.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person who has furnished material
or performed labor to an amount exceeding $25 may obtain a Hen upon
the building or structure for which such labor was given or such ma-
terial furnished. Claims raiiat be filed within ninety days, and con-

tractors must file a statement within thirty days after the expiration of
ninety days from completion of the building.

WILLS must be in writing, signed by the testator, and two wit-
nesses are required. Any person, male or female, twenty-one years
of age, and of sound mind, may dispose of real or personal property.
Married women, in order to dispose of their property by will, must
obtain the written consent of their husband, signed, sealed and
attested by two witnesses.

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

ASSIGNMENTS. No assignment or insolvent law is in force, ex-
cept that assignments of the property of a special partnership with
preferences are not valid.

ATTACHMENTS may issue by plaintiff giving bond when the de-
fendant is a non-resident, or removes, or is about to remove bis prop-
erty, etc,

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within twenty days
after execution. In case of bills of sale, deeds of trust, or other prop-
erty which is exempt from execution, the mortgage must be signed by
wife of grantor.

DEEDS may be acknowledged before any justice or court of record
and of law, any chancellor of State, any judge of Supreme, Circuit,
District or Territorial Court, any justice of the peace, notary public or
commissioner of the Circuit Court of the district appointed for that
purpose. The officer must annex to the deed a certificate under his
hand and seal. Acknowledgments outside of the District roust be
accompanied by certificate of the register, clerk or other public officer,
under his official seal, that the officer was what he purported to be
at the time of the acknowledgment. Deeds made outside of the
United Stales may be executed and acknowledged before any judge or
chancellor of any court, master in chancery or notary public, or any
secretary of legation or consular officer of the United States.

EXEMPTIONS. Family wearing apparel; household furniture to
the amount of $300; provisions and fuel for three months ; tools or in-
struments necessary to carry on any trade, to the value of %ioa; library
and implements of a professional man or artist not above $300;
family pictures and library to the value of $400, and a fanner's team
and other utensils to the value of $100, are exempt from attachment or
sale on execution, except for servants' or laborer*' wages. There is
no homestead exemption.

MARRIED WOMEN may bequeath, devise or convey property or
interest therein in the same manner as if unmarried. Real or per-
sonal property belonging to the wife at marriage or afterwards ac-
quired is separate estate. She may sue and be sued in all matters
pertaining to her property, and the husband is not liable for any con-
tracts made by her in respect to her personal estate.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Any mechanic or laborer or material-man
who shall perform labor or furnish materials for the construction or re-
pair of any building, shall have a lien upon such building, and the land
upon which the same is situated, for such labor done or material fur-
nished, when the amount exceeds $jo. Claims must be filed with the
clerk of the Supreme Court of the District within sixty days after the
work is completed.

WILLS. To dispose of real estate or personal property by will,
males must be twenty-one, and females eighteen years of age, must be
of sound mind and capable of making a deed or contract. Three wit-
nesses are required. Married women may bequeath their m
estate. Wills are recorded in the registry of wills.

FLORIDA.

ASSIGNMENTS. As no insolvent or assignment laws are in exist-
ence In this State, debtors may assign their property with or without
preference.

V-

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

5°7

ATTACHMENT may issue by
plaintiff giving bond with two se-
curities in at least double the
debtor sum demanded. Adffia-
vit must be made setting forth the
amount actually due; that de-
fendant is a non-resident, and
that plaintiff has good reason to
believe he is about to part with
his property fraudulently before
judgment can be obtained, or
intends to remove from the State,
or to fraudulently secrete his
property, etc. No arrest is al-
lowed in civil actions, and no imprisonment for debt except in case
of fraud. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace limited to $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, unless property is
delivered within twenty days and remains in the possession of the
mortgagee. Unless the mortgaged property be delivered at the time
of execution of the mortgage, or within the twenty days, and unless
such mortgage shall be recorded in the office of record for the county
in which the mortgaged property shall be at the time of said execu-
tion, the mortgage becomes ineffectual and invalid. Foreclosure is
made by bill in equity or petit. on to the Circuit Court of the county in
which the property lies.

DEEDS may be acknowledged before any judge, justice of the
peace or notary public, or before the clerk of a Circuit Court. If exe-
cuted in another State, or foreign country, they may be acknowledged
the same way as in Alabama. Deeds must be in writing, sealed and
delivered in the presence of two witnesses, and must be recorded
within six months after the sealing and delivery of the instrument. A
scroll is sufficient for a seal.

DIVORCE. Applicants for divorce must have resided two years
within the State. Absolute divorces may be granted only by the Cir-
cuit Courts. Adultery, impotency, bigamy, extreme cruelty, habitual
intemperance or desertion for one year are sufficient causes. Alimony
may be granted to the wife by the courts, and provision for a division
of property when a decree is granted.

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead of 160 acres of land, together with
improvements, in the country, or a residence and one-half acre of
ground in a village or city, is exempted to the head of a family. Also
personal property to the value of $1,000. No property is exempt from
sale for taxes or for obligations contracted for its purchase or for the
erection of improvements thereon. The wages of every laborer who
is the head of a family are also exempt under any process of law.

MARRIED WOMEN retain all real or personal property owned
at marriage or acquired thereafter, and are not liable for the husban d's
debts. In order that it shall be free from his debts, the property
must be inventoried and recorded within six months after mar-
riage or subsequent acquirement of the property. The wife may
sell and convey all real estate inherited by her the same as if
she were unmarried; but her husband must join in all sales,
transfers and conveyances of her property, both real and per-
sonal. She is entitled to dower in a life estate in one-third of all the
real estate of which her husband was seized and possessed at his
death or at anytime during his life, unless she has relinquished the
same; also an absolute one-third of his personalty.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics and laborers have a lien upon
a building for which they have furnished labor and materials, and upon
the owner's interest in the lot on which the building stands. Claims
must be filed within six months after the work is done or materials
furnished, and suit be brought within one year. Agricultural laborers
have a lien on the crops cultivated by them to the amount of their
wages, and laborers and contractors have a prior lien on logs, lumber,
etc., for their labor in cutting or manufacturing the same into boards,
laths or shingles. Machinery furnished for any mill, distillery or
manufactory obtains a lien to the extent of the interest of the tenant
or contractor.

WILLS. Any person twenty-one years of age and of sound mind
may dispose of real or personal property. Three witnesses are required.
Nuncupative wills must be proved by three witnesses who were pres-
ent when it was made,, and such will may be reduced to writing and
sworn to within six days.

GEORGIA.

ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by a statute which permits prefer-
ences, except by special partnership, but every assignment made by
a debtor insolvent at the time,
either in trust or in behalf of a
creditor, is fraudulent and null
and void when any trust or bene-
fit is reserved to the assignor, or
any person for him. There is no
insolvent law and no imprison*
ment for debt.

ATTACHMENTS may issue
by plaintiff filing bond in double
the amount involved, when de-
fendant is a non-resident, is
about to remove without the lim-
its of the county, absconds, con-
ceals himself, or resists legal arrest, attempts to remove property be-
yond the State, or fraudulently disposes of property, or threatens or
prepares so to do, or creates a fraudulent lien thereon. First attach-
ment levied has priority. Garnishment issues in aid of attachment or
judgment, but wages of journeymen, mechanics and laborers are
exempt from garnishment. Jurisdiction of justice of the peace is
limited to $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within thirty days in
the county where the mortgageor resides ; and if the property is situ-
ated in anothercounty.it should be recorded there also. Foreclos-
ure by affidavit before justice, notary, or, if non-resident, before
commissioner for the State.

DEEDS must be attested by two witnesses, and if not recorded
within one year the deed loses priority over a subsequent deed re-
corded within the year. A deed roust be in writing, under seal (a
scroll will answer), and made for a consideration. Acknowledgments
within the State may be taken by a judge or clerk of a court of record,
commissioner of deeds, justice of the peace or notary public. In
other States or Territories, by a commissioner of deeds for Georgia,
or judge of court of record in the State where executed, with a certi-
ficate of the clerk under the seal of such court of the genuineness of
the signature of such judge.

DIVORCE. Grounds for total divorce are as follows: Marriage
within the prohibited degrees of affinity or consanguinity ; mental or
physical incapacity at the time of marriage; force, menace, duress or
fraud in obtaining it; adultery, wilful desertion by either party for
three years, cruel treatment by, or habitual intoxication of either
party, or sentence to the penitentiary for two years or over for any
offence involving moral turpitude. No total divorce may be granted
except by the concurrent verdict of two juries, rendered at different
times of court; and when a divorce is granted, the jury rendering the
final verdict determines the rights and disabilities of the parties.

EXEMPTIONS. Each head of a family, or guardian, or trustee of
a family of minor children, and every aged or infirm person, or per-
son having the care and support of dependent females of any age,
who is not the head of a family, is entitled to realty or personalty, or
both, to the value in the aggregate of $1,600. Said property shall be
exempt from levy and sale by virtue of any process whatever, under
the laws of this State, except for taxes, purchase -money of the home-
stead, labor done thereon, or material furnished therefor, or for the
removal of encumbrances.

MARRIED WOMEN retain as a separate estate all property in
their possession at the time of marriage, or afterwards acquired and
are not liable for any debts, defaults or contracts of the husband. By

:«F

5 o8

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

consent of her husband advertised for four weeks she may become a
free trader, In which event .s.!ie is liable the same as if unmarried.
The wife may not bind her estate by any contract of suretyship, either
in behalf of her husband or any other person. The widow takes
dower in one-third of all the lands of which her husband was seized
at his death; and wife and children, after the husband's death, arc
entitled to one year's support from his property, all other claims yield-
ing to this.

MECHANICS* LIENS. Mechanics, not having taken personal
security, have a prior lien on the property built or repaired by them,
which lien attaches, without regard to the title, in said property. The
claimant must have substantially complied with his contract, must
have recorded his lien within three months in the clerk's office of the
county in which the property is situated, and must bring- suit within
one year after it becomes due. Those furnishing machinery, or labor
for its repair, officers and employes of steamers or other water craft,
millwrights, and builders of railroads, have a like lien if similarly en-
forced. Landlords have a special lien for rent on crops, which is
superior to the homestead exemption law, and to all other liens
except for taxes.

WILLS may be made by persons of either sex who have arrived
at the age of twenty-one years. Three witnesses are required. Wills
are recorded in the Ordinary's Court. Married women may bequeath
their separate estate.

IDAHO.

ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law exists, under which the debtor
is discharged upon making an assignment, as therein provided, except
in cases of fraud.

ATTACHMENTS may issue in actions upon contract for the direct
payment of money, when the plaintiff has no lien or security, or when
the defendant is a non-resident, etc. Jurisdiction of justices of the
peace is limited to $300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded in the county where
the debtor resides ; otherwise they ure null and void as regards credit-
ors and purchasers. Record should also be filed in the county where
the goods may be. Affidavit must be made as to good faith, and no
intention to defraud creditors.

DEEDS must be acknowledged the same as in Dakota; they must
be in writing, signed and scaled (scroll will do), and no witnesses are
required. Dower and curtesy are unknown. The husband must join
in conveying the realty of the wife, who must be examined privatelv,
certifying that the act 13 free and voluntary, without fear or compul-
sion, or influence of the husband, and that she does not desire to re-
tract the execution of the same.

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead worth $5,000 is exempted to a house-
holder who is head of a family ; either husband or wife may select the
homestead. Personal property is also exempted to the value of $300.
Exemption does not extend to purchase* money or to mortgages on the

property.

MARRIED WOMEN. All property, both real and personal, owned
at marriage or afterwards acquired, by either wife or husband, re-
mains a separate estate. All property acquired after marriage is held
in common. Separate property of the wife should be inventoried with
the county recorder; the husband has control of it during marriage,
but cannot create a lien or encumbrance unless joined by the wife,
>vhu i I uciunlned ••'■paruiely. If the husband mismanages, or commits
tba District Court may, on application of wife, appoint a trustee
to manage her separate property. Upon the death of husband or wife
half the common property goes to survivor; if no direct descendants,
all goes to survivor.

MECHANICS' LIENS. The Improvement and development of
mines, claims, flumes, bridges and ditches come under the law of me-
chanicV liens. Claims must not be less than $35. Original contractor
must file his claim within sixty days ; others within thirty. The lien |

\M' &

expires after one year unless suit is brought, and continues in force
two years and no longer. Mechanics or artisans have a lien on arti-
cles left with them to repair or alter, and may sell them within two
months unless charges are paid, provided the sale be advertised for
three weeks.

WILLS. At twenty-one years of age testator may dispose of realty,
and at eighteen of personal property; two witnesses are required.
Married women may dispose of their separate estate, both real and
personal. Husband must leave wife one-half of common property.
The will must first be recorded in the Probate Court, afterwards in all
counties where any realty is conveyed by the will.

ILLINOIS.

ASSIGNMENTS are made without preference, and all debts must
be paid / *v rata. While no provision is made for the discharge of the

debtor, yet all proceedings may
be discontinued with the assent of
the debtor and a majority of the
creditors in number and amount.
The County Court has jurisdic-
tion in all cases of assignment
for benefit of creditors. Assignee
must file bond, inventory and
valuation, and send notice to
creditors, who must present their
claims under oath within three
months. Claims not so presented
do not share in dividends until
after the payment of all claims
properly presented and allowed.
Assignee is required to make legal division among creditors at the
Ant term of court after the three months allowed, and to render final
account within one year. No insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS may issue by plaintiff giving bond with approved
security, in double the amount of the claim. Plaintiff must also make
affidavit to one or more of the following facts: That the debtor Is
non-resident, conceals himself, resists process being served on him,
has departed from the State or is about to do so, with the intention of
removing his effects ; or has, within two years preceding, fraudulently
disposed of his property, or a part thereof, so as to hinder or delay
creditors; or where the debt sued on was fraudulently contracted.
Writs may issue from courts of record on claims exceeding $», from
justices' courts not exceeding $200, and in county courts claims may
not exceed $1,000. The wages of any person who is head of a family
are exempt from garnishment to the amount of 550. Jurisdiction of
justices of the peace is limited to $joo.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES should be properly acknowledged and
recorded, although as between the parties themselves this is not neces-
sary. Property must be fully described so it may be identified. They
are invalid as to third parties if given fur longer than two years, or if
the property mortgaged is allowed to remain in poaseasion of the mort*
gageor, unless expressly provided for in the mortgage. A mortgage
given on a stock of goods is fraudulent as to third parties, if the mort-
gageor be allowed to remain in possession of the goods.

DEEDS may be acknowledged before a master in chancer)*, notary
public, United States commissioner, circuit or county clerk, justice
of the peace, any court of record having a seal, or any judge, clerk or
justice of any such court. Outside of the State and in the United
States, In c»nformity with the laws of the State, Territory or District
where made. The officer must be authenticated by the certificate of
the county clerk or clerk of record under his official seal. If before
a justice of the peace, it must be certified by the proper clerk, under
the seal of bis office, that the person before whom the acknowledg-
ment was made was a justice of the peace at the time of making the
same. No deed will waive homestead right, unless expressly stated,
both in the deed and certificate of acknowledgment A scroll answers
for a seal, and no witnesses are required.

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

5°9

DIVORCE may be granted, where complainant has been a resident
of the State for one year, for impotency, bigamy, adultery, desertion
or drunkenness for two years, attempt upon the life of the other by
poison or other means showing malice, extreme cruelty, conviction of
felony or other infamous crime. If no defence is interposed, decree
may be granted on testimony of complainant alone ; but examination of
witnesses must be had in open court, and the judge is required to be
satisfied that all proper means have been taken to notify defendant.
When decree is granted the court may restore the wife's maiden name.
During pendency of suit the court may require the husband to pay
such sum as may enable the wife to maintain or defend the suit, and
alimony, when declared just and equitable.

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead valued at $i, coo is exempted to every
householder who has a family ; such exemption not covering liabilities
for purchase-money or improvementof the homestead. After the death
of a householder his family are entitled to the exemption so long as
the survivor occupies it, or until the youngest child is twenty-one years
of age. There are also exempted to every person wearing apparel,
school books, family pictures and family Bible, and $100 worth of
other property selected by the debtor. In addition to this, $300 worth
may be selected by the debtor if a head of a family ; but such selection
cannot be made from any money or wages due; no exemption is
allowed when the debt is for the wages of laborer or servant; $50
of wages is exempt to every head of a family if residing with the
same.

MARRIED WOMEN may own in their own right realty and per-
sonalty, may sue and be sued, contract and incur liabilities, the same
as if unmarried ; but they may not enter into or carry on any partner-
ship business without consent of the husband, unless abandoned by
him or he is incapable of giving assent. Beyond the necessaries, the
husband is not liable for debts of the wife, except in cases where he
would be jointly liable if the marriage did not exist. The estate of
both is liable for family expenses, but the wife's separate earnings are
her own. A surviving wife or husband takes one-third of all the
realty of the deceased, unless relinquished in due form. The husband
and wife are put upon the same footing as to dower, and the estate
of curtesy is abolished.

MECHANICS* LIENS. Any person who shall, as principal con-
tractor, by contract, express or implied, with the owner of any lot
or piece of land, furnish labor, material or services, in building,
altering, repairing or ornamenting any house or building on said
lot, shall have a lien upon the lot or building for the amount due
him for such labor, material or services; provided, that the owner
shall only be liable to the extent of his interest therein ; and every sub-
contractor, mechanic, workman or other person who shall, in pursu-
ance of the original contract, perform any labor cr furnish any ma-
terials for the purposes above mentioned, shall have a lien as in the
case of principal contractors, the aggregate of such liens not to exceed
the price stipulated in the original contract, unless it shall appear to
the court that the owner and principal contractor designed to defraud
sub-contractors by fixing an unreasonably low price in the contract.
When the contract is expressed, if the time stipulated for its comple-
tion is beyond three years from its commencement, or if the date of
payment is more than one year from its completion, there shall be no
lien. If the contract is implied, no lien shall be had unless the con-
tract be completed within one year from its commencement.

WILLS. All males twenty-one, and all females eighteen years of
age, may dispose of real and personal property. Two witnesses are
necessary. Wills are filed in the Probate Court, and originals remain
there.

INDIANA.

ASSIGNMENTS. By filing with the recorder of the county in
which assignor resides, within ten days after its execution, an indenture
duly signed and acknowledged, setting forth a full description of all
his realty and accompanied by a schedule of all his personalty, to
which assignor makes oath, any debtor in embarrassed circumstances

may make a general assignment
of all properly m trust for the
benefit of all bona fide creditors.
Trustee makes oath and files
bond in Circuit Court, also copy
of assignment, within fifteen days
after execution of indenture. If
the trustee named fails to act, the
court may appoint a substitute
upon petition. Trustee's com-
pensation is fixed by the court,
and dividends are declared pro-
rata on all claims allowed by
trustee or the court. No pro-
vision for discharge of debtor from his liabilities.

ATTACHMENTS may issue against the property of non-residents
or foreign corporations, and against all who have disposed of, or are
about to dispose of their property to defraud, hinder or delay credit-
ors. Plaintiff must give bond to answer damages if proceedings are
unjust or oppressive. An affidavit is also required, which may be
made by the creditor or his attorney. All creditors who file under the
original attachment, before final judgment, share pro rata in the pro-
ceeds of the attached property. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace
is limited to $200; or $300 upon confession.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES are not valid as to third parties unless
recorded within ten days ; a mortgage of perishable articles left in the
hands of the grantor, with right to use the same, is void; a mortgage
on a stock of goods, the grantor having a right to sell, is void ; any
mortgage is void if unregistered and the chattels left with the
grantor; so also is a recorded mortgage if the goods are left unreason-
ably long with the grantor, after default is made in payment.

DEEDS must be in writing, and acknowledged and recorded
within forty-five days from their execution ; seals are abolished and
witnesses are not necessary; dower and curtesy are unknown ; hus-
band and wife must join in conveying the separate estate of either.
Acknowledgments within the State may be taken before a judge or
clerk of a court of record, justice of the peace, auditor, recorder, no-
tary, or mayor of a city; in other States and Territories before similar
officers or a commissioner of deeds for Indiana.

DIVORCE. Petitioners for divorce must be bona fide residents of
the State for two years, and of the county at the time of, and for at
least six months prior to filing the petition ; the oath of two resident
freeholders being required to this fact. Decrees may issue by the
Superior or Circuit Court for the following causes; Impotency at
marriage; adultery (where connivance or collusion is not proven);
habitual cruelty or habitual drunkenness by either party ; abandon-
ment for two years ; failure by the husband to provide for the family
for a period of two years, and conviction of either party of an infa-
mous crime at any time subsequent to marriage.

EXEMPTIONS. There is no homestead exemption; any resident
householder has exempted real or personal property, or both, to the
amount of $600 on any debt founded on contract since May 31st, 1S79.
On debts founded on contracts made previous to that date, exemption
is $300. Exemption does not, in any event, affect liens for labor,
purchase-money or taxes.

MARRIED WOMEN retain all realty and personalty owned by
them at marriage, or afterwards acquired, and are not liable for the
husband's debts. The husband is liable for debts of the wife con-
tracted before marriage only to the extent of the personal property he
may receive from or through her, or derive from sale or rent of her
lands. She may sell personal property, but she may not convey or
encumber her real estate unless the husband joins. Suits against her
separate estate should be brought in the name of both. A widow
takes one-third of her deceased husband's real estate in fee simple,
free from all demands of creditors, where the estate does not ex-
ceed $10,000; where the estate is over $10,000 and under $20,000, she
takes one-fourth; and one-fifth if it exceeds $20,000. She also takes
one-third of the personalty after payment of debts, and in all cases

5">

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

takes $500, without accounting, and may occupy the dwelling and
forty acres of land for one year, rent free.

MECHANICS' LIENS. "Workmen, contractors, mechanics and
others who may furnish labor or materials have a lien on the land
and buildings for material or labor furnished ; the statute also pro-
vides a lien on all boats, for work or repairs, or wages earned. Em-
ployes of corporations have a Hen on the property and earnings for
all labor done, which takes precedence of all other claims. Con-
tractors have a lien on railroads where they are not in operation;
commission merchants on goods left for storage, artisans on articles
left for repair, and landlords on crops raised on leased lands. Notice
must be filed within sixty days after the completion of the work, and
suit must be brought within one year.

WILLS. All persons twenty-one years of age may bequeath both
real and personal property. Record must be made in the office of the
county clerk where probated. Two witnesses are required. Nuncu-
pative wills may not exceed $100. Married women may dispose of
their separate estate.

IOWA.

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences are allowed, regulated by
statute. A debtor may make assignment for the benefit of all credit-
ors, with inventory and schedule
of debts. Claims must be filed
with the assignee within three
months after publication of as-
signment. Dividends arc made
pro rata after State and mu-
nicipal taxes have been paid la
full. An assignment does not
discharge the debtor from all lia-
bilities.

ATTACHMENTS are sub-
stantially the same as in Illinois.
Upon plaintiff giving bond for
penalty and making affidavit that
defendant is a non-resident or a
foreign corporation, has disposed of or is about to remove his prop-
erty, intends to permanently remove from the State, has absconded or
concealed his property, a writ of attachment may issue. Jurisdiction
of justices of the peace is limited to $100; by consent of parties, $300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be acknowledged and recorded
the same as deeds and other conveyances. The mortgaged property
is left in possession of the mortgagee unless otherwise provided.
Sales under foreclosure may be made in the same manner as other
sheriff sales, and foreclosure may be made by sheriff without actio 1 ot
court.

DEEDS must be in writing, signed and acknowledged; no seat or
scroll is necessary ; no witnesses are required. Acknowledgments la
the State may be made before a judge or clerk of any court of record,
county auditor or his deputy, each notary or justice of the peace in
hts own county. Out of the State, before some court of record, notary
public or justice of the peace, or a commissioner for the State of
Iowa.

DIVORCE may be granted by the District or Circuit Court of the
county in which plaintiff resides. Plaintiff must declare under onth
that he or she has resided in the State for one year next preceding
the filing of the petition, unless defendant is resident, and N
personal service of the writ. A decree may issue against the hus-
band for adultery, wilful desertion for two years, conviction of felony
subsequent to marriage, habitual drunkenness and continued ill-treat-
ment. The husband may obtain a decree for like causes, and also
when the wife at the time of marriage was pregnant by aimtlur.
Bigamy or impotency at the time of marriage is also a sufficient cause
to annul.

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead in country of 40 acres, or in town
or city of one-half acre, with improvements and buildings to the

aggregate value of $500, is exempted to the head of every family. If
less than $500 in value, it may be increased to that amount. It is not
exempted from execution for the purchase-money thereof, or for debts
contracted prior to its acquirement. Upon the death of either hus-
band or wife the homestead passes to the survivor. Professional men
are allowed their libraries, instruments, etc., and a team and wagon;
printers retain their presses and type to the value of %\ ,200. The head
of a family may claim wearing apparel, tools, a gun, his library and
furniture to the extent of $200 in value. The personal earnings of the
debtor for ninety days preceding the execution, certain stock, with
food for them for six months, a pew in church and a lot in a burying
ground are also exempt. Non-residents and unmarried persons, not
being heads of families, can only claim their ordinary wearing ap-
parel and trunk necessary to carry the same, to the value of 175.

MARRIED WOMEN may own in their own right real and per-
sonal property acquired by descent, gift or purchase, may sell, convey
and devise the same, may sue and be sued, make contracts and buy
goods in their own name. Wife or husband are not liable for the
debts of the other before marriage, or for separate debts incurred
aftctwards. The wife's earnings are her own, and her note is good
against her own estate. Women attain majority at eighteen, or ear-
lier upon marriage; a female of fourteen may marry. The surviving
wife or husband is entitled to one-third of the real estate of the de-
ceased, free from all claims of creditors. If they leave no children,
survivor takes one-half, parents the other half.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics and workmen have a Hen upon
buildings and improvements, and the ground upon which they are sit-
uated, for work done or materials furnished. Railways are liable for
construction and improvements. The taking of collateral security
invalidates a lien. The lien must be filed by principal contractor
within ninety days; by sub -contractor and others, within thirty days-
Suit must be brought within two years after filing statement. Liens
have priority in the order in which they are filed, and are assignable;
and when for labor alone, they are exempt from execution.

WILLS. Testators must be twenty-one years of age. Two wit-
nesses are required. Nuncupative wills cannot exceed $300 worth of
property, and must be sworn to by at least two disinterested witnesses.
Foreign wills must be probated in the State.

KANSAS.

ASSIGNMENTS must be for the benefit of all creditors alike, and
do not discharge the debtor. Creditors whose claims amount to more
than ten dollars are notified by
th, clerk of the District Court',
and a meeting Is held to choose
i.;nee. Unless a majority
of the creditors are present the
appointment rests with the court.
Those who fail to appear are pre-
cluded. One month is given
assignee to pay out funds in his
hands after allowance of de-
mands. The property must be
appraised, and assignee is in all
respects subject to order of the
court, and his accounts are
ad upon by a commissioner
bafaw hJ* disch a rge. An assignment must be executed' and recorded
tne same as any conveyance of real estate. No insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS arc substantially the same as in Illinois. They
may be had agahnc the property of non-resident debtors, or in cases
of fraud or attempt to remove or secrete property. Moncv or prop-
erty due or belonging to defendant may be reached by garnishment.
Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to S300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES need not be acknowledged; copy of
mortgage deposited with register of deeds in county where mnrtgagcor
livrs. Mortgage of perishable articles left in the hands of mortgagcor

■7Z

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

with right to use them, or of ;i stock of goods left in the hands of
the mortgageor with privilege to sell, are void as to creditors of the
mortgageor unless they are duly notified.

DEEDS must be in writing; neither seals, scrolls nor witnesses are
required. Acknowledgments in the State must be before a court hav-
ing a seal, a judge, justice or clerk thereof; a justice of the peace,
notary public, county clerk or register of deeds, or mayor or clerk of
a city; outside the State, before a court of record, or clerk or officer
holding the seal thereof, a notary public, justice of the peace, or com-
missioner appointed by the Governor of Iowa; if before a justice of
the peace they must be accompanied by a certificate of his official
character, to which the seal of some court shall be affixed. No sepa-
rate acknowledgment is necessary on the part of the wife, but she
should join the husband in conveying, whether the property is her
separate estate or not.

DIVORCE. To obtain a decree of divorce, p'laintiff must have re-
sided in the State one year, and must bring suit in the county of resi-
dence. Decrees are granted in the Circuit Court on the following
grounds: Adultery, impotency, fraudulent contract, extreme cruelty,
habitual drunkenness, gross neglect, abandonment for one year or
conviction of felony.

EXEMPTIONS. An independent fortune is exempted in this State.
A homestead of 160 acres of farming land, or of one acre within an in -
corporated town or cit)', with buildings and improvements thereon,
with no limit to value. The head of every family is allowed personal
property as follows: The family library, school books and family
Bible ; family pictures and musical instruments in use ; pew in church
and lot in burial ground ; all wearing apparel of the family, beds, bed-
steads and bedding, one cooking stove and appendages and all other
cooking utensils, and all other stoves and appendages necessary for
the use of the debtor and his family; one sewing-machine, spinning-
wheel and all other implements of industry, and all other household
furniture not herein enumerated, not exceeding $500 in value; two
cows, ten hogs, one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, or in lieu of
one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, a span of mules or horses ;
twenty sheep and their wool ; food for the support of the stock for one
year; one wagon, two plows, drag and other farming utensils not ex-
ceeding in value $300; grain, meat, vegetables, groceries, fuel, etc.,
for the family for one year; the tools and implements of any me-
chanic, miner or other workman, kept for the purpose of carrying on
his business, together with stock in trade not exceeding $400 in value ;
library, instruments and office furniture of any professional man.
Residents, not the head of a family, have tools, implements and stock
iu trade up to $400. No personal property is exempt for the wages of
any clerk, 'mechanic, laborer or servant. A Hen on the homestead may
be created by husband and wife joining in the mortgage.

MARRIED WOMEN have the same property rights as men, and
may make contracts, carry on business, sue and be sued, and sell or
convey real estate precisely as their husbands ; their earnings or profits
r.re their own. A note or endorsement made by a married woman will
bind her property the same as if unmarried. Homestead is absolute
property of widow and children, and neither wife nor husband may
bequeath more than half their property without written consent of the
other. If either die intestate and without children, the entire property
goes to the survivor,

MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics, workmen and others perform-
ing labor, or furnishing materials for the construction or repair of any
building, have a lien on the building and the whole tract of land.
Original contractor must file his claim in the office of the Circuit Court
within four months; sub-contractors and others, within two months.
Suit must be brought within one year. Artisans or mechanics may
hold articles of construction or repair, and if charges are not paid
within three months they may sell the same.

WILLS are recorded in the office of the Probate Court; if made in
other States they must be probated in the county where the property
lies. The testator must be twenty-two years of age, and two witnesses
are required.

& l HSZS3SEHE5aS25E5'H5H5ZSH5E5aSa l

KENTUCKY.

ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by statute. Any preference may
be set aside in six months. Trustee must give bond, and settle his

account in two years. A general
assignment for the equal benefit of
all creditors may be made, and all
claims must be proven. There is
no provision for the discharge of
an insolvent debtor unless debts
are paid in full. No insolvent law.
ATTACHMENT issues where
defendant is non-resident or a
foreign corporation, or has been
absent from the State, evades
service, conceals, attempts to re-
move, disposes of or conveys
property with intent to defraud
or delay creditors. Plaintiff
must give bond in double the amount of his claim, with security.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be duly acknowledged and re-
corded, and, except as to craditors having actual notice, lake effect
only from the time they are recorded in the county clerk's office.
The mortgaged property may remain in possession of the mortgageor,
and may be redeemed within five years.

DEEDS executed in this State by others than married women are
acknowledged before the clerk of a County Court, or may be proved
by two subscribing witnesses, or by one who also proves the attesta-
tion of the other, or by proof of two witnesses that the subscribing
witnesses are both dead or out of the State, or one so absent and the
other dead, and like proof of the signature of one witness and the
grantor. The deed of a married woman must be acknowledged before
a clerk of the County Court, who shall explain to her the contents and
effect of the deed separately and apart from her husband ; if she
freely and voluatarily acknowledge the same, and is willing for it
to be recorded, he shall certify the same. Deeds made by residents of
Kentucky must be recorded within sixty days from the date thereof;
four months is allowed to non-residents, and if living out of the
United States, twelve months. The record dates from the time when
the clerk's fee is paid. No seal or scroll need be used, and no wit-
nesses are required.

DIVORCE. Before a petition can be presented for a decree of
divorce, one year's continuous residence in the State is required.
Jury trials are not permitted, and decrees are granted by courts having
equitable jurisdiction. An absolute divorce maybe granted to the
party not in fault on the ground of adultery, impotency, etc., separa-
tion for five years, condemnation for felony subsequent to the mar-
riage, force, duress or fraud in obtaining the marriage, or uniting- with
any religious society which requires a renunciation of the marriage
contract. Habitual neglect or maltreatment on the part of the hus-
band, or where the husband is a confirmed drunkard, may give the
wife a divorce ; and where the wife is proven unchaste, or pregnant by
another man at the time of marriage, the husband is entitled to
divorce. The parties are free to marry again, and their personal
property is restored.

EXEMPTIONS. To bona fids housekeepers with a family are ex-
empted from execution and attachment for debt: A homestead to the
value of $1,000; two work beasts, or one work beast and one yoke of
oxen ; two cows and calves; one wagon or cart; two plows and geat ;
five head of sheep; provisions for family and provender for stock for
one year ; the tools and stock of a mechanic who is a housekeeper and
has a family, not exceeding $200 in value ; libraries or instruments of
professional men, which may vary in value from one to seven hundred
dollars; the wages of a laboring man to the amount of fifty dollars,
except for house rent and necessaries.

MARRIED WOMEN may hold real or personal property as a sep-
arate estate free from the control of the husband or liability for his
debts. By petition to the Circuit Court, in which the husband must

Y-

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join, she may acquire the right to transact business in her own name.
Unless dower be barred, forfeited or relinquished, she takes one-third
of the real estate and one-half of the personal property.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics, laborers and workmen, under
the general law, have a lien for labor performed or materials furnished
upon the improvements and interest of the employer in the land.
8ub-contractors and workmen have a lien by giving- the owner written
notice of their claim, and that they look to the land and improvements
for compensation. Claims must be filed within sixty days. Suit must
be brought within six months after filing the account.

WILLS. Any person twenty-one years of age may make a will.
The will must be proved in the County Court of the county where tes-
tator resided. If the will was written by the testator himself, only
one witness is necessary; if written by any other person, two witnesses
arc required. Married women may dispose of their separate estate.

LOUISIANA.

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences may be made without re-
gard to the insolvent law. Under the State laws an insolvent debtor

may make surrender of property
to creditors, or an involuntary
surrender may be forced by any
creditor who issues an execution
which is returned unsatisfied.
Surrender vests all property in
creditors, and stops all legal pro-
ceedings against the debtor; the
latter must file sworn schedules
of assets and liabilities. The
debtor may be discharged by con-
sent of a majority of creditors in
number and amount, unless
guilty of fraud or preference, in
which case he is deprived of the
benefit of the insolvent laws, and is liable to imprisonment.

ATTACHMENTS may issue on application of creditor, under oath,
when the debtor is about to leave the State permanently, without
there being a possibility of obtaining judgment against him previous
to his departure; when the debtor resides out of the State; when he
conceals himself to avoid service of suit; when he has or is about to
mortgage, assign or dispose of his property with intent to defraud his
creditors or give an unfair preference to some of them ; and when he
has converted, or is about to convert, his property into money or evi-
dence of debt with intent to place it beyond the reach of his creditors.
Defendant must give bond equal to the amount of his claim, with at
least one solvent surety. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is
limited to $n jo.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES are unknown to the laws of Louisiana.

DEEDS may be acknowledged, within the State, before a no«
tary public, parish recorder or his deputy, in the presence of two wit-
nesses. In other States, before a commissioner of Louisiana, or in
conformity to the laws of the State where acknowledged. The hus-
band must join the wife in conveying her real estate, and authorize
her; in disposing of his own real estate, the wife must be examined
separately and renounce all her rights.

DIVORCE. Sentence of cither party to imprisonment in the peni-
tentiary is sufficient ground for divorce. A decree may also be ob-
tained by cither party for adultery, habitual intemperance or cruel
treatment of such a nature as to render living together insupportable.

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead of 160 acres of land, with buildings
and improvements thereon, is exempted to the head of a family, if
owned and occupied as a residence, together with personal property,
the whore not to exceed $j,ooo; all wearing apparel, implements,
stock, etc., with provisions and supplies necessary for the plum it um
for one year. If the wife own separate property in her own right to
the value of $j,ooo, there is no exemption.

MARRIED WOMEN may hold and control both real and personal
property owned at time of marriage ; all property or revenues of sep-
arate property acquired by either husband or wife after marriage is
held in common, and is divided equally between them at dissolution
of the marriage either by death or divorce. The wife may carry on a
separate business, but her husband will be bound by her contracts, so
long as the community of property exists; she cannot sue without the
concurrence of her husband, and - ' s cannot hind herself or her prop-
erty for his debts. There is no right of dower to the wife.

MECHANICS' LIENS are known as "privileges;** these are
allowed to architects, contractors, workmen and furnishers of mate-
ria). For all work exceeding in value five hundred dollars, the agree-
ment must be reduced to writing and registered with the recorder of
mortgages. To be of effect against third parties, all privileges and
liens must be recorded in the parish where the property is situated.

WILLS of four kinds are recognized: nuncupative by public act;
nuncupative by private act; mystic or sealed wills, and olographic
wills. The first must be dictated by testator to a notary public and
read in the presence of three resident or five Don-resident witnesses,
and must be signed by the testator and witnesses. The second most
be written in the presence of five resident or seven non-resident wit-
nesses, read to them and signed by the testator and the witnesses, or at
least two of them. In the country three resident or five non-resident
witnesses will suffice, if more cannot be obtained. The third form,
or mystic will, is first signed by the testator, then enclosed in an envel-
ope and sealed up. The testator then declares in the presence of a
notary and seven witnesses that that paper contains his will, signed
by himself, the notary endorses the act of superscription on the will
or envelope, and that act is signed by the notary, the testator and the
witnesses. Olographic testaments are written entirely by the testator
himself, and dated and signed by him. No attestation or other form
is required. The following cannot act as witnesses: Women of any
age ; males under sixteen ; the deaf, dumb, blind or insane ; those de-
barred by the criminal law from exercising civil functions ; those who
stand as heirs or legatees under the will, except in case of mystic tes-
taments.

MAINE.

AN ASSIGNMENT without preferences may be made for the
benefit of creditors, who have three months thereafter to become par-
ties. All property, except what
is lawfully exempt, of the insol-
vent debtor is transferred by such
assignment and may not be at-
tached for six months after first
publication. Only creditors who
are parties to an assignment arc
benefited. By the insolvent law
1S7S-79, where his debts exceed
$.yx), a voluntary petition may be
filed by the debtor. For involun-
tary proceedings, at least two
creditors, owning one -fourth of
the debts, should act. Assign-
ees, approved by the court, may
set aside an assignment made within four months of the filing of
insolvency petition. They dispose of the property and divide the
assets. The insolvent debtor is then discharged. Preferences or
fraudulent conveyances are void. Proof, brought within two years,
of fraud, may annul the discharge. For debts of less than three
hundred dollars the debtor makes a general disclosure and is dis-
charged,

ATTACHMENTS. All property not exempt by law is liable
to attachment for debt; neither affidavit nor security being re-
quisite, unless the creditor is a non-resident. Hv consent of par-
tics or by appraisement, attached perishable property may be sold at
once, and the proceeds held by the oAcar, Upoa affidavit of creditor
of his belief that the debtor 1» going to It w e the State and take away
more property than is necessary for his present support, and that his

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

5<3

claim is for over ten dollars, the debtor maybe arrested. Debtors
under arrest may make complete disclosure and be discharged. Any
person owing an insolvent debtor may be held as trustee ; but claims
for wages under twenty dollars cannot be garnisheed except in case
of debt incurred for necessaries. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace
has been transferred to trial justices and municipal courts.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES for over $30 must be recorded where
the mortgageor resides, or possession of properly pass to mortgagee.
Mortgageor may redeem within sixty days after notice of foreclosure.

DEEDS. All deeds must be under seal. Within the State ac-
knowledgments are made before a justice of the peace or a notary 1
public; in other States, before a magistrate, justice of the peace, no-
tary public or commissioner of deeds for this State ; in foreign coun-
tries, before a notary public or United States minister or consul. One
grantor may make the acknowledgment. The wife joins to relinquish
dower.

DIVORCE. The Supreme Judicial Court grants divorce for impo-
tency, adultery, or for three years' wilful desertion. Alimony may be
allowed and dower if the husband be to blame.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead $500, or any lot purchased from State
as a homestead; $50 furniture, $150 library, $300 team, $50 poultry,
$100 sewing machine, $10 lumber; cow and heifer, ten sheep and
lambs, plow, wagon, mowing machine, a two-ton boat, the ilax, raw
and manufactured, from one acre of ground, wearing apparel, pro-
visions, fuel, seed grain, provender for stock, and tools. After the
debtor's death, his family has the benefit of the exemptions.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds real and personal
property, acquired in any way except from the husband, the same as if
single. She may make contracts, sue and be sued and do business
in her own name ; and her property may be takeli to satisfy judgments
against her. Her property is liable only for her own debts. She
joins husband in a deed selling his property to relinquish dower. He
joins with her in selling hers only when such property comes from
him. A wife, being abandoned by her husband, may be allowed to
take and use his personal property. Dower, life estate in-one-third
of all husband's real property owned during coverture ; one-half if no
children. He has same interest in deceased wife's estate.

MECHANICS' LIEN on buildings holds good and may be en-
forced by attachment within ninety days. Statement must be filed
within thirty days after work is done or material furnished. Lien
against vessels four days after launching.

WILLS. Three disinterested witnesses. Testator must be twenty-
one years of age and of sound mind. Nuncupative wills must be
reduced to writing within six days. Wills devising real estate must
be recorded the same as deeds.

MARYLAND.

ASSIGNMENTS. Either on his own application, or that of two or
more creditors whose claims exceed $250, a debtor is decided to be in-
solvent. Except on proof of
fraud or preference, he is dis-
charged by surrender of his prop**
erty. Claims of non-resident
creditors are not affected, unless
filed in the proceedings. Assign-
ments without preferences or pro*
visions for release of debtor are
allowed.

ATTACHMENTS may be ob

taincd by simple affidavit when
defendant is a non-resident, or
has absconded; and by affidavit
with security in double amount
of claim, where plaintiff believes defendant is about absconding, or
has disposed of, or intends to dispose of or conceal his property to
defraud his creditors. Attachments reach debtor's property whether
in his own hands o,r in those of others. Wages for loss than $100 not

yet due cannot be attached. No imprisonment for debt. Jurisdiction
of justices of the peace, $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must have scal.be acknowledged and
recorded within twenty days. Before recording affidavit must be
made that the consideration is true and bonajide. To foreclose,
mortgagee gives bond and twenty days' notice before sale. Court
must confirm sale.

DEEDS must be sealed and have at least one witness. Acknowl-
edgments within the State are taken by any court of record, or justice
of the peace who is certified to under seal of a court of record. In
other States, by a notary public, court of record or commissioner of
deeds for Maryland. In foreign countries, by United States minister
or consul or notary public under seal. Wife joins husband to release
dower. No separate examination. Deeds must be recorded within
six months from date of execution.

DIVORCE. Absolute, for adultery, three years* abandonment, or
antenuptial misconduct of wife. Partial, for crueltv, abandonment
and desertion. Alimony and restoration of wife's property.

EXEMPTIONS. Besides wearing apparel, books, and tools used
for earning a living, there is exempt other property to the value of
$100. No homestead.

MARRIED WOMEN. Property acquired by a married woman is
her own, controlled by herself, and is free from her husband's debts.
She conveys by joint deed with the husband, but devises and be-
queaths the same as if single. She may be sued with her husband on
joint contracts made by them, and the property of both is equally
liable. Dower one-third, if they have children; one-half, if none.

MECHANICS' LIEN is to one-fourth of the value. Lien lasts
four ye-.rs on stationary and two years on floating property. In
Calvert, Charles, Kent and St. Mary's counties there are no. liens on
stationary property. Notice must be given to owner within sixty
days and claim filed within six months.

WILLS. Age twenty-one for males, eighteen for females. Three
witnesses. No witness needed for wills granting personal property.

MASSACHUSETTS.

ASSIGNMENTS. An assignment for the benefit of all creditors is
good against an attaching creditor, but maybe voided by an assignee
in insolvency. One creditor may
file petition for bankruptcy pro-
ceedings. Discharge, barring
fraud or preference, is granted
upon payment of fifty per cent,
or by consent of majority in num-
ber and value of creditors. At-
tachments less than four months
old are dissolved by insolvency
proceedings.

ATTACHMENTS. All unex-
empted property is liable to at-
tachment, but real estate may not
be attached in suits for less than
$20. Bond with good security

being furnished by the debtor, the attachment is dissolved. The
debtor may be arrested and held to bail on sworn testimony that he is
about leaving the State, and that he has property which he is reserv-
ing from the payment of his debts. A debtor against whom a judgment
has been obtained may be sworn as to the amount of his prop-
erty, and if he refuse to surrender it, he maybe arrested. He may
then apply for relief by taking the poor debtor*s oath. Jurisdiction
of trial justices, $300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within fifteen days.
Foreclosure requires three weeks' notice.

DEEDS require to be under seal. No witness is needed. Ac*
knowledgment of one grantor is sufficient. Wife joins to bar dower.
No separate examination. Acknowledgments are taken by justices of
the peace or notaries public. In other States, by justices of the peace,

^ aw.

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

aotaries public, magistrates or commissioner of deeds for Massachu-
jetts. In foreign countries, by United States Consuls. A certificate
of his official character should accompany the acknowledgment
taken by any officer other than the commissioner of deeds.

DIVORCE. Unfaithfulness, Incapacity, three years* desertion, cru-
elty, drunkenness, neglect to provide, sentence to five years' impris-
onment and joining a sect which disavows marriage., are grounds
for absolute divorce. Alimony is allowed, and where the husband is
at fault the wife's personal property is restored.

EXEMPTION. Homestead, $800 (must be recorded as such) ; fur-
niture, $300; sewing machine, $ioo; library, $50; tools and imple-
ments, $100; stock in trade, $100; boats and outfit, $100; one cow;
one hog and six sheep, and wages under $20.

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is man-
aged by herself, and is not liable for her husband's debts. She may
make contracts, sue and be sued and do business in her own name,
provided a certificate is filed by her or her husband in the office of the
town clerk. Contracts and conveyances between husband and wife
are not allowed. Her conveyances of real estate are subject to hus-
band's tenancy by curtesy. A wife cannot make a will affecting her
husband's right to one-half of the personal property and his tenancy
by curtesy in her real estate, without his written consent. Dower as
by common law.

MECHANICS' LIEN covers building and the lot on which it stands.
A lien for material not ordered by the owner will be defeated un-
less he has been served with written notice when furnished. Claims
must be filed within thirty days, and suit begun in rinety. Bond with
security to pay the claim dissolves the lien. Timely notice in writing
from the owner to sub -contractors or journeymen that Tie will not be
responsible, will bar a lien for their claims.

WILLS. Testator must be of full age and sound mind. Three wit-
nesses. Bequest to subscribing witness is void. Will of a married
woman, unless by consent of husband, is subject to his rights by
curtesy. Probate within thirty days after death becomes known.

MICHIGAN.

ASSIGNMENTS may he made either with or without preferences,
providing no intent to defraud is evident. By insolvent law the

debtor, with consent of two-
thirds of his creditors, surrenders
his property and is discharged.

ATTACHMENTS issue when
defendant is a non-resident or
foreign corporation. Also when
he is about to remove himself or
his property with intent to de-
fraud. Garnishment whenever
requisite. Wages, less than twen-
ty-five dollars, due the head of a
family, are free from garnish-
ment. Jurisdiction of justices of
the peace, $300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded. Each mortgage
must contain provisions for its own foreclosure. Mortgagee must file
aitidavit every year for continuance.

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgment before judge
of court of record, justice of the peace or notary public. When a mar-
ried woman joins her husband In a deed, her acknowledgment Is
taken separately. Record in county where land is located.

DIVORCE. Absolute divorce may be granted forincapaclty at time
of marriage, adultery, two years' continuous desertion, drunkenness
or three years* sentence to Imprisonment. A life sentence dissolves
the marriage without any proceedings In court. Divorce from bed
and board for cruelty and neglect to provide. Separation of property,
duwer and alimony as per statute.

EXEMPTIONS. Forty acres of land, with improvements, in the

country, or house and lot worth $f ,500 in town ; furniture, $250 ; library,
$150; two cows, five hogs, ten sheep, team, tools, provisions and fuel.
No exemption* from execution for purchase -money.

MARRIED WOMEN own and control property the tame as if
■ingle. A wife may do business in her own nam* and make contracts,
even with her husband. Her separate property U liable for wrong*
committed by her. Widow has dower, but there U for the snrrivins;
husband no right of tenancy by curtesy.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Copy of contract or statement of agree-
ment must be filed. Lien holds for six months, within which time
suit must be begun.

WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one. Two witnesses. Witnesses
may not be beneficiaries. Record in counties where lands lie. Nun-
cupative wills for more than $300 not allowed.

MINNESOTA.

ASSIGNMENTS. Inventory of property must be filed within ten
days after making an assignment. Order of payments: First, debts
due the United States, or the
State of Minnesota, in full; sec-
ond, wages for labor and ser-
vice within three months preced-
ing the assignment, in full if
there be sufficient, otherwise
fro rata; third, all other debts.
No insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS are issued
on plaintiff giving bond in double
amount, and making affidavit
that he believes defendant is a
non-resident, has absconded or
is about to abscond, that he has
removed or is about to remove
his property; that he conceals himself to avoid summons; that he has
fraudulently contracted the debt, or fraudulently evades payment. No
arrest for debt. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be acknowledged and recorded
where mortgageor resides, and also where the property is. They hold
good for two years without renewal. If no special terms in the in-
strument, there must be three weeks* notice to foreclose.

DEEDS require two witnesses. Acknowledgments are taken,
within the State, by justice of the peace, notary public, register of
deeds, court commissioner, county auditor or judge or clerk of court of
record. Outside of the State, by notary public, justice of the peace,
judge of court of record or commisioner for this State. Wife join* to
release dower, but need not be questioned separately.

DIVORCE. Absolute divorce for unfaithfulness, incapacity, three
years' abandonment, one year's drunkenness, cruel treatment *>r sen-
tence to State's prison. Limited divorce for abuse, desertion or fail-
ure to support. Plaintiff, except where breach of faith occurred in the
State, must have been one year a resident. The court may order ali-
mony and custody of children, and the wife regains possession of
her real estate, unless decree has been obtained on account of her bad
conduct.

EXEMPTIONS. Eighty acres with Improvement*, in country, or
lot with dwelling on it, in town. Household property, $500; wagon,
plows and farming Implements, $300; three cows, ten hogs, twenty
sheep, yoke of cattle and a horse, or, Instead, a pair of horses; one
year's provisions, fuel, feed for stock and seed grain. A miner's or
mechanic's tools and stock in trade to $400; the library and instru-
in. tils of a professional man. Wages under $;oof a laboring man,
earned within the last ninety days, and where the debtor Is publisher
of a newspaper, his complete outfit to value of $1,000, and stock $400.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property In her
own name. She may make contracts, and her propertv is liable only
for her own debts. She cannot sell 01 convey real estate, further tkan

***

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

5'5

» mortgage for purchase-money or a three years* lease, without her
husband joining her. Contracts between husband and wife are void.
The surviving husband or wife keeps the homestead for life, and is
entitled to one-third of all the lands possessed by the deceased after
all debts have been paid.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Account must have been filed within one
year, and lien holds good for two years. Sub-contraclors and jour-
neymen claiming a lien by service of the papers on the owner will
have the amount of their claims retained from what is due the con-
tractor. There is also a lien for work done on personal property,
which may be sold after three months if charges be not paid.

WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one for men, eighteen for women.
Two witnesses.

MISSISSIPPI.

ASSIGNMENTS, even with preferences, but without reservations
for the debtor's benefit, may be made. Intent to defraud, being

evident, will void any assign-
ment.. No insolvent law, and no
provision for discharge of debtor.

ATTACHMENTS issue after
plaintiff furnishes bond and
makes affidavit that the debtor is
a non-resident or has absconded
or is about to abscond, has con-
cealed himself or his property, or
in any manner, by conveyance or
otherwise, put his property be-
yond reach of his creditors, so as
fraudulently to avoid payment of
his debts. Resident and non-res-
ident creditors have equal rights. The first attachment has priority
over subsequent ones. No arnest or imprisonment for debt.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the property must
be taken into the possession of the mortgagee. Foreclosure and sale
must be provided for in the mortgage.

DEEDS. Two witnesses are needed if not acknowledged ; other-
wise one. Acknowledgments may be made before judges of any of
the United States Courts, judges of the Supreme or Superior Courts
of any of the States or Territories, justices of the peace, notaries
public, or before commissioners appointed by the Governor of this
State. In case of a justice or notary, his official character must be
certified to under seal of some court of record. A married woman
joins her husband in a conveyance to release dower, and, in making
her acknowledgment, must be questioned separate and apart from
him.

DIVORCE. After one year's residence in the State, divorce may be
obtained for impotency, adultery, bigamy, cruelty, two years' aban-
donment or imprisonment in the penitentiary. Alimony is allowed
when the wife is the injured party, and the court awards the custody
of minor children.

EXEMPTIONS. To householding head of family, 160 acres of
land and improvements in country, or house and lot in town, either to
value of $2,000. Tools and farming implements necessary for two
male laborers; library and instruments of professional man to value
of $250; two horses or mules or a yoke of oxen, two cows and calves,
five hogs, five sheep ; wagon, $10-1; personal property, $250; one sew-
ing machine ; provisions and provender ; wages of a laborer, $100.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property acquired
in any manner, and the revenues therefrom, for her own use and free
from control or liability of her husband. She may convey and en-
cumber the same as if single, but husband joins in conveyance. She
may devise and bequeath. Deed from husband to wife is void as to
creditors at time of making it. A wife may not encumber her estate

by mortgage or otherwise for her husband's debts; she may do busi-
ness on her own account the same as if single, and is then liable for
her contracts, housekeeping and family expenses. She joins her
husband in conveyance of homestead, but not in that of his other
property. Dower in property of which the husband dies seized.

MECHANICS' LIENS must be enforced by suit within six
months. Liens reach land, buildings and fixed machinery, boats and
vessels. Bona fide purchasers cannot suffer unless they have been
served with notice.

WILLS. Testator must bs twenty-one years of age. Three wit-
nesses.

MISSOURI.

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences. Inventory of assets must
be filed within fifteen days. Assignee gives threo months' notice of a
day fixed for hearing all claims.
No insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS issue when
defendant is a non-resident, or a
foreign corporation, or conceals
or absents himself, makes away
with or attempts to place his
property out of reach to defraud
his creditors, or has fraudulently
contracted the debt, or where the
action is for damages arising from
misconduct; or where debtor fails
to pay for goods that were to be
paid for on delivery. Garnishee
process when there is occasion.
No arrest for debt. Justices of the peace limited to $150.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Possession of property must pass into
hands of mortgagee, or else the mortgage must be recorded. Fore-
closure, if for less than $100, requires sixty days' notice. If for larger
amount, a judgment in court is necessary.

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before judge or clerk of a
court having a seal, a justice of the peace or notary public. In other
States, before commissioner of Missouri, or court with seal, or notary
public. Wife joins in deed and must be examined separately. Rec-
ord in county where land is located.

DIVORCE. Grounds: Impotency at time of marriage, unfaithful-
ness, bigamy, conviction of crime, drunkenness, cruelty, and one
year's desertion. Petitioner must have been one year a resident of the
State. Trial without jury.

EXEMPTIONS. To head of family one hundred and sixty acres in
the country to the value of $1,500, a lot (thirty rods) in small town to
same value, or lot (eighteen rods) in city having 40,000 inhabitants, to
value of $3,000. Personal property, $300. One month's wages.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman controls her own prop-
erty, und holds it through a trustee free from liability for her husband's
debts. She may make contracts, sign notes and do business in her
own name. She may make a will. She joins her husband in his con-
veyances to release dower. Her dower is one-third for life of all
lands owned by husband.

MECHANICS' LIENS have priority over all other encumbrances
that may be placed on property after the work has begun. Claims of
original contractors must be filed within six months. Those of jour-
neymen and laborers in thirty days. Of other persons in four months.
Action within ninety days of claims being filed.

WILLS, Testator's age to devise real estate, twenty-one for male,
eighteen for female; to dispose of personal property, eighteen, either
sex. Two witnesses. Must be recorded thirty days after probate.
Copy of will must be recorded in each county where devised lands
may be situated.

« ^

516

*fr

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

MONTANA.

ASSIGNMENTS. No insolvent or assignment law.

ATTACHMENTS are allowed in suits on contracts for payment of
money. Plaintiff gives bond in double amount. An attachment may
be had before a debt is due, if debtor fraudulently disposes of prop-
erty to avoid payment. Jurisdiction of justices (si the peaoe $3<X>.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Possession uf property must pass to
mortgagee, or the mortgage must be recorded, and must explictly
state that possession is to be retained by mortgageor. Holds good for
one year, during which any one selling said mortgaged goods forfeits
double the value to the purchaser, is guilty of misdemeanor, and is
liable to fine of from $50 to $500.

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a judge or clerk of
court of record, justice of the peace, mayor of a city, or a register of
deeds. Officer taking acKnowledgment must affix his official seal. A
wife must be questioned separately.

EXEMPTIONS. House and a quarter acre lot in town, or a farm
of eighty acres, neither to exceed $2,500 in value. Personal property
to the value of $1,400. No exemptions are good against a mortgage,
a mechanics' lien or a claim for purchase-money.

MARRIED WOMEN. A list of a married woman's property filed
and recorded saves it from being liable for the husband's debts, ex-
cept necessaries for herself and children under eighteen. A married
woman may become a sole trader by recording her intention. If she
invests more than $10,000 in business she must make oath that the
surplus did not come from her husband. The husband is not liable
for debts contracted by her in business. She is also responsible for
the maintenance of her children. A surviving husband or wife takes
one-half of deceased's property, if no children ; one-third if there are.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim of an original contractor must be
filed within ninety days ; that of a sub-contractor within thirty days.
All liens filed within thirty days of the filing of the first one share
alike. Sub-contractor's suit must begin within ninety days. That
of original contractors in one year.

WILLS. Testator's age for either sex, eighteen yean. Two wit-

rrmtt-

NEBRASKA.

ASSIGNMENTS. Preferences, except for amounts under $100 that
may be due for labor, are not allowed. Nor is an assignment clogged

with conditions for release of
debtor of any value. Assignee
files sworn schedule within thirty
days and gives bond in double
amount. Recording within the
thirty days is a positive feature
in the validity of an assignment.
No insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS. When de-
fendant is a non- resident, affida-
vit and bond in double amount
must be furnished. Attachments
arc allowed when defendant is a
non-resident or foreign corpor-
ation, removes or conceals his property, or absconds, or when the
claim has already been allowed by a decree in court. On appearance
of fraud the debtor may be attached in person. Garnishment in aid.
No insolvent law. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace #200.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded (mortgagee renewing
annually} and holds good for five years. Foreclosure, twenty days'
notice and public sale. If provided for in the instrument, no court
proceedings are needed for foreclosure.

DEEDS mwt have one witness. Acknowledgments within the State
are taken by judges, clerks of courts, justices of the peace or notaries
public. In other States, by commissioners of deeds for Nebraska or
by the legally authorized looal officers. In foreign countries, by no-

taries public or United States ministers or consuls. To bar dower or
curtesy a wife or husband must join in deed. No separate examin-
ation required.

DIVORCE. Unless the marriage took place in the State, and the
plaintiff has since continuously resided therein, a residence in the
county of six months next preceding the application is necessary.
Divorce is granted on the grounds of impotency at the time of mar-
riage, adultery, two years' desertion, drunkenness, cruelty, three
years' sentence to imprisonment, or failure on the part of husband to
support wife. The court may order alin.ony, and where a decree is
granted on account of the husband's bad conduct the wife take*
dower.

EXEMPTIONS. Dwelling and 160 acres of land in country, or two
adjoining lots in town, value $2,000. If he has no real property, the
debtor may retain personal property to value $500. Clothing, furni-
ture, provisions, animals, tools and other things as per statute, and
sixty days' wages of laborer. Exemptions are not good against
mechanics' lien, mortgage or purchase -money.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds her separate prop-
erty free from the disposal of her husband and from liability for his
debts. She may bargain, sell, make contracts, do business, sue and
be sued, all so far as her separate estate may warrant ; but she cannot
become surety for another, not even being allowed to bind herself for
her husband's debts. Property coming to the wife from the husband
is not privileged as her separate property. Dower, use for life of
one -third of real estate owned by husband during coverture.

MECHANICS' LIENS. A sworn itemized account must be filed
within four months of the performance of work or the furnishing of
material. Lien holds two years.

WILLS. Two witnesses.

NEVADA.

ASSIGNMENTS. Insolvent law provides for discharge of the
debtor without any certain percentage or consent being requisite.
Discharge is only from debts

entered on the filed schedule.
Assignments, to be valid, must
comply with the insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS. In an ac-
tion on a contract for the pay-
ment of money not secured by
mortgages or lien on property
within the State, an attachment
may be issued, plaintiff making
affidavit and giving bond. Also
when defendant is a non-resident.
A fraudulent or absconding
debtor may be arrested, plaintiff
giving at least $500 security.
Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. With the exception of a mortgage on
growing crops, no chattel mortgage is valid unless possession p— act
to mortgagee.

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made within the State before a
judge or clerk of a court having a seal, a justice of the peace or no.
tary public. In other States, by judge or clerk of court having a seal,
a justice of the peace, notary public or commissioner for the State
Acknowledgments taken by a justice of the peace must be accompa-
nied by sealed certificate from court of record declaring his official
character. Wife joins husband in a deed and is separately examined.
Signature and deed, not having been acknowledged, may be approved
by competent evidence.

DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have resided six months in the county.
Grounds of divorce are physical incompetency at time of marriage,
adultery, one year's desertion, drunkenness, cruelty, conviction of
crime and failure on part of husband to support*

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $5,000; tools. Implements and other
personal property, as per statute ; miner's cabin, $500.

■f?

Sr-

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

517

MARRIED WOMEN. The separate property of a married woman
which is controlled by herself is such as she may have owned before
marriage or acquired afterwards by gift, devise or descent. All prop-
erty acquired otherwise, by either husband or wife, is common property,
and under the absolute control of the husband. On the death of the
husband the widow receives one-half of the common property.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must exceed $25, must be recorded
within sixty days, and suit must be begun within six months. A sub-
contractor must file within thirty days. Railroads, canals, mines,
tunnels, ditches and buildings subject to lien.

WILLS. Testator's age, eighteen years. Two witnesses. A mar-
ried woman disposes of her separate estate, and, with the consent of
her husband, of her interest in the common property. A child whose
name nas been unintentionally omitted in the provisions of a will
takes a share the same as if a parent had died intestate.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

ASSIGNMENTS. Without preferences. Assignee files schedule
within ten days. Claims must be proved up within six months. Dis-
senting creditors must give no-
ticeinside of thirty days after the
assignment. They receive no
benefit, but continue their claims
and hold any liens they may have
obtained. No insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS are taken
out on original writ, and are a
lien for thirty days after judg-
ment, during which time execu-
tion must be levied. Mechanics'
lien has precedence over attach-
ments. Trustee process to attach
debtors* money or other property.
Wages, to $20, exempt. On plain -
tiff's oath, the debt being over $13.33, debtor may be arrested if he has
concealed his property or is about to leave the State to avoid payment.
Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Mortgagee must take immediate pos-
session, or mortgage must be recorded with the affidavits of both the
mortgageor and mortgagee that it is bona fide and for a real debt.
Foreclosed after thirty days from breach of condition, and sale held
after four days' notice. Mortgageor has a right to redeem until sale.
DEEDS. Every conveyance of real estate requires a seal, and must
have two witnesses. Acknowledgments may be taken by notaries
public, justices of the peace or commissioner of deeds. Wife joins to
release dower. No separate examination.

DIVORCES are granted by the Supreme Court for physical incom-
petency, adultery, drunkenness, cruelty, three years* desertion, one
year's sentence to prison or adherence to a religious sect that con-
demns marriage.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $500; $100 furniture; $100 tools; $200
books; $500 fuel and provisions; sewing machine, cook stove, bedding
and clothing, one hog, six sheep, one yoke of oxen or one horse, and
four tons of hay.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property owned
before marriage or acquired afterwards, except what may come
from the husband, for her own use. She may sell, convey and
encumber, devise and bequeath, do business, give notes, sue and be
sued. Her contracts are binding, excepting that there can be no con-
tracts or conveyances between husband and wife, nor can the wife
become security for her husband. Wife is entitled to dower.

MECHANICS' LIENS take precedence of all attachments, and
hold on stationary property for ninety days ; on lumber, logs and bark
for sixty days, and on vessels for four days.

WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one. Three witnesses. Nuncu-
pative wills must be reduced to writing within six days. Probate
within six months.

NEW JERSEY.

ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are void. Swora inventory must
accompany assignment. An insolvent debtor is discharged on sur-
render of all his property. Wages R5vsas25S5252SHS2szs252szs2sas2sasz<a
due for service or labor to the 9 ^~- - - ^^^

amount of $300 have precedence S j^ -r*m ^>v

over other claims.

ATTACHMENTS issue when
defendant is a non-resident or a
foreign corporation, or absconds
or assigns or conceals his prop*
erty to defraud his creditors. If
fraud be evident, the defendant
may be arrested. Limit of juris-
diction of justices of the peace,
$200.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must either be recorded or the property
must pass into possession of mortgagee. To continue claim mort-
gagee must renew record thirty days before the expiration of one
year. Foreclosure by suit in court. No redemption.

DEEDS must be under seal, and have one witness. The word
" heirs " must appear in an instrument to convey in fee simple. Ac-
knowledgments are taken by the chancellor or justice of the Superior
Court, master in chancery, judge of the Court of Common Pleas, or
commissioner of deeds. In other States, by commissioners of deeds
for this State or by legally authorized local officers. Husband and
wife join in a deed conveying the estate of either, he to give his con-
sent, she to release dower.

DIVORCE. Absolute for adultery, bigamy or three years' abandon-
ment. Partial for cruelty. Applicant must reside in the State, unless
the marriage or the alleged misconduct occurred here.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead $1,500, and $200 household property.

MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned before marriage, and
such as she may acquire afterwards by gift, descent or bequest, is the
sole property of a married woman and is not liable for the husband's
debts. She may make contracts, but cannot sell or encumber her real
estate without consent of husband. She cannot endorse notes or be-
come security. She joins husband in his conveyances and mortgages.
Dower and curtesy.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Claims must be filed and suit brought
within one year. On a structure erected by contract which has been
filed and recorded only the contractor may claim a lien.

WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses. Wit-
ness cannot be a beneficiary. A married woman making a will can-
not impair her husband's rights by curtesy.

NEW MEXICO.

ASSIGNMENTS. No assignment or insolvent laws.

ATTACHMENTS when defendant is non-resident, absconds, con-
ceals property or shows intent to defraud. Jurisdiction of justices of
the peace, $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Growing crop is the only sort of per-
sonal property that may not be mortgaged. Possession of property
must pass into hands of mortgagee, or the mortgage must be re-
corded. Mortgage holds for one year. For continuance, mortgagee
must file renewal thirty days before each year expires.

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a judge or clerk of a
court of record, notary public, justice of the peace, mayor of a city or
register of deeds. A married woman's separate property is conveyed
by deed signed by both husband and wife. Her acknowledgment
must be taken apart, and she must be questioned as to her freedom of
action in the transfer.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $100; $10 furniture; $20 tools; $25
provisions.

™" s >

MARRIED WOMEN. The separate property of a married woman
!■ what she owned previous to marriage, or what she may inherit.
All that she acquires afterwards, and the revenues of her separate
estate, go into the common property. The husband has control and
management of her separate estate and the common property. There
is no dower, but on decease of a husband the wife's private property
Is first deducted ; then she receives one-half of the common property,
after all debts are paid. If there be no children she has a right to all
the common property.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Must file claim within sixty days, 'and
bring suit within one year. A lien may be had on movables repaired
by mechanics. Landlords may have lien on property of tenants, and
inn-keepers on the baggage of their guests.

WILLS. Testators' age, fourteen for males, twelve for females.
Written wills require three witnesses ; verbal wills five. Probate judge
may disapprove of a will, but appeal can be carried to District Court,

NEW YORK.

ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are allowed. A debtor who
has been imprisoned on an execution for a sum less than $500, on

making an assignment of his
property, barring fraud, may be
discharged immediately ; and for
a larger sum, after three months*
imprisonment. Consent of two-
thirds of creditors may hasten
discharge.

ATTACHMENTS. When de-
fendant is a non-resident or has
absconded, conceals himself or
is about to place his property be-
yond reach to defraud creditors,
or in an action for damages, at-
tachments may be issued. An
unsatisfied execution being re*
turned after a judgment, the defendant or any other persons may be
examined as to property of debtor in their hands, and be forced to use
what Is not exempted towards payment of the debtor. Jurisdiction
of justices of the peace, $joo; to take contession, I500.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or property must
change hands. Good for only one year unless record be renewed.
Foreclosure, unless by terms of mortgage, by seizure and sale after
three days* notice.

DEEDS must be under seal. Within the State, acknowledgments
are made before notary public, justice of the peace, surrogate, judge
of court of record, recorder or commissioner of deeds. In any other
State, before commissioner for this State, judge of United States
Court, judge of Supreme, Circuit or Superior Court, or the mayor of a
■ ity, or before any legally authorized officer.

DIVORCE. Only for adultery will an absolute divorce be granted.
Partial divorce is ordered for cruelty, desertion and neglect. Mar-
riages are annulled for fraud or force, idiocy, lunacy or impotency at
the time of marriage, or for bigamy.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; $250 furniture, tools, team and
other personal property ; sixty days' wages.

MARRIED WOMEN may have real and personal property, buy
and sell and do business in their own names. A carried woman i*
liable for debts contracted in her own trade or business, or when an
agreement or contract has been made for the benefit of her separate
property, when, by the terms of such instrument, her separate prop-
erty is to be charged with the liability. Dower.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Time for filing notice varies in different
counties from thirty days to three months. Suit must be brought with*
in one year.

WILLS. Testator's ag* to dispose of real estate, twenty-one years;
of personal property, eighteen for males, sixteen for female*. Two
witnesses. The at' dress of a witness acompanics his signature.

NORTH CAROLINA.

ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are allowed. An insolvent
debtor, by filing petition and assigning his property to trustee for
benefit of all creditors, is dis-
charged. But property that he
may afterwards acquire is liable
for the feame old debts. If con-
cealment or fraud is proved the
debtor may be imprisoned until
he discloses all his property.

ATTACHMENTS. The cred-
itor must give bond and security
for costs and damages, and must
file affidavits. An attachment is
issued against the property of a
debtor who is non-resident or a
foreign corporation, who has left
the State or conceals himself to avoid summons, or has removed or is
about to dispose of his property to defraud his creditors. Personal
service of summons or publication within thirty days after obtaining
order for attachment is required. Publication must be continued four
weeks. Justices of the peace limited to fxc.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded; may only be for
property to value of $300. Foreclosure by seizure and sale after
twenty days* public notice.

DEEDS must have one or more witnesses. Acknowledgments
within the State are made before a justice of the peace, notary public
or judge or clerk of a court of record. In other States, before a clerk
of court of record or a commissioner of deeds for North Carolina.
In foreign countries, before a mayor or chief magistrate of a city, or
before a United States consular officer. Wife joins husband to bar
dower and must make her acknowledgment separate and apart.

DIVORCE. Only for impotency or adultery car* absolute divorce be
obtained. Partial divorce is granted for cruelty, desertion or drunk-
enness.

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead to value of Jr. 000, ami personal
property worth $500. No exemption is good agaiu.-t taxes, purchase-
money or mechanics* liens.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman's separate property is
not liable for her husband's debts. She may devise and bequeath,
but must have husband's consent to convey. Unless she be a free
trader, she can make no contract other than for personal or family
necessities or for payment of ante-nuptial debts, without the consent
of her husband. She becomes a free trader, the husband assenting,
by filing her intention. Common law dower and one year's subsist-
ence out of husband's personal property.

MECHANICS' LIEN holds building and lot. Notice in thirty days;
suit in ninety days. Alien for making or mending may be bad on
movables. Farm laborers or persons making advances for raising
crop may have a lien,

WILLS require two witnesses, not beneficiaries. If an unwit-
nessed will be ottered for probate it must be satisfactorily provsd by
three witnesses to be wholly in testator's handwriting.

OHIO.

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences, except wages to amount
of $100 and individual taxes, are allowed. Assignment is tiled in ten
days, and schedule in thirty. Creditors must bring in their claims
within six months. First dividends in eight months. Debtor is
always liable.

ATTACHMENTS arc issued when defendant is a non-resident, or
a foreign corporation, has absconded or has removed or concealed
his property, or (a .my manner placed it or attempted to place it bc-
^ ontf reach todefraasl btectesUtoe*. Plaintiff prlving bond with turrty
to cover damages, and making affuU% it ol tr.u.tl. the defendant will

■I

be arrested. Garnishee except for
unmatured notes. Jurisdiction of
justices of the peace, $100; concur-
rent jurisdiction, $300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES
must be recorded ; good for only
twelve months unless renewed by
again recording within thirty
days before the expiration of the
yeiir. Same for each succeeding
year.

DEEDS mustbe acknowledged
in presence of two witnesses,
before some officer in the State
who is authorized to take depositions. In other States or countries,
deeds may be executed and acknowledged in accordance with the
local laws. Wife joins husband in a deed, and is questioned apart.

DIVORCE is granted for unfaithfulness, bigamy, incapacity,
cruelty, drunkenness, deception, three years* neglect and abandon-
ment, or imprisonment in a penitentiary. Alimony may be granted ;
and if the decree is obtained on account of the husband's ill conduct,
the wife has her separate property and her maiden name restored.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead is exempt to value of $1,000; if ap-
praised to a higher value a partition is made, or an appropriate rental
is charged. Clothing and necessary furniture are exempted; tools
and farming implements to value $100; $50 worth of provisions and
three months' wages ; one horse or yoke of cattle, harness and wagon ;
one cow, two hogs, six sheep, and sixty days' provender, or instead, $65
in household property. A professional man's books, $100. When res-
ident debtor, being head of a family, has no homestead, he may retain
personal property to value of $500, besides other exempted property.

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is not
liable for her husband's debts; beyond a three years' lease, or a con-
tract for the improvement of her real estate, she cannot sell or en-
cumber it without the consent of her husband. If a married woman
engages in trade, her separate property is liable for the debts she
may then contract, and she may sue and be sued the same as if sin-
gle. A deserted wife must procure an order from court, by which
she shall have all property rights as a feme sole. Dower in all real
estate owned by husband during coverture.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Within four months after the perform-
ance of labor or furnishing ot material, a detailed statement of tne
claim must be sworn to and recorded, to procure a mechanics' lien.
The lien holds a building and the ground on which it stands, or a
bridge or any kind of water craft. A lien is good for on*- year, or
until the lawsuit begun within the year is finally settled.

WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years for men, eighteen for
women. Two witnesses. Unless the will had been made at least
one year before the death of testator, a bequest for religious, be-
nevolent, educational or charitable purpose would be void against
the claims of children.

OKLAHOMA.

The laws of Oklahoma were compiled from the statutes of Ne-
braska, Indiana, Illinois and the Dakotas. The code of civil pro-
cedure is borrowed entire from that of Nebraska. Jurisdiction of
justices, $100.

OREGON.

ASSIGNMENTS. A general assignment for the benefit of all
creditors must be without preferences. It dissolves all attachments

on vrhich judgments have been
rendered. Creditors must receive
notice to present their claims, or
their objections to claim. Debts
to become due will be taken into
account, as well as those already
due. Payments are Pro rata.
The debtor is still liable. No
insolvent law, but an imprisoned
debtor is discharged after ten
days by complying with pre-
scribed conditions. He cannot
be again arrested for the same
debt.

ATTACHMENTS. Defendant being a non resident or s foreign cor-
poration, or where the action is on a contract for the payment of
money which was not secured by mortgage or otherwise, or if so se-
cured, where such security has been vitiated by defendant, an attach-
ment may be issued. The plaintiff gives bond in double amount.
Where the debt was fraudulently contracted, or property has been
removed with intent to defraud, or where person.: property is un-
justly withheld, or the defendant is a non-resident, he maybe ar
rested. Limit of justices of the peace, $250. ,

CHATTEL MORTGAGE must be recorded at once, and is good
for only one year, unless renewed by mortgagee making and record-
ing affidavit within the thirty days before the end of the year that the
debt is still due. Renewal each year in the same way.

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgment may be taken
before a commissioner of deeds for this State or before any duly
authorized officer in any State or Territory, providing that the legal
status of the officer taking the acknowledgment and the compliance
of the deed with the laws of such State or Territory are properly cer-
tified to under seal by the clerk of a court of record in the county or
district where such officer has performed such service. Married
women examined separately.

DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have been a resident for one year before
bringing suit. Grounds are impotency, adultery, two years' drunken-
ness, three years* abandonment, cruelty, conviction of felony. Plain-
tiff gaining the suit has a right to one-third of the real estate belonging
to defendant; and if a successful plaintiff be the wife, she may have a
maintenance awarded her.

EXEMPTIONS. Musical instruments, books and pictures, $75;
household effects, $300; clothing, $100, and clothing to each member
of the family, $50; team, tools, instruments, library or whatever is
needed in the trade or profession of debtor, $400; ten sheep, two cows,
five hogs, three months* provisions and six months' provender. No
exemption is good against a claim for purchase-money. No home-
stead.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds her property free
from the control or debts of her husband. She may make contracts,
buy and sell, and give notes, and her own property wid be liable.
The husband joins in her conveyances. She may make a will, but it
must not interfere with her husband's rights of curtesy.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Claims must be filed within three months.
Suit begun within one year. Sub-contractors and workmen, to obtain
a lien, must serve written notice on the owner before payments be-
come due. Payments to contractors before they are due are no
offset against lien of sub - contractors and workmen.

WILLS. Age, twenty-one to dispose of real estate, eighteen for
personal property. Two witnesses. Children unprovided for in a
will share as if the parent had died intestate.

PENNSYLVANIA.

ASSIGNMENTS must be without preferences. Sometimes a
debtor prefers a creditor by confessing judgment, or making a specific
assignment of certain property.
No insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS issue where
debtor removes, conceals or dis-
poses of his property, or is about
to do so, to defraud his creditors,-
or has fraudulently contracted
the debt. Also when debtor is a
non-resident. On proof of fraud
a defendant maybe arrested, and
he will be imprisoned unless he
pays or gives security. Justices
of the peace limited to $300.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES ^^^sesssEssstsssssssBssstseseB9
cannot be for less than $500, and must be recorded. Must be renewed
within thirty days of expiration of the year, and the same for each

===»

*■

520

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

*3r"

succeeding year, to maintain mortgagee's right. Thirty day*' notice,
or four weeks' publication before sale by public auction.

DEEDS. Acknowledgments may be taken by the mayor of a city
or incorporated town, judge of a court of record, commissioner for
this State, or by tMJ officer appointed by the laws of the Stale where
taken, providing such officer be certified to under seal by the clerk of
a court of record. Wife joins to bar dower; examination separate.

DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have been a resident of the State for one
ve;ir next preceding the application. Grounds: deception or force in
procuring the marriage, impotency, adultery, bigamy, cruelty and two
years' abandonment, and two years' sentence to imprisonment. Di-
vorce will not be granted on the ground of adultery if proved to have
been condoned. Even after a divorce, defendant is not allowed to
marry a co-respondent. A wife may obtain partial divorce and ali-
mony for ill-treatment.

EXEMPTIONS. Clothing, books, sewing-machine and $300 worth
of other property. Right may be waived. No homestead.

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is held
as her separate estate, but is chargeable for family necessaries ordered
by her. A wife cannot make a contract or conveyance without her
husband joining her. By obtaining leave from the court she may
have the benefit of her own earnings. She may make a will, saving
the husband's right by curtesy. She may deposit money in bank and
write checks against it in her own name. Dower, one-third of all
real estate owned by husband during coverture.

MECHANICS' LIEN takes precedence of every other lien or en-
cumbrance. Claims must be filed within six months, and liens hold
good for five years. There may also be a lien held for wages up to
the amount of $200 by the employes on any manufactory, mine or
similar establishment.

WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses are
required, but they need not attach their signatures. A husband can-
not serve as witness to wife's will.

RHODE ISLAND.

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences allowed. No provision for
the discharge of the debtor.

ATTACHMENTS issue when
debtor is a non-resident or a for-
eign corporation, lias absconded
or fraudulently contracted the
debt, or retains property and re-
fuses to pay. Garnishment for
personal property of debtor in
other people's hands. Jurisdic-
tion of justices of the peace, $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES

must be recorded, or the inortga-
"^^M HbssP^ S gee must take possession. Hore-

^^■■^■■^^^ H closure by seizure and sale.

■■■■■■■ nmuinniuimJ DEEDS require a seal. Ac-
knowledgments may be wiken by a senator, judge, justice of the
peace, notary public or town clerk. In other States, by the author-
ized officers in such States, or by commissioner of deeds for Rhode
Island. The wife joins in deed to release dower; only the husband
need make the acknowledgment.

DIVORCE is granted for impotency, adultery, cruelty, drunken-
ness, neglect to support, live vears' abandonment, conviction of mur-
der or arson, presumption of death from long absence, or for defect
in marriage rendering it void. Divorces may only be decreed bv Su-
preme Court. Alimony may be ordered, and restoration of wife's sep-
ititr property.

EXEMPTIONS. Furniture and supplies for family, $300; tools,
$aopj library, $300; wages, $10; clothing; one cow and oue hog; debts
secured bv negotiable paper. No homestead.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman'* p-operty is held by
for her separate use free from her husband's debts. She

cannot make contracts or do business. She may make a will subject
to husband's right by curtesv.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be tiled and -nit begun within
four months.

WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one yean for disposal of real
estate; eighteen for personal property. Two witnesses.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

ASSIGNMENTS. An assignment maybe made, and one or more
agents appointed by the creditors to act with the
Creditors who do not take part
in the proceedings, or accept div-
idends, retain their claims against
the debtor. An imprisoned debt-
or may be discharged on making
an assignment of all his prop-
erty.

ATTACHMENTS are issued
where debtor is a non-resident or
a foreign corporation, or has ab-
sconded or concealed himself, or
has removed or is about to re-
move his property, or has se-
creted or disposed of ar assigned
his property, or is about to do

so. with fraudulent intent. Garnishment in aid. Jurisdiction of
trial justices, $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within sixty days.
Foreclosure by seizure and sale.

DEEDS must be under seal, and have two witnesses, and be
recorded within thirty-three days in county where the land lies. In-
side the State, acknowledgments are made only before notaries
public and trial justices. In other States, before commissioners of
deeds fortius State. Wife joins to bar dower. Separate examination.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; this right cannot he waived.
Furniture, wagons, live stock and tools, to value of $500. Homestead
exemption cannot hold against an execution for the purchase-money,
a lien for improvements or for taxes. Any person not the head of a
family may have one-third of his annual earnings exempted.

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman cannot
be seized for her husband's debts. A married woman can bequeath,
devise and encumber her separate property. She can buy in her own
name and have conveyances made to her, and make contracts, the
same as if she were single. A gift from husband to wife is not good
against a creditor's claim. Dower rights.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Account must be filed in ninety days and
suit begun in six months. The owner, by giving timely notice that he
will not be responsible for the contractor's debts, may avoid the iin-
position of a lien by sub-contractors and journeymen.

WILLS. Three witnesses.

TENNESSEE.

ASSIGNMENTS with preferences allowed. The debtor is not dis-
charged from bis liabilities. No insolvent law.
ATTACHMENTS are issued

when debtor is a non resident, or
is about to remove h ! :n.self or his
property from the State, or con-
ceals himself or his property, or
absconds, or has fraudulently
disposed of his property, or dies
out of the State. Garnishee pro-
It reach debts due the de-
fendant, and that are to become
due, as well as property of de-
fendant in other people's hands.
No imprisonment for debt. Juris-
diction of justices, I500,

■^

— . 9

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

S 21

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be registered. Foreclosure by
proceedings in court unless the instrument contains power of sale.

DEEDS require two witnesses. Acknowledgments within the
State are made before judge or clerk of a County Court or a notary
public. In other States, before any court of record or clerk thereof,
notary public or commissioner of deeds for this State. .Wife need not
join in deeds conveying in fee simple, but must ipin in trust deed.
Separate examination.

DIVORCE. The applicant must have been a resftent of the State
for two years next preceding the petition. Grounds: physical inca-
pacity at time of marriage, bigamy, adultery, two years' abandon-
ment, conviction of crime, imprisonment in penitentiary, drunkenness,
ante-nuptial immorality of wife, attempt of either party upon the life
of the other. Limited divorce may be granted for cruelty, d«pertion
or failure to provide.

EXEMPTIONS. Only the head of a family can have the benefit of
exemptions; $1,000 homestead and a variety of personal property
designated by statute, prominent items being horses, mules, oxen,
cows, calves, wagon, tools, lumber, grain, provisions, beds, bedding,
furniture and $30 wages.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman has her separate prop-
erty free from the husband's control and from liability for his debts.
She may encumber, convey or devise her separate property without
being joined by her husband in the deed. Widow has dower in one-
third of husband's real estate, and a child's share in his personalty.
The husband dying intestate, leaving no heirs, the wife inherits all his
property.

MECHANICS' LIEN lies on buildings and fixed machinery, and
the ground on which they are erected; also on water craft. Land-
lords have lien on crops, growing and garnered, for advances of sup-
plies and clothing, and for their rent.

WILLS. Two witnesses. If for only personal property, witnesses
need not subscribe their names. The handwriting of an unattested
will maybe proved by three witnesses. Nuncupative wills have no
force for amounts over $250.

TEXAS.

ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent debtor making an assignment must
have it recorded, accompanied by a sworn inventory of debts, assets,

creditors, collaterals held by them
and all evidences of debts to or
against debtor, with complete
statement of his estate, with val-
ues. The assignment may be
made for the benefit of assenting
creditors only; and accepting a
fro rata will be equivalent to
discharge of debtor from liabil-
ity. A creditor believing debtor
has concealed his property may
have him summoned and exam-
ined under oath. Any fraudulent
action on part of debtor is felony.

ATTACHMENTS. The plaintiff making affidavit and giving bond
in double amount, an attachment is issued where defendant is a
non-resident or a foreign corporation, is about to remove from the
State, or secretes himself to avoid summons, conceals his property or
is about to conceal it, or is about to remove it from the State, or from
the county, has disposed of his property, or is about to dispose of it,
is about turning his property into money, so that it cannot be reached,
or has obtained property by deception. Intent to defraud is surmised
in any of the allegations. Limit of justices of the peace, $200.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the property must
change hands at once. Foreclosed by suit; sheriff's sale sixty days'
notice.

DEEDS. Acknowledgments anywhere within the United States are
made before the clerk of a court of record having a seal, a notary
public or a commissioner of deeds for this State. Where a deed is
not acknowledged it must be proved by two witnesses. Married
women, separate examination,

DIVORCE. Applicant must be really an inhabitant of the State and
a resident of the county for six mouths previous to filing petition;
grounds, adultery, three years' desertion, unendurable cruelty.

EXEMPTIONS. Two hundred acres of land with improvements in
the country, or city property to value at time of being designated as
homestead! (regardless of the value of after improvements) of $5,000.
Furniture, farming implements, tools, books, five cows and calves,
two yoke of cattle, two horses and wagon, a carriage or buggy,
twenty hogs, twenty sheep, provisions, provender and many other
articles. The exemption of the homestead is not good against taxes,
purchase-money or mechanics' lien ; but in this last case the contract
must have been signed by both husband and wife. On the death of a
husband, the widow and children may have one year's support out of
the estate, and if the property be not in such shape as to be exempted by
law, enough may be sold to raise an allowance for homestead to value
of $5,000 and other property $500. Any person not the head of a fam-
ily may have exempted clothing, books, horse, bridle and saddle.

MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned by husband or wife
before marriage, and what either may acquire afterwards, by gift,
devise or descent, is community property. The husband controls the
common property and the wife's separate estate. The common prop-
erty is liable for the debts of either, and the husband may dispose of
it. At the death of either the survivor takes one-half and the children
the other half of the common property. The husband joins wife in
conveyance of her separate property. She joins him in conveyance
of homestead. A married woman cannot do business in her own
name, but she may become security for her husband by mortgaging
her separate estate.

MECHANICS' LIENS must be on a written contract and recorded
within six months. Sub -contractors and journeymen may furnish the
owner with their accounts, and he must retain the amount of their
claims. Landlords have lien for rent and for supplies advanced.

WILLS. Age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses. Only written
wills can devise real estate.

UTAH.

ASSIGNMENTS. Common law.

ATTACHMENTS. Plaintiff holding no security gives bond and
takes out an attachment where there is an appearance of the debtor's
probable failure to pay the debt.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. No statutes. Mortgagee must take
immediate possession.

DEEDS must have one witness. Acknowledgments before notary
public, justice of the peace, mayor of a city or judge or clerk of court
of record. A married woman conveys the same as if single.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; personal property to head
of the family, $700, and to each member $250. Not good against pur-
chase-money, mechanics' lien or a mortgage.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman's separate property is
held, managed, controlled and disposed of by herself. A wife may
carry on business, sue and be sued, give notes and make contracts the
same as if single.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be filed within three months;
suit brought within one year. Sub-contractors and journeyman must
serve the owner with timely written notice.

WILLS. Testator's age, eighteen years. Two witnesses. Married
women make wills the same as if single.

SfTY

<8 A

522

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

VERMONT.

ASSIGNMENTS tnuxt be without preferences. Insolvent law by
which involuntary proceedings may be entered by one creditor having

claim to $250. If assets pay thirty
per cent of debts, or if majority
of creditors consent, the debtor
is discharged.

ATTACHMENTS on mesne
process. Trustee process for
property in hands of third per-
sons.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES.
All property, except fixed ma-
chinery, must be taken into the
possession of the mortgagee.
Foreclosed by bill in equity.
Court orders sale.

DEEDS must be under seal
and h:tve two witnesses. Acknowledgments are made before a mas-
ter in chancery, justice of the peace or notary public. No separate
examination for married women.

DIVORCE is granted for adultery, cruelty, three years' abandon-
ment, three years* imprisonment in penitentiary or seven years* ab-
sence without being heard of. The wife may obtain divorce where
the husband, being able, fails to support.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $500; growing crop, clothing, furni-
ture, sewing-machine, tools, one cow, ten sheep, one hog, three hives
of bees, poultry, one yoke of oxen or two horses, fuel, provisions and
provender; also the instruments and library of a professional man,
$200.

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is held
separate, and is not liabit for her husband's debts. In conveyance of
the wife's real estate, the husband must join in deed. A married
woman may make a will. Widow has dower in one-third the real
estate of which the husband died seized.

MECHANICS' LIENS. On buildings suit must be brought within
three months; on vessels in eight months.
WILLS. Three witnesses.

VIRGINIA.

ASSIGNMENTS may be made with preferences. The debtor is
still liable. No insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS arc issued
against anon-resident debtor or
a defendant who is removing or
about to remove his property out
of the State pendente lite t or a
tenant removing his property be-
fore the rent becomes due* or a
debtor taking his property out of
the State before a debt is due.
Garnishment will reach debts due
the defendant. Plaintiff must
give bond and file affidavit. Also,
an arrest will be made on plain-
tiff's affidavit that he believes de-
fendant is about to abscond.
The defendant will then have to give a bail-bond or be imprisoned.

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a notary, justice, com-
missioner in chancery, or before the judge or clerk of any county or
corporation court. In other States, before any court or clerk of a
court, or justice, or notary, or commissioner in chancery, or commis-
sioner of deeds for Virginia. Record must be made within sixty days.
Wife joins to bar dower. Separate examination. The acknowledg-
ment of a married woman must be made before two justices of the
peace, or before an officer having a seal.

DIVORCE. Grounds: impotency, adultery, sentence to penitentiary,
guilt of cither of infamous crime before marriage, the other being ig-
norant, notorious immorality of wife before marriage, five years*
abandonment. Partial divorce for cruelty or desertion. Alimony and
maintenance of children are decreed, and the care of the children is
given to either parly at the discretion of the court.

EXEMPTIONS. The head of a family who is a householder has a
homestead exemption to value of $2,000, which may be in real or per-
sonal property, both or either. Also clothing, sewing-machine, fur-
niture and animals ; books, $100; tools, $100. The value of the exemp-
tions outside of the homestead is varied according to the number in
family, and ranges from $50 to S500.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds the property owned
by her previous to marriage, and what she may afterwards acquire, as
sole trader, free from the control of her husband, and from liability
for his debts. She may make a will subject to husband's rights by
curtesy. Common law dower.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be filed within thirty days;
suit brought within six months. Sub-contractors and journeymen
must notify owner within ten days.

WILLS. Age, over twenty- one to dispose of realty ; eighteen, per-
sonalty. Two witnesses.

WEST VIRGINIA.

ASSIGNMENTS are made by deed, acknowledged and recorded
as are all such instruments. If real estate is assigned, the wife must
join in the deed. There being no
insolvent law, an assignment
does not cancel the liability of
the debtor. A defendant under
arrest for debt, on making a con-
veyance of his property, will be
discharged from such arrest.

ATTACHMENTS. The cred-
itor first making affidavit, attach-
ments are issued, where debtor
is a non-resident, or is about
leaving the State, or conceals
himself to avoid summons, is re-
moving his property out of the
State, or is in any manner trying to put it out of reach to defraud his
creditors. Bond and security being furnished by creditor, the sheriff
takes complete possession of the attached property. Garnishment «■-
third parties. No imprisonment for debt. Rut defendant may be
arrested if about removing himself or his property with intent to
defraud.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Common law. Form, deed of trust.

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a notary public, re-
corder, or judge or clerk of any court of record la United States, or
before a commissioner of deeds for West Virginia. A married woman
must be examined separate and apart from her husband.

DIVORCE is granted for mental or physical defect at time of mar-
riage, unfaithfulness, three years' abandonment, sentence to peni-
tentiary, conviction of crime before marriage, or notorious immorality
of cither before marriage, the other party being ignorant. Partial
divorce may be obtained for cruelty or desertion. Alimony and cus-
tody of children is decreed by the court.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000, where the property has been
granted or devised for the purpose, to the head of a family, or where
he has devoted such property to that purpose by having it so recorded.
Also personal property to value of $200. Tools to mechanic, $50.

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman, however
acquired, except from the husband, is held for her sole and separate
use. Husband must join in conveyances of real estate. Dower.

MECHANCS' LIENS. Must file claim within thirty daysand bring
*ni; w.ihin six months.

WILLS. Testator's age, twenty -one years. Two witn

^^=^

SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.

5 2 3

WASHINGTON.

ASSIGNMENTS. Unless fraud or preference is evident, the insolv-
ent law allows the discharge of debtor whose assets equal thirty-three
per cent of debts. Wages to amount of $100 are preferred claims.

ATTACHMENTS issue where debtor is non-resident or a foreign
corporation, absconds, removes his property or attempts to place it
out of reach of his creditors. Plaintiff gives bond. Jurisdiction of
justices of the peace, $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGE must be accompanied by the affidavit
of both parties that it is bona fide ^ and made with no fraudulent de-
sign. When for exempted property, wife must join. A chattel mort-
gage must be acknowledged and recorded the same as a deed of con-
veyance.

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments arc taken by
notary public, justice of the peace, judge or clerk of court of record,
mayor of a city or register of deeds. In any other State or Territory,
according to the laws of such State or Territory. For conveyance of
separate real estate of a wife, she must be joined in the deed by her
husband, and she must be questioned apart from him. No dower or
curtesy rights.

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead (must be actually occupied) to the
value of $1,000; clothing, books, bedding and household goods, to
value of $1,500; one small boat, to value of $50; two cows, five hogs,
bees, poultry, fuel and provisions. To a farmer, two horses, or two
yoke of oxen, and farming implements to value of $200. To profes-
sional man, library worth $500, office furniture and fuel. To lighter-
man, his boats, to value of $250. To drayman, his team.

MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned before marriage by
husband or wife, and all acquired afterwards by gift, devise or descent,
to either, is separate property. All otherwise acquired is common
property, subject to control of the husban,d. He also controls the
separate property of the wife, but cannot sell or convey it without her
joining in the deed. To save the separate property of the wife from
attachment for husband's debts, there must be an inventory of it on
record.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Notice must be filed within sixty days, and
suit begun in four months. Every kind of structure, and the land
thereunder, is covered by lien. There may also be a lien on logs,
timber and lumber for work; and by the owner of land where such
timber is cut. Farm laborers have lien on crops, but where crop is
raised on shares, the landlord's portion cannot be touched.

WILLS. Age, twenty-one for men, eighteen for women. Two wit-
messes.

WISCONSIN.

ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law, whereby debtor may file peti-
tion, list of assets and liabilities with his affidavit, and make an assign-
ment for the benefit of all credit-
« ors. After publication a jury
trial may be exacted by the cred-
itors. If the decision is in favor
of the debtor, the assignment is
decreed, and debtor is discharged
from all his debts. Proof of
fraudulent practice on part of
debtor would void the discharge.
ATTACHMENTS issue when
the debt is over fifty dollars in
amount, on affidavit being made
and bond given that the defend-
ant has gone away or concealed
himself, is a non-resident or for-
eign corporation, or is about removing his property. On affidavit and
bond of creditor, defendant may be arrested if he is about to leave
trie State, or conceals property. Garnishment in aid.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or possession of
property pass into hands of mortgagee. Foreclosure by seizure and
sale.

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments are made
before notaries public, justices of the peace, judges and clerks of
courts, commissioners of deeds ; and in other States, according to the
laws of such States. A married woman must join in a deed to bar
dower.

DIVORCE. Unless the parties had been married and since remained
in the State, the applicant must have been for one year a resident be-
fore filing petition. Absolute divorce is granted for impotency, adul-
tery, one year's abandonment, five years' separation, three years'
sentence to penitentiary, cruelty and drunkenness. Partial divorce
for desertion, cruelty, drunkenness or failure to provide. The court
may decree alimony, and the wife regain her separate property.

EXEMPTIONS. Forty acres in the country, or one-quarter of ai
acre in town, with the dwelling thereon. Clothing, household furni-
ture, $200; books, two cows, ten hogs, ten sheep, one horse and yoke
of cattle, or a pair of horses and mules, farming tools, one year's pro-
visions and provender. To a mechanic, tools, $200; professional man,
his library, $200 ; a publisher or printer, his outfit to $1,500. To any
head of a family, sixty days* earnings. No exemption good against
a mechanic's lien or claim for purchase-money.

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman has all property rights
the same as if single. She may buy and sell, lend and borrow, make
conveyances, and have real estate conveyed to her, and all such busi-
ness may be transacted between her and her husband as between
strangers. She may sue alone, but in being sued she must be joined
to husband. Dower, life interest in one-third of all husband's realty
held during the marriage. Husband has wife's realty for life.

MECHANICS' LIEN. Must file petition in six months and bring
suit in one year. Sub -contractors and journeymen must notify owner
within thirty days of the furnishing of material or labor.

WILLS. Two witnesses.

WYOMING.

ASSIGNMENTS. Must be without preferences, without reserv-
ations for benefit of assignor and without provisions forcing creditor
into a compromise or release of his claims. No insolvent law.

ATTACHMENTS. Plaintiff must make affidavit and give security
before an attachment is issued. A non-resident or absconding debtor,
or one who conceals his property to avoid payment, Is liable to the
process. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100.

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded or the property must
pass into possession of mortgagee. Sale without consent of mort-
gaged property by the mortgageor is a felony and maybe punished
by imprisonment in the penitentiary for a term less than ten years.

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments may be
taken before justices of the peace, notaries public, judges and clerks of
courts of record, registers of deeds and mayors of cities. In the
States and other Territories, before commissioners of deeds for
Wyoming or before officers authorized by the laws of such States or
Territories. Married women join in conveying common property.
Separate property they convey alone.

EXEMPTIONS. House and lot in town or one hundred and sixty
acres of land in the country, either to value of $1,500. Tools, team
and stock in trade of mechanic, miner or other person, $300. Benefit
of exemption can only be claimed by a bona fide resident householder.

A MARRIED WOMAN may carry on business, make contracts,
keep her own earnings, hold property, real or personal, receive the
rents in her own name, sue and be sued, make a will, free from any
control or interference of her husband, the same as if she were single.
Her property is not liable for the debts of her husband. Women in
this Territory have the right to vote and hold office.

MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be filed within sixty days, and
suit begun within one year.

WILLS. Xo statutes. Common law.

"Ff

524

CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE.

*HILE it is impossible, in a world made
up of widely differing individuals, to
formulate a set of rules by which each
could be shown the surest and swiftest
way to secure success in life, still it is possible
to call attention to certain qualities of mind
and character whose possession has come to
be universally looked upon as essential to those
who may aspire to struggle into the front rank
of the world's workers. As a matter of fact, it
would be as difficult to define the common
expression "success in life" as it would be to
lay down a royal road which leads to it. Given
a hundred definitions, from as many men, each
treating the subject from his own standpoint,
and no two of them would be found alike; and
the opinion of each of these, as time passed
along with its inevitable ups and downs, would
be found to vary considerably. Flushed with
recent success, the speculator to-day would
see in the possession of millions and in the
control of vast interests the only proper goal
for a man of his great genius ; tamed a few
days later by unexpected reverses, and he sees
in some conservative enterprise the fittest
sphere of his future usefulness. Perhaps, then,
without attempting the impossible, in a defi-
nition of success in life which will fit all who
are seeking it, it will do to look upon it as the

accomplishment of the laudable life-purpose of
a man of natural or cultivated parts, who has
found an object in life worth living and working
for, and has worked honestly and perseveringly
to attain it. As a rule, the larger the endow-
ment of those faculties which go to build up
success in life, the higher the aim which accom-
panies them; but it must not be forgotten that
man is the most cultivable of all God's crea-
tures, and that by careful and intelligent study
of the qualities which have enabled others to
shine, one may acquire them and employ them
in building up similar accomplishments. This
being so, it does not lie in the power of the
young man who feels that he possesses only a
moderate share of intelligence, force and abil-
ity, to decide, on this account, that he is not
called upon to make fight for one of the front
places in the life of his generation. The most
brilliant lives have often been those of men of
ordinary gifts, who, exerting to the utmost such
power as has been given them, have accom-
plished more than hundreds of men who were
much more bountifully supplied with mental
qualifications. If any man look among the
circle of his acquaintances he will be surprised
to see how few have made the voyage of life
successfully, and sorrow cannot but arise when
he considers the impotent conclusions to which

CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE.

525

*^|5—

young men of brilliant parts frequently come.
Every day witnesses the triumph of patient and
studious mediocrity, and men of great intellect
are constantly being forced to acknowledge,
with surprise, the success of persons whose
abilities, in comparison with their own, have
been deemed inconsiderable. These men
know precisely the scope of their faculties, and
never wander beyond them. They wait pa-
tiently for opportunities which are of the kind
they can improve, and they never let one pass
unimproved. Being unnoticed, they excite so
much the less opposition, and at last they sur-
prise the world by the attainment of an object
which others deemed as far away from their
ambition as it seemed beyond their reach. .

How to Avoid Failure.

It is a common thing, with both the brilliant and the
mediocre, when the reward of their exertions and the restilt
of their plans seem unsatisfactory, to blame the ever-ready
scapegoat, bad luck, as the cause of the untoward outcome.
, One of the most healthful and profitable exercises which a
young man who has just experienced failure of any kind can
perform, will be to analyze the whole transaction with merci-
less candor, finding out just what proportion of the disaster
is due to his own fault and what is due to fortuitous circum-
stances, and then make a cold-blooded comparison. If this
were more generally done than it is, there would be far fewer
believers in, or rather blamers of, luck as a business marplot
than are at present to be found. To come down to the facts
in the case, without going so far as to dispute the existence
of such a thing as chance, in almost all cases of failure the
cause is to be found in the man, and the reason it is not found
there is because that is the last place in which the man hunts
for it. " Untoward accidents," "fate," "destiny," "ill-
fortune," "evil star," "chance," "luck," or some other
synonym of the scapegoat, suggests itself to the victim of ill-
success, and he consoles himself with charging upon it his
failure. He has the poets on his side, too. Does not Shak-

spere say :

" There's a divinity that shapes our ends,
Rough-hew them how we will."
And Byron :

" Men are the sport of circumstances, when
The circumstances seem the sport of men."
And, after all has been said, it were better, perhaps, that
the young business man place some little, very little, credence
in luck's existence, just enough, in fact, to cause him to so
organize upon solid and substantial foundation each of his
enterprises, and to so honestly and perseveringly conduct
them, that the smallest possible loop-hole will be left for ill-
luck to make its appearance.

Choosing an Occupation

Is seldom an easy matter. In some few cases, a young
man feels the possession of such an unmistakable bias to
some peculiar profession that neither he nor his friends have
any hesitancy in deciding upon his future. In most cases,
however, there is no particular preference, and a wise decis-
ion is not reached before many considerations have been
carefully weighed. In far too many cases wrong considera-
tions are given attention, and a decision is reached whose
ultimate result is a life failure which, had the profession been
selected with greater wisdom, would not have happened. A
socially ambitious father and mother check their young son's
honest ambition to become a mechanic, send him to college,
and make a briefless barrister out of the material which could
have been moulded into an honest and efficient artisan.
Many a boy whose soul yearned for the higher walks of
intellectual culture, to share in which he had been endowed,
has been doomed by injudicious parents, who despised
colleges, to dull life at a dry-goods counter or counting-
room desk. Parents are not by any means infallible judges
upon this point, and every young man about to start out in
search of success in life should study himself carefully in
order to discover his aptitudes. The natural bent may be
hard to find, but the discovery will well repay the search.
Historical biography teems with the lives of men whose
peculiar aptitude was early displayed to the advantage of
themselves and the world. Napoleon, a school boy at
Brienne, led the mimic armies of his youthful associates ;
Nelson had conceived the idea of future greatness as a sailor
before he entered the navy ; Pascal contributed to the mathe-
matical literature of his age before he was seventeen; Pope
acknowledged that

" While yet a child and still a fool of fame,
I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came;"

Dryden illustrated the growth of natural aptitude when he

wrote :

" What the child admired
The youth endeavored, and the man acquired ; "

Michael Angelo stayed away from school to draw pictures ;
Murillo covered his text-books with them ; West, at seven,
plundered the cat's tail of hair with which to make pencils;
Calhoun, a student, held his own in debate with the college
president — and so on, until the examples of the theory of
natural aptitude become too numerous for recapitulation.

Taking for granted that one has discovered, or believes
that he has discovered, his bent, he must beware of the danger
which lies in fickleness of purpose, which may, shortly after
the weariness of work begins to be felt, lead him to suppose
that he has chosen unwisely, and that some other field of use-
fulness would be more suitable to his temper and parts. It
is the practical repetition of the old story of the traveller in
the express train sighing for the quiet pleasure of the farmer,
whose broad fields are flying past, while the farmer looks
longingly at the train as it dashes by, and dreams of the enjoy-
able excitements of a life of endless bustle, stir and energy.
Whatever the calling, there will be toil and trial for its

a «b_

526

CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE.

follower, and these come from him rather than from the occu-
pation, which might be changed a dozen times in the vain
hope of escaping from them. Having deliberately selected a
profession, stick to it The longer you remain in it, the more
expert you become and the easier becomes the work and the
larger the pay. It is only the early days which bring weari-
ness and pain. These conquered by perseverance, the rest
is easy, and the success in conquering the first pleadings of
the siren fickleness of purpose, who is of closer kin to laziness
than one might think, lays the corner-stone of success in life.

Excelsior !

Having chosen his occupation, the young man of proper
ambition will not be long in selecting for himself an honorable
position in it, to be filled as soon as he has shown himself
worthy and able. What men have accomplished shows that
hardly any ambitious longing can be considered as unwise
on the part of those who are willing to undertake all work
and suffer all want in the struggle.

The extremest poverty has been no obstacle ia the way of
men devoted to the duty of self-culture. Professor Alexander
Murray, the linguist, learned to write by scribbling his letters
on an old wool-card with the end of a burnt heather-stem.
The only book which his father, who was a poor shepherd,
possessed, was a penny Shorter Catechism ; but that, being
thought too valuable for common use, was carefully preserved
in a cupboard for the Sunday catechizings. Professor Moor,
when a young man, being too poor to purchase Newton's
" Principia," borrowed the book, and copied the whole of it
with his own hand. Many poor students, while laboring
daily for their living, have only been able to snatch an atom
of knowledge here and there at intervals, as birds do their
food in winter time when the fields are covered with snow.
They have struggled on, and faith and hope have come to
them. A well known author and publisher, William Cham-
bers, of Edinburgh, speaking before an assemblage of young
men in that city, thus briefly described to them his humble
beginnings for their encouragement: "I stand before you,"
he said, " a self-educated man. My education is that which
is supplied at the humble parish-schools of Scotland; and it
was only when I went to Edinburgh, a poor boy, that I
devoted my evenings, after the labors of the day, to the
cultivation of that intellect which the Almighty has given me.
From seven or eight in the morning till nine or ten at night
was I at my business as a bookseller's apprentice, and it
was only during hours after these, stolen from sleep, that I
could devote myself to study. I did not read novels; my
attention was devoted to physical science and other useful
matters. I also taught myself French. I look back to those
times with great pleasure, and am almost sorry I have not to
go through the same experience again ; for I reaped more
pleasure when I had not a sixpence in my pocket, studying in
a garret in Edinburgh, than I now find when sitting amid all
the elegancies and comforts of a parlor."

William Cobbett learned English grammar when he was a
private soldier on the pay of sixpence a day.

These are men who have selected an aim in life and have
attained it through sticking to it. Concentration of purpose
carried them through. The "Admirable Crichtons " are
scarce geniuses, and no young man need be ashamed, in
these days of special accomplishment, of having decided to
follow a single pursuit in life — to become a man of one idea —
provided it is a good one. Almost all the great men in war,
literature, science, diplomacy, business, the professions, have
been men of "one idea," not because they were incapable of
harboring more than one, but because, having selected some
one object as worthy of attainment, they gave themselves up
to it solely. If was often long of coming, but it came at last.
Adam Smith gave ten years to his "Wealth of Nations;"
Edward Gibbon, twenty to the "Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire;" Bishop Butler, twenty to his famous
"Analogy;" Kant, fifty years to his metaphysical re-
searches ; Dr. Johnson, seven years to his Dictionary. These
men sought one prize and gained it. As many years have
been spent by thousands of men of equal ability, who sought
each a number of prizes and gained none.

A Sound Body

Is another of the essentials of success in life which are largely
attainable by those who lack their possession. Mental as
well as physical accomplishment depends largely upon the
condition of the worker's digestion, and the thorough aeration
of his blood. This can only be obtained with healthy exercise,
which can only be taken by those whose muscles and nerves
and wind are in good condition. " Walk twelve miles before
speaking and you'll never break down," says Sidney Smith
to an English Parliamentary debater. A strong intellect
cannot well work with a weak body as its case. Energy
without talent will accomplish more than talent without
energy. The sharp edge of the woodman's axe avails noth-
ing until the sinewy arm throws it, stroke upon stroke, against
the monarchs of the forest. Take the great men of the
century, and it will be seen that they combined intellectual
force with physical vigor. In England, Brougham, Lynd-
hurst, Peel, Bright, Gladstone, Palmerston; in America.
Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, Lin-
coln — all these were men capable of strong muscular exertion
and of standing a prolonged physical as well as mental strain.
It is told of Lord Brougham that he once worked six days on
a stretch without sleep, slept from Saturday night to Monday
morning, and began work again thoroughly refreshed. These
men are the conservers as well as the possessors of physical
force, and the young man. who seeks to retain the "sound
mind in a sound body " will remember that it is not so much
in the cultivation of additional body strength as in the
economy of what he already possesses that the art of physical
culture is best applied. The idea used to be that mus-
cularity and rowdyism were natural associates, but people
found out that it is possible for a young man to be a good
rower, or boxer even, and still be a worthy Christian and
admirable member of society, and even that it was difficult
for him to be these unless with the employment of manly

CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE.

527

exercises he brought his physical condition up to the healthy
standard. This is merely a recurrence to the old belief of the
Greeks, who reverenced the muscular body as one of the
noble parts of man, and made gymnastics and calisthenics a
regular school exercise. Without good health and a sound
body, moderate success in life may be painfully possible;
with it a place in the front rank may be attained with far
greater ease than otherwise.

Self-Reliance.

Among all the mental qualifications which help on to
success in life, there is none which is of more importance
than self-reliance. If you want a thing well done, do it
yourself, says the old saw, and heace comes it that those who
rely most upon themselves for the accomplishment of any
aim are the ones who do the best work. " Heaven helps
those who help themelves " is a well-tried maxim, embody-
ing in small compass the results of vast human experience.
The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in
the individual; and, exhibited in the lives of many, it consti-
tutes the true sourco of national vigor and strength. Help
from without is often enfeebling in its effects, but help from
within invariably invigorates. Whatever is done for men or
classes, to a certain extent takes away the stimulus and neces-
sity of doing for themselves; and where men are subjected
to over-guidance and over-government, the inevitable tendency
is to render them comparatively helpless.

It is energetic individualism which produces the most
powerful effect upon the life and actions of others, and really
constitutes the best practical education. The determination
to be one's own helper is the secret of this individual develop-
ment and strength. No greater misfortune could befall an
ambitious and able young man than a legacy. A story is told
of a critic who, after reviewing the promising work of a young
artist, praised it, but added : " It is a pity that he can never
make a great painter." " And why not?" rejoined his com-
panion. "Because he has ten thousand pounds a year," was
the sententious response. When John C. Calhoun was ridi-
culed by his fellow-students at Yale for his intense application
to study, he raised a louder laugh against himself by replying,
" I am forced to make the most of my time that I may acquit
myself creditably when in Congress," and then, when the
laugh was over, adding, " I assure you, if I were not satisfied
of my ability to reach Congress in three years, I would at
once leave college." Here was self-reliance and self-help.
Calhoun knew the difficulties that lay between him and the
goal of his ambition, and, while the other students were
laughing at him, he was helping himself to overcome them.
'* The man who dares to think for himself and act independ-
ently, does a service to his race, " says one of the brightest
modern thinkers, and daily experience shows that it is ener-
getic individualism which produces the most powerful effects
upon the life and action of others, and really constitutes the
best practical education. Schools, academies and colleges
give out the merest beginnings of culture in comparison with
It Far more influential is the life-education daily given in

our homes, in the streets, behind counters, in workshops,
at the loom and the plough, in counting-houses and manu-
factories, and in the busy haunts of men. This is that
finishing instruction as members of society which Schiller
designated "the education of the human race," consisting in
action, conduct, self-culture, self-control — all that tends to
discipline a man truly, and fit him for the proper performance
of the duties and business of life — a kind of education not to
be learned from bouks, or acquired by any amount of mere
literary training. With his usual weight of words, Bacon
observes that "studies teach not their own use; but that is a
wisdom without them and above them won by observation " —
a remark that holds true of actual life as well as of the culti-
vation of the intellect itself. For all experience serves to illus-
trate and enforce the lesson that a man perfects himself by
work more than by reading — that it is life rather than litera-
ture, action rather than study, and character rather than
biography, which tend perpetually to renovate mankind.

Attention to Detail

Is a matter which constitutes much more than half of the battle
in many spheres of usefulness, and, the more intellectual
the task, the greater the necessity, very frequently, of careful
and constant devotion to the little things which help to form
it. Sedulous attention and painstaking industry always mark
the true worker. The greatest men are not those who "de-
spise the day of small things," but those who improve them
the most carefully. Michael Angelo was one day explaining
to a visitor at his studio what he had been doing at a statue
since his previous visit. "I have retouched this part —
polished that — softened this feature — brought out that mus-
cle — given some expression to this lip, and more energy to
that limb." "But these are trifles," remarked the visitor.
" It may be so," replied the sculptor, "but recollect that
trifles make perfection, and perfection is no trifle." So it was
said of Nicolas Poussin, the painter, that the rule of his con-
duct was, that "whatever was worth doing at all was worth
doing well;" and when asked, late in life, by his friend
Vigneul de Marville, by what means he had gained so high a
reputation among the painters of Italy, Poussin emphatically
answereu, " Because I have neglected nothing." On the first
publication of Wellington's dispatches, one of his friends
said to him, on reading the records of his Indian campaigns :
" It seems to me, Duke, that your chief business in India was
to procure rice and bullocks." "And so it was." replied
Wellington, "for, if I had rice and bullocks, I had men; and
if I had men, I knew I could beat the enemy." All men who
have accomplished success in life have been conspicuous for
minute attention to details as well as for general scope and
vigor. The great Napoleon was a wonderful example of this.
His correspondence shows him arranging for supplies of
saddles, directing where cattle could be purchased, advising
the procurement of shoes for the infantry, and making sugges-
tions as to various minor details, and complaining because of
discovered carelessness in the reports upon matters of detail
supplied by others. Lord Brougham, alluding to this quality,

5*8

CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE.

said: "The captain who conveyed Napoleon to Elba ex-
pressed to me his astonishment at his precise and, as it were,
familiar knowledge of all the minute details connected with
the ship."

In the face of these examples, no one should come to the
conclusion that datails are beneath one's notice, or that one is
less brilliant in the great things of life because he pays atten-
tion to the little things. Of General Thomas it is said that
he was careful in all the details of a battle, but, once in the
fight, was as "furious and impetuous as Jackson." Attention
to details makes a business man, or any other kind of man,
"sure that he is right," and then, of course, it only remains
for him to " go ahead."

Perseverance

Is the ever ready and kindly ally of those who are seeking
success and feel that they do not possess the ability to attain
it so quickly as others. The greatest results in life are usually
attained by simple means and the exercise of ordinary quali-
ties. The road of human welfare lies along the old highway
of steadfast well-doing; and they who are the most per-
sistent, and work in the truest spirit, will usually be the most
successful. Buffon's definition of genius, "It is patience,"
may be exaggerated, but it hardly seems so when the accom-
plishments of patience are considered. Fortune has often
been blamed for her blindness ; but Fortune is not so blind as
men are. Those who look into practical life will find that
Fortune is usually on the side of the industrious, as the winds
and waves are on the side of the best navigators. In the pur-
suit of even the highest branches of human inquiry, the com-
moner qualities are found the most useful — such as common
sense, attention, application and perseverance. Genius may
not be necessary, though even genius of the highest sort does
not disdain the use of these ordinary qualities. The very
greatest men have been among the least believers in the
power of genius, and as worldly-wise and persevering as
successful men of the commoner sort.

The extraordinary results effected by dint of sheer industry
and perseverance have led many distinguished men to doubt
whether the gift of genius be so exceptional an endowment as
it is usually supposed to be. Thus Voltaire held that it is
only a very slight line of separation that divides the man of
genius from the man of ordinary mould. Bcccaria was even
of opinion that all men might be poets and orators, and Rey-
nolds that they might be painters and sculptors. If this were
really »o, that stolid Englishman might not have been so very
far wrong, after all, who, on Canova's death, inquired of his
brother whether it was "his intention to carry on the
business!" Locke, Helvetius and Diderot believed that all
men have an equal aptitude for genius, and that what some
are able to effect, under the laws which regulate the opera-
tions of the intellect, must also be within the reaah of others
who, under like circumstances, apply themselves to like pur-
suits. But, while admitting to the fullest extent the wonder-
ful achievements of labor, and recognizing the fact that men of
the most distinguished genius have invariably been found the

most indefatigable workers, it must nevertheless be sufficiently
obvious that, without the original endowment of heart and
brain, n* amount of labor, however well applied, could have
produced a Shakspere, a Newton, a Beethoven or a Michael
Angelo.

The world's history is full of the triumphs of those »ho
have had to fight from beginning to end for recognition.
Carey, the great missionary, began life as a shoemaker ; the
chemist Vanquelin was the son of a peasant; Richard Cob-
den was the son of a small farmer ; Cook, the navigator, and
Burns, the poet, were day-laborers; Ben Jonson was a brick-
layer; David Livingstone, the traveller-missionary, was a
weaver; Sturgeon, the electrician, and Bloomfield, the poet,
were shoemakers ; Andrew Johnson, President of the United
States, was a tailor. At the plow, on the bench, or at
the loom, these men dreamed of their future greatness, and
persevered in their endeavors to accomplish it, and did so at
last. Literature has provided several examples of single-
handed triumph over difficulties by the persevering. Lord
Brougham, working for over sixty years at law, literature,
politics and science, and achieving distinction in all, was
advised by Sir Sidney Smith to confine himself to only the
transaction of so much business as three strong men could
get through.

Another hard-working man of the same class was Lord
Lytton. Few writers did more, orachieved higher distinction
in various walks — as a novelist, poet, dramatist, historian,
essayist, orator and politician. He worked his way step by
step, disdainful of ease, and animated throughout by the
ardent desire to excel. On the score of mere industry there
are few living English writers who have written so much, and
none that have produced so much of high quality. Like
Byron, his first effort was poetical (" Weeds and Wild Flow-
ers") and a failure. His second was a novel (" Falkland "),
and it proved a failure too. A man of weaker nerve would
have dropped authorship; but Bulwer had pluck and per-
severance; and he worked on, determined to succeed. He
was incessantly industrious, read extensively, and from failure
went courageously onward to success. " Pelham " followed
"Falkland" within a year, and the remainder of Lord
Lytton's life was a succession of triumphs.

The late Premier of England, Lord Beaconsfield, affords a
similar instance of the power of industry and application in
working out an eminent public career. His first achieve-
ments were, like Bulwer's, in literature ; and he reached
success only through a succession of failures. His "Won-
drous Tale of Alroy " and "Revolutionary Epic" were
laughed at. and regarded as indications of literary lunacy.
But he worked on in other directions, and his " Coningsby,"
"Sybil" and "Tancred" proved the sterling stuff of which
he was made. As an orator, too, his first appearance in the
House of Commons was a failure. It was spoken of at
"more screaming than an Adelphi farce." Though com-
posed in a grand and ambitious strain, every sentence was
hailed with "loud laughter." " Hamlet " played as a com-
edy were nothing to it. Bat he concluded with a sentence

-M

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CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE.

5 2 9

which embodied a prophecy. Writhing under the laughter
with which his studied eloquence had been received, he ex-
claimed, " I have begun several times many things, and have
succeeded in them at last. I will sit down now, but the time
will come when you will hear me." The time did come;
and how Disraeli succeeded in at length commanding the
attention of the first assembly of gentlemen in the world
affords a striking illustration of what energy and determina-
tion will do ; for Disraeli earned his position by dint of
patient Industry. He did not, as many young men do, hav-
ing once failed, retire dejected, to mope and whine in a corner,
but diligently set himself to work. He carefully unlearned'
his faults, studied the character of. his audience, practiced
sedulously the art of speech, and industriously filled his mind
with the elements of parliamentary knowledge. He worked
patiently for success ; and it came, but slowly ; then the
House laughed with him instead of at him. The recollection
of his early failure was effaced, and by general consent he
was at length admitted to be one of the most finished and
effective of parliamentary speakers, and finally became the
favored Frime Minister of Queen Victoria.

Decision of Character

Is one of the greatest of God's gifts to man, and, as every
man has the germ of this quality, it can be cultivated to great
advantage. It outstrips even talent and genius in the race for
success in life. Thousands and thousands of brilliant men
have failed for the want of courage, faith and decision, perish-
ing in the sight of less gifted but more adventurous competi-
tors. As Sidney Smith says, " We must not stand shivering
on the brink and thinking of the cold and the danger, but
jump in and scramble through as well as we can."
The old poem says :

" He either fears his fate too much.
Or his deserts are small,
That dares not put it to the touch,
To gain or lose it all."

Decision of character enables one to do the right thing at
the right time. Every one knows that

" There is a tide in the affairs of men
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;"

but not every one has the ability to tell the time of flood, and
many, after telling it, have lost its advantages through lack
of nerve to embark upon it before the ebb came, and the
opportunity was lost. In the smoke and din of battle, it was
the genius of Napoleon which enabled him to see where one
or two bold and rapid movements would secure the advantage ;
but it was his decision of character which enabled him to
profit to the full by the discovery. To be decisive on im-
portant occasions, one must keep cool. The Duke of
Wellington's calmness never forsook him, even in the most
trying emergencies. At sea, one terrible night, the captain
of the vessel rushed to the Duke, who was preparing for bed,
and announced that the vessel would soon sink. "Then I
shall not take off my boots," the imperturbable hero of Water-

loo responded as he paused in his preparations for sleep.
There is need for this coolness of manner and decision of
action in all lines of business. The surgeon, brought face to
face with a sudden complication in the case beneath his knife ;
the lawyer, surprised by the springing of the trap which his
wily opponent had prepared for him ; the merchant, apprised
of a turn in his enterprises that threatens immediate disaster —
all are called upon to exercise this quality, and in thousands
of cases the dullest man in a company has obtained the prize
simply because he grasped it while others were revolving in
their minds what they had better do in order to secure it.

Other Causes of Success and Failure.

Attention, application, accuracy, method, punctuality and
dispatch are the principal qualities required for the efficient
conduct of business of any sort. These, at first sight, may
appear to be small matters; and yet they are of essential im-
portance to human happiness, well-being and usefulness.
They are little things, it is true; but human life is made up
of comparative trifles. It is the repetition of little acts which
constitutes not only the sum of human character, but which
determines the character of nations; and where men or
nations have broken down, it will almost invariably be found
that neglect of little things was the rock on which they split.
Every human being has duties to be performed, and, there-
fore, has need of cultivating the capacity for doing them —
whether the sphere of action be the management of a house-
hold, the conduct of a trade or profession, or the government
of a nation.

It is the result of every-day experience that steady attention
to matters of detail lies at the root of human progress ; and
that diligence, above all, is the mother of good luck.
Accuracy is also of much importance, and an invariable mark
of good training in a man — accuracy in observation, accuracy
in speech, accuracy in the transaction of affairs. What is
done in business must be well done; for it is better to accom-
plish perfectly a small amount of work than to half-do ten
times as much. A wise man used to say, " Stay a little, that
we may make an end the sooner."

Too little attention, however, is paid to this highly impor-
tant quality of accuracy. As a man eminent in practical
science lately observed to us, " It is astonishing how few
people I have met with in the course of my experience who
can define a fact accurately." Yet in business affairs, it is
the manner in which even small matters are transacted that
often decides men for or against you. With virtue, capacity
and good conduct in other respects, the person who is hab-
itually inaccurate cannot be trusted ; his work has to be gone
over again ; and he thus causes an infinity of annoyance,
vexation and trouble.

Method is essential, and enables a larger amount of work
to be accomplished satisfactorily. "Method," said the
Rev. Richard Cecil, "is like packing things in a box ; a good
packer will get in half as much again as a bad one." Cecil's
dispatch of business was extraordinary, his maxim being,
"The shortest way to do many things is to do only one thing

53°

CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE.

at once ;" and he acver left a thing undone with a view of
recurring to it at a period of more leisure.

A French Minister, who was alike remarkable for his
dispatch of business and his constant attendance at places of
amusement, being asked how he contrived to combine both
objects, replied, " Simply by never postponing till to-morrow
what should be done to-day." Lord Brougham has said that
a certain English statesman reversed the process, and that his
maxim was never to transact to-day what could be postponed
till to-morrow. Unhappily, such is the practice of many
besides that Minister, already almost forgotten ; the practice
is that of the indolent and the unsuccessful. Such men,
too, are apt to rely upon agents, who are not always to
be relied upon. Important affairs must be attended to in
person. "If you wantyour business done," says the proverb,
"go and do it; it you don't want it done, send some one
else."

An indolent country gentleman had a freehold estate pro-
ducing about five hundred a year. Becoming involved in
debt, he sold half the estate, and let the remainder to an in-
dustrious farmer for twenty years. About the end of. the
term the farmer called to pay his rent, and asked the owner
whether he would sell the farm. " Will you buy it ? " asked
the owner surprised. " Yes, if we can agree about the price."
" That is exceedingly strange," observed the gentleman ;
" pray, tell me how it happens that, while I could not live
upon twice as much land for which I paid no rent, you are
regularly paying me two hundred a year for your farm, and
are able, in a few years, to purchase it ? " " The reason is
plain," was the reply; "you sat still and said Go; I got up
and said Come: you lay in your bed and enjoyed your estate;
I rose in the morning and minded my business."

Men of business are accustomed to quote the maxim that
time is money ; but it is more : the proper improvement of it
is self-culture, self-improvement and growth of character.
An hour wasted daily on trifles or in indolence would, if
devoted to self-improvement, make an ignorant man wise in a
few years, and, employed in good works, would make his life
fruitful and death a harvest of worthy deeds. Fifteen minutes
a day devoted to self-improvement will be felt at the end of
the year. Good thoughts and carefully gathered experience
take up no room, and may be carried about as our com-
panions everywhere, without cost or encumbrance. An
economical use of time is the true mode of securing leisure ;
it enables us to get through business and carry it forward,
instead of being driven by it. On the other hand, the mis-
calculation of time involves us in perpetual hurry, confusion
and difficulties ; and life becomes a mere shuffle of expedients,
usually followed by disaster. Nelson once said, "I owe all
my success in life to having been always a quarter of an hour
before my time."

Some take no thought of the value of money until they Lave
come to an end of it, and many do the same with their time.
The hours are allowed to flow by unemployed, and then,
when life is fast waning, they bethink themselves of the duty
of making a wiser use of it. But the habit of listlessness
and idleness may already have become confirmed, and they
are unable to break the bonds with which they have permitted
themselves to become bound. Lost wealth may be replaced
by industry, lost knowledge by study, lost health by temper-
ance or medicine, but lost time is gone forever.

A proper consideration of the value of time will also inspire
habits of punctuality. "Punctuality," said Louis XIV., "it
the politeness of kings." It is also the duty of gentlemen,
and the necessity of men of business. Nothing begets con-
fidence in a man sooner than the practice of this virtue, and
nothing shakes confidence sooner than the want of it.
He who holds to his appointment and does not keep you
waiting for him, shows that he has regard for your time as
well as for his own. Thus, punctuality is one of the modes by
which we testify our personal respect for those whom we are
called upon to meet in the business of life. It is also con-
scientiousness, in a measure; for an appointment is a con-
tract, express or implied, and he who does not keep it breaks
faith, as well as dishonestly uses other people's time, and
thus inevitably loses character. We naturally come to the
conclusion that the person who is careless about time is care-
less about business, and that he is not the one to be trusted
with the transaction of matters of importance. When Wash-
ington's secretary excused himself for the lateness of his
attendance, and laid the blame upon his watch, his master
quietly said, " Then you must get another watch or I another
secretary."

Napoleon was a thorough man of business. Though he had
an immense love for details, he had also a vivid power of
imagination, which enabled him to look along extended lines
of action, and deal with those details on a large scale with
judgment and rapidity. He possessed such knowledge of
character as enabled him to select, almost unerringly, the best
agents for the execution of his designs. But he trusted as
little as possible to agents in matters of great moment, on
which important results depended.

Like Napoleon, the Duke of Wellington was a first-rate
man of business ; and it is not perhaps saying too much to
aver that it was in no small degree because of his possession
of a business faculty amounting to genius that the Duke never
lost a battle. His magnificent business qualities were every-
where felt; and there can be no doubt that, by the care with
which he provided for every contingency, and the personal
attention which he gave to every detail, he laid the foundations
of his great success.

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

531

-'HE science of Phrenology is based on the
S theory that the faculties of the mind are
shown on the surface of the human skull.
It points out those connections and rela-
tions which exist between the
conditions and developments
of the brain and the mani-
festations of the mind, dis-
covering each from an obser-
vation of the other.

*0$o«

THE ORIGIN

E?HI^ENOLOGY.

Franz Joseph Gall, born at Tie-
fenbrunn, in Baden, March 9, 1758)

was the first to mark the separate functions of the human
mind and trace the location of the respective organs in the
human brain. After studying the natural sciences at Strasburg,
he graduated as a physician at Vienna in 1785, practicing there
for many years. As a boy he had observed that among his
schoolmates good memories were invariably indicated by large

eyes, and from this he conceived the idea that individual char-
acteristics could be determined by external signs. The result
of long-continued observation in schools, prisons, lunatic asy-
lums and other places was the conviction that the brain, and
not the heart, was the seat of all mental manifestations. After
twenty years of study he decided
the location of some twenty distinct
mental organs and satisfied himself
that their degree of activity could be
determined from the shape of the
skull. In 1791 he published "Medi-
cal and Philosophical Researches
on Nature and Art," and in 1796
he began lecturing in Vienna on his
novel theories, creating a marked
sensation. In 1802 his lectures
were prohibited by the Austrian
government as dangerous to religion,
but in company with Johann Gaspar
Spurzheim, he made considerable
headway in Central and Northern
Europe. His principal work is
entitled, " The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System
and of the Brain."

MEASUREMENT OF THE HEAD.

Other things being equal, the size of the head, and of the brain, the differ-
ent portions of which are called organs, and classified according to their par-

-a V

S3'

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

ticular functions, constitute* the principal phrenological condition by which
character is determined. Most great men have had great heads. Webster's
head measured a little more than 24 inches, and Clay's considerably over 23.
Napoleon's reached nearly 24. Hamilton's hat passed over the ears of a
man whose head measured 23^. Burke's head was very large ; so was
Jefferson's, while Franklin's hat passed over the ears of a 24-inch head.
Small and average heads often astonish us by their brilliancy and learning,
and perhaps eloquence, yet fail in that commanding greatness which im-
presses and sways.

The general rule laid down for head-measurement of adults is as follows :
The smallest size compatible with fair talents, 20^ ; moderate, 20^ to
ai# ; average, 21 % to 22 ; full, 22 to 22^ ; large, 22^ to 33^ ; very large,
above 23)^. Female heads J£ to % below these averages; but as some
heads are round, others long, some low and others high, these measure-
ments cannot be depended upon to carry any
accurate idea of the actual quantity of brain.

In judging of the manifestations of
the mind, the activity of the brain is
a consideration quite as important as
its size. While size gives
power or momentum of
intellect and feeling, activi-
ty imparts quickness,
intensity, willingness
and even a restless
desire to act, which
go far to produce
efficiency of mind,
with accompanying
effort and action.
Under the heads of
size, given below, the
effects of the different
degrees of activity
are presented.

Very Large. One
having a very large
head, with activity
average or fu/i,
on great occasions, or
when his powers are
thoroughly roused,
will be truly great, but
ordinarily will sel-
dom manifest any remarkable
Amount of mind or feeling, and
perhaps pass through life with
the credit of being a person
of good natural abilities and judgment,
yet nothing more. With activity great, ^

strength, and the intellectual organs the same, will
be a natural genius, endowed with very superior
powers of mind and vigor of intellect ; and even
though deprived of the advantages of education, his natural talents will sur-
mount all obstacles. With activity very great, and the organs of practical
intellect and of the propelling powers large or very large, wltl possess the first
order of natural abilities, manifest a clearness and force of intellect that will
astonish the world, and a power of feeling that will carry all before him, and,
with proper cultivation, enable him to become a bright star in the firmament
of intellectual greatness ; his mental enjoyments will be most exquisite, and
his sufferings equally excruciating.

Large. One having a large-sized brain, with activity average, will
Possess considerable energy of intellect and feeling, yet seldom manifest it
unless it is brought out by some powerful stimulus. With activity /it//, will
be endowed with an uncommon amount of the mental power, and be capable
of doing a great deal, yet require considerable to awaken him to that vigor-
.mi effort of mind of which he is capable. If the perceptive faculties are
strong or very strong, and his natural powers put in vigorous requisition, ho

will manifest a vigor and energy of intellect and feeling quite above 1
rity. With activity great or very great, will exercise a comma:
ence over those minds with which he comes in contact ; when he enjoys, will
enjoy intensely, and when he suffers, suffer equally so ; be susceptible of
strong excitement, and with the organs of the propelling powers and of
practical intellect large or very large, will possess all the mental capabilities
for conducting a large business, for rising to eminence, if not to pre-
eminence, and discover great force of character and power of intellect and
feeling. With activi'.y moderate, when powerfully excited, will evince con-
siderable energy of intellect and feeling, yet be too indolent and too **"ff*«*»
to do much ; lack clearness and force of idea and intensity of feeling; un-
less literally driven to it, will not be likely to be much or do much, and yet
actually possess more vigor of mind and energy of feeling than he will mani-
fest. With activity sma//, will border on idiocy.

Full. One having a full-sized brain, with activity great or very great,
with the organs of practical intellect and of the
propelling powers large or very large, although
he will not possess greatness of intel-
lect, nor a deep, strong mind, will be
very clever ; have consider-
able talent, and that so dis-
tributed that it will show to
be more than it really is;
is capable of being
a good scholar, doing
a fine business, and
with advantages and
application, of dis-
tinguishing himself
somewhat, yet he is
inadequate to a great
undertaking, can not
sway an extensive in-
fluence, nor be really
great. With activi-
ty fu// or average,
will do only tolera-
bly well, and mani-
fest only a common
share of talents. With
activity moderate or
sma//, will neither
be nor do much
worthy of notice.
Average. One hav-
ing an average-sized brain,
with activity only average,
will discover only an ordinary
amount of intellect ; be inade-
quate to an important undertaking,
yet, in a small sphere, or one that
requires only a mechanical 1 nKJM
of business, may do well. With activity
great or very great, and the organs of the
propelling powers and of practical intellect
large or very large, is capable of doing a fair business and may pass for a
man of some talent. With moderate or sma// activity, will hardly hare
common sense.

Moderate. One with a head of only moderate size, combined with
great or very great activity, and the organs of the propelling powers and
of practical intellect, large, will possess a tolerable share of intellect. With
others to plan for and direct him, will execute to advantage, yet be un-
able to do« much alone. Will have a very active mind, and he quick of
perception, yet, after all, lack momentum both of mind and character.
With activity only average ox fair, will have but a moderate at me mm t of
intellect. With activity moderate or sma//, will be an idiot.

Small or Very Small. One with a very small head, no matter what
may be the activity of his mind, will be incapable of Intellectual effort,
of comprehending even easy subjects, or of experiencing much pain or
pleasure ; in short, will be a natural foot

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

533

j=v t zp«*tl.

WHAT WILL THE

IIjLENESS.

DISSIPATION.

BOY BECOME?

^HE illustrations on this page are intended to
show the effects' of training and circumstances
and different modes of life upon the human
countenance. Although the inheritance at birth
of a sound constitution, well-balanced mental
organization and favorable temperament are most impor-
tant factors in shaping character, yet the possessor of all
these natural endowments may so pursue the path of life
that the close will find him a miserable wretch, to go
from beggary and vice to an unhonored grave. On the
contrary, education and moral training can atone for the
lack of natural advantages, and make of a less favored
child a useful and honored citizen. The human face has
in it something expressive of that which enters into
and constitutes the character of a man, and on it are
written, by an unseen hand, but in indelible lines which
all may read, the records of life's history.

Who can divine, on looking at the head and face of the
child represented above, what that young intelligence will
become in the future of his life ? Look at the eye, nose
and mouth of the boy at school, and you will not fail to
perceive, from the very contour of the countenance, that
his destiny depends on the influences by which he may be
surrounded.

In the one instance you see him choosing his profes-
sion and contemplating a settlement in life, wedding
himself to a virtuous, loving and devoted woman, and in
course of time becoming surrounded by a loving family ;
in the other you see the man emerging from the scenes of
brutal intoxication to plunge into deeper, darker vices,
until life becomes a burden, and he goes down to the
grave unlamentcd and unwept. How different this from
the career of the man whose happiest days are spent in
the bosom of his loving family, and who grows old amid
the most genial influences, honored, revered, beloved;
who goes down to his last resting-place amid the prayers
and tears of those he loved, cheered by the hope of a
happy reunion in a world where life is perfect and joy
complete.

INDUSTRY AND STUDY.

HONORABLE SUCCESS.

HONORED AGE.

ri b ■ «■

534

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

-c«>-x— --<—>->

PHRENOLOGISTS do not claim that the system in
which they believe is perfect, but that they have
demonstrated the following facts beyond question:
That the brain is the organ through which the mind
manifests itself, and that each faculty of the mind

has a separate and distinct organ in the brain; that the

organs relating to each other are grouped together in the

brain ; that, other things being equal, the power of the brain

may be estimated by its size ; that the manifestations of

brain are affected by the

bodily conditions ; that every

faculty of the mind is devised

for a good purpose, and that

every faculty may be enlarged

and cultivated by exercise, or

may be lessened by neglect.

While differences of opinion

may exist as to the right

which Phrenology has to be

considered one of the exact

sciences, all mankind tacitly

acknowledges the fact that

the face is a reliable reflex of

FIG. I. THE GRAPES OF INTELLIGENCE.

taneously formed by the shape of the head, the nose, the
chin and the lips.

In the next illustrations are contrasted a pair of faces whose
features and expression exemplify boldly the theory of
physiognomy. Figure 2, with its straight, darting, frank
eye, its intellectual Grecian nose, forehead which bears the
stamp of strong perceptive faculty, firm closed lips and res-
olute chin, at once impresses the beholder with the presence
of a person of strong and clearly defined characteristics, which

have been improved by culti-
vation. Figure 3, on the other
hand, bears all the evidences
of vulgarity and ignorance,
untempered by culture's
softening influences. The
smoothly rounded and re-
treating brow, the small and
sunken eye, the coarse, mis-
shapen nose, thick and sen-
suous lips, and weak, reced-
ing chin, indicate at a glance
a nature which is strong only
in vulgar and vicious pro-

file mind and character. Upon meeting a stranger we instinct-
ively scan his face to learn whether we will like or dislike
him. Our judgment is instantaneous, the impression being
favorable or unfavorable. To what instinct or fact do we
ascribe this? We of course judge by the expression of the
face — in other words, by the physiognomy. This unfailing
index tells whether he is intellectual
or dull, kind or brutish, strong or
weak of mind.

Beyond and outside of all physical
characteristics, it is claimed that the
mental peculiarities of the individual
can be seen and known in the tone
of the voice, the rapidity of speech,
the sprightliness of motion, the grasp
of the hand, etc.

The five faces given above, in
Figure 1, illustrate the various grades
of intelligence.

The face at the left is easily recog-
nized as one of intellectual vigor.
The one to the right, with its thick lips and retreating chin
and forehead, bears all the evidence of intellectual feeble-
ness. The intervening faces represent the gradations from
a high to a low state of intelligence, and our opinion as
to the relative intellectuality of these five facet is instan-

fig. 3.

pensities, and lacking almost entirely the intellectual and
moral power to restrain them.

lEIllM£llAMlSl§I

One of the arguments frequently used against the claim that
mental ability can be determined by
the size of the brain is the fact that
men with small heads often accom-
plish more than those who have heads
and bodies of much greater size.

The reply of phrenologists to this
is that there are four temperaments,
viz. : the Lymphatic, the Sanguine,
the Bilious and the Nervous; and
that every person possesses more or
less of these in his physical consti-
tution.

The Lymphatic.
The Lymphatic temperament is no. ».

indicated by the predominance of stomach, which makes
roundness of form, softness of flesh, a weak pulse and a
languid condition of the system. With such the hair is light,
complexion pale, eyes blue and dull.

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

535

The Sanguine.

The Sanguine temperament largely depends upon a pre-
ponderance of the arterial system. He who possesses it will
have light hair and blue eyes, will be
fairly rounded in muscle, will be ardent,
active and enthusiastic.

The Bilious.
With the Bilious temperament the liver
is taken as the basis. This is indicated by
black eyes and hair, a dark and tawny skin,
solid and spare flesh, angular form, great
energy and activity, and, if coupled with
superior mental development, large power.

The Nervous.

The Nervous temperament rests upon
a preponderance of the nervous system.
Those possessing it are known by their
delicacy of health, thin and angular fea-
sts tures, light, thin hair, rapid
e movements and mental ac-
tivity.

COMBINATION OF
TEMPERAMENTS.
Fortunately these temper-
aments are generally found
blended more or less with
each other, and out of the
combination phrenologists
designate another class of
temperaments called the
Motive, the Vital and the
Mental.

The Motive.

The Motive temperament, cor-
responding to the Bilious, has a
strong, bony system, an abund-
ance of muscle, dark, wiry hair,
dark eyes, rough, prominent fea-
tures, dark complexion and great
executive force. The Motive
temperament, in its influence on \
mental manifestation, is favorable
to dignity, sternness, determi-
nation, power of will and desire
to govern and control others.
It gives slowness of passion,
desire for heavy labor or large
business, and a liability to mias-
matic diseases.

The Vital.

The Vital temperament is
evinced by large lungs, a power- i
ful circulatory system, and large

digestive and assimilating organs, abundance of blood aad
animal spirits. The form is plump and limbs rounded and
tapering, the complexion light or florid, with an inclination
to take on flesh as age advances. This
temperament is a combination of the
Sanguine and the Lymphatic, as set forth
by Combe and other writers ; but as the
digestive and assimilating organs, which
constitute the Lymphatic temperament,
together with the respiratory and circu-
latory systems, which constitute the San-
guine temperament, are really vital organs,
their combination into one, under the name
of Vital temperament, is both convenient
and philosophical.

The Mental.

The Mental temperament depends on
the development of the brain and nervous
system, and is indicated by 'c^mxja*
mental activity, light frame,
thin skin, fine hair, delicate
features, and large brain as
compared with the body.
It imparts sensitiveness and
vivacity to the mind, a dis-
position to think, study, or •']
follow some light and deli-
cate buwess.

The structures which, in
excess or great predomi-
nance, determine these tem-
peraments, exist in each

individual. In one person one
temperament may predominate;
in the next, another. ' They can
be modified by proper training.
When combined, they give har-
mony of character and excellent
health.

The Brain.

There are still other condi-
tions upon which the phrenolo-
gist rests his case, without which
he admits the mental power of
the individual cannot be deter-
mined. It is claimed, for in-
stance, that a loose and flabby
flesh reveals a soft and spongy
brain, and that a close-knit
frame and firm flesh show in-
tellectual power. Then, again,
the state of the health must be
taken into consideration. In
perfect health the brain is strong.

536

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER

SN'^V

-»-+*- i&fi

* 3 3E=3> COMPARATIVE* PHYSIOGNOMY. -tH

Ira

FACIAL RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN MEN AND ANIMALS.

CN^t^*

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ib^>^

^iltilF

jKiiiiW

<*\ '** JS

M A.I "litf

i^^ — I — Liwl

..if^jffl

Jf%

GOOSE.

GOOSBY.

; AN is distinguish ■
' ed from the lower

animals by his

reasoning powers
-vfr*~ and spiritual sen-
timents. The more these are
developed and refined, the
greater his superiority over the
rest of creation. But there are
many things which man has in
common with the inferior crea-
tures. Both have the senses of
sight, hearing, taste, smell and
touch; in both has been im-
planted love of life and the in-
stinct of self-preservation. Affection and anger, cau-
tion, sccretiveness, acquisitiveness, combativeness and
destructiveness.in great or small degree, are manifested
in animals as in men. The fox is known for his
cunning. It does not surprise us, therefore, when we
see in the face of a wily, crafty man, a strong resem-
blance to the wiliest of animals. In the illustrations
the artist has depicted some striking resemblances,
showing how those qualities and instincts which man
has in common with the lower animals are often
plainly stamped on the human face.

" What a goose ! " is an expression we often hear,
and no one will doubt that the young man depicted
in the first of the comparative illustrations is just the
kind that will be easily " plucked " if he go " gab-
bling" about.

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^i^ii^jl^

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89BII

Sjtf-5N)_ s®

•If

lb*

FOX.

POXY.

The lion is noted for his strength and consciousness of power
He is ferocious and bloodthirsty, but also capable of generosity
and magnanimity. Disdaining cunning devices, he leaps upon
his prey with terrible and resistless impetuosity. These charac-
teristics are apparent in the face of his human counterpart, in
which, though gentleness and amiability may be lacking, there
are certainly depicted nobility and consciousness of power.
Such a man, though he may crush the strong, will spare the
weak and defenseless, and, though he may take counsel of his
sagacity, will never descend to low cunning.

When we call one " a great bear," we hardly mean to pay
him a compliment. It may be inferred that he is somewhat
rough, coarse and uncouth — hardly a gentleman — but he may
have his good qualities and be a useful member of society.
One may be bearish and yet not unbearable. The ancients
seem to have had considerable respect for the bear, at least in

the feminine gender, for we
have from the Latin the not
uncommon name of Ursula,
meaning a she-bear.

We have all seen people
that may with great propriety
be called *' hoggish," though a
resemblance as strong as that
depicted in the illustration is
but seldom met with. The
characteristics of the hog are
selfishness, filthiness, acquisi-
tiveness, and, in a low sense,
mquisitiveness. The hoggish
man is greedy, makes a god of

-*p

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

537

his belly, and, however well supplied his table may be, he has
only enough for himself. Selfishness, however, is natural and
inherited by most men, while kindness and generosity are more

often the result of culture.
Were children not taught to
be generous, to divide, there
would be far more selfishness
in the world than there is.

We read in one of Shak-
spere's comedies of a certain
character who loudly lamented
that no reporter was present to
write him down an ass.* In
our day the reporter is gen-
erally at hand, and men who
"make donkeys of them-
selves" are often "written
down" in that way without

even being consulted in the matter. There is little harm
done, of course, for if left alone they are sure to make the
record themselves. Mulisliness or obstinacy lias ruined many
a man, and where there is little culture and much ignorance,
we may look for conceit, prejudice and stupidity.

The dog will take on something of the spirit of his master,
will even come to slightly resemble him by constant associa-
tion. Hogarth was always painted with his dog, and it has
been said that ultimately he came to resemble the animal,
although it is more than probable that the latter, by remain-
ing almost constantly in the presence of his master and en-
deavoring in a doggish way to understand his thoughts,
words and expressions, had really come, in a limited manner,
to resemble the great humorous artist. We cannot believe that
the man was lost in the dog, but it is not entirely unreason-
able to suppose that the dog had taken on something of the
man.

The ancient physiognomists laid great stress upon the real or
* " O, that he were here to write me down an ass ! " — Much Ado About

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HOG.

HOGGISH.

fancied resemblances existing between men and animals, but
their speculations are of no real value. Modern writings on the
subject are also mainly fanciful, and calculated to amuse rather
than to instruct. We shall claim no more for this chapter, but
shall be satisfied if the reader has been pleasantly enter-
tained, the organ of mirthfulness developed, and the upward
curving lines at the corner of the mouth improved. How-
ever, while admitting that Comparative Physiognomy is still
in a rudimentary state, it cannot be doubted that there must
be some foundation in truth for the common belief that
animal resemblances may be traced among men and women,
and that they have some value, little or great, as signs of
character.

A COMPARISON.

As the face of a watch presents to the eye signs of the
movements going on within, and ceases to tell the hour when-
ever those movements cease, so the " human face divine "
is an index of internal emotions and loses all power to
change its expression as soon as the vital powers are with-
drawn. Behind the face of
the watch is the machinery —
which is the watch. Behind
the human countenance are the
complicated apparatuses of
bones, muscles and nerves,
which form the human ma-
chinery ; and behind this
human machinery there is
what the watch has not — the
soul, the mind — the controlling
intelligence which precedes
the living organism to which
it gives rational activity.

Nothing.

" The active and plastic principle is the soul — the true man —
of which the body is but the external expression and instru-
ment."

538

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

Y}OW TO I^BAD (sHAI^AGTEI^

* < ■ "=!»

A SYNOPSIS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS OF THE BRAIN.

<%m>

1 is only by a careful study of all the organs in combination
that one may come to understand the various mental char-
acteristics as shown by Phrenology. The accompanying
diagrams give the exact location of the organs, and through
*§S" the kindness of Messrs. Fowler & Wells we are enabled to
give on the following pages a brief description of them, accom-
panied by an explanation
ot their influence on the
character as determined
by their size.

L* Amativeness.
Reciprocal attachment
and love of the sexes.
Very large, experiences
a power and activity of
sexual love almost un-
controllable. Large, is
an ardent admirer and
tender lover of the other
sex ; feels strong sexual
impulses, desire to marry,
etc. Full, feels much
love and tenderness for
the opposite sex ; yet,
with activity great, has
excitability rather than
power. Average, loves
the other sex, and enjoys
their society well. Mod-
erate, is rather deficient
in sexual love, attentions
to the opposite sex, etc
Small, feels little sexual
or connubial love, or
desire to marry. Very
small, seldom or never
experiences this feeling.

2. Philoprogeni-

tiveness.
Parental attachment ;
love of one's offspring.

Very large, is passionately fond of all children; a general
favorite with them ; idolizes his own children ; is liable to over-
indulge them. Large, feels strong, tender parental love; is
devotedly attached, and very kind to his own if not all children.

Full, is tender, but not indulgent ; fond of his own children,
yet not partial to others. Average, loves his own children,
yet not fondly ; dislikes those of others. Moderate, loves his
own children some, yet bears little from them. Small, feels
little interest in even his own children. Very small, has no
parental love ; hates all children.

3. Adhesiveness.
Friendship; social feel-
ing ; love of society. Very
large, loves friends with
indescribable tenderness
and strength of feeling;
will sacrifice almost every-
thing upon the altar of
friendship. Large, is
eminently social ; an ar-
dent, sincere friend ; en-
joys friendly society ex-
tremely ; forms strong if
not hasty attachments.
Full, is highly social,
yet not remarkably warm-
hearted. Average, is
quite friendly, yet will
not sacrifice much for
friends. Moderate, loves
friends some, yet self
more ; quits friends often.
Small, is unsocial, cold-
hearted; likes and is liked
by few or none. Very
small, is a stranger to
friendly social feeling.

VIC. 4- THB PHRENOLOGICAL ORGANS SYMBOLICALLY ILLUSTRATED.

The above chart shows the location of the phrenological organs, and in the field ol
each organ iis character is symbolically tlluitr.ted. Thus Firmness is indicated by the
stability of the pyramid and the obstinacy oi the mule, or the man who is contending
with him ; Veneration, by the attitude of prayer, and the courtesy of the boy toward
old age ; Benevolence , by the Good Samaritan ; Cautiousness , by the frightened hen that
fears detriment to her chicks; Secretiveness, by the lox : Acquisitiveness, by the miser,
etc. These symbols arc intended to make vivid the impression and thus help the memory.

A. Conjugality.

Monogamy, union for
life, first love, the pairing
instinct. Very large, se-
lects some one of the op-
posite sex as the sole
object of„love; concen-
trates the whole soul on
the single one beloved, magnifying excellences and overlooking
faults; longs to be always with that one; is exclusive, and requires
a like cxclusiveness; is true and faithful in wedlock, if married
in spirit. Large, seeks one, and but one, sexual mate, and

< « — ••

* The numbers refer to Fig. 5.

-- ^l

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

539

feels perfectly satisfied in the society of that one. Full, can love
cordially, yet is capable of changing the object. Average,
is disposed to love but one for life, yet, with secretiveness and
approbativeness large, and conscientiousness only full, is capa-
ble of coquetry. Moderate, is somewhat disposed to love
only one, yet allows stronger faculties to interrupt that love.
Small, has but little conjugal love and seeks the promiscuous
society and affection of the opposite sex, rather than a single
partner for life. Very small, manifests none of this faculty.

4. Inhabitiveness.
Love of home as such ; attachment to the place where one
has lived; unwillingness to change it; patriotism. Very large,
regards home as the dearest, sweetest spot on earth; feels
homesick when away; dislikes changing residences; is pre-
eminently patriotic ; thinks of his native place with intense in-
terest. Large, soon becomes strongly attached to the place in
which he lives; loves home and country dearly; leaves them
reluctantly; is unhappy without a home of his own. Pull,
loves home well, yet does not grieve much on leaving it.
Average, forms some, though not strong, local attachments.
Moderate, has some, but not great, regard for home as such.
Small or very small, makes any place home.

6. Concentrativeness.
Unity and continuity of thought and feeling ; power of eDOre
and concentrated application to one thing. Very large, places
his mind upon subjects slowly ; cannot leave them unfinished,
nor attend to more than one thing at once ; is very tedious; has
great application, yet lacks intensity and point. Large, is
able and inclined to apply his mind to one, and but one, subject
for the time being, till it is finished ; changes his mental opera-
tions with difficulty; is often prolix. Full, is disposed to
attend to but one thing at once, yet can turn rapidly from thing
to thing; is neither disconnected nor prolix. Average, pos-
sesses this power to some, though to no great, extent. Moder-
ate, loves and indulges variety and change of thought, feeling,
occupation, etc.; is not confused by them ; rather lacks applica-
tion ; has intensity, but not unity, of the mental action. Small,
craves novelty and variety ; has little application ; thinks and
feels intensely, yet not long on anything ; jumps rapidly from
premise to conclusion ; fails to connect and carry out his ideas.
Very small, is satisfied only with constant succession.

E. Vitativeness.
Love of existence as such ; dread of annihilation. Very
large, however wretched, shrinks from and shudders at the
thought of dying and being dead ; feels that he cannot give up
existence. Large, loves and clings tenaciously to existence
for its own sake ; craves immortality and dreads annihilation,
even though miserable. Full, desires life, but not eagerly,
from love of it and of pleasure. Average, is attached to life
and fears death, yet not a great deal. Moderate, loves life,
yet is not very anxious about living. Small or very small,
heeds not life or death, existence or annihilation.

6. Combativeness.

Feeling of resistance, defence, opposition, boldness, willing-
ness to encounter, courage, resentment, spirit. Very large, is

powerful in opposition, prone to dispute, attack, etc.; contrary ;
has violent temper, governs it with difficulty. Large, is res-
olute and courageous, spirited and efficient as an opponent,
quick and intrepid in resistance, loves debate, boldly meets, if
he does not court, opposition. Full, seldom either courts or
shrinks from opposition ; when roused, is quite energetic ; may
be quick-tempered, yet is not contentious. Average, is pacific,
but when driven to it, defends his rights boldly. Moderate,
avoids collision; is rather pacific and inefficient. Small, has
feeble resistance, temper, force, etc.; is cowardly. Very
small, withstands nothing; is chicken-hearted, an arrant
coward.

T. Destructiveness.
Executiveness, indignation, force, severity, sternness; a
destroying, pain-causing disposition. Very large, when pro-
voked, is vindictive, cruel, disposed to hurt, take revenge, etc.;
bitter and implacable as an enemy ; very forcible. Large, when
excited, feels deep-toned indignation ; is forcible, and disposed
to subdue or destroy the cause of his displeasure. Full, can,
but is loth to, cause or witness pain or death ; has sufficient
severity, yet requires considerable to call it out. Average, has
not really deficient, yet none too much.indignation. Moderate,
is mild, not severe or destructive enough ; when angry, lacks
power; can hardly cause or witness pain or death. Small,
would hardly hurt one if he could, or could if he would;
has so feeble anger that it is derided more than feared.
Very small, is unable to cause, witness or endure pain or
death.

8. Alimeutiveness.

Appetite for sustenance ; cause of hunger. Very large,
sets too much by the indulgence of his palate ; eats with the
keenest appetite; perhaps " makes * god of his belly." Large,
has an excellent appetite, a hearty relish for food, drink, etc. ;
enjoys them much; is a good liver; not dainty. Full, has
a good appetite, yet can govern it ; is not greedy. Average,
enjoys food well, but not very well; hence is particular.
Moderate, has not a good, nor very poor, but rather poor,
appetite. Small or very small, is dainty, mincing, particu-
lar about food • eats with little relish.

9. Acquisitiveness.

Love of acquiring and possessuig property as such ; desire to
save, lay up, etc. ; innate feeling of mine and thine, of a right
to possess and dispose of things. Very large, makes money
his idol ; grudges it ; is tempted to get it dishonestly ; penurious,
sordid, covetous, etc. Large, hns a strong desire to acquire
property ; is frugal, saving of money, close and particular in his
dealings, devoted to money-making, trading, etc.; generally
gets the value of his money. Full, values property, both for
itself and what it procures, yet is not penurious; is industrious
and saving, yet supplies his wants. Average, loves money,
but not greatly ; can make it, but spends freely. Moderate,
finds it more difficult to keep than to make money ; desires it
more to supply wants than to lay up ; is hardly saving enough.
Small, will spend money injudiciously ; lays up little ; disre-
gards the prices of things. Very small, cannot be taught the
value or use of money.

54*

"7[

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

10. Secretiveness.

Desire and ability to secrete, conceal, etc. Very large,
seldom appears what he is, or says what he means ; often equiv-
ocates and deceives; is mysterious, dark, cunning, artful, given
to double-dealing, eye-service, etc. Large, seldom discloses
his plans, opinions, etc. ; is hard to be found out ; reserved ;
non-committal. Full, can keep to himself what he wishes to,
yet is not cunning. Average, is not artful nor very frank ; is
generally open ; can conceal. Moderate, is quite candid and
open-hearted; loves truth; dislikes concealment, underhand
measures, etc. ; seldom employs them. Small, speaks out
just what he thinks; acts as he feels; does not wish to learn or
tell the secrets of others, yet freely tells his own ; is too plain-
spoken and candid. Very small, has a transparent heart.

11. Cautiousness.

Carefulness; provision against danger. Very large, hesi-
tates too much ; suffers greatly from groundless fears ; is timid,
easily frightened, etc. Large, is always watchful; on the look-
out; careful, anxious, solicitous; provident against real and
imaginary danger, etc. Full, has prudence and forethought,
yet not too much. Average, has some caution, yet hardly
enough for success. Moderate, is rather imprudent, hence
unlucky ; liable to misfortunes caused by carelessness ; plans
too imperfectly for action. Small, acts impromptu ; disregards
consequences ; fears nothing ; is imprudent, luckless, often in
hot water. Very small, is destitute of fear and forethought.
12. Approbativeness.

Sense of honor ; regard for character ; ambition ; love of
popularity, fame, distinction, etc. Very large, regards his
honor and character as the apple of his eye ; is even morbidly
sensitive to praise and censure; over-fond of show, fashion,
praise, style, etc.; extremely polite, ceremonious, etc. Large,
sets everything by character, honor, etc.; is keenly alive to the
frowns and smiles of public opinion, praise, etc.; tries to show
off to good advantage ; is affable, ambitious, apt to praise himself.
Full, desires and seeks popularity and feels censure, yet will
neither deny nor trouble himself to secure or avoid cither.
Average, enjoys approbation, yet will not sicnfice much to
obtain it. Moderate, feels reproacli some, yet is little affected
by popularity or unpopularity ; may gather the flowers of applause
that are strewed in his path, yet will not deviate from it to col-
lect them. Small, cares little for popular frowns or favors ; feels
little shame; disregards and despises fashions etiquette, etc.; is
not polite. Very small, cares nothing for p >pular favor.

13. Self-Esteem.
Self-respect ; high-toned, manly feeling; innate love of per-
sonal liberty, independence, etc. ; pride of character. Very
large, has unbounded self-confidence; endures no restraint ;
takes no advice; is rather haughty, imperious, etc. Large, is
high-minded, independent, self-confident, dignified, his own
master; aspires to be and do something worthy of himself;
assumes responsibilities ; does few little things. Full, has much
self-respect; pride of character; independence. Average,
respects himself, yet is not haughty. Moderate, has some self-
respect and manly feeling, yet too little to give ease, dignity,

weight of character, etc. ; is too trifling. Small, lets himself
down ; says and does trifling things ; associates with inferiors;
is not looked up to ; lacks independence. Very small, is ser-
vile, low-minded, destitute of self-respect.
14. Firmness.
Decision, stability, fixedness of character, etc. Very large,
is wilful, and so tenacious and unchangeable of opinion, pur-
pose, etc., that he seldom gives up anything. Large, may be
fully relied on; is set in his own way ; hard to be convinced or
changed at all ; holds on long and hard. Full, has persever-
ance enough for ordinary occasions, yet too little for great
enterprises; is neither fickle nor stubborn. Average, has some
decision, yet too little for general success. Moderate, gives over
too soon ; changes too often and too easily ; thus fails to effect
what greater firmness would do. Small or very small, lacks
perseverance ; is too changeable to be relied upon.

15. Conscientiousness.

Innate feeling of du ty, accountability, justice, right, etc.; moral
principle; love of truth. Very large, is scrupulously exact in
matters of right ; perfecdy honest in motive ; always condemn-
ing self and repenting; makes duty everything, expediency
nothing. Large, is honest ; faithful ; upright at heart ; moral
in feeling ; grateful ; penitent ; means well ; consults duty
before expediency ; loves, and means to speak, the truth ; cannot
tolerate wrong. Full, strives to do right, yet sometimes yields
to temptation ; resists besetting sins, but may be overcome, and
then feels remorse. Average, has right intentions, but their
influence is limited. Moderate, has considerable regard for
duty in feeling, but less in practice; justifies himself; is not very
penitent, grateful or forgiving; often temporizes with principle;
sometimes lets interest rule duty. Small, has few conscientious
scruples; little regard for moral principle, justice, duty, etc
Very small, does not feel the claims of duty or justice.

16. Hope.

Anticipation ; expectation of future happiness, success, etc.
Very large, has unbounded hopes; builds castles in the air.
Large, expects, attempts and promises a great deal ; is gener-
ally sanguine, cheerful, etc.; rises above present troubles;
though disappointed, hopes on still ; views the brightest side of
prospects. Full, is quite sanguine, yet realizes about what he
expects. Average, h.is some, but reasonable, hopes; is seldom
elated. Moderate, expects and attempts too little ; succeeds
beyond his hopes ; is prone to despond ; looks on the darker side.
Small, is low-spirited; easily discouraged; fears the worst;
sees many lions in his way; magnifies evils; lacks enterprise.
Very small, expects nothing good; has no hope of the future.

17. Spirituality.
Belief in the supernatural ; credulity. Very large, is
very superstitious ; regards most things with wonder. Large,
believes and delights in the supernatural, in dreams, ghosts, etc.;
thinks many natural things supernatural. Full, is open' to
conviction ; rather credulous ; believes in divine providences,
forcwarnings, the wonderful, etc. Average, believes some,
but not much, in wonders, forewarnings, etc. Moderate, be-
lieves but little that cannot be accounted for yet is open to

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

541

conviction; is incredulous, but listens to evidence. Small,
is convinced only with difficulty ; believes nothing till he sees
facts, or why and wherefore, not even revelation farther than a
reason is rendered ; is prone to reject new things without exam-
ination. Very small, believes little else than his senses.
18. Veneration.
The feeling of worship for a Supreme Being ; respect for
religion and things sacred, and for superiors. Very large,
is eminent, if not pre-eminent, for piety, heart-felt devotion,
religious fervor, seriousness, love of divine things, etc. Large,
loves to adore and worship God, especially through his works ;
treats equals with respect and superiors with deference. Full,
is capable of much religious fervor and devotion, yet is not
habitually serious ; generally treats his fellow-men civilly.
Average, may feel religious worship, yet little respect for men.
Moderate, disregards religious creeds, forms of worship, etc. ;
places religion in other things ; is not serious nor respectful.
Small, feels little religious worship, reverence, respect, etc.
Very small, seldom if ever adores God.

19. Benevolence.
Desire to see and make sentient beings happy ; kindness.
Very large, does all the good in his power ; gladly sacrifices
self upon the altar of pure benevolence ; scatters happiness
wherever he goes; is one of the kindest-hearted of persons.
Large, is kind, obliging; glad to serve others, even to his
injury ; feels lively sympathy for distress ; does good to all.
Full, has a fair share of sympathetic feeling, and some, though
not great, willingness to sacrifice for others. Average, has
kinr\ fellow-feeling without much active benevolence. Moder-
ate, has some benevolent feeling, yet too little to prompt to
much self-denial ; does good only when he can without cost.
Small, feels little kindness or sympathy ; is almost deaf to the
cries of distress ; hard-hearted, selfish, etc. Very small, is
destitute of all humanity and sympathy.

20. Constructiveness.
Mechanical dexterity and ingenuity ; desire and ability to use
tools, build, invent, employ machinery, etc. Very large, is a
mechanic of the first order ; a true genius. Large, shows great
natural dexterity in using tools, executing mechanical opera-
tions, working machinery, etc.; loves them. Full, has fair
mechanical ingenuity, yet no great natural talent or desire to
make things; with practice will do well ; without it, little.
Average, has some, yet not great, relish for and tact in using
tools. Moderate, with much practice, may use tools quite
well, yet dislikes mechanical operations ; owes more to art than
nature. Small, hates, and is awkward and bungling in, using
tools, etc. Very small, has no mechanical skill or desire.

21. Ideality.
Imagination ; taste ; fancy ; love of perfection ; poetry, polite
literature, oratory, the beautiful in nature and art, etc. Very
large, often gives rein to his erratic imagination; experiences
revellings of fancy, ecstasy, rapture of feeling, enthusiasm.
Large, has a lively imagination ; great love of poetry, elo-
quence, fiction, good style, the beauties of nature and art.
Full, has refinement of feeling, expression, etc., without sickly

delicacy; some love of poetry, yet not a vivid imagination.
Average, has some taste, though not enough to influence him
much. Moderate, has some, but not much imagination ; is
rather plain in expression, manners, feeling, etc. ; dislikes
poetry, finery, etc. Small, or very small, lacks taste, niceness,
refinement, delicacy of feeling, etc.

, B. Sublimity.

Conception of grandeur; sublime emotions excited by con-
templating the vast, magnificent or splendid in nature or art.
Very large, is a passionate admirer of the wild and romantic;
feels the sublimest emotions while contemplating the grand or
awful in nature. Large, admires and enjoys scenery, a
vast prospect, etc., exceedingly ; hence, enjoys travelling. Full,
enjoys magnificent scenes well, yet not remarkably so. Aver-
age, sometimes, but not to a great degree, experiences this
feeling. Moderate, has some, though not at all vivid, emo-
tions of this kind. Small or very small, discovers little to
awaken this feeling.

22. Imitation.

Disposition and ability to take pattern, imitate. Very large,
can mimic, act out and copy almost anything ; describe, relate
anecdotes, etc., to the very life; has a theatrical taste and talent;
seldom speaks without gesturing. Large, has a great propen-
sity and ability to copy, take pattern from others, do what he
sees done, etc. ; needs but one showing ; gesticulates much ;
describes and acts out well. Full, with effort, copies some, but
not well ; cannot mimic. Average, copies some, yet too little
to deserve or excite notice. Moderate, cannot mimic at all;
can copy, draw, take pattern, etc., only with difficulty ; describes,
relates anecdotes, etc., poorly. Small, dislikes and fails to copy,
draw, do after others, etc. Very small, has little ability to
imitate or copy anything.

23. Mirthfulness.
Intuitive perception of the absurd and ridiculous ; a joking,
fun-making, ridiculing disposition and ability. Very large, is
quick and apt at turning everything into ridicule, throws off
constant sallies of wit ; is too facetious, jocose, etc. Large,
has a quick, keen perception of the ludicrous ; makes a great
amount of fun ; too much for his own good ; is quick at repartee ;
smiles often; laughs heartily at jokes. Full, has much mirth-
ful feeling; makes and relishes jokes wall. Average, perceives
jokes, and relishes fun, but cannot make much. Moderate,
has some witty ideas, yet lacks quickness in conceiving, and tact
in expressing them; is generally quite sober. Small, makes
little fun; is slow to perceive, and still slower to turn jokes;
seldom laughs ; thinks it wrong to do so. Very small, has
few if any witty ideas or conceptions.

24. Individuality.
Observing and individualizing power and desire ; curiosity to
see and know ; disposition to specify, personify. Very large,
has an insatiable desire to see and know everything ; extraor-
dinary observing powers ; is eager to witness every passing event-
Large, has a great desire to know, investigate, examine, ex-
perience, etc. ; is a great observer of men and things ; quick of
perception ; sees what is transpiring, what should be done, etc.

V-

542

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

Full, has fair observing powers, and desire to see things.
Average, has some, yet no great, curiosity and desire to see
things. Moderate, is rather deficient, yet not palpably so, in
observing power and desire ; not sufficiently specific. Small,
Is slow to see things ; attends little to particulars. Very small,
sees scarcely anything; regards things in the gross.

25. Form.
Cognizance and recollection of shape or configuration. Very
large, never forgets the countenance, form, etc., of persons and
things seen ; easily learns to read and spell correctly ; reads and
sees things at a great distance ; has excellent eyesight. Large,
notices, and for a long time remembers, the faces, countenances,
forms, looks, etc., of persons, beasts, things, etc., once seen ;
knows by sight many whom he may be unable to name. Full,
recognizes persons, countenances, etc., well. Average, recol-
lects forms, faces, etc., quite well, but not very well. Moder-
ate, must see persons several times before he can recollect
them ; sometimes doubts whether he has seen certain persons.
Small or very small, has
a miserable memory of per-
sons, looks, shapes, etc. ;
fails to recognize even those
he sees often.

26. Size.
Cognizance and knowl-
edge of relative magnitude,
bulk, etc. Very large,
detects disproportion, and
judges of size, with won-
derful accuracy, by intui-
tion, and as well without
as with instruments ; cannot
endure inaccuracy. Large,
has an excellent eye for
measuring proportion, size,
height, angles, perpendic-
ulars, etc. ; quickly detects disproportions in them. Full,
can measure ordinary and familiar distances well, yet shows no
remarkable natural talent in it. Average, measures bulk with
tolerable, though not great, accuracy. Moderate, is rather de-
ficient in measuring by the eye ; with practice, may do tolerably
well in short, but fails in long, distances. Small, judges of
relative size, etc., very inaccurately. Very small, can hardly
distinguish mountains from molehills.

27. Weight.
Intuitive perception and application of the principles of spe-
cific gravity, projectile forces, momentum, balancing, resistance.
Very large, has this power to a wonderful extent. Large, can
walk on a high or narrow place ; hold a steady hand, throw a
stone or ball, and shoot, straight ; ride a fractious horse, etc.,
very well. Full, keeps his centre of gravity well, but ventures
little. Average, balances himself tolerably well in ordinary
cases, yet has no great natural talent in this respect. Moderate,
maintains his centre of gravity, etc., rather poorly. Small or
very small, is unlike one with Weight large.

FIG. 5. THE PHRENOLOGICAL ORGANS, AS NUMBERED AND DESCRIBED.

28. Color.
Perception and recollection of colors, hues, tints, etc. Very
large, resembles one with Color large, but excels him. Large,
has taste and talent for comparing, arranging, mingling, apply-
ing and recollecting colors ; is delighted with paintings. Full,
with practice, compares and judges of colors well ; without it-
does not excel. Average, can discern and recollect colors, yet
seldom notices them. Moderate, aided by practice, can discern
and compare colors, yet owes less to nature than art ; seldom
notices colors unless obliged to, and then soon forgets them.
Small, seldom observes the color of one's hair, eyes, dress, etc.;
cannot describe persons by what they wear, or compare colors
apart; hardly distinguishes primary colors by candlelight Very
small, can tell white from black, but do little more.
29. Order.
System ; physical arrangement ; a place for things. Very
large, is very precise and particular to have every little thing
in its place ; literally tormented by disorder ; is fastidious. Large,

has a place for things, and
things in their places; can
find, even in the dark,
what he alone uses ; is sys-
tematic ; annoyed by dis-
order. Full, likes order;
takes much pains to keep
things arranged. Average,
appreciates order, yet not
enough to keep it. Mod-
erate, likes but does not
keep order; allows con-
fusion. Small or very
small, is nearly destitute
of order.

30. Calculation.
Intuitive perception of

the relations of numbers;
ability to reckon figures in the head; numerical computation.
Very large, has an intuitive faculty of reckoning even compli-
cated sums of figures in his head ; delights in it. Large, can
add, subtract, divide, etc., in his head, with facility and correct-
ness ; become a rapid, correct accountant ; delights and excels in
arithmetic. Full, aided by rules and practice may excel in
reckoning figures, and do well in his head, but not without
them. Average, by practice and rules may reckon figures
quite well. Moderate, does sums in his head rather
slowly and inaccurately. Small, is dull and incorrect in add-
ing, dividing, etc.; dislikes it. Very small, can hardly count

31. Locality.
Cognizance and recollection of relative position, looks and
geography of places, etc. ; desire to travel, see the world, etc.
Very large, never forgets the looks, location or geography of
any place, or even thing, he has ever seen ; is even passion-
ately fond of travelling, scenery, geography, etc Large, rec-
ollects distinctly the looks of places where he saw things, etc.;
seldom loses himself, even in the dark ; has a strong desire to

V-

THE STUDY OF CHARACTER.

543

travel, see places, etc. Full, remembers places well, yet is lia-
ble to lose himself in a city or forest ; ordinarily shows no defi-
ciency; seldom loses himself. Average, has a fair, though not
excellent, recollection of places. Moderate, recollects places
rather poorly ; sometimes gets lost. Small or very small, sel-
dom observes where he goes, or finds his way back.

32. Eventuality.
Recollection of 'actions, phenomena, occurrences, what has
taken place, circumstantial and historical facts. Very large,
never forgets any occurrence, even though it is trifling ; has a
craving thirst for information and experiment ; literally devours
books, newspapers, etc ; commands an astonishing amount of
information. Large, has a clear and retentive memory of his-
torical facts, general news, what he has seen, heard, read, etc.,
even in detail. Full, recollects leading events, and interesting
particulars, and has a good memory of occurrences, yet forgets
less important details. Average, has neither a good nor bad
memory of occurrences, etc. Moderate, recollects generals,
not details; is rather forgetful. Small, has a treacherous, con-
fused memory. Very small, forgets almost everything.
' 33. Time.

Cognizance and recollection of succession, the lapse of time,
dates, how long ago things occurred, etc. Very large, remem-
bers with wonderful accuracy the time of occurrences; is punc-
tual; tells the time of day, etc., by intuition. Large, tells dates,
appointments, ages, time of day, etc., well. Full, recollects
about, but not precisely, when things occurred. Average,
notices and remembers dates, times, etc., some, but not well.
Moderate, has rather a poor idea of dates, the time •when, etc.
Small, can seldom tell when things took place; forgets dates.
Very small, is liable to forget even his age.
34. Tune.

Tone; sense of melody and musical harmony; ability to learn
tunes and detect chord and discord by ear ; propensity to sing.
Very large, learns tunes by hearing them sung once or
twice; is literally enchanted by good music; shows intuitive
skill, and spends much time in making it; sings from the heart,
and with melting pathos. Large, easily catches tunes ; learns
to sing and play on instruments by rote ; delights in singing ;
has a correct musical ear. Full, can learn tunes by ear well,
yet needs help from notes. Average, likes music ; with prac-
tice, may perform tolerably well. Moderate, aided by notes
and practice, may sing, yet it will be mechanically ; lacks that
soul and feeling which reaches the heart. Small, learns to
sing or play tunes either by note or rote with great difficulty ;
sings mechanically, and without emotion or effect. Very small,
Can hardly discern one tune or note from another.

35. Language.

Power of expressing ideas, feelings, etc., by means of words;
ability to talk. Very large, has, by nature, astonishing com-
mand of words, copiousness and eloquence of expression, and
verbal memory ; quotes with ease ; is an incessant talker ; has
too many words. Large, is a free, easy, ready, fluent talker and
speaker; uses good language; commits easily; seldom hesi-
tates for words. Full, commands a fair share of words, yet

uses familiar expressions • is neither fluent northe reverse ; when
excited, expresses himself freely, yet not copiously. Average,
can communicate his ideas tolerably well, yet finds some diffi-
culty ; uses common words ; can write better than speak. Mod-
erate, often hesitates for words ; employs too few ; may write
well, and be a critical linguist, but cannot be an easy, fluent
speaker. Small, employs few words, and those commonplace ;
in speaking, hesitates much ; is barren in expression ; commits
slowly. Very small, can hardly remember or use words.

36. Causality.

Cognizance of the relations of cause and effect ; ability to
apply them, or to adapt means to ends ; power of reasoning,
etc. Very large, is endowed with a deep, strong, original,
comprehensive mind, powerful reasoning faculties, great vigor
and energy of thought, first-rate judgment, and a gigantic intel-
lect. Large, plans well; can think clearly and closely; is
always enquiring into the why and the wherefore, the causes and
explanation of things; always gives and requires the reason; has
by nature excellent judgment, good ideas, a strong mind, etc.
Full, adapts means to ends well; has an active desire to ascer-
tain causes, yet not a deep, original, cause-discovering and ap-
plying mind. Average, has some, but not great, ability to plan
and reason. Moderate, is rather slow of comprehension ; defi-
cient in adapting means to ends; has not good ideas or judg-
ment. Small, has a weak, imbecile mind; cannot contrive or
think. Very small, little idea of causation ; is a natural fool.
37. Comparison.

Perception of analogies, resemblances, differences ; ability to
compare, illustrate, criticise, classify, generalize, etc. Very
large, is endowed with an extraordinary amount of critical
acumen, analytical, comparing and illustrating power. Large,
has a happy talent for comparing, illustrating, criticising, argu-
ing from similar cases, discriminating between what is and is
not analogous or in point, classifying phenomena, and thereby
ascertaining their laws, etc. Full, illustrates, discriminates, etc.,
well, but not remarkably so. Average, perceives striking anal-
ogies ; illustrates tolerably well. Moderate, may discern
obvious similarities, yet overlooks others. Small or very
small, is almost destitute of this power.

C. Human Nature.

Discernment of character and perception of motive. Large
or very large, perceives, as if by intuition, the character and
motives of men from their physiognomy, conversation, etc. ; is
suspicious, and seldom deceived ; naturally understands human
nature. Moderate or small, seldom suspects others ; is easily
imposed upon, learns human nature slowly ; does not know well
how to take men.

D. Suavity.

Ability to render oneself agreeable ; pleasantness. Large
or very large, readily wins confidence and affection, even of
enemies ; can say and do hard things without creating difficulty ;
obtain favors ; get along well ; so say and do things that they
take. Average or full, neither excels nor is deficient in this
respect. Moderate or small, is deficient in the power de-
scribed ; says pleasant things unpleasantly, and does not succeed
in winning people's good graces.

=SH

544

DICTIONARY OK FACTS AND FIGURES.

r:R niCTiDNnRYa

«-.***:

©ocr ©ne 4)wti)«i> ®!jausan& SSmpariant Kefmntee, arrange*) in Alcljakikal ©rbcr, anb
311ustrateb roiiij ©riginal Diagrams an tljc Hero plan of ©bject-®«acljing.

RUE statistics are the record of in-
dustrial history. He who cannot
read what is written between their
lines, or interwoven in their col-
umns, may rest content with the
narrative of wars and dynasties, or of political
changes, and may imagine that he knows the
true history of events. But can he tell how the
people lived and moved — how wars and dynas-
ties have been sustained ? If he cannot, let him
study what figures can teach to any one who
knows how to master them — the industrial his-
tory of free nations. The battle is not to the
heaviest battalions, but to the people who can
sustain the battalions longest. It is the com-
missary-general who wins, for without him the
master of the ordnance would be powerless.
In the battle of life it is the same, if there were
no prophecy of the future in the statistics of the
past and present there would be no meaning to
the computations, and the disclosures of the
census would be without value.

It is not the province of the HOME LI-
BRARY to advance new theories in political
economy, or to discuss theories already put
forth, but it has been the endeavor of the editor

to present in small compass, in compact, acces-
sible and attractive form, a vast amount of valu-
able information, gathered from the most reli-
able sources. The wealth and resources of
States and Nations, population, religion, com-
merce, labor and capital, and all important sub-
jects of discussion, are treated fully in their
proper place, while subjects of minor import-
ance, though often of equal interest, have not
been neglected. In short, the object of the fol-
lowing Dictionary of Facts and Figures is to
afford ready reference on subjects of statistical
interest.

ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY.— The increase in area of
the United States, by war and treaty, is shown in the annexed
table :

Whin.

How.

Whence.

What. .

Sq. Miles.

By treaty...
By treaty. . .
By union. . .
By treaty.. .

By treaty . . .
By treaty...

England....
England . . .

J The thirteen origi- \
\ nal States * .... f

Ii 0tt

318,000
308,051

5" .955
45.S35

■8,5

■ 846 X

•MJ

'853

f Califom.a & New)

1 Mexico* .J

Gadsden Purchase/7.

M%/W

a K ■.[mulct! cost of War of Independence, $168,000,000,
b Purchased for 115,000,000. c Cost $3,000,000.
d Debt of Texas on admission into the Union, $7,500,000.
e Rstimated co*t of the Mexican Wax, 415,000,000.
/Cost $10,000,000. / Cost $7,000,000.

DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES.

545

AGE. — A man's working life is divided into four decades :
20 to 30, bronze ; 30 to 40, silver ; 40 to 50, gold ; 50 to 60, iron.
Intellect and judgment are strongest between 40 and 50. ( The
percentages of population to age in various countries are shown
thus:

Country.

United States .

England

Scotland

Ireland

Fr.ince

Germany

Italy

Austria

Greece

Spain

Brazil

Belgium

Holland

Denmark

Sweden

Norway

Percentage of Population.

Under

From

20 Years.

20 to 60

5°

7 '

4°

5°

Average age

of all living

Years.

24.9
27.1
=7-4
28.6
32.2
28.0
27.6
27.7
25-5
27.3
27.3
29.7
28.3
28.4
28.0
28.0

The Americans are the youngest, the French the oldest.

AIR. — In its pure state air is composed thus: Nitrogen, 77 ;
oxygen, 21 ; other components, 2; total, 100.

The percentage of oxygen varies as follows : Sea-shore, 21.00 ;
confined houses, 20.75; mines, 20.50; when candles go out,
18.50.

The percentage of carbonic acid ranges thus : In country. .03 ;
in town, .04 ; in hospitals, .05 ; in fogs, .07 ; in crowded lanes,
13; in theaters, 30.

Each adult inhales a gallon of air per minute, and consumes
daily 30 oz. of oxygen. For the conversion of this oxygen a
certain amount of food is required — say 13 oz. of carbon for a
male, and 1 r oz. for a female, equivalent to 3 lbs. bread and 2]/ z
lbs. respectively.

ALCOHOL. — The degrees in wines and liquors are : Beer,
4.0; porter, 4.5; ale, 7.4; cider, 8.6; perry, S. 8; elder, 9.3;
Moselle, 9.6; Tokay, 10.2; Rhine, 11.0; Orange, II. 2; Bor-
deaux, II. 5; hock, 11. 6; gooseberry, 11. 8; champagne, 12.2;
claret, 13.3; Burgundy, 13.6; Malaga, 17.3; Lisbon, 18.5;
Canary, 18.8; sherry, 19.0; Vermouth, 19.0 ; Cape, 19.2;
Malmsey, 19.7; Marsala, 20.2; Madeira, 21.0; port, 23.2;
curacoa, 27.0; aniseed, 33.0; Maraschino, 34.0 ; Chartreuse,
43.0; gin, 51.6; brandy, 53.4; rum, 53.7; Irish whisky, 53.9 ;
Scotch, 54.3.

Spirits are said to be " proof" when they contain 57 per cent.
The maximum amount of alcohol, says Parkes, that a man can
take daily without injury to his health is that contained in 2 oz.
brandy, "^ pt. of sherry, ]/ 2 pt. of claret, or I pt. of beer.

ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS.— A table of the comparative con-
sumption of alcoholic liquors was compiled by the London
Times recently, with some interesting results. The av-
erage yearly consumption per head is given in liters (a
liter is a little less than a quart) :

Spirits. Wine. Beer.

Liters. Liters. Liters.

Canada 3.08 0.29 8.51

Norway 3.90 1.00 15.30

United States 4.79 2.64 31.30

Great Britain and Ireland 5.37 2.09 143.92

Austria-Hungary 5.76 22.40

France 7.28 119.20

Russia 8.08 Unknown.

Sweden 8.14 0.36

German Zollverein 8.60 6.00

Belgium 9.20 3.70

Switzerland 15.30 55.00

Netherlands. 9.87 2.57

Denmark 18.90 1.00

28.42
21.10
4.65
11.00
65.00
169.20
37-5o
27.00
33-33

Belgium, it seems, contains the greatest number of beer-
drinkers, with Great Britain second in this list, and Germany,
contrary to common opinion, only third. France drinks the
most wine, and Switzerland comes next, while the amount ac-
credited to the United States, though comparatively small, yet
exceeds that of Great Britain. Canada is the most moderate
drinker of all.

ANIMALS.

Weight Years

(lbs). of Life.

Rabbit 2 5

Dog 10 12

Sheep 70 12

Pig 160 10

Lion 500 40

Weight
(lbs}.

Cow 750

Ox 900

Horse 1 ,000

Camel 1,200

Elephant 6,000

Years
of Life.
25
25
27
40
100

AQUEDUCTS. — Among modern works the most famous are :

Length.

Miles.

Croton (New York) 41

Madrid 47

Marseilles 51

Glasgow 34

Washington 16

Million gal's

daily. Cost.

88 $ 9,000,000

40 11,500,000

60 2,250,000

50 7,775,ooo

Rome, in the time of the Caesars, had nine aqueducts, measur-
ing 249 miles in the aggregate, and with a daily capacity of
320,000,000 gallons, or 200 gallons per inhabitant. The great
aqueduct of Peru, built by the Incas, was 360 miles long.

ARMY. — Proportions. — According to Napoleon the propor-
tions of an army should be 70 per cent infantry, 17 per cent
cavalry, and 13 per cent between artillery, engineers and train.

Death rate. — In active service the death rate among officers
is heavier than among the rank and file. The Duke of Wel-
lington's army roll from 1811 to 1814 showed the following

percentage :

Officers. Men.

Killed 14.5 10.2

Wounded 81.0 49.0

Died of Disease 13.0 38.0

Able-bodied. — The percentage of men capable of bearing
arms in various countries is as follows : England, 23 ; Scotland,
22; Ireland, 22; France, 27; Airatria, 25; Germany, 24;
Italy, 25 ; Belgium, 25 ; Holland, 25 ; Spain, 26 ; Denmark,
25; Sweden, 25; Norway, 24; United States, 23 ; Greece, 23.

See diagram Military and Naval Strength, page 335.

ARTILLERY.— At the close of tbe Franco-German war the
Germans took from the French 7,234 pieces of cannon, includ-
ing 3,485 field pieces and 3,300 fortress guns. At the battle of
Waterloo the British artillery fired 9,467 rounds, or one for
every Frenchman killed. See Ordnance.

AUTHORS. — Goldsmith received $300 for the " Vicar of
Wakefield;" Moore, $15,500 for " Lalla Rookh ; " Victor
Hugo, $12,000 for "Hernani;" Chateaubriand, $110,000 for
his works; Lamartine, $16,000 for "Travels in Palestine;"
Disraeli, $50,000 for " Endymion ; " Anthony Trollope, $315,-
000 for forty-five novels; Lingard, $21,500 for his " History of
England."

■T

Receipts and Expenditures United States Government.

For the fiscal year 1891.

PUBLIC DEBTS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 1391.

UNIT OF SCALE $ 2.475.000.

"ggr

FRANCE

4,440,793,393

RUSSIA
3,491,018,074

GUEST BRITAIN
3,350,719,563

AUSTRIA HUN.

2,866,339,539

ITALY

2,324,826,329

Bolivia
14,7ti3,e»7

Ecuador
13,738,480

Switzerland
10,S12,tf26

Hawaii

2302,235

Nicaragua
1,711,206

STATE DEBTS, UNITED STATES.

UNIT OF SCALE $51,675.

Oregon $

Vermont

West Virginia. .

Idaho

Iowa

Nebraska

Washington ....

Wyoming

Rhode Island. . .

Nevada

Colorado

North Dakota . .

2.337
148,416
184,511
240,128
245.435
253.879
300,000
320,000
422,984
509.526
599,851
689,807

Arizona

South Dakota.
New Mexico. .
Delaware

757,158
860,200
870,961

887,583

New Jersey 1,022,642

Florida 1,032,500

Kansas 1,119,791

Illinois 1,184,907

Kentucky 1,671,133

Wisconsin 2,295,390

Minnesota 2,239,482

New York $ 2,308,229

California 2,527,624

New Hampshire 2,691,019

Maine 3,470,908

Mississippi 3,503,008

Connecticut .... 3,740,200

Pennsylvania . . . 4,090,792

Texas 4,3i7,5i4

Michigan 5,308,294

South Carolina. 6,566,849

Ohio 7,135,805

Massachusetts . .
North Carolina.
Maryland . . . . ^

Indiana

Arkansas

Georgia

Missouri

Alabama

Louisiana

Tennessee

D. of Columbia.
Virginia

I 7,267,349

7,703,100

8,434,368

8,540,615

8,671,782

10,449,542

11,759,832

12,413,196

16,008,585

I7-49-.474
19,781,050
31,067,137

MNE&1CT4 CO-.EKfiK 3 CHICAGO

548

DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES.

1fl

BALLOONS. — The most remarkable ascents on record :

Date.

Aeronaut.

Place of Ascent.

Height.
Yards.

Distance.

Miles.

'783

1836

1859

1863

Holland

2, GOO
7.700

12,000

Paris

500
1,150

Wise

Wolverhampton

During the siege of Paris — September, 1870, to February,
1871 — there were 64 balloons sent up, containing 91 passengers,
354 P'g eons > an d 3,000,000 letters (weighing 9 tons).

Mr. Glaisher states that in 3,500 balloon ascents only 15
deaths have occurred, that is, about four per thousand.

BANKING. — The capital employed in banking In the prin-
cipal countries is as follows : Great Britain, $4,020,000,000 ;
United States, $2,655,000,000; Germany, $1,425,000,000;
France, $1,025,000,000; Austria, $830,000,000 ; Russia, $775,-
000,000; Italy, $455,000,000; Australia, $425,000,000; Can-
ada, $175,000,000.

On Sept. 1, 1891, there were 3,577 national hauls in the
U. S., with a capital of $660,108,261, and a surplus of
$222,766,668. The dividends for one year aggregated $50,-
795,011 and total net earnings for same time, $75,763,614.

Since 1840 the banking of the world has increased about
eleven-fold, that is, three times as fast as commerce, or thirty
times faster than population.

BAROMETER. — The mean height of barometer varies ac-
cording to latitude as follows :

Dogm of

Latitude.

Degree of
Latitude.

Barometer.

1° =9-98

ao 30.06 50

30 30.11 60

40 30.03 67

It varies according to elevation as follows
Feet Mean

.above Sea. Barometer,
Sea level .... o 30.00

Rome 151 39.76

20-45

Barometer.

30-00
39.81
29.80
39.67

Feet Mean

above Sea. Barometer.
Madrid.... 1,995 27.73

151 29.76 St. Remy.. 5,365 34.45

Milan 430 39.45 St. Gothard 6,808 33.07

Moscow .... 984 38.83 Mexico .... 7,471 22.52

Geneva »,33i 28.54 Bogota.... 8,731 31.43

Munich i.7 6 5 ^7-95 Quito 9»54* 20.75

Mr. Glaisher's barometer in his various balloon ascents
marked as follows : At a height of 1 mile, 24.7 in. ; 2 miles,
20.3 in. ; 3 miles, 16.7 in. ; 4 miles, 13.7 ; 5 miles, 1 1.3.

BARRENNESS. — One woman in 20, one man in 30 — about
4 per cent. It is found that one marriage in 20 is barren — 5
per cent. Among the nobility of Great Britain, 21 per cent
have no children, owing partly to intermarriage of cousins, no
less than 4 j£ per cent being married to cousins.

BATTLES. — The numbers placed hors-de-combat are not rel-
atively so large as formerly, as the table below will show :

Men Engaged. Hors-de-combat. Ratio.

Thrasymene

Cannae

rckburn
Agincourt...

Crccy

Marengo. . . .
Austcrfitt
Borodino . ..
Waterloo ...

Alma

Sadowa

Gravelotte . .
Gettysburg . ,

65,000
146,000
135 .000

H/100

117,000
58,000
170,000
35:1,000
145,000
103,000

403, of a
330,000
140,000

17,000

»7

52,000

38,000

11,400

■8

31,200

»7

13,000

7 090

»3

51,000

3 l

8,400

33>ooo

8,000

»7 per cent.

See also diagram, page 546.

TEA. — Production in millions of pounds: China, 290;
Japan, 35; India, 90; Java, 7 ; Paraguay, 10. Total, 432. Con-
sumption: Great Britain, 167; United States, 81 ; Australia, 14;
Russia, 37; Various, 114. Total, 403.

TELEGRAPH.— The United States have 715,591 miles oi
telegraph lines; Russia, 69,000; France, 59,000; Germany,
58,500; Austria-Hungary, 31,000; the United Kingdom, 27,000.

TELEPHONES.— See diagram, Railroads, page 578.

TEMPERATURE. — The temperature of the sea varies as fol-

lows:

Fathoms.
o
100
200
300
500

Height,
Feet.

3.724
6,740
9,029

Equator.
77-9
55-6
46.6
42.2
38.9

Fathoms.
800
1,000
1,200
1,500
2,700

Mountains (Humboldt).

38 N.
70.0

63-5
60.6
60.0
46.7

Equator.

37- 1

36.9

36.7
36.1
34-7

38 N.
38.t
37-9

36.7

35-*

Depression of

Thermometer.

14.07

2 3-3'
30.07

Height,
Feet.
10,790
'5,744
19,286

Depression of
Thermometer.

34-7*
49.62
57-38

1234,
1420.
1468.
1658.
1766,

Frost.

traffic with carts.

Mediterranean frozen :
Bosphoms frozen.
Wine at Antwerp sold in blocks.
Swedish artillery crossed the Sound.
Snow knee-deep at Naples.
1789. Fahrenheit thermometer marked 23 below zero at Frankfort, and 36

at Basle.
1809. Moscow, 48 below zero, greatest cold recorded there : mercury

frozen.
1829. Jakoutsk, Siberia, 73 below zero on 25th January : greatest cold on

any record.
1846. December marked 25 below zero at Pontarlier : lowest ever marked

in France.
1855. Fires on Serpentine, Hyde Park.

1864. January, Fahrenheit stood at zero in Turin : greatest cold recorded in
Italy.

Captain Parry, in his Arctic explorations, suffered for some
time 51 degrees below zero. Frost is diminishing in Canada
with the increase of population, as shown by the fact that Hud-
son's Bay was closed, from l828-'37, 184 days per annum, and
from l87l-'8o only 179 days per annum.

Summer Heat in Various Countries.

The following figures show the extreme summer heat in the various coun-
tries of the world :

Bengal and the African desert, 150 Fahrenheit ; Senegal and Guada-
loupe, 130 ; Persia, 125 : Calcutta and Central America, 120; Afghanistan
ana the Arabian desert, no° : Cape of Good Hope and Utah, 105 ; Greece,
104 ; Arabia, 103 ; Montreal, 103 ; New York,ioa°; Spain, India, China,

9 «^

The World's Yearly Production of Gotton and Tobacco.

(From Latest Governmental Reports.)

TOBACCO.

States not named.

Washington. -

Oregon,

Florida, - - , -

South Carolina, -

Louisiana,

Nebraska,

Minnesota,

California,

Michigan

Vermont,

New Hampshire, -

New Jersey,

Kansas, -

Texas, ...

Georgia, -

Mississippi. -

Iowa, •

Alabama,

Arkansas,

Illinois,

West Virginia, -

Massachusetts,

New York, -

Wisconsin,

Missouri,

Connecticut, J

Indiana, -

NO. OV
ACRES.

£ ° — -~

-*•§•- HEIEIK. F > l s iOIDI!JG / riON.-l^-

Number of barrels brewed hi U. S.,
year ending May i, 1891,

30,021,079

31 gallons to the barrel.

1891.

Number of Barrels in Various Countries, 1889.

Great Britain,
33,870,967

United States
25.119.853

Austria,

9.354.839

u. °
e

1 r— J

RussiaJ 2,967,

Germany,
2g.032.258

742

Holland, [ 1
1,064,516 J (

Denmark, fT""Tj

967.741 U J I

Sweden,
645,161

Switzerland,!

7 < i " ~ -

576

DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES.

and Jamaica, ioo° ; Siena Leone, 94"; France, Denmark, St. Petersburg,
Shanghai, the Burman Empire Buenos Ayres, and the Sandwich Islands,
90 ; Great Briuin, Siam, and Peru, 85 ; Portugal, Pckin, and Natal, 8o°;
Siberia, 77°; Australia and Scotland, 75°; Italy, Venezuela, and Madeira,
73 ; Prussia and New Zealand, 70 ; Switzerland and Hungary, 66°; Bava-
ria, Sweden, Tasmania, and Moscow, 65°; Patagonia and the Falkland
Isles, 55°; Iceland, 45°; Nova Zcmbla, 34°.

THERMOMETER.—

Reaumur. Centigrade. Fahrenheit .

Freezing point o o 3a

Vine cultivation 8 10 50

Cotton cultivation 16 20

Temperature of Brazil 24 3° 8 7

Hatching eggs 33 40 104

40 50 132

48 60 I40

56 TO I58

64 SO I76

72 CO 194

Waterboils 80 xoo aia

TOBACCO.— See diagram, page 574.

TUG-BOATS. — One tug on the Mississippi can take, in six
days, from St. Louis to New Orleans, barges carrying 10,000
tons of grain, which would require 70 railway trains of fifteen
cars each. Tugs in the Suez Canal tow a vessel from sea to sea
in 44 hours.

VELOCITY. — The average velocity of various bodies is here

given :

Per hour. Per sec.

A man walks 3 miles, or 4 feet.

A horse trots 7 '* or 10 "

A horse runs 20 " or 29 "

Steamboats move ■ 18 " or ao "

Sailing vessels move • 10 " or 24 *'

Slow rivers flow - 3 " or 4 **

Rapid rivers flow 7 " or 10 '*

A moderate wind blows 7 " or xo "

A storm moves 36 ' or 53 "

A hurricane moves 80 " or 117 "

A rifle ball moves 963 " or 1,466 "

Sound moves 743 " or 1,142 "

Light moves 192,000 miles per second.

Electricity moves 288,000 " " "

Velocity of a Bullet.

Grains, Velocity,

Powder. Feet per second.

Smooth-bores no 1 ,500

Rifle 60 963

WAGES AND COST OF LIVING— From the report of the
Secretary of State on the state of labor in Europe, derived
from facts reported by the United States Consuls cor-
rected to 1S92. the following tables are gleaned :

Comparative Rates of Weekly Wages Paid in Europe and in
the United States.

France.

Ger-
many.

Italy.

Great
Britain.

Unitbd States.

New
Yorlc.

Chicago.

5-55

5-45
4.85
4.00
6.00

5Ma
,3'«5

4.90

3.50

3 '1 S
3.82

3.60
3-97

4.00
2.87

2.92

3 3 1o
3.60

♦••a

3"
3.58
3.65

3.90
3-94
3.90
3-45
3-95

4.18
3.50
a. 60
4.60
4-35
3.90
3.90
4-3'

3.60

6.50- 6.60
7.04- 8.1a
6.50- 7.83
7.58- 0.03
7.70-8.48

7 33" 8. »5
3.40- 4>as
4.50- 5.00
7.1;- 8.16
7.(18-1.!. 1 t
7.13- 8.46
7-5»- 7-75
7-35
5.00- 7.30
6.00- 7.30

IO-I4
I2-|8
12-15
9-I3

9-I2

•.*„

9- la
9- ao
9- ">H
7" '5

7%-"

Cabinet-makers ....
Carpenters and Join-

Laborers , Porters , etc

IO-iO

10-15
12-18
8-1 3
12-18
10-18
10-14

sK-9

9" »5

5.50
4.70
4-75
5.10

4-4"

Printers

la- 18

9- 18
6- 18

9- la

Comparative Retail Pricea of the Necessaries of Life.

Beef, Roast.... lb.
Corned.. .lb.

Beans qt

Bread lb

butter lb

Coal ton.

Codfish lb.

Coffee lb.

Eggs doz

Flour lb

Lard lb

Milk qt

Mutton lb

Oatmeal lb

Pork, fresh ... lb

" salted lb.

" Bacon. . .lb.

" Sausage. lb.
Potatoes.. ..bushel

Rice .
Soap . .
Sugar.
Tea...

.lb.
..lb.
..lb.
..lb.

Cents
aa

3-7

I4-25

21
4
uH

8
'7
'7
ao
■9
5°

Cents

at
$11.00

• i

(1. 15

Cents.
22

18-20

*9-3»
fa.65-f4.10
6- 8
28-50
14-30
JK-4X
12-18

16-17

372-474"
10-16
10-16
12-16
18
68-fa.co

la- 9

5X-l°
4 88

Umttbu States.

New York. Chicago.

Cents.
ia-16
8-12
7-10
4-4H

»3-»S-25
6- 7
30-30
25-30
3- 4
10-1 a
8-10
0-10

8-10
8-10
8-10
8-10
fl-40-ff .60
8-10
6-7
8-10
50-60

Cents.
8-iaX
4- 7
5-9 ,

£' H
10 m

? » 7

16-40

10-94

"H-47.

6-IO

3-«

S->««
4" 5
4- 5
6-ia
7-"
6-10
60-80
5-10
3-8
7-.0
25-fi.oo

WAR. — The cost of recent wars, according to figures furnished
by the London Peace Society, is as follows :

Crimean war £340,000,000

Itiili.-tn war of 1859 60,000,000

American civil war — North 940,000,000

" " " — South 460,000,000

Schleswig-Holstein war 7,000,000

Austrian and Prussian war, 1&66 66,000,000

Expeditions to Mexico, Morocco, Paraguay, etc., (say only) 40,000,000

Franco-Prussian war 500,000,000

Russian and Turkish war, 1877 a 10,000,000

Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 30,000,000

,£2,653,000,000

This would allow £10 for every man, woman and child on the

habitable globe. It would make two railways all round the

world at $250,000 per mile each.

Summary of Loaaea from War in Twenty-Five Yeara (iSjs-*).)

Killed in battle, or died
of wounds and disease.

Crimean war

Italian war, 1859

Waiwf.Schleswig-Holstein

American civil war — the North

" M " —the South

War between Prussia, Austria and Italy, in :866. ...
Expeditions to Mexico, Cochin China, Morocco,

Paraguay, etc

Franco-German war of 1870-71 — France

" *' " " " — Germany

•Russian and Turkish war of 1877

Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879

Total.

.■.1;-, ■•»■

Length and Coat of American Wara.

Wars. Length.

War of the revolution 7 years— 1775-1782

Indian war in Ohio territory 179°

Warwith the Barbary States 1803-1804

1811

Cost.

■i.r>i

Tecumseh Indian war..

War with Great Briuin

Algcrine war

First Seminole war

Black Hawk war

Second Seminole war

1 war a

Mormon war

Civil war 4

3 years— 1811-181$
1815
1817
183a

5 j6-iM

■856

J<l IMS

66,000,000

•About thirty thousand skeletons of Russian and Turkish soldiers wee
shipped to England in 1881, as manure, in the form .fboaes or bone dust.

° --

"71

DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES.

577

Quota of Troops Furnished b>
ing the

the States
Civil War.

and Territories Dur-

WAR EXPENDITURE.— See diagrams, pages 546, 563.

States and Territories.

Troops

furnished.

Si gJi

Number
of men
drafied.

225

Slfl'5

« o3

»- O Q.

£-2

WATER. — One cubic foot == 62^ lbs., or 6^ gallons. One
cubic foot sea water = 64 lbs., or 6^ gallons. One gallon of
water =10 lbs., or 277 cubic inches. One inch of rainfall equals
14,500,000 gallons per square mile. Eight cubic feet of snow
will produce one cubic foot of water. Current requires a mini-

375.131

914,164

1,098,088

19,079

301 ,062

54,137

3>53 IJ

93-441

7,916

13,922
12,711

103,807
362,686
203 ,924

I2.0

12.2

.3.6

4-3
B.3

mum fall of one-tenth inch per mile.

WATER-POWER.— Niagara = ten million cubic feet per

45.184
63.57^

106,412

minute, say three million horse-power nominal, or nine million

In the United Slates there are 51,000 water-wheels, with iyi
million horse-power aggregate.

fa .859,1 32

143,304

733
5,083
7.1=2

776,829

9.1

WEALTH OF NATIONS.— The wealth of the principal

nations of the world is thus given by Mulhall. The figures

156,240

represent millions sterling :

United States

United Kingdom...

France

Germany

Russia

Austria

Italy

Spain

Holland

Belgium

Sweden

Canada

Mexico

Australia

Portugal

Denmark

Argentine Republic.

Switzerland

Norway

Greece

Total

Land

and

Forest.

1,150

1,880

1,930

-,4 2 °

1,940

[,590

905

740

220

270

444

230

125

192

170

216

122
HO

173

16,939

378

2 35
212

231
345
205
5"
57
33
3°
42
35
32
66
11
3"
54

Rail-
ways.

1,190

770

494

467

3°9

255

108

7 3

33
6

Public
Works.

527
547
59°
442
224
i88

131
60
125

41
32
30

28
15
II

6
30
13

2,780
2,280

1,470
880
770
656

140
62

240
108
80
44
72
70
24
44

Furni-
ture.

",385

1,140

945

735

44o

385

328

170

7°

120

6,098

Merchan-
dise.

"55

165

155
60
64
48
22
61
58
14

Bullion.

'57
M3
301
108
34
20
45
41
17
29
4

Shipping.

2S3

7'3
1,255
518
280
104
132
65
77
326
105
35
41
67
'4
21
16

Total.

9,495

8,720

8,c6o

6,323

4.343

3.613

2,35t

",59S

987

806

&95

650

63b

590

371

366

332

324

282

211

WEIGHT AND STATURE OF MAN.—

Age.

■5
■7

50
60

70
80

Mean weight 103.66

Feet.

..64

2.60

3.04

3-44

4.00

4.36

4.72

5.07

5.36

5-44

5.49

5-52

Lbs.

7.06
25.01
3'-38
38.80
49-95
59-77
75.8i

110.56
127.59
132.46
140.38
140.42
139.96
136.07
131.27
127-54
127.54

Feet.

1.62
2.56
3.00
3.38
3-92
4.26
4.60
4.92
5.10
5-13.
5.16
5.18
5.18
5-04
4-97
4-97
4-94
4-94

Lbs.

6.42

23-53
28.67
35-29
47.10

56-57
72.65
89.04
104.34
112.. 55
"5-3°
119.82
121. 81
123.86
119.76
113.60
108.80
108.81

93-73

The average weight of a male infant at birth, it will be seen,
is a little over 7 lbs. ; of a female infant, a little less than 6j£

•This gives colored troops enlisted in the States in rebellion ; besides
this, there were 92,576 colored troops, included (with the white soldiers) in
the quotas of the several states ; the second column gives the aggregate of
colored, but many enlisted South were credited to the Northern states.

lbs. Children lose weight during the first three days after birth ;
at the age of a week they sensibly increase, and at the end of
one year they triple their weight.

WHEAT. — See diagram, Yearly Wheat Crop, page 566.

WIND. — Velocity and pressure:

Feet per

Miles

Pressure — lbs.

Feet per

Miles

Pressure — lbs

Second.

per hour.

per sq. fool.

Second.

per hour.

per >q. foot.
.6 lbs.

3»

1 oz.

4 oz.

20'X "

1 lb.

100

25 "

2^ lbs.

3°tf "

4 "

120

36 "

iM. "

130

42J*"

140

40 ".

121/ "

»5°

102

56 "

lj£=

WINE. — See Alcoholic Liquors.

WOMEN WORKERS.— In the U nited States there are said
to be women workers as follows : Artists, 2,061 ; authors, 320;
barbers, 2,902 ; commercial travelers, 272 ; dressmakers, millin-
ers, etc., 281,928; journalists, 288; lawyers, 75; musicians, 13,-
l8l ; physicians, 2,432 ; preachers, 1 65 ; printers, 3,456 ; tailors
52,098; teachers, 154,375; telegraphers, 1,131.

fThis is the aggregate of troops furnished for all periods of servic<
from three months to three years' time. Reduced to a uniform three years'
standard, the whole number of troops enlisted amounted to 2,320,272,

i 1

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Difference between Old and New Standards at Points which have been Established Standards under the Old

System. (/. faster. S. slower.)
Compared with Eastern Time: Albany, N. Y., 5 minutes f.; Baltimore, Md., 6 m. ».; Bath, Me., 90 m. f.; Boston, Mass., 16 m. f.; Charlea-
SJ'i j ' *? m ' s ' : Detroit, Mich., 33 m. s.; Hamilton, Ont., ig m. s.; Montreal, Que., 6 m. f.: New London, Conn., 13 m. f.: New York City, 4 m. t:
Philadelphia, Pa., 1 m. «.; Port Hope, Can., 14 m. s.; Port Huron. Mich., 30 m. s.: Portland. Me., 10 m. f ; Providence R. I., 14 m. f.; Richmond,
Va., 10 m. s.. Savannah, Ga., 94 m. ».! Toronto, Can., 17 m. s.; Washington, D. C, 8 m. s. Camparrd trith Central Time: Atchison, Kan., 94
"V'i •*i lanla . G »-. " m - f-: Chicago, 111., 9 m. f.; Cincinnati O., 99 m. f ■ Columhits.O., 98m.f.: Detroit. Mich.. 98 m. f.; Dubuque, U.jm.i.; Han-
nibal, Mo., 1 m. s.; Houston, Tex., 34 m. s.; Indianapolis, Ind., 16 m. f: Jefferson City, Mo., 9 m. a.; Kansas City, Mo., 19 m. s.: Loui*\illr, K.\.. hi
F' sit M acon ' &*■• ?9 nt. f.: Minneapolis, Minn., 13 m. s.; Mobile, Ala., 8 m. f.; Nashville, Tenn., 13 m. f.: New Orleans, La., exactly the same. Oma-
ha, Neb., as m. s.; Port Huron, Mich., 30 m. f.; St. Louia, Mo., 1 m. s : St. Paul. Minn , ia m. s.; Savannah, Ga., 16 m. (.: Selma, Ala., u m. f
City, la., 36 m. s.; Terre Haute, Ind., 10 m. C; Vicksburg. Miss., 3 m. s.: Winona, Minn . 7 ni < Vomparrd trith Mountain Time: Denver,
Col,, exactly the same: I-aramie, W. T„ 6 m. s ; Sail Lake City, U.T.. 98 m. s. Compared

land, Or., 10 in. s.; San Francisco, Cal., to at', s

, 98 m. s. Cotnparrd trith IWific Time: Kalama, Wash. T., to m. s.;
Intereohtnial Time, touching 1 niy HihUx. St. JoM lad OMaWa, al onutird.

Port-

580

GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES.

581

HSTATIST1GS OF POPULATIONS

A TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE

COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES.

SHOWING THEIR RANK ACCORDING TO POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS

FROM 1790 TO 1890.

States and
Territories.

1790

1800

1810

1820

1830

1840

1860

1870

1880

1890

3,929,214

5^08,483

7,°3°,SS'

9,633,822

I 2,866,020

"7,069,453

23,191,876

3' ,443,321

38,558.37'

5o,'5S,7S3

62,622,250

127,901

309,527

59°,7S6

77 ',623

964,201

4"
26

-t
1'

25
35
34
13

■■•)

2 1

»3

•3

2h
18

5
43

3*
40
3'
'7
37

'4
45
3

996,992

9,658
484,471
560,247
39,S64

537-454
125,015
131-700
187,74s
1,184,109

< 4,999

2,539,89'

1,680,637

1,104,020

264,399

1,321,011
726,915
626.915
780,894

1,457,351

1,184,059
439,706
827,922

1,721,295
20,595

122,993

42.491
318,300
906,096

91,874

4,382,759

1,071,361

7,091

2,665,260

'7
11
25
-'1
8 5

2S
3*
36
34
13

8
22
27
23

9
2<:
18

5
43

30
43
3i
>9

1
'5
40

1,262,505

40,440

802,525

864,694

194,327

622,700
146,608
1(7,624
2°9,493
1,542,180

32,610

3,077»87'

1,978,301

1,624,615

996,096

1,648,690
939,946
648,936

934,943
1,783,085

1,636,937
780.773

1,131,597
2,168,380

39,159

452,402
62,266

346,991

1,131,116

119,565

5,082,871

i,399,75o

68,084

3,198,062

29
42
39

32
12

45
3
8
IO
'9

11
2=
30
27
6

•M
43

16
41

38
2

35
28
87

36
■5

1,513.017
DOySao

1.128,179

1,208.130

412,198

746,258
168,493
230,392
391,422
1,837,353

84,385
3,826,351
2,192,404
1,911,896
1,427,096

1,758,635
1,118,587

■4,255

30,3SS

-.-

97,574

21,
»9

209,897
92,597

21,
38

-4
3-
35
3'

1 1

435,450
379,994
34,277

460,147
112,216
75,oSo
140,424
1 ,057,286

it)

237.946
59,096

'7
19

251,002
64,273
'4,093

■9

261,042
72,047
24,023

2 5

275. "4?
72,749
33,039

-4
2^

.•n
IO

207675,
76,748
39,S34
34.730

516,823

20
26

309,978
78,085
43,7'2
54,477

69 ',392

21
jo
33
3'
9

370,792
9' .532
5',°S7
87,445

906,1%

82,54s

i62,6So

1 [

252,433

340,985

-'1
21

I2,2S2
24,520

55,l°2
147,'78

157,445
343,03'

'4
10

476,183

685,866

43,"2

1 1
7
1

851,470
988,416
192,214

9
'7
22

'9
7

16
30
M
8

',7",95'
1.350,428

674-9'3
107,206

1,155,684
708,002
628,279
687,049

1,231,066

749,"3
172,023

791,305
1,182,012

5,64'

73^77

220,955

14
8

5
'5

406,511
76,556
228,705
380,546
472,040

4.762

17
12
10

564,135
152,923
298.269
407,350
523,159

8,765

t
19

12
11
B

687,917
-— ?39

399,455
447,040
610,408

31,639

6
'9
13
15

-3

779,828
552,4"
501,793
470,019

737,699
212,267

S
18
16

'7
6

982,405
517,762
583,169
583,034
994,5M

97,654

6,077

606,526

682,044

11
6
4

96,540
319.728
378,787

'4
7
5

i5i,7'9
341,548
422,845

1,042,390
2.238,943

2,093.889
1,301,821
1,289,660
2,579,184
132,159

1,058,910
45,761

376.530
1,444-933

153,593

6,997,853

i,6i7,947

182.719

3,672,316

61,834

313,717

5,258,014
345,5o6

1,151,149
328,808

1,767,518

2,235.523

207,905

332,422

1,645,990

349,39°

762,794

1,686,880

60,705

Massachusetts ....

2<>

8,850

so
»3

40,352
20,845

21
»3

75,448
66,557

22
21

136,621
I4 ,455

'7
16

375,651
383,702

»
41
-7
21

1
12
42

28,841

6,857

326,073

672,035

93,5i6

3,880,735
992,622

2,419
2,339,5"

New Hampshire..

1 a
9

141,885
184,139

11
10

183,858
211,149

1 •-■

214,460

245,562

15
'3

244,022
277,426

iS
'4

269,328
320,823

284.574
• 373,3o6

2 2
19

3-'

317.976
489,555
6i,547

3,097,394
869,039

North Carolina

340,120
393,751

589,051
478,103

959 -°49
555-50O

1
4

1,372,111
638,829

1,918,608
737,987

1
7

2,428,921
753,419

Ohio

45,365

■3

230,760

581,295

937,903

1,519,467

1 ,980, 329

Pennsylvania

South Carolina

2
7

434.373
68,825

249i°73

602,365
69,122
345,591

■7
8

810,091

76.931

4'5,H5

3
20

1,047,507
83.015
502,741

23
9

1,348,233
97,199
581,185

■■'4
II

1,724.033
108,830

594,398

34
2

13.294

2,311,786

147,545

668,507

3«

'3
37

2 3

5
40
'5

52,465

2,906,215

174,620

703,708

2.418

1.109,801

604,2:5

40.273

315.098

1,596,318

11,594
775,881

3«

32
22
45

9
'9
39

3°
10

42
27
15

90,923

3,521,951

217,353
705,606

7,091

1,258,520

818,579

86,786

33o,55i

1,225,163

23,955

442,014

1,054,670

9,118

37
2

21
40

174,768

4,282,891

276,531

995,577

68,083

1,542,359

1,591,749

143,963

332,286

1,512,565

75,"6

618,457

1,315,497

20,789

35,691

105,602

261,727

422,771

681,904

829,210

2?
35

»3

1,002,717

212,592

11,380

314,120

1,421,661

Utah

Vermont

85.425
747,610

■54.465
880,200

'5
1

217,895
974,6oo

235,966
1,065,116

'7
3

280,652
1,211,405

21
4

291,948
1,239,797

West Virginia....

30,945

305,391

Note.— The figures in the first column under each year show the rank of the respective States and Territories according to population.

5^t

■

<«

•o

, i

4-»

fc.

ffl

■

4J
f

</>

fc.

>
£

?5 I

§S8S3sa»sRafc8Sj

I'M
ll

SSSScSSfe

ii§§§l§il*&§s=ls§§

■f n t- « <

*SS§£§il§§^£66§i=!

• . . j

- •

]

% ■- ~ ^

582 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES.

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1890, COMPARED WITH 1880 AND 1870, BY STATES AND TERRITORIES, SHOWING THE INCREASE
BY NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES FROM 1880 TO 1890, FROM 1870 TO 1880, AND FROM 1860 TO 1870.

STATES AND TERRITORIES.

POPILATION.

INCREASE PROM 1880
TO 1»90.

INCREASE FROM 1870
TO 18W.

increase from 1860
to :

1390.

1880.

1870.

Number.

Percent-
age.

Number.

Percent-
age.

Number.

Percent-
age.

The United States

North Atlautic divis'n

62,622,250

50,155,783

38,558,371

12,466,467

24.86

11,597,412

30.08

7,115,050 i 22.63

17*01*45

14*07*97

12.L><Jh.7:il

3*m

19.95

77 17.98

1404*88

1609

876,580

888*99

8*88*48

845,606

746,268

5,997353

1,111.'.'.;.:

5,368,014

8,857,920

648,988

1.7-;."- .
376*31
6*3,706

6*83,871

i.i:;i,uo

4,282,8.11
7. .'.17,107

1*67*51
817,858

4*83,788

908/108

B*31*51

...ill.

19460
US

08.975

'ju.v-j
818*17
976438

1*60,788

1.87
■ :,i
01

21 M
19.84

18.00
27 71
88.77

1,735

700.112
336*80
7*0*40

1.7.

9 01
053

16 88
15.97

21 88
21.111

29 79

615,736
188*07

033

. .-
4 90

1- .s
34 47

18 n
12 94

M ■
21.19

9 11

New Hampshire .

South Atlantic divis'n

168,498

l,04J.:.'.«i

380*99

1*50*80

763.794

1,617*47

1.151.1 1'.i

l.s;;:.:; . .

891*33

■ J.27'J

11I1.IKJH

384, 948

177/.-'!
I,jl2,5«.">

618,467
1*99,750

1,543480

17*84411

135*16

131,700
1,896408

mfiu
iflnjm

70.3.006

i.iM.iuy
18738

18*81411

21,885

11)7.117

11.1.11'.
144*87
818497

11 88

11.49

29 71
8.48

13 11
48 84

38 78

164*48

178*48

888*88

81,748

4*83.000

17 27
34 87

80.88

41.10

43 54
83.76

12.799
88*45
88*88

( 70359

1*81
198*88

8*84496

11 41

i:; 88

4 44

798
0.37
13 00

88 7o

(J 7.1

District of Columbia

South Carolina

Northern Central div'u

8*79*10

8,198,404

06*51

li < 1

1401,886
1*11*98
8*79481
183,713
890*08
1,0.".-
1*81

848

1*78*01

8.077.S71

1*86*87

1*16,497

1*94*16

2.11.8,380

98*30
898*90

k*S0

1 jua

1*91

1.1-

. . im
1494*90

1,781

1 H.1M

314408

1 145

4:11.000

11 88
10 83
24 33

17 88
88 68

211 SO

889*87

1*0*88

4I7.iis.>

' 1211996
88**88

19.99
17 71
21.18

88 ■

77 .:.7
88 (V.
35 97

8*0*8*
887*88
884*48
878,788
8*7*88
519.107
68**88

9344

94.153
89748*

1398
M II

is 8*

..-, 9i
165 61
76 91

181 II

886 46

188 '.'1

Illinois

Michigan

Iowa

Uiisouri

Nebraska

...*»

K C —

•

•5

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES.

583

STATES AND

POPULATION.

INCREASE FROM 1886
TO 1890.

INCREASE FROM 1870
TO 1880.

increase from 1860
to 1870.

XKBBXTOB1SS.

1890.

1880.

1870.

Number.

Percent-
age.

Number.

Percent-
age.

Number.

Percent-
age.

Southern Central div.

lo.972,M'3

8.<J19,:;71

0,434,410

2,053,522

23.02

2,484,961

065,752

11 54

1358,035
1,767.518
1,513,017
1,289,600
1,118,887
2,238,828
61384
1438479

3,027.613

1348,990

1,51 2 :.::,: >
1,202,506
1431,897

939,946
1,591,749

1,321,011
1,258,520
990,992
827,922
726,915
818.579

209,945
225458
280,612

158,003
178,041
648,774

01.8S4
325,654

1,259,916

E -■:

14.00
19 M
18.96
19.81

40.44

827,679
288,889
265,513
S08,fi78

213,031

773. 170

24.81
22.55
26.03
30.08
29.31
94.43

165 ,3W

US. 719
32,791
36,617
18,913

214,364

13 40

803,526

1. 767,697

481,471
990,510

40.58

71.27

318,054
777,187

65.65
78.46

49,021
371.534

11 26

Western division.. . .

60.02

183,159

CO .705
418,198
158,598

59,620

207,905

45,761

84,385

319,390

313,767

1,208,130

89,189

20.789

194,327

119,565

• 40,440

148,968

62,266

32,610

75,116

174,768

864,694

20,595
9,118

39,804

91,874
9,658

86,786

42.491

14.999

I
23.955

90.923

560,247

• 93,000

39,916

217,871

34.028

19,180

63.942

018,866

51,775

271,274

138,999

343,436

237.49
192.01
112.12 j

28.40

47.43

44.42
o20 51
158.77
885.18

79 53

39.72

18,664

11,071
164,468

27,691
30,782
57,177
19,775
17,611
51.161
83345
304,447

90.14

128 00

387.47

30.14

318.72

65.88

46.54

117 41

213.57

92.22

54.34

20595

9,118

5,587

nl,642

9,658

46^13

35,634

14,999

12,361

38,458

180,253

Utah

106 62

73 SO

47 44

a Decrease.

RECAPITULATION BY GROUPS.

POPULATION.

INCREASE FROM 1880
TO 1890.

INCREASE FROM 1870
TO 1880.

INCREASE FROM 1860
TO 1870.

GEOORAP1IICAL

DIVISIONS.

1890.

1880.

1870,

Number.

Percent-*
age. j

Number.

Percent-
age.

Number.

Percent-
age.

The United States

62,622,250

80455,788

38,5.58.371

12,466,467

24.86

11,597,412

80.08

7,115,050

22.63

North Atlantic division

17,401 ,5 1.5

14,507,407

12,298,730

2394,138

19.95

2.20S ,077

17.96

1,704,462

16.09

South Atlantic division

8,857,920

7,597.197

5.S.53.610

1,260.723

16.59

1,743587

29.79

488^07

9.11

Northern Central div. .

22.302 279

17,301.111

12.981.111

4,998,168

28.78

l.:;\3,000

33.76.

3384395

42 70

Southern Central div. .

10,972,893

8.919371

6,434,410

2,053522

23.02

2,484,961

38.62

665,752

11.54

Western division

3.027,013

1,767,697

990,510

1,259,916

71.27

777487

78.46

371,534

60.02

The above figures are exclusive of Indians, of the population of Alaska, and of Whites on Indian
reservations.

_VJ

CO
txl

co
Q

LLl

u_
O

H
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LLl

<
o

Q.
D
<

I-
<

Z> .

O §

oc |

— C3

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LLl

(/)

()

■r:

s
3

li 1

Z3
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lit

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X

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1
I

584 " THE GREAT CITIES OF THE WORLD.

GREAT CITIES OF THE WORLD HAVING 120,000 INHABITANTS.

Population According to the Latest Official Censuses.

Cities.

Census
Year.

Population.

Cities.

Census
Year.

Population.

1886
UN

est.
1S90
1890

INK)

18M

1890
1890
1888
18*0
18»1
MM
1885
1891
1891
18M
18B1
18M
180]
est.
1891
1890
1887
1889
1890
1891
1890
1890
1890
1891
1890
1890
1899
1890

1891

1884
1882
1891
1885
est.
1890
1890
1890
1890
1891
1890
1890
1890
1889
1890
1 -hi
1890
1890
18(0
1891
1887
1887
1890
1890

1891

1891
1891

1890

4.231,431
(344

1,710.715

1,600,000

1 ..'.79,244

l.:a;

l.:* '4,548

1,096,576

1,044,894

.V..296

873365

853,945

840,130

804,470

75.'i.li,'.i

565.714

546.986

580,872

517,951

506.884

505348

500,000

488.999

476.271

472.22*

469.317

460357

449,950

446,507

443,426

435,151

4*9.171

498,917

417.539

tujsu

401.930
392,730
386,400
978448
889409
887,808
857399
355:000 ■

848317

885,174
IJUB
824.21:;
323.'

MS
(11387
304.000
997,990
296.809
281 378
979,791
976365
(79390
272,481
2711.143
267,416
961346
261 .2fil
255396
254.709
254,457

est.
UN

1890
1888
18(0

ISM
1861
1891
1871
1891
1891
1891
1891
1881
1891
est.
18(0
I860

UN
UN

est.
1891

1891

1891
1890

1SK6
1891
1885

UN
1891

1890
UN

1891
1890

1887
UN

1890
1890
1890
1890
1890

1890
1890
1891

1890

1890
UN
1890

250300
246.154
242397
241396
940369
2*8.473
236412
299,796
MM
293.420
221,805
221366
221,141
216.650
216361
215.779
211364
210300
209.186
206.485
205369
204.106
202325
200300
199391
198361
198.186
193380
191458
190397

11-7310

510

166345

- 110
1*1378
1-1320
181310
179-
175381
171.416

'
170.216
165.499
164.788
163367
161328
161305
160331
160300
160300

158.019
155 ,M0

147317
143.

MUN
Ml

139399
169316

- !27

121365

Paris

Berlin

Bristol . England

Detroit

Madrid

Delta! :....

Lille

Milan

Rochester, D. 8

■

•Municipal census of 1890. The statistics of population of largest cities of the earth have been taken mainly from the
Almnniu'h de GotDt f«»r 1899, , ,

NOT*.— The population Ol Chinese cities other than Canton, Peking and Shanghai Is omitted, because repori g it are
utterlv untrustworthy. There nre forty or more Chinese cities WDOee inhabitants are numbered by runmr at from 20". ■
each, but no official censuses have ever been taken, and setting aside coi 1 of the Oriental tendency to exaggvrat
Is reason in believe that the estimates of population in many Instances DOT - rictt of country bearing the sane names a*
thoBeof the cities, Instead of definite municipalities.

/ _ ...... . . \

•5

POPULATION OK THE CITIES AND STATE* OF THE UNITED STATES.

POPULHTION OF THE

CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES

OF 8,000 HND OiZER.

Together -with Population of all tlie States and Territories^
According to iSgo Census.

Alabama.

Birmingham 26,241

Mobile 81*28

Montgomery 21,790

Total for 1880 1,262.505

Total for 1890 1,808473

Arizona.

Total for 1880 I'M Hi

Total for 1890 59,091

Arkansas.

Fort Smith 11,391

Hot Springs 8,073

Little Rock 83486

Pine Bluff 9*62

Total for 1880 802*25

Total for 1890 1025.885

California.

Um Angeles 60*84

Sacramento 96*79

Sun Diego 16.153

San Francisao 387*90

San Jose ■ 18*37

Santa Rosa 14*79

Total for 1880 864*94

Total for 1890 1.204.002

Colorado.

Denver 1*8*70

Leadville 11,158

Pueblo 88,128

Total for 1880 184*37

Total for 1880 410,975

Connecticut.

Bridgeport 48*86

Danburv 19*85

Greenwich 10.120

Hartfl rd 88,182

Manchester 8,217

Meriden 31*89

Middletown 9,012

New Britain 19.010

New Haven 81,451

New London 18,760

Norwalk 17,789

Norwich 18,183

Stamford '. 15*85

Vernon 8.807

Waterbury 38*81

Windham 10.025

Total for 1860 633,700

Total for 1890 745.861

Delaware.

Wilmington Cl.t::"

Total for 1880 146*08

Total for 1S90 167,871

District of Columbia.
Washington 229,796

Florida.

Jacksonville 17.100

Key West 18*68

PensacOla 11,761

Total for 1880 269483

Total for 1890 880481!

Georgia.

Athens v 8.627

Atlanta 65,515

Augusta 33,150

Brunswick 8,403

Columbus 1 8*60

Macon 38*98

Savan nah 41,762

Total for 1880 1 ,542 ,186

Total for 1890 1*34*66

Idaho.

Total for 1880 32.610

Total for 1890 84,229

Illinois.

Alton 10,184

Aurora 19*84

Belleville 16*06

Bloomington 22,242

Cairo 10.044

Chicago 1*98,576

Danville 11.528

Decatur 16,841

East St. Louis 15.156

Elgin 17439

Freeport 10.159

Galesburg 15.212

Jacksonville 13*57

Joliet 27,407

Moline 11*96

Ottawa 9,971

Peoria 40,758

Quincv 31.478

Rockford... 28-589

Roek Island 13,596

Springfield 24.852

Streator 11.111

Total for 1880 3*77*71

Total for 1890 3,818,536

Indiana.

Ander»on 10,799

Elkhart 11*70

Evansville 50,674

Fort Wayne 86*49

Indianapolis 107,445

Jeffersonville 11,271

Kokomo 8,224

Lafayette 16,407

Logansport 13,798

Madison 8*98

M arion 8,734

Michigan City 10.704

Muncie 11*88

New Albany 31,000

North Township 9,574

Richmond 16*49

South Bend

Terre Haute 80*87

Vincennes 8*18

Total for 1880 1,978*01

Total for 1880 3J

Iowa.

Burlington 32*88

Cedar Rapids 17*87

Clinton 13*38

Council Bluffs ; . .31*88

Davenport

Des Moines 50.067

Dubuque 30,358

Keokuk 14,075

Marshalltown 9*08

Muscatine 11.432

Ottum wa 13,996

Sioux City 37,862

Total for 1880 U

Total for 1890 1,906,729

Kansas.

Arkansas 8*54

Atchison 14*39

Fort Scott 11.887

Hutchinson 8*78

Kansas City 88470

Lawrence 9,975

Leavenworth 21.018

Topeka 81*09

Wichita 88486

Total for 1880 886*86

Total for 1890 1,423,485

Kentucky.

Covington 37*75

Henderson 8*30

Lexington 31*66

Louisville ...161*06

Newport 94*88

Owensborough 9.818

Padncah 13.024

Total for 1880 1*48*80

Total for 1890 1*55,436

Louisiana.

Baton Rouge 10*97

New Orleans 241.995

Shreveport 11.482

Total for 1880 !

Total for 1890 1,116*28

Maine.

Auburn 11.228

Augusta t 10*91

Bangor 19.090

Bath 8.718

Biddaford 14.418

I.cwiston 21,668

Port land 36.608

Rockland 8487

Total for 1880 648,336

Total for 1890 600,201

Massachusetts.

Adams 9.213

Amesbury 9,798

Beverly 10*91

Boston. 4-ls.i 17

Brocton 97*84

Brooklinc 12.1118

Cambridge 70*98

( helsea 37*08

Chicopee 14*60

Clinton 10,424

Everett 11*68

Fall River 74*88

Fitchlmrg 39*37

Fram ingham 9,239

Gardner 8.424

Gloucester

Haverhill 27.412

Holvoke 85*87

Hyde Park 10.193

Law rence 44*64

Lowell 77*86

Lvnn 55.727

Maiden 28*81

Marblehead 8*09

Marlborough 18*86

Medford 11.079

Melrose 8319

Milford 8,780

Natick 9.11s

New Bedford 40,733

Newburyport 13*47

Ncwlon 94*78

North Adams W*74

Northampton 14*81 1

Peabody 10,168

Pittsfield 17*81

Quincy 16,738

Salem 30.801

Somerville 40,152

Spencer 8.747

Springfield 44.179

Taunton 25.448

Waltham 18,707

Westfleld 9*05

Weymouth 10,866

Woburn 18489

Worcester 84*66

Total for 1880 1,788*86

Total for 1890 2*33,407

Maryland.

Baltimore 434.151

Cumberland 10,030

Hagerstown . . 11,698

Frederick 9.621

Total for 1880 9?4,943

Total for 1890 1*40,431

Michigan.

Adrian 8*88

Alpena 11*98

Ann Arbor

Battle Creek 13,090

Bay City 97*38

Detroit 205,669

-«.t.

POPULATION OK THE CITIES AND STATES OF THE UNITED STATES.

Flint

la 64447

U.1W

30,778

K ularaaxoo

ig 12380

Manistee 12,799

Marquette 8JB96

tli nominee 10306

Muskegon 22368

Fort Huron

Saginaw 16,109

tt'usl Bay City 12310

Total for 1880 i

Total tor 1890 3,088,7«1

Minnesota.

Dulutb 83,798

Minneapolis 164,738

Mankato BVBOS

41 Paul 188056

Stillwater 11388

u Inona 18308

Total for 1880 780,778

Total tor 1890 L800317

Mississippi.

Meridian 16,889

burg 18388

Total for 1880 1481387

Total for 1890 1,284,887

Missouri.

Hannibal I33M

.loplln 9,909

is City 182416

Moberly 8*8

a 12,894

Springfield 91349

8) Joseph 62311

St. Louie

Total for 1880 2468380

Total for 1890 2,677 ,0S0

Montana.

Butte City 10,701

.i 18,884

Total for 1889 89,159

Total for 1890 181,768

Nebraska.

Beatrice '... 18,931

Hastlnga 18,798

I. D 55,491

iskaCity 11.472

Omaha 189336

Plattsmoutb 8,408

8. "malm 8,071

Total lor 1X80 452,402

Total for 1890 1,056,793

Nevada.

Total for 1880 62,266

Total for 1890 44327

New Hampshire.

>rd 17,004

Dover 12.7911

Manchester 44426

Nashua 19,311

Portsmouth 9,897

Total for 1880 846,991

Total for 1890 875327

New Jersey.

Atlantic City 1.1.0S8

Bayonne 18,896

BrMgcton II. IT!

ngton B488

Camden 88374

Elizabeth 87370

Harrison

Hoboken

Jersey City

Mlllvllle...

Newark 181, >18

New Brunswick 18,458

are 18374

Passaic 18387

Paterson 7WM

Perth Amboy 8,476

Philllpeburg

1L9S0

Trenton

! for 1880 1,181418

Total tor 1890 1.441.(117

New York.

Albany 9LMS

A msterdam 17364

Auburn

Blnghainton 86398

Brookhaven 13379

Brooklyn 804377

Buffalo 254467

Coboea 23481

i lornlng 8J568

Dunkirk '.Mir.'

Blmlra 2*,l7u

Flushing 18488

GloversviHe 18,788

Hempstead.

Hornellsvllle 10348

Hudson 10/127

Huntington 8,217

[slip 8,747

Itliaca 11367

Jamaica I488B

Jamestown 15,991

Kingston 21481

Lausiugburg 10388

Lockport 10,003

Long Island City 30,3%

Mlddletowu UJM8

org 23,263

New Brighton 16400

Newton

New York 1,513,501

North Hempstead 8,126

Ogdensburg 11367

Oswego SljBM

Oyster Bay 13,788

l'ccksklll 10,026

I'oughkecpste 32,888

Rochester 138,327

Home 14,980

Saratoga Springs 18434

Schenectady 19357

South Hamilton 8488

Syracuse 88387

Troy 60,605

Dtlca 44,001

Watertown 14,788

Weal Troy 13341

Yonkers 8L847

Total for 1880 8,082371

Total for 1890 5,981,934

New Mexico.

Total for 1880

Total for 1890 144302

North Carolina.

Asheville 10488

Charlotte 11,568

Raleigh 12,798

Wilmington 20,008

tfU for 1880 1388,760

Total for 1890 1317340

Ohio.

Akron.. 27,702

Ashtabula B£M

re 8301

Canton

Chlllloothe 11369

Cincinnati 380308

Cleveland

I 'oluuihus 90,398

Dayton 58308

Delaware *302

Fast Liverpool 103*7

Flndlay

llanilltou

[ronton 10331

Lancaster 639?

Mansfield

Marietta

Marlon 6308

Massillon 10361

Newark 14389

Pto.ua 9309

Portsmouth

kv 183W

Sprluglield

Btoubenvllle

Tillin

Toledo

Xenia 8448

Youngstown 88488

[He 21,117

Total for 1880 8488302

Total for 1890 B30SJ1I

Oregon.

East Portland 10481

Portland

Total for 1880 174,788

Total for 1890

Pennsylvania.

Allegheny City 104307

Allentown

Altooua

Beaver Palls 8,781

Bradford 10478

ltraddock 8338

Butler 8,718

adale 10336

le 8331

Chambersburgb 8306

Chester 20,167

Columbia 10.599

Danville 9373

Dunmore 8342

1 14488

Erie...: S9399

Harrisburg 40,164

Haselton 1L8M

Johnstown U438

Lancaster

Lebanon 14,784

McKeesport 20,711

Mahanov City U3M

Meadville 8302

Mt. Carmel 8343

Nimticoke 10337

N.w Castle 11, ">M

Norristown 12,768

Oil City 10343

Philadelphia 1344380

Phoenirvllle 8308

mth 9341

Pittsburgh

Plttaton 10395

Pottatown 13301

Pottsvillo M.1.4

Ilea, Hug 68386

Seranton 83.450

Shamokln 14339

Shenandoah 13,961

.■south Ur'hlehem 10386

on 9330

Tttusvllle 8310

Wllkesbarre 87351

Willlamsport 27,107

York 30348

Total for 1880 4388381

Total forlSKO 5348374

Rhode Island.

Newport 19.499

Pawtucket 27302

Providence 182348

Woonsookel 20,758

Total for 1880 276381

Total for 1880 345348

South Carolina.

Charleston 64389

ville 8388

Columbia

886377

Total for 1898 1447481

North Dakota.

80309

Total tor 1890 I

South Dakota.

1 ■ :

88368

Total for 1890

Tenneaaee.

Chattanooga 28409

Jackson

Knoxville

Memphis

Nash vl] le 76309

C larksville 8361

Total for lvo 1..

Total for 1890 1.763.723

Texa*.

Austin 15324

Dallas 88440

Denniaoa

Fort Worth

•on

Houston 27.411

Laredo

Paris

Waco

San Antonio 8*3»I

Total for 1880 1.

Total for 1890. 2339330

Utah.

Ogden 14319

salt Lake City 45326

Total tor 1880 143363

Total tor 1880 306498

Vermont.

Burl I ngton II 369

Rutland 11,787

Total for 1880 889386

Total tor 1890 332305

Virginia.

Danville 10385

Alexandria 14.318

I.vnchburg

Manchester 9339

Norfolk 86484

Petersburg 88317

Portsmouth

Richmond 80388

Roanoke 16.120

Total for 1880 1.

Total tor 1880 1348311

Washington.

Seattle 43314

Spokane Falls 18367

Tacoma 88368

Total for 1880 75416

Total for 1880 849316

West Virginia.

Huntington 10383

I'arkersburg 8389

Wheeling 85389

Total for 1880

Total tor 1880. 700,448

Wisconsin.

Appleton 1L89&

Ashland •■

Chippewa Fall* 8390

Eau Claire

Fonddu Lac

GreenBay 8379

Janesvllle 19S

tee *'JM

Madison **■?!

Marinette

Milwaukee

Oshkosh 9338;

21322

Sheboygan 1*341

Superior 1* 399

Watertown HR

Wanaan —MS

Total tor 1880 1315497

Total for L969 138*78*7

Wyoming.

11399

total for is* 20.7*8

Total tor 1890 «9Jte»

Till'. COPYRIGHT LAW.

585

• j*

^^rsfTHE COPYRIGHT LAW.

^tff

• .:!.i •

* ".. « nH | i" 4

3)i tactions fot Sccutittgi Qopijzicffits under t/lc tcoiscd £lct> of Qongtcso.

1592.

1. A printed copy of the title (besides the two copies to be
deposited after publication) of the book, map, chart, dra-
matic or musical composition, engraving, cut, print, or
photograph, or a description of the painting, drawing,
chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design for a work of
the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent
by mail or otherwise, prepaid, addressed "Librarian of
Congress, Washington, D. C." This must be done before
publication of the book or other article.

The printed title required may be a copy of the title page
of such publications as have title pages. In other cases,
the title must be printed expressly for copyright entry, with
name of claimant of copyright. The style of type is im-
material, and the print of a type-writer will be accepted.
But a separate title is required for each entry, and each title
must be printed on paper as large as commercial note. The
title of a. periodical must include the date and number.

2. The legal fee for recording each copyright claim is 50
cents, and for a copy of this record (or certificate of copy-
right) an additional fee of 50 cents is required. The
record fee from aliens and non-residents is $1.

3. On or before the day of publication of each book or
other article, two complete copies of the best edition
issued must be sent, to perfect the copyright, with the
address "Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C."
The postage must be prepaid, or else the publication in-
closed in parcels covered by printed Penalty Labels, fur-
nished by the Librarian. In the case of a book, photo-
graph, chromo or lithograph, the two copies deposited
shall be printed from type set in the U. S., or from plates
made therefrom, or from negatives or drawings on stone
made in the U. S., or from transfers made therefrom.

4. No copyright is valid unless notice is given by inserting
in every copy published, on the title page or the page fol-
lowing, if it be a book ; or, if a map, chart, musical com-
position, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, draw-
ing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design intended
to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, by inscribing upon
some portion thereof, or on the substance on which the
same is mounted, the following words, viz: " Entered ac-
cording to act of Congress, in the year , by , in the

office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington," or, at
the option of the person entering the copyright, the words :
" Copyright^ 18 — , by ."

The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person
who has not obtained copyright who shall insert the notice
" Entered according to act of Congress,'' or " Copyright," etc.,
or words of the same import, in or upon any book or other
article.

5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or dra-
matize his own work. In this case, notice should be given
by printing the words "%A'igh/ of translation reserved," or
"All rights reserved," below the notice of copyright entry,
and notifying the Librarian of Congress of such reservation,
to be entered upon the record.

bearing upon any publications except original works, and
will not be entered upon the record in other cases.

6. The original term of copyright runs for twenty-eight
years. Within six months before the end of that time, the
author or designer, or his widow or children, may secure a
renewal for the further term of fourteen years, making
forty-two years in all. Applications for renewal must be
accompanied by explicit statement of ownership, in the case
of the author, or of relationship, in the case of his heirs,
and must state definitely the date and place of entry of the
original copyright. Advertisement of renewal is to be made
within two months of date of renewal certificate, in some
newspaper, for four weeks.

7. The time within which any work entered for copyright
may be issued from the press is not limited by law, but
the courts hold that it should take place within a reason-
able time. A copyright mav be secured for a projected as
well as for a finished work. The law provides for no«;r«/,
or notice of interference — only for actual entry of title.

8. A copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of
writing, but such assignment must be recorded in the office
of the Librarian of Congress within sixty days from its date.
The fee for this record and certificate is one dollar, and for
a certified copy of any record of assignment one dollar.

1). A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any
copyright entry will be furnished, under seal, at the rate of
fifty cents each.

10. In the case of books published in more than one
volume, or of periodicals published in numbers, or of en-
gravings, photographs, or other articles published with
variations, a copyright is to be entered for each volume or
part of a book, or number of a periodical, or variety, as to
style, title, or inscription, of any other article. But a book
published serially in a periodical, under the same general
title, requires only one entry. To complete the copyright on
such a work, two copies of each serial part, as well as of the
complete work (if published separately), must be deposited.

11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model
or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts,
so as to prevent infringement by copying, engraving, or
vending such design, a definite description must accompany
the application for copyright, and a photograph of the same,
at least as large as "cabinet size.'' should be mailed to the
Librarian of Congress not later than the day of publica-
tion of the work or design.

12. Copyrights cannot be granted upon trade-marks, nor
upon mere names of companies or articles, nor upon prints
or labels intended to be used with any article of manufact-
ure. If protection for such names or labels is desired,
application must be made to the Patent Office, where they
are registered at a fee of $6 for labels and $25 for trade-marks.

13. These provisions apply to citizens of the United
States, British Empire, France, Belgium, Switzerland.

14. Every applicant for a copyright should state distinctly
the full name and residence of the claimant, and whether
the right is claimed as author, designer, or proprietor. No
affidavit or formal application is required.

5 86

DURATION AND EXPECTATION OF LIFE.

-V

TABLES OF DURATION AND EXPECTATION OF LIFE.

Constructed by Dr. Fakk, F. It. S.

■S

• ')

22
■3

3*
33
34

U
36

PERSONS ALIVE AT BEGIN-
NING OF YEAR.

I ,!■ 0,000

Sso,507
796,8*7
708.SS9
75o.>33

736318

726,919
7'».'5'
713,591

707.'34

702,509

'-.MM

694344

001,413

688,031

684,563
680,894
676,037
672,620
667,900

662,750
657.'67
65 ',499
645.75'
639.93"

634.045
628,005

033,050
616,021
609,900

5».74|

428,026
400,505
3S6.290

377.077

370 J5S
365,3*5
361 ,37*

358,062
355.32S

353.03>
35 ".04s

340.27*
347.6o6

345.969

344.290
342.509
340,581
338,469
336,149

333.608
.W.S44
32S.043
325.207
322,339

3'9^)22

316,516
313.562
310,581
307.572

603,724
597,493

578459

57' .90S

565,460

30I.534
301 ,,(/-,
298,366
29S.232
292/161

2SS.S50
2S5,5<>

4S«.255
4<2,48l
396.322

3S2.299

373,056

366,460

361.594

357.770
354.530
35'. 806

319478
347.433
345,572
343,807
342,062

340,273
338,385
336,356
334,'5'
331,75'

329,142
326,323
323.456
320,544
3'7,592

314,603
3".579

3oS,52 4
305,440

302J2S

2S3.14.I

279,864

ill

'S.456
'3,3'5

9.S99
7,7<«
6,559
5.458
4,625

4,02s
3,637
3.43'
3.3S2
3.46S

3,669

3,957
4,317
4,720
5, '50

S.748
5,820
5.SS6

.5.950
6/09
6,065
6,121
6,176

6,231
6,287
6,343
6404
6,466

1-LRyONS ALIVE AT BEGIN-
NING OF YEAR.

545.425

S3S.S84
531,653
524,626

517499
5'0,263

50*,915

480,134
472,277

464,280

45'M39
447.725
439.1.15
430,374

421,115
4". 53*
401,623

391,378

3So,7S5

36y,S2 7
35S489
346,752
334,'<>3
322,031

309 fi!t)

255,590

281,753
267,509
252,00*

237,077
2*2,703

207424

2S2,2o6

278,944
275,5.38

304.S4S

261,280
257,534

253,708
140,706

245*795

241,700

237.508

233,216

2283*1

224,195
219437

2'4-55*

-■■.,, =.io
20I.39S
199,1,.

'93,
102

■9.3.6S
188,10

182,350
1764*1
170,303
163.980
'57474

'50,754

1*0.4*'
'2i.</ '3

9*,9'9

276,563

266.51 1
263,109
259,678
256,219
25*,729

240,207

245.652
242,061

2384.M
134.7*9

22,1,064

2*7,318
223,530

219,698
215,822

6,67s
6,75a

6,841

6*?3<

7,027
7,127
7.236
7.348

7,467
7.59*
7.7*2
7357
7.997

8,'4>
«4'4
8,590
S,76i
9.259

0.583

•0.245

'",5'H

10,95s

187.477,

182,06s

176449

170,614

'64.557

11,33s

",737
12,149

'2.572
13.002

151.766
'45X>35
■ 38.088
130*330

ioS,505

'3430

■3.846
'4,244
14,607
'4,9*5

'5.'84
IS.369

'546$

PERSONS ALIVE AT BEGIN-
NING OF YEAR.

MALE. 1 FEMALE.

7i
7»

So
tl

ft)

91
o*

93
M

■00
101
102
103
104

M2IM6

■7-. 07

O'-Mo
-i.l.O

161,124

MM**

'3'. '99

■03.'S4

61, (,.•<,

83?

90,133

77.010

4«!SS9

41.115
35.2SJ
20,922
25,060
20,711

38,56s
M*«j
142267

19,621
15,162

11,500

\57"
6,266

m8S

3.'42

'1*49
10,709

",3"'

*.'53

'440

940

598

370

"3
'3'
74

4,770
3.5'0
2.531

M34

3$2

■14

100,807
93.07'

&JJ47
77J&M

70, '73
62,844
55.773

49,01s

41/

3".'77
31.1^1
26,178

11,681

17,716
'4.258

11,2 >.
S302

6.7.39
5.006
3.735

ijyoS

- _ -
i

'54'"*
'5J63

■5.'J6
'4.789
MJ'9
'3.7*6

11,214
11 J*e

10.-.J8

7J00

5J4*

4459
3.65.?

2.933
2,310
'■7S1

7'3
500

tiS

'47

9"
57
33
"9

Note. — The annual rate of mortality of mains of alt ages is 1 in 30.91, and of females, 1 in 41. $$.

EXPECTATIOIST.

AGE.

MALE.

FEMALE.

AGE.

MALE.

FEMALE.

AGE.

MALE.

FEMALE.

AGE.

MALE.

FEMALE.

AGE.

MALE.

FEMALE.

30-0'

46.65

41-85

47-3'

20
21

lit

40.29

8:8

26.06

25-39

60
6l

'3-53
13.96

'4-34

'3-75

So
81

J:S

5 -f
4.9S

4S.S3

40-40

3S..3
37-46

36 79

4»

24-73

26.03

15-38

12.41
II. $7

'3'7

ft)

4-4'

4-7'

49.61

50.20

Sfl

14.07

6.1

12.60

4'7

4-45

49.SI

50-43

23-4'

24.72

"•34

■ 2.05

3-95

4.21

49-7'

50 -.33

36. 1«

37-04

12.76

24.06

10.S2

1 1. 51

3-73

3-9S

49-39

48.02

4S.37

50.00

35-44

36.39

12.11

13-40

10.32
9-83
0.36
8.90

10. .A

3-53

3-76

34.77

34- '0

35-75
35-'o

21.46

20.S2

21.74
22.08

•0.47
9-97

o.»S

r.a

J -5
i3 S

47-74

4S.35

33-43

34-46

20.17

21.42

3.00

3-'S

47-05

47-67

3*-76

33-8'

'9-54
iS.no

20.75

S-45

0.02
S.57

«.S4

•5 ■?

46.3'

46.95

32-09

33-17

10.09

S.03

1.85

45-54
44-70

46.20

3' -4*

£8

■S.28

10.41

7.62

S.ij

9»

2-55

1.70

30-74

T-"7
17.06

7-7'

*-4'

1-55

43-07

30.07

3*-*3

7-3'

2.29

2.42

:ij

43 IS
42.40
41.64

40.10

43-90

43-14

25.40

27-39

30. S9
29.94

ZJ&

■7-43
16.79

6.i S

6 a

£3

2.29

42.40
41.67

2.,.;.i

15.16

14.6S

ia.ij
15.55

5.S2
5 5'

5-SS

1:^

40.17

4»-"7

16.71

*7-99

14.10

'4-94

5.11

55*

• .70

•00

1 .(.>

The mean lifetime of malec u 39.91 years, *nd of females, 41. S5.

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC BUSINESS.

587

A Complete Digest of Parliamentary Law and Rules.

' HE origin of Parliament-
ary Law is to be found in
the customs and rules of
the British Parliament, the
first deliberative body of
the modern world. When
the Jutes and Saxons left
their over-crowded homes in the
Low Dutch Lands and sailed
to England, they carried with
them the Witena Gemote, the
root from which has sprung ev-
ery Congress and Parliament,
every Town Meeting and Con-
vention, every Caucus and De-
bating Society which the Anglo-
Saxon race in the Old World, or the New, has
held.

Set rules governing the proceedings of Par-
liament began first to be established about A. D.
1 1 80, so that now Parliamentary Science is
about seven hundred years old. In the course
of time these rules became more extended and
exact, the conduct of public meetings was re-
duced to a science, until at the present day the
man who is not familiar with them is apt to ex-
pose himself as one of imperfect education, and
to make blunders which bring himself into ridi-
cule, and the cause which he is supporting into

danger. In America, where every matter, grave
or light, affecting the public, or any part of it,
is promptly made the subject of a meeting, the
man who has not Parliamentary Law and Prac-
tice at his fingers' ends is compelled either
always to take a back seat and let less able men
come forward, or else be in constant danger of
an absurd display of ignorance unworthy of an
American citizen.

Fortunately, however, the whole subject is easi-
ly mastered, and easily retained in the memory.
It is based upon certain clearly laid down prin-
ciples, and if we were asked to give in one
sentence a comprehensive definition of Parlia-
mentary Law, we should promptly answer that
it was common sense divided into rules. Those
things that appear strange are really founded
upon reason, and the more the student attacks
the subject the more evident do its harmonies
appear. Anyone who will carefully study the
following digest will thoroughly master the
subject.

CALLING A MEETING.

It would be much easier to make a list of the suDJects for
which meetings should not be called than of those for which they
should. Generally, all those matters which affect a considera-
ble part of the community, of the church, or of the business to
which one belongs, are proper matters for counsel and discus-
sion among friends, and for meetings among citizens. The
forms used in calling meetings should be very brief and pointed,

5 88

PARLIAMENTARY LAW AM) RULES.

intimating plainly what the gathering is for, where and when it
is to meet. For instance, forms to be printed in the newspapers
should take this shape :

Notice. — The members of the Second Presbyterian Church are
requested to meet At Mr, James Kyle's residence, 241 Walker street,
on Tuesday evening 1 , January 151b, at eight o'clock, to consider ways
and means of rebuilding the parsonage.

Or thus :

DEMOCRATS OF THE THIRD WARD, ATTENTION »

A mass meeting of the Democrats of the Third Ward will he held at
Lafayette Hall, on Locust and Main streets, on Friday evening, Oct.
3<1, at 7 '30, p. m., in accordance with the order of the) Central Com-
mittee, to select three delegates for the City Convention on Saturday,
Oct. 4th. The Hon. C. K. Pease, Judge Bradley Adams, Sheriff Pur-
son, and others, will address the meeting.

Sometimes it is necessary that meetings should be called
without publicity, when a form like this might be used :
[ CONFIDENTIAL.]

St. Louis, Jan. 12th, 1893.
Jamks Asiiton, Esq.,
Ashton & Co., Grocers.

Dear Sir:

Your attention is called to the fact that
the retail dealers in coffee are cutting prices until there \s little or no
profit l"ft in the trade. Quite a number of us have agreed to meet at
the Magnolia Club next Saturday evening, to discuss the situation,
and see if some measures can not be taken which will enable all of the
firms to do a more satisfactory business than at present. Please
cither be present yourself, or send a representative empowered to act
for you, and oblige You^ very respectfully,

Spotts & Tremaine.
J. R. Oscjood & Co.
II. A. Miller & Son.

These forms might be greatly increased in number, but the
reader will see the shape upon which it is best to found them.
Be cure that written notices are sent to all interested, and that
printed ones are inserted several times before the event which
they advertise is to occur.

ORGANIZING A MEETING.

As soon as a sufficient number have gathered together at the
place of meeting, some gentleman — and it is well that the per-
sons calling the meeting should select this person with care ; it
is best to choose some well-known and representative citizen —
will mount the speakers' stand and rap with the gavel on the
table until the assembly is brought to order. He will then nom-
inate some person present for chairman, using the simple form,
"I move that Mr. John Gilkeson act as chairman of this meet-
ing." When the motion is seconded he will at once put it to
the house, saying, " It is moved and seconded that John Gilke-
son act as chairman of this meeting. Those in favor will say
' aye'." Those in favor of Gilkeson will vote " aye " in a clear
tone of voice. The temporary chairman will continue, "Those
opposed say 'no'." If Mr. Gilkeson is defeated other names
MIC proposed until a chairman is elected, when the one chosen
will be escorted to the chair, and the gavel handed to him by
the temporary chairman, who at once leaves the stand and
takes a se.it among the members. The chairman raps for order
and after B word or two of thanks for the honor conferred upon
him should proceed to lay clearly before the meeting the purpose
for which it has been called. This is not the time for eloquence
or for attempt! at fine speaking. The chairman should endeavor
to frame his remarks so that every person in the hall will under-
stand clearly and definitely just what the matter for rilinntfrffi
is. It is in good taste for the chair to call upon any other mem-
ber of the meeting to express the purpose for which it has been
called if the chairman docs not feel himself thoroughly able to

explain it. But if the chair means to call upon some other
member to speak, he should first proceed to the election of a
secretary, who, when elected, will read the call, and the chair
will then call on the person whom he wishes to address the
house; otherwise the secretary is not usually chosen until after
the president has spoken.

GETTING TO WORK.

When the secretary has been elected and the purpose of the
meeting stated, the next duty of the chairman is to get the
assembly to work with as little delay as possible. Suppose, fcr
example, it is proposed to rebuild the church parsonage lately
destroyed by fire. The chairman will say, "Gentlemen, you
have heard the reasons why this meeting has been called. What
is the pleasure of the house ? "

A member will rise to his feet and say, " Mr. Chairman."

The chairman will look towards the speaker and say, "Mr.
Mclntyre," or, if he does not know the gentleman's name, he
will say, " The gentleman to my right," indicating the speaker
with a wave of his hand. The purpose of this is to draw the
attention of the meeting to the person about to speak. Mr.
Mclntyre then says, " I move that a committee of three be
appointed by the chair to report ways and means of raising
$5,000 for the rebuilding of the parsonage."

This motion being seconded, the chair announces, " It is
moved and seconded that a committee of three to report ways
and means of raising $5,000 to rebuild the parsonage be
appointed by the chair." The matter now becomes debatable,
and any member may rise and address the chair as to the pro-
priety or impropriety of appointing such committee. When the
discussion seems to be concluded, the chair will a>k. "Are you
ready for the question? " To which the members v. .1! respond
by calling, "Question !" "Question !" The chair will then very
distinctly, repeat the motion so that all can hear it clearly : "It
is moved and seconded that a committee of three be appointed
by the chair to report ways and means of raising $5,000 to
rebuild the parsonage. Those in favor of the motion will
say 'aye.'" The ayes vote. " Those opposed will say' no."'
The noes vote. If the chairman thinks the ayes are in a major-
ity he will say, "The ayes seem to have it," and then, after a
pause, if no one calls for a division, "The ayes have it." If a
division is called for, however, the chairman will call upon those
in fevor of the motion to take one side of the hall and those
opposed to go to the other, when he may appoint teK
count the votes, or count them himself. Or he may make a
division by causing each party to raise their hands in turn, or
to rise up from their seats and remain standing while being
counted. The motion having carried, the chair will proceed to
appoint the committee, remembering that Parliamentary Fti-
quette demands that the person who moved the appointment
shall be be made chairman of the committee. The chair will
■lag decide, as it wis not incorporated in the motion, when the
report shall be made. If it is probable that the work can be
done in a half hour or an hour, he will order the committee to
report in that time; if longer, it is wi-cr to adjourn over to an-
other evening. The committee having gone out to work, and
there being no business before the assembly, the chair may
announce a recess, or call upon some one present for a speech, a

^7"

PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES.

589

recitation or a song ; in this way, or in conversation, the inter-
val may be passed. 'When the committee is ready to report they
come back to the hall and announce their presence to the chair-
man. He raps with the gavel for order and announces, " The
committee is ready to report. Mr. Mclntyre, please read your
report."

The report is read by the Chairman of the Committee, and at
its conclusion some member moves its adoption. This being
seconded, the Chair announces: "It is moved and seconded
that the report of the committee which you have just heard read
be adopted." This opens discussion, after which the motion
is voted on as before. The business of the evening being con-
cluded, some one moves to adjourn. It is seconded, and this
motion is voted just as any other. If the matter must be taken
up again later, the date to which the body is to adjourn should
always be incorporated in the motion. When the motion is car-
ried, the Chairman announces the fact and the meeting ends.

~ yX^-

How to Manage a Convention.

JpONVENTIONS differ from ordinary meet-
\/jy ings both in their composition and in the
f customs which are observed. The fre-
% quency of their occurrence and the
'$' strict manner in which members are held
to Parliamentary Rules make it necessary for
every delegate to thoroughly master the niceties
of their organization and government, and, al-
though in the pages that follow the broad prin-
ciples of Parliamentary Law are laid down so
that those who run may read, it is necessary here
to call attention to the peculiarities which make
Conventions differ from other deliberative bod-
ies. Conventions are made of delegates chosen
either by sections of a political party or by di-
visions, councils, encampments, or lodges of a
society. In all cases the delegate must be pro-
perly accredited to the general body, and one
of the first things to see to is that these creden-
tials are in proper shape.

TEMPORARY ORGANIZATION.

A Convention organizes temporarily before it
can get to work. A Chairman, a Secretary,

with several assistants, and several Sergeants-at-
Arms are chosen after the usual manner. They
are the result of nomination and election just as
in any other deliberative body, but it is under-
stood that their functions will cease as soon as
the Permanent Organization is perfected. It is
generally understood beforehand who is to be
selected Temporary Chairman, however, and
although the tenure of office is brief it is quite
an important post. Delegates will always do
well to act slowly during the temporary organi-
zation, as it has frequently happened that it alone
has decided the whole work which the body
had assembled to do. The custom is to choose
the temporary organization by a viva -voce vote,
and usually the delegates and the rest of the
world help along in the voting with all their
lungs.

THE COMMITTEES.

The temporary organization has for its sole
purpose the selection of the Committees whose
work must be done before the Convention can
go to business. These are the Committees:

On Credentials.

On Permanent Organization.

On Order of Business.

On Rules.

On Resolutions.

Although it is common to join these last two
committees into one.

Every Convention consists of delegations, and
each delegation consists of delegates. When
the Chairman calls for the Committee on Cre-
dentials the delegations each name one of their
number to be a member of that Committee. So
with Permanent Organization, Order of Business
and Rules and Resolutions. Each delegation
should have one representative on each Com-
mittee. As soon as the names are given in the
Committees retire and a recess is taken.

THE COMMITTEES AT WORK.

The duties of each Committee are plainly indicated by their
names. The credentials of each delegate should be turned in
as rapidly as possible; generally they are put in the hands of the

-apV

~7\

59°

PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES.

members of the Credential Committee from the delegation, but
sometimes contests occur, and thil is the time for the contest to
begin properly. In political conventions some of the most im-
portant work is done by the Order of Business Committee. It
is very vital in what order candidates shall be nominated. All
of this has to be settled at once, and the friends of a candidate,
if they are afraid that other candidates have sold them out,
should always try to get their nomination fixed at the beginning
of the schedule, because they can thus make the doubtful ones
show their hands at once. The Committee on Permanent Or-
ganization must supply a full list of names for chairman, secre-
taries, sergeants-at-arms, pages, etc., for the convention. The
Committee on Rules always report the rules governing Congress,
and the Resolutions Committee put the platform, as it is called,
in shape.

THE CONVENTION AT WORK.

When the recess ends, the committees should all be ready to
report, which they do m this order:

Credentials.

Permanent Organization.

Order of Business.

Rules and Regulations.
The Credentials Committee gives a full list of delegates entitled
to sit, the Permanent Organization names the officers, the Order
of Business reports in what succession the convention shall ad-
dress itself to the business before it, the Rules and Resolutions
give shape and purpose to the whole. Each committee report
is acted upon as soon as it is read, usually by a viva voce vote,
and, all being accepted, the convention gets to work. The first
sup is for each delegation to select a chairman, who acts as
spokesman for it. This can be done in the intervals betw< I n
the reports. The permanent officials are installed, generally
with short speeches, and the order of business is taken up. The
chairman orders the secretary to call the roll of delegations fur
nominations, for Governor, tor instance. Two or three coun-
ties may be called without any nominations (for it is always
understood beforehand who is to make the nominating speeches)
until Butler County is reached. Then the gentleman who has
been selected arises, and, calling attention to the eminent serv-
ices and peculiar fitness of the Honorable Allen Blaisdell, nomi-
nates him for Governor. Another county is leached, and Mr.
Pierson is nominated; perhaps four or five more and
Blaisdell is seconded, and so on until all the candidates for
(. >\ i nor are fairly in the field. The voting in conventions is
peculiar. As soon as the nominations close, each delegate
should hand to the chairman of his delegation a piece of paper
with the name of the person he votes for upon it. When
An hews County is called the chairman rises and announces
"Andrews County gives three for Blaisdell, two for Pierson and
one for Holmes. When the vote is all in, the totals are hand-
ed to the president, who announces: "Total vote cast, 242; nec-
essary to a choice, 122. Pierson, 98; Blaisdell, 84 ; Holmes, 53;
Dawet, 7. There being no election, the convention will proceed
to vote again." Which is continued until by a clear majority a
candidate has been chosen. When a candidate has been select-
ed he should thank the convention for its preference, and the
defeated candidates should also come forward and express their
submission to the will of the party.

TRADING.

Trading is the name given to the transaction whereby a dele-
gati n, anxious to secure the nomination of their friend to office,

agree to vote for other candidates who are running for other
offices, in return for support of their nominee. This is assum-
ing greater proportions every year, and the only note to be
made upon the practice is that usually, from bad faith and
treachery, it is a very uncertain one. Pledges are easily secured,
but kept with difficulty. In this age of combinations the men
who do not combine are sure to be defeated, but it is to be re-
gretted that American politics should give such a premium to
deceit as the "trading'* done in conventions offers.

-x^mm

Things to be Remembered.

->-*-

Seven Things a Chairman Should Remember.

1st. Take the chair promptly at the time for the meeting to
open.

2nd. Always rise to your feet when putting a question. All
your remarks io the house should be made standing.

3rd. Order is best maintained by a rigid enforcement of par-
liamentary law.

4th. Except in vote by ballot, the chairman can only vote
when the meeting is equally divided, or when his vote given to
the minority would make the division equal.

5th. The chairman should familiarize himself thoroughly
with the purposes of the meeting.

6th. Common sense, decision and firmness are absolutely
necessary to a successful president

7th. The president's three duties are: to preserve order, to
put questions, and to keep the house strictly to the business in
hand.

Six Things a Secretary Should Remember.

1st. Provide the necessary stationery for the performance of
the duties of the secretary.

2nd. In reading minutes and papers pitch the voice to reach
the furthest persons in the room.

3rd. Do not attempt to w rite up minutes during a meeting —
take full notes of everything that happens.

4th. Preserve all papers carefully. Do not allow members
to remove them after they are read.

5th. See to it that all committees are properly warned of
their appointment, and of the business they are to do.

6th. In writing minutes make them as short as possible, but
include every important matter.

Four Things a Member Should Remember.

1st. Unless the chair is assisted by every member in the
maintenance of order, business will be retarded.

2nd. Always rise when about to speak, and address the chair-
man alone. Be silent until he makes the necessary recognition.

3rd. Be careful to keep to the ixu'nt in your remarks, and
never speak twice on a matter while there are other members
waning to be heard.

4th. That speaker is listened to with attention who only
speaks when he has something pertinent to say.

— oC&§<^^^§G&e>.-

PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES.

591

THREE HUNDRED POINTS OF ORDER.

DECIDED AT ONE CLANCE, ON A SINCLE PACE.

BLANKS IN COLUMNS AFFIRM STATEMENTS AT THE HEAD--THE NEGATIVE DENIES THEM.

* Not debatable when another question is before the House.

f An affirmative vote on this question cannot be reconsidered.

a Limited debate only on the propriety of postponement allowed.

b May be moved and entered on the record when another has the floor, but may not
stop the business then in progress; maybe called up by the mover as soon as
such business is disposed of, and it then takes precedence of all other questions
exept "to adjourn," or " to fix time to which to adjourn."

cNot debatable when decision is in a matter of breach of decorum.

dCan be made before debate has commenced only.

e «d

I l

Si ^

"ei
1

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in

1
a

•6
i I

lie

~£ u ~

c JJ —

8 s

t s

£ §•

E 3

c .

- 8

VI >

V
u ,

— it
u

•si

c
1

no
no
no
no
no

no
no
no
no
no
no
no

no
no
no
no
no

no
no

no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no

no
no

no
no
no

no
no
no
no
no
no

no
no
no

no
no
no
no
no
no

8th

no
*

1st

no
no

no
no
no
no
no
no

7th

no
no
no
no
no

no
no
no
no

::::}

4th

3rd

....b

....b
no

9th

6th

no
no
no

no
no

5th

no
no
no
no
no

no
no
no
no
no
no

no
no
no
no
no

no
no
no

Leave to continue speaking after breach of decorum

no
no

FORMS IN WHICH QUESTIONS MAY BE PUT.

On motion for previous question, the form observed is: "Shall the main question be put?" This if carried ends debate.

On motion for order of the day: "Will the House now proceed to the order of the day?" Thisif carried supersedes interven-
ing motions.

When objection is raised to considering question: "Shall the question be considered?"

On motion to strike out words: "Shall the words stand part of the motion?" If this be not carried, the words are
struck out.

On an appeal from decision of Chair : " Shall the decision be sustained as the ruling of the House? "

When yeas and nays are ordered by the House : "As many as are in favor of will answer aye; those opposed will

answer no, when their names are called."

When a member has been counted on the side against which he intended to vote, the presiding officer can order the amend-
ment of the vote, having first asked the member: "On which side he intended to give his voice?" This correction can be made
only on the member's own representation.

592

PETITIONS AND MEMORIALS.

WWW

EMORIflLS:

AND

ETITIONS.

The right of Petition: is an expression frequently met with
in English history. The earnestness with which the people of
that country strove for the maintenance of the right is a proof
of its great importance. The right of Petition necessarily im-
plies the right of being heard and heeded.

The bodies to whom petitions are addressed are first of all
Congress, the President and the executive departments of the
Government, State Governors and Assemblies, Mayors, City
Councils, and lastly public and private corporations of every
kind. Certain set forms are used in addressing these assemblies
and persons, and although the matter may vary infinitely it must
always be put in a respectful and decorous manner. The me-
morial to Congress presented by the Mississippi River Conven-
tion.which assembled in St. Louis October, 1881, is one of the
best exemples of this kind extant. It will be found first among
the forms which follow, necessarily abbreviated to fit the
space at our disposal.

MEMORIAL TO CONGRESS.

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States,

in General Assembly convened:

The Executive Committee of the Mississippi River Improvement
Convention, held in the city of St. Louis, Missouri, in October last,
under one of tlie resolutions unanimously Adopted, were charged with
the duty of preparing and presenting to the Congress of the United
States a memorial embodying the action of the Convention, accom-
panied with Mich statistics and information as the Committee might
deem expedient.

The Convention which committed this grave duty to your memor-
ialists was one representing, in an unusual degree, the commercial

and industrial power of the country. The highest Order of talent,
judgment matured by careful thought and large experience of the
great iguestlon so Intimately connected with flu- progress and
Opment of the imperial domain comprehended, met in council, and
the important question was Considered by men representing twenty
States and three Territories, and half the' population of the Union.
I remarkable was the variety of interests gathered and given

utterance to there. Thefarmers and merchants, the bankers, the man*

ufacturers, the professions, and the heads of great transportation
lines by river and by rail, with earnest zeal discussed, and with strik-
ing unanimity reached the conclusion embodied in the resolutions
adopted by the Convention, and which it now becomes the duty of
your memorialists to urge upon the National Legislature.
*** + **»** * •

The aid now asked, and the benefits sought to be received through
the liberal action of the Government, is not alone for the presei

for the near succeeding years, but stretches to the distant future— that
eventful and busy future" for which it is the dutv and DUSil

mnship to prepare, Thi \ dley States and those in tin ;

: (I Sou t Invest, bound together by the ch on I ion in-

terest, arc fast gaining the political power which will make them the
?,i antoi . Instead of the solicitors of favors through the Instrumental!*
y of the Government A compliance now with their reasonable *\*--

nised, and will hereafter And ret
response, A refusal will breed an antagonism of sections whicli may
lead to sectional issues.

And now we ask, can there be a more propitiou* time for the
National Legislature to recognize the value and importance of the
work ?

The products of the Mississippi Valley, carried cheaply by the river
route (and through its influence less expensively by rail) to "the outer
markets, have thrown the balance of the world's trade grandly in our
favor. Since this power and influence has been recognized, for the
first time in our history we now have among kindred commercial na*
tlons the rank of creditor. The long-sought position has been ob-
tained through the agency of cheap transportation from the interior
to tlie sea ; a policy ere can only maintain by carrying the thought to
the utmost conclusion.

Tlie report of the Secretary of the Treasury, and favorably present-
ed by President Arthur in his message, shows a surplus revenue of
over $100,000,000 for the last fiscal rear, and the question suggests
itself, how can this accruing surplus he properly and mo: i
expended ? Those for whom we speak do not complain of the bur-
dens of taxation. They do not ask for the present reduction orspeedy
extinguishment of the national debt, but they do ask that this surplus
shall in part be applied to their great and cheap thoroughfares, feel-
ing that when this is done they can bear the burden! by the
Government In the form of taxes much easier than th<
from detective and crippled transportation. Now in the days of our
prosperity, they a~sk those to whom they have entrusted their I
to lav aside local antagonisms and sectional jealousies, to c<
the height of the argument and conclusions presented, and meet the
action of the Convention by the exercise of a statesmanship as broad
and comprehensive as that "which marked its deliberations.

Secretary,

PETITION TO THE PRESIDENT.

To Chester A. Arthur, President of the United States.

The Petitioners undersigned respectfully solicit of you the appoint-
ment of \V, K. Huntir as cadet at large to West Point,
man is the son of Major Wilson Hunter who dis
and was severely Wounded at the battle of Lookout Mountain* Hi -

twenty yean of age, of perfect form and robust hi

Uate of "Madison University. He carried off the highest I

institution in mathematics and drawing, and is now engaged in the

office of Penny A: Rubold, Civil Engineers. We ask

our Representative In Congn m has tires dr. without know-

of Hunt . made hit n I

faneri
ith the greatest i

ng ot II
VVc re

fer to accoiapain iujr papers, A, R, C and D.

James T. Miumk.

Old. L. Vk.NNOK.

Galena, Ill»., Oct. i ( .

V Letter of Hunter to Yt nnor.

H. " Personal I-'riciid of President,

i Printed slip.

D. Letter of Dean of Madison University.

Mr Dtar Mr. Vtnnor:

You have so frcepientlv shown your kind feelings towards me that I
am sure yog Will not think tue too presumptive in taking TOUT assis-
tance in" a purpose tli.it I have resolved upon. It is that 1 should

• Si

go to West Point. You know how well fitted I may be for a cadet-
ship. Should my purpose meet with your approval, I throw all my
hopes of int ure success in life on you, and I know no one in this wide
world so willing and so well able to help me.

With the most sincere regard, Kver yours,

Galena, Oct. 6th, 1SS2. W. E. Hunter.

SEALED LETTER.

My Old Friend;

Should the application for the appointment of Hunter be favorably
received by you, you will not only confer a favor on a most worthy
object, but settle another matter which will be a good stroke of policy
for our district. ,

A man named Trevors is looking with hungry eyes at the position
of U. S. Collector for this district, in which we want our friend May-
ville retained. Trevor's main dependence would be on Morgan and
Vennor. Now Morgan is secretary of the Illinois State Republican
Committee and was "a power in the last convention. Vennor is a quiet
capitalist whose subscriptions have been very heavy in any Republi-
can necessity. You would find it hard to refuse either. Appoint
Hunter and you save Mayville. They could not expect you to make
a second move on their application.

Pardon the length of this.

As ever your most devoted,
Galena, Oct. 13th. Morris Henley.

C.
PRINTED slip.
From the Galena Times, Aug. 18I/1, 1882.
********* **

This happy escape from what would have been a most frightful dis-
aster is all owing to the presence of mind of a young surveyor in the
employ of Penny & Kubold. We predict for Mr. Hunter, the hero
whose coolness and courage were the means of saving so many lives,
a most brilliant future.

Messrs. Penny & Rubold.

Gentlemen: — In recommending my young friend W. E. Hunter
to you, I can say with truth he was as a pupil all that could be desired,
apt and studious. His proficiency in mathematics is almost phenom-
enal. Respectfully,

Miron Seymour,
Feb. 12th, 1SS2. Dean of Madison University.

PETITION TO THE GOVERNOR.

71? T/ios. T. Crittenden, Governor of the State of Missouri.

Your Petitioner respectfully represent that the office of Clerk of the
County Court of Dayton County in this state is now vacant by reason
of the decease of James Allison, the regularly elected incumbent.
Your petitioner would further represent that until the next general
state and county election the law requires that the vacancy be filled
by appointment of the Governor. Now feeling myself capable of fil-
ling the position, and being thoroughly acquainted with the duties of
the office, I respectfully make application and solicit you to appoint
me Clerk of the Dayton County Court. Robert Ames.

With our most cordial recommendation.

Henry Warren, J Justices of the

Thomas Harrison, \ County Court.

William Henderson.

S. K. Atchison.

Richard Lord, Sheriff.

Jesse R. Dunlap, Minister.

PETITION TO A CORPORATION.

To the Board of Directors of the Dubuque Gaslight Co.

Gentlemen: — As the vacant lot adjoining your works and owned
by you would suit my purpose, I respectfully solicit the use of it for
the storage of cement and salt. Should it not be your intention to
improve the lot for some time, the collection of a small rent front me
would be better than allowing such a property to lie idle.

Respectfully, Alex. Goldman.

PETITION TO A STATE LEGISLATURE.

75? the Honorable, the Senate and House oj Representatives of the

State of ,in Legislature assembled :

The undersigned petitioners, residents and tax payers of the city of
, respectfully represent that they

and that they your petitioners fully believe that such action on your

part would be in favor of the best interest of the city of , and

would be in complete accord with the will of the majority of its citi-
zens, and your petitioners as in duty bound will ever pray, Arc, &€•

Signed,

PETITION TO CITY AUTHORITIES.

To the Mayor and Common Council of the City of :

Gentlemen : Your petitioners, citizens and tax-payers of the second,
fifth and sixth wards of this city, respectfully sohcity your honorable
body to extend the system of sewerage, already working in such ad-
mirable order in the third and fourth wards, through our wards. The
expense may be heavy but our need is still greater ; for all the territory
contiguous to the low grade streets, Adams, Pine and Lincoln, is in
extreme danger, should the pestilence now raging in the Southern
cities come this far north. We respectfully represent that the largest
portion of the city revenue is collected in our wards and that the pro-

eosed extension will be paid for wholly by the property-owners most
enefited by the sewers.

Signed,

(City, Stale, Dale.)

PETITION TO A COUNTY COURT.

County Court :

Township, who are

75? the Hon. Justices of the

The undersigned* residents of

obliged to use the Baldwin road to market with their produce, re-
spectfully inform your honor that the bridge crossing Pear Creek is so
badly injured by the last flood that it is now dangerous and cannot be
trusted. Hoping you will give the matter immediate attention they
earnestly petition your honorable court to order the necessary repairs.

Signed,

(County, State, Date)

A REMONSTRANCE.

75? the Mayor and Common Council oj ;

Gentlemen : The petition of the undersigned citizens and tax pav-
ers of the sixth an seventh wards of this city respectfully represents
that they have learned that a petition is now before you praying for
the privilege of constructing a railroad along Jackson Street. That
if this privilege were granted and a track laiuon that street the result
would ne most injurious to the property fronting thereon and would
obstruct the great traffic now continuous on that thoroughfare. They
also suggest that there is no necessity for such railroad, as the one on
Henry street two blocks south is sufficient for the needs of the public.
They therefore respectfully and earnestly remonstrate against the
granting of said privilege by your body.

Signed,

(City, State, Date.)

±L

Q st.

|8HE benefits derived socially ami intellectually from
attendance at Lyceums or debating societies arc M
generally conceded that there U no need of argument

JjJSjjffrgS. *° ur G e *^ e ' r formation.

I/wi^ The following form of a constitution and by-laws
will give a clear insight into their workings :

Constitution and By-Laws of the Ben Franklin
Lyceum.

PREAMBLE.

For our mutual improvement, for the entertainment of our
friends and for the cultivation of the amenities of social life, the
undersigned agree to form themselves into a debating society.
TITLE.

ARTICLE I.

The name of this society shall be the Ben Franklin Lyceum.
OFFICERS.

ARTICLE II.

The officers of the Lyceum shall consist of a President, Vice-Prcsl«
dent, Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian and Marsh. il. They shall be
elected annually at the first regular meeting after the 15th of January
in each year, and shall continue to perforin the duties of their
offices until the installation of their successors, which shall take place
at the next meeting after their election.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

ARTICLE III.

The President shall preside at all meetings, and shall be ex-officio
member of all standing committees, but not of special commit)

The Vice President in the absence of the President shall take
nr, but will not assume his duties in committees unless the
President shall so request.

The SxCRSTAKY'a duties shall be threefold— Recording, Corres-
ponding and Financial.

1; -■ 'or dim;.— lie shall keep an accurate record of the proceedings
of each meeting, be prepared to read them at the ensuing 1
and bv indexing or other method be prepared to read on call the
record of any business that may have taken place at any former
'ing.

Corresponding, — He shall attend to all the correspondence of the
Lyceum.

FINANCIAL, — Me shall keep the nccounts of the Lvccum with the
members, with ell parties having dealings with thrfLvccum, and with
the Treasurer. He shall collect and pay over to the Treasurer all

d fines and other income. He shall WTite warrants on the
Treasu-er to he signed by the President for all monies to be paid out.

The TaSASI kkk shall receive from the Secretary all monies of the
Lyceum and shall pay out the same only on the production of the
Secretary's warrant signed bv the President. He shall make a quar-
terly statement of the funds in his hands, which shall be verified by
the nooks of the Secretary,

The Librarian shall have charge of all books, periodicals, maps,
pictures, globes, curiosities and like articles either owned or borrow-
ed by the Lyceum.

The Marshal shall have charge of the hall, furniture, light,
fuel, and comfort of the members, lie shall act as doorkeeper, usher
to visitors, and messenger.

COMMITTEES.

ARTICLE IV.

Immediately after his installation the President shall appoint five
standing committees :

The Executive and Financial Committee,

The Liukarv Committee,

COMMIT"! U ) I. hi 1 .

Committee o\'i in Sli.ii tion or Subjects for Debate,

Committee on Criticism.

These committees shall consist of four members each, i. t., three
appointed and the President himself.

Special Committees for all other purposes shall be elected by
the Lyceum.

MEMBERSHIP.

ARTICLE V.

Active Membership. — An. p< rson of good repute in the commu-
nity, of either se\, over the age < irs ir.av become a member
of the L ' majority vote ol the members present at the neat
m eeting after their p he membership beginning only after
signing I tution and paying the initiation I

Like Membership.— Any person of good repute, on the introduc-
tion of a member and the vote of the societv, may become a life
member and have the benefit of the library and mav attend ai!
lngs and debates on the payment of $10.00.

Honorary Membership may be conferred bv vote of the Lyceum
on any person. Honorary members shall pay no fees or dues.

ORDER.
article VI.
The proceedings and deliberations of the meetings of the Lyceum
shall be governed bv the 1 raa shown in the arttcleoh Par-

liamentary Law in Peale's Manual, unless such rules conflict with this
Constitution, its Amendments or the By-Law..

EXPULSION OF MEMBERS.

ARTICLE VII.

itncient reason anv member mav be expelled by s two. thirds
. the members present at anv meeting, provided t:
Committee has prei matter and informed flae

r of the proposed action, and that he be gtvea opportunity to
defend hlmsetf,

V-

LYCEUMS AND DEBATING CLUBS.

595

TIME OF MEETINGS.

ARTICLE VIII.

The regular meetings of the Lyceum shall he held in the Ben.
Franklin Jlali at eight o'clock on every Wednesday evening Special
meetings may be called by the President on the request ot five mem-
bers.

AMENDMENTS.

ARTICLE IX.

This Constitution may be altered or amended at any regular meet-
ing by a. vote of two-thirds of the members present I Provided that
written notice shall have been given of the proposed amendment at a
previous meeting.

BY-LAWS.

LIBRARY.

RULE I.

No member shall be allowed to take more than two books from the
Library at one time. A fine of one cent per day for each volume
shall be collected from each member keeping books more than one
week. The Library shall be opened one hour oefore the regular meet-
ings of the Lyceum.

QUORUM.

RULE II.

Two more than one-half the active members shall constitute a
Quorum.

MONTHLY DUES.

Each member shall pay a monthly due of fifty cents. Any meipber
having failed to pay his dues for three months shall be notified by the
Secretary; if he dues not pay by the end of fourth month his member-
ship shall be forfeited.

DEBATES, RECITATIONS AND SPEECHES.

RULE IV,

The President shall appoint in turn members to take part in the
exercises. A week's notice shall be given, and a member failing to
fi.l the appointment without good excuse shall be fined fifty cents.

ORDER OF BUSINESS.

RULE V.

Call to Order.

Roll Call.

Reading of Minutes of Last Meeting.

Correspondence.

Reports of Officers.

Reports of Committees.

Good of the Lyceum.

Election of Members.

New Business.

Debate.

Recitation.

Oration.

Criticism.

Adjournment.

QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE.

1. Ought the largest city of a State to be the capital of that State?

2. Will the coal supply of the United States hold out?

3. Must the Chinese go?

4. Has the abolition of slavery improved the condition of the

blr»cks?

5. Is universal suffrage a success?

f>. Has the attendance at churches changed the character?

7. Was the Tichborne claimant the true heir?

8. Is the drama immoral?

9. Will the planting of forests increase the rainfall?

10. Should woman have the right of suffrage?

11. Is cremation preferable to burial?

12. Ought Governments to own railroads and telegraphs?

13. Should the President of the United States be elected directly by

the people?

14. Does Prohibition prohibit?

15. Should public museums and parks be opened on Sunday?

16. Should foreign languages be taught in the Public Schools?

17. Should the right to vote depend on a property qualification?
1S. Are early marriages advisable economically?

19. Have we an aristocracy?

20. Could the Government of the United States do as well without

the Senate?

21. Will th« colored race become amalgamated with the whites?

22. Are competitive examinations a fair test for the fitness of appli-

cants for office?

23. Should gold be the standard of value?

24. Should there bv more Arctic expeditions sent out?

25. Was Washington a military gonius?

26. Is the assessment of office-holders for political purposes immoral ?

27. Is communism a mistake?

28. Has the visit of Edwin Arnold had any effect on the public taste?

29. Is the co-education of the sexes advisable?

30. Has the Government been too liberal in land grants to railroads ?

31. Are inventors sufficiently protected by the patent laws?

32. Should married women be retained as teachers in the Public

Schools?

33. Should convict labor be allowed to compete with honest labor?

34. Is the present system of trial by jury the best?

35. Should voting by ballot be introduced into all elective and

legislative proceedings?

A\ 4 ,v\\iillllf»/L///

596

—

MAGNA CHAKTA.

|?fr j 3fr>tgrai*'3^^

MAGNA CHARTA.

The Steps in the Growth of American Liberty.

N the year 121 3, on Aug-
ust 25th, in England, was
organized a movement of
which we now, after so
many centuries, feel the
effects in our nicely bal-
anced constitutions and
'equitable codes of laws. The liber-
ties for which our American fore-
fathers battled had been defined and
foreshadowed by their ancestors,
and the political condition of our
thriving country may well be shown'
as the ripened and mellow fruit from
the seed sown nearly seven hundred
years ago. On that memorable 25th
of August the Prelates and Barons
tiring of the tyranny and vacillations
of King John, founded a Council
and passed measures to secure their rights. Af-
ter two years of contest, with many vicissitudes,
the Barons entered London and the King fled
into Hampshire, whence he sent word that he
would comply with their demands. By agree-
ment both parties met at Runnymede on the
9th of June. The conference lasted till the 19th,
on which day the royal seal was affixed and
Magna Charta, the glory of England, was born.
It was a comprehensive bill of rights, and though
crude in form and with many clauses of merely
local value, its spirit lives and will live. Clear
and prominent we find the motto we ourselves
have followed:

" No tax without representation."
It contained sixty-olie articles, the thirty-ninth
and fortieth of which have had the most lasting
effect, and their sentiments are the very marrow
of all our State Constitutions.

The original document is in Latin, but a trans-
lation of articles 39 and 40 from English Statutes
may give an idea of its whole character.

" 39. No freeman shall be tajcen or be im-
prisoned or be disseised of his freehold, or liber-
ties or free customs, or be outlawed or exiled,
or any otherwise destroped ; nor will we pass
upon him, nor condemn him, but by lawful judg-
ment of his peers, or by the law of the land.

"40. We will sell to no man; we will not
deny or defer to any man, either right or jus-
tice."

The Mecklenburg Declaration.

Some thirteen months previous to the signing of the great
Declaration of Independence there was drawn up a document
in Mecklenburg County, N. C, that was almost a model in
wording and sentiment of the great charter of American liberty.
There are different accounts of the matter, but the most reliable
is this:

At a public meeting of the residents of Mecklenburg County,
in the State of North Carolina, held at Charlotte on the 20th day
ol May, 1775, it was

"Resolved, That whenever directly or indirectly abetted, or in
any way, form or manner countenanced, the unchartered and
dangerous invasion of our rights, ns claimed by Great Britain,
is an enemy of our country — to America — and to the inherent
and inalienable rights of man.

'•Rc/vlvcd, That we. the citizens of Mecklenburg County.do
hereby dissolve the political bonds which have connected us to
the mother-country, anil hereby absolve ourselves from all
allegiance to the British crown, and abjure all political connec-
tion, contract or association with that nation, which has wan-
tonly trampled on our rights and liberties and inhumanly shed
the blood of American patriot! at Lexington.

"Kesohei/, That we do hereby declare ourselves a free and
independent people: are and of right ought to be a sovereign
and self-governing association, under the control of no |
other than that of our God and the general government of the
Congress. To the maintenance of which independence we
solemnly pledge to each other our mutual co-operation, our
lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor."

other resolutions in the same document, regarding ad-
ministiation of the law and regulating the militia, having no
present value, are omitted.

-M

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.

597

In Congress, July 4th, 1776.

> HEN, in the course of human events, it becomes neces-
sary for one people to dissolve the political bands
which have connected them with another, and to as-
sume, among- the powers of the earth, the separate
and equal station to which the laws of nature and
nature's God entitle them a decent respect to the opin-
ions of mankind requires that they should declare
the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all
men are created equal: that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that
among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to
secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving
their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever
a form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right
of the people to alter »r to abolish it, ar.d to institute a new govern-
ment, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their
safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that govern-
ments long established should not be changed for light and transient
causes j and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are
more disposed to suffer where evils are sufferable, than to right them-
selves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. Hut
when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the
same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despot-
ism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government,
and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been
the patient sufferance of these colonics ; and such is now the necessity
which constrains them to alter their former systems of government.
The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated
injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment
of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be
submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary
for the public good.

lie has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pres-
sing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent
should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected
to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of
representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and
formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom-
fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the
sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing with
manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause
others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of
annihilation, have returned to the people at large, for their exercise,
the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of
invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; for
that purpose obstructing; the laws for naturalization of foreigners,
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising
conditions of new appropriation of lands.

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his
assent to laws establishing judiciary powers.

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of
officers, to harass our people, and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without
the consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior
to, the civil power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his
assent to their acts of pretended legislation, —

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us :

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment from any
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states :

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world :

For imposing taxes on us without our consent:

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury:

For transporting us beyond the seas to be tried for pretended
offenses :

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring pro-
vince, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its
boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies :

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws,
and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our governments :

For suspending our own legislatures and declaring themselves
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro-
tection, and waging war against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and
destroyed the lives of our people.

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries,
to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun
with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the
most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized
nation.

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of
their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.

He lias excited domestic insurrections among us, and has endeavor-
ed to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian
savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruc-
tion of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in
the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only
by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every
act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

~3 V

Nor have we been wanting In attention to our British brethren. We
have warned than, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature
to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded
them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity ; and we have
conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these
usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and
correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and
of sanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which
denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man*
kind, enemies in war, in peace friends.

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America,
in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of
the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by
the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish
and declare, That those united colonies are, and of right ought to be,
free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance
to the British crown, and that all political connection between them
and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ;
and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy
war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do
all other acts and things which independent states may of right do.
And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the
protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our
lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor.

The foregoing Declaration was, by the order of Congress, eaffi
and signed by the following members :

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Josiah Bartlett,
William Whipple,
Matthrw Thornton.

MASSACHUSETTS BAY

Samuel Adams,
John Adams.
Robert Treat Paine,
Elbridge Gerry.

RHODE ISLAND.

Stephen Hopkins,
WiHiam Kllery.

CONNECTICUT,

Roger Sherman,

Samuel Huntington,
William Williams,
Oliver Wolcott.

NEW YORK.
William Floyd,
Philip Livingston,
Francis Lewis,
Lewis Morris.

JOHN HANCOCK.

NEW JERSEY.

Richard Stockton,
John Witherspoon,
Francis Hopkinson,
Jafcn Hart,
Abraham Clark.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Robert Morris,
Benjamin Rush,
Benjamin Franklin,
John Motion,
George Clyraer,
James Smith,
George Taylor,
James Wilson,
George Ross.

DELAWARE.

Ca?sar Rodney,
Gnorge Read,
Thomas M'Kean.

MARYLAND.

Samuel Chase,
William Paco,
Thomas Stone,

Charles Carroll, of Car-
roll ton.

VIRGINIA.

George Wythe,
Richard Henry Lcc,
Thomas Jefferson,
Benjamin Harrison,
Thomas Nelson, J r.,
Francis Lightfoot Lee
Carter Braxton.

NORTH CAROLINA.

William Hooper,
Joseph 11 ewes,
John Penn.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Edward R titled gc,
Thomas Heyward, Jr.,
Thomas Lynch, Jr.,
Arthur Middleton.

GEORGIA.

Button Gwinnett,
Lyman Hajl,
George Walton.

Resolved^ That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, conventions and committees, or councils of safety, and to
the several commanding officers of the Continental troops ; that it be proclaimed in each oVthe United States, and at the head of the army.

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

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PREAMBLE.

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per-
fect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for
the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the
blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and
establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

ARTICLE I.

SECTION I.

i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con-
gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House
of Representatives.

SECTION II.

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members
chosen every second year by the people of the several States ; and
the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for
electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained
to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of
that Stftte :n which he shall be chosen.

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the
several States which may be included within this Union, according to
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all
other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three
years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and
within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they
shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed
one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one
representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State
of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts,
eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut,
five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Dela-
ware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five; South-
Carolina, five, and Georgia three.

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State,
the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such
vacancies.

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and
other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

SECTION III.

i. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two sena-

tors from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years;
and each senator shall have one vote.

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the
first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three
classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated
at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expira-
tion of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the
sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if
vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of
the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make tempor-
ary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which
shall then fill such vacancies.

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States,
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for
which he shall be chosen.

4. The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the
Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided.

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president
pro tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall
exercise the office of president of the United States.

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments.
When sitting for that purpose, they shall all be on oath or affirmation.
When the president of the United States is tried, the chief-justice
shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concur-
rence of two-thirds of the members present.

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any
office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party
convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial,
judgment, and punishment, according to law.

SECTION IV.

i. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators
and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legisla-
ture thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter
such regulations, except as to the place of choosing Senators.

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year; and
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they
shall by law appoint a different day.

SECTION V.

I. Each House shall be the judge of the election, returns and qual-
ifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute
a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent

members, In such manner and under such penalties as each House
may provide.

2. Each house may determine the rule of iu proceedings, punish its
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-
thirds, expel a member.

3. Kach House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of
either House on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those
present, be entered on the journal.

4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to
any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.

SECTION VI.

1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation
for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treas-
ury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason,
felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their
attendance at the sessions of their respective houses, and in going to
and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either
house, they shall not be questioned in any other place.

2. No Senator or representative shall, during the time for which he
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the
United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments
whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person
holding any office under the United States shall be a member of
either house- during his continuance in office.

SECTION VII.

1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Rep-
resentatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments
as on other bills.

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives
and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the
President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if
not he shall return it with his objections, to that house in which it
shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their
journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration
two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent,
together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall
likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that
house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both
houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the
persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal
of each house respectively. If any bill shall not he returned by the
President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after It shall have been
presented to him,the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had
signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its
return, in which case it shall not be a law.

3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the
Senate and House ot Representatives may be necessary (except on a
question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the
United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules
and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.

SECTION VIII.

The Congress shall have power—

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the
debts and provide for the common define and general welfare q4 iN-
United States; but >U duihs, imposts, and excises shall be uniform

[hoot the United Si

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States.

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the
several States, and with the Indian b

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws
on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States.

5. To coin mom -. , ... (horuof, and of foreign eoin,
and fix the standard of weights and measures.

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the set
and current coin of the United States.

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads.

S. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing
for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
respective writings and discoveries.

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court.

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the
high seas, and offenses against the law of nations.

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make
rales concerning captures on land and water.

12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to
that use shall be for a longer term than two years.

13. To provide and maintain a navy.

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the laad
and naval forces.

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the
Union, suppress insurrection, and repel invasion.

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia,
and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the ser-
vice of the United States; reserving to the States respectively the
appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia
according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.

17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the scat of
government of the United States ; and to exercise like authority o%-er
all places purchased, by the consent of the legislature of the State in
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals,
dockyards, and other needful buildings ; and

iS. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry-
ing into execution the foregoing powers vested by this constitution in
the govcrr.ient of the United States, or in any department or office
thereof.

SECTION IX.

i. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the
States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohib-
ited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and
eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation not
exceeding ten dollars for each person.

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended,
unless when, In cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may
require it.

3. No bill of attainder, or ex fast facto law, shall be passed.

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in propor-
tion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on any articles exported from any
St;ite. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce
or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall
vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, dear or pay
duties in another.

6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but In consequence
of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account
of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be pub-
lished from time to time.

7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no
person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without

eiit of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office,
or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.

SECTION X.

I. No State shall enter Into any treaty, alliance, or confederation;
grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ;
make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ;
pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the
ion of contracts; or grant any title of nobility.
a. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any
• 01 duties on Imports or exports, except what may be abso-
lutely necessary for executing Its Inspection laws; and the net produce
of all duties and Imposts laid by any State on imports or exports.

«* <s -*"

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

601

shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such
laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No
State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any duty of ton-
nage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any
agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or
engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger
as will not admit of delay.

ARTICLE II.

SECTION I.

1. The executive power shail be vested in a President of the United
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four
years; and, together with the Vice-President chosen for the same
term, be elected as follows.

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature
thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of
senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the
Congress; but no senator or representative, or person holding an
office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an
elector.

3. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by
ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant
of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all
the persons voted for and of the number of votes for each; which list
they shall sign and certify and transmit sealed to the seat of govern-
ment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate.
The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and
House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes
shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of
votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole
number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who
have such a majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the
House of Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of
them for President, and if no person have a majority, then, from the
five highest on the list, the said House shall, in like manner, choose
the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall.be taken
by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from
two-thirds of all the States, and a majority of all the States shall be
necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the Presi-
dent, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors
shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more
who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot,
the Vice-President.

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors,
and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be
the same throughout the United States.

5. No person, except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall
be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be
eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-
five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of
the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President; and the
Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resig-
nation or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declar-
ing what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act
accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be
ciected.

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during
the period for which he shall have been elected; and he shall not
receive within that period any other emolument from the United
States, or any of them.

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the
following oath or affirmation : —

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office
of President of the United States ; and will, to the best of my ability,
preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

SECTION II.

1. The President shall be Commander-in-chief of the army and
navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States,
when called into the actual service of the United States. He may
require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of
the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of
their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves
and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of
impeachment.

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present
concur; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and con-
sent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers
and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other offict rs of
the United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise pro-
vided for, and which shall be established by law. But the Congress
may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they
think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the
heads of departments.

3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions
which shall expire at the end of their next session.

SECTION III.

1. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. He may, on
extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them;
and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of
adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think
proper. He shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers.
He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed; and shall
commission all officers of the United States.

SECTION IV.

i. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United
States shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and convic-
tion of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

ARTICLE III

SECTION I.

I. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one
Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as Congress may from
time to time ordain and establish. The judges both of the Supreme
and inferior courts shall hold their offices during good behavior; and
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which
shall not be diminished during their continuance of office.

SECTION 11.

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity
arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to
all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to
which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between
two or more States, between a State and citizens of another State,
between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same
State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a
State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases men-
tioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as
to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as
the Congress shall make.

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be
by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crime
shall have been committed; but when not committed within any
State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may
by law have directed.

002

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

SECTION III.

i. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war
against them or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort.
No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two
witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.

a. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason;
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture,
except during the life of the person attained.

ARTICLE IV.

SECTION I.

i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts,
records, and judicial proceedings of every other State; and the Congress
may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and
proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.

section n.

x. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immu-
nities of citizens in the several States.

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime,
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State shall, on demand
of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up
to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime.

3. No person held to service or labor in one State under the laws thereof,
escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any laws or regulation therein,
be discharged from such service or labor ; but shall be delivered up on
claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.

SECTION III.

1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no
new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other
State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States or
parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States con-
cerned, as well as of the Congress.

a. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to
the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed u
to prejudice any claim of the United States, or of any particular State.

SECTION IV.

1. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a repub-
lican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ;
and, on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the legis-
lature cannot be convened), against domestic violence.

ARTICLE V.

1. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution ; or, on the appli-
cation of the Legislature of two-thirds of the several Stales, shall call a
convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid
to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the
Legislature of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-
fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed
by the Congress ; provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to
the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall in any manner affect
the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the fifth article; and that
no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the
Senate.

ARTICLE VI.

1. AH debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption
of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this
Constitution, as under the Confederation.

a. This Constitution, and the laws of the United Statu which shall
be made in pursuance thereof, and alt treaties made, or which shall be

made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme
law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby,
anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not-
withstanding.

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned and the
members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and
judicial officers, both of the United States and the several States,
shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution;
but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any
office or public trust under the United States.

ARTICLE VII

1. The ratification of the convention of nine States shall be sufficient
for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying
the same.

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States
present, the seventeenth day of December, in the year of our
Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty, and of the
Independence of the United States of America the twelfth.
In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our iwsm.

George Washington.
President and Deputy from Virgins*.

AMENDMENTS.

ARTICLE I.

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or
prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech
or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and
to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

ARTICLE II.

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State,
the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.

ARTICLE III.

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the
consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed
by law.

ARTICLE IV.

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and
effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated;
and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or
affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the
persons or things to be seized.

ARTICLE V.

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual
service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for
the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, nor shall be
compelled in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself, nor be
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall
private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

ARTICLE VI.

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy
and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the
crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously
ascertained by law; and to be informed of the nature and cause of the
accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have com-
pulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assist-
ance of counsel for his defense.

-SI

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

603

ARTICLE VII.

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no
fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the
United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

ARTICLE VIII.

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed,
nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted.

ARTICLE IX.

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

ARTICLE X.

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution,
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the Stales respec-
tively, or to the people.

ARTICLE XI.

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to
extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against
one of the United States by citizens or subjects of any foreign State.

ARTICLE XII.

1. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by
ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall
not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. They shall
name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct
ballots, the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make
distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons
voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each;
which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat
of government of the United States, directed to the President of the
Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the
Senate and House of Representatives, open the certificates, and the
votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number
of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a
majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person
have such majority, then from the persons having the highest num-
bers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President,
the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the
President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by
States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-
thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary
to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a
President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them,
before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-Presi-
dent shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other
constitutional disability of the President.

2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-Presi-
dent shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the
whole nnmber of electors appointed, and if no person have a major-
ity, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall
choose the Vice-President, A quorum for the purpose shall consist
of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the
whole number shall be necessary to a choice.

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi-
dent shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

ARTICLE XIII.

1 Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as t. punishment

for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdic-
tion,

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
legislation.

ARTICLE XIV.

SECTION I.

All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to
the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the
State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the
United States, nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty,
or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

SECTION 11.
Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord-
ing to their respsotive numbers, counting the whole number of persons
in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to
vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-
President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the exec-
utive and judidial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature
thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being
twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any
way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the
basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which
the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of
male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

SECTION III.

No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elec-
tor of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military,
under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously
taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United
States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or
judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United
States, shall have engaged in insurrection 'or rebellion against the
same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof; but Congress
may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

SECTION IV.

The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by
law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques-
tioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of
any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held
illegal and void.

SECTION V,

The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation,
the provisions of this article.

ARTICLE XV.

SECTION I.

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied
or abridged by the United States, or any Stete, on account of race,
color or previous condition of servitude.

SECTION II.

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
legislation.

<"ls-

604

THE DEPARTMENTS AT WASHINGTON.

THE DEPARTMENTS AT WA^TOH.

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT.

S PROVIDED by the
Constitution, the Govern-
ment of the United States
performs its allotted work
through three distinct
«. channels, the Execu-
fej^ tive, the Legislative and

the Judiciary.

The President, ■whose oath of office, duties and
powers are described in the Constitution, holds
office for four years. He must be thirty-five years
of age, a *

Jfc

fourteen years.
auguration takes place on
the fourth of March next
succeeding his election ; his
salary is $50,000 a year,
payable monthly, and he
has the use of the furniture
and the other effects in the
"White House," a Govern-
ment building in Washing-
ton, where he resides. The
President's official house-
hold, selected by himself,
consists of:

SALARY.

i secretary, - $3,250
1 ass't secretary, 2,250
a clerks, each, 3,000
1 clerk, - - 1,800

The prtronagc of the President is enormous The appointments to
every branch of public service, made by htm, give him a power Hud
would be appalling but that it is balanced by the safeguard of the
consent of the Senate.

The office of President is one which has been called by European
writers the highest to which humanity can aspire. The chief magis-
tracy of the American Republic is a prize for which every eminent
American statesman has struggled, and it is singular in looking back
over the history of the country to note how many men peculiarly fitted
by their great talents and great prominence for the Presidency
have been beaten by unknown men. Two of the greatest Senators in
the history of the Union were Daniel Webster and Henry Clay, neither
whom succeeded in winnimr the crowning honor of a political

THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON.

SALARY.

i clerk, ■ - $1,400

1 usher, • - $1,400

1 clerk, * - 1,200

i) doorkeepers, e. 1 ,200

1 stenographer, i,Soo

1 watchman, • 900

1 steward, - i,Soo

l fireman, - • S64

career. On the other hand, the number of comparatively unknown
men who have been chosen by their parties and elected by the people,
is very large.

The original intention of the Fathers of the Republic is one that
the politicians of the country have departed from widely. The elect •
oral system did not contemplate nominations and party organization ;
it intended that the electors, men chosen by the people of each State
as safe men for this important office, should cast about for the most fit
man in the Republic for the honor of the Presidency, For this man
they were to vote. But under the manner in which the system is
worked the electors furnish a clumsy method, often a faulty one, lor
expressing the direct popular will. No elector would dare to use his
own judgment; he is simply chosen on a pledge to vote for a certain
candidate chosen for him. In this way the people choose directly the
President, and yet, owing to the fact that the electors are never in

number in exact proportion
to the population, It fre
quently happens that, while
one candidate has a majori-
ty of the popular vote, the
other has a majority of the
electors and becomes Presi-
dent.

The Presidential resi-
dence at Washington is a
very handsome pile. It is
called the White House
from its color. It has been
the centre of the fashion
and grace of the republican
court. There are regular
reception days set, when
any one who wishes may
call upon the President.
Upon private reception
days admittance is only se-
cured by card, t'pon these
occasions, the gay court costumes of the foreign legations, the mili*
tary uniforms and the splendid dresses of the ladies form asccne not
soon to be forgotten.

The grounds about the White House, taking In as they do the
conservatories and nurseries of the Agricultural Department, are very
pretty and well kept. The Presidential residence is furnished by the
Government for the President.

The City Government of Washington.

When the District of Columbia was set off from M.irvland and
Virginia, and put in possession of the Government, it was decided that
the v hole territory should he in the hands of the Federal Union .1.
that it would he altogether independent of Stale influence. As the
city of Washington grew up around the Capitol provision had to be

r its municipal government, which was obliged to be p<
under the circumstance-*. The President appoints three *.
ers of the District of Columbia, in whose hands He all of the function*
usually performed bv mayors ann boards of aldermen. 1 -
of Washington have DO votes as there arc noelections. All of t 1
officers are appointed, and the whole machinery of local government
is directly in the hands of the President and Congress.

..a. 9

DEPARTMENT OF STATE.

605

_j@ESteJg±

DEPARTMENT OK STATE.

HE duties of the Secretary of this Department are pre-
scribed by law and relate chiefly to correspondence
with public Ministers or Consuls from the United
S States, to negotiations with public Ministers of for-
eign States and to memorials or other applica-
tions from foreigners. Through his hands all the
business of the Government with other Powers
passes. Any bill passed by Congress and signed by the Presi-
dent, or that becomes a law in any other lawful manner, is
received by the Secretary and made public by him.

It is his duty to report annually to Congress all the in-
formation that should naturally come through his office.
Any new amend-
ment to the Con-
s t i t u t i o n , any
act of Congress
that becomes a
law, any foreign
treaty, postal con-
vention or Con-
gressional joint
resolution is sent
to the Public
Printer by the
Secretary of State
for legal publica-
tion ; he must also
publish in some
newspaper the
commercial in-
formation he may
deem of public
importance. Pass-
ports when ren-
dered are free of
charge. Copies of records in this Department when applied for
are furnished by the Clerk at a cost to applicant of ten cents for
every hundred words.

The salaries paid in the Department of State are:

>EFAKTMBNTS OF STATE, ARMY AN

Secretary, - - $8,000 4 clerks, each

3 ass't secretaries, each 3,500 2 clerks, each

I chief clerk, - 2,500 10 clerks, each

I translator, - - 2,100 2 clerks, each
6 chiefs of Bureaus, each 2,100 10 clerks, each

I I clerks, each - - 1,800 1 engineer,

$1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
900
1,200

I assistant engineer, - $1,000

With watchmen, firemen, laborers, etc, the total amount is
about $100,000 a year.

The Examiner of Claims, an officer appointed by the Attor-
ney-General, has charge of the legal business of the Department
of State. There are a number of Bureaus in the Department,
the most important of which is the Consular. Quite a number
of interpreters are continually needed in the offices.

<?T=

The Diplomatic Service.

The diplomatic service of the United States, alt of which is in
charge of the Secretary of State, consists of Envoys Extraordinary
and Ministers Plenipotentiary, Ministers Kesident, Charges d'Af-
f aires, Consuls-General, Consuls ana Commercial Agents.

The highest class of Ministers are those sent to France, Germany,
Great Britain and Russia; they are paid $17,500 per year. The sec-
ond class ($12,000 a year) are sent to Austria, Hungary, Brazil, China,
Italy, Japan, Mexico and Spain. The third class ($10,000 a year)

to to Chili, Peru and the Central Amercain States. Ministers Resi*
ent receive $7,500 (with the exception of the one in Bolivia, $5,000,
and the one in Liberia, $4,000), and are in the Argentine Republic,
Belgium, Colombia, Hawaian Islands, Hayti, the Netherlands,
Sweden and Norway. Turkey and Venezuela. Charges d'Affaires
have $5,000 a year, aria are in Denmark, Portugal, Switzerland, Uru-
guay and Paraguay. There are five Consuls-General in British do-
minions, at Cal-
cu tta, M elbourne,
London, Halifax
and Montreal; two
in Germany, at
Berlin and Frank-
fort; two in Tur-
key, at Cairo and
Const antinople;
and one each in
Paris, Vienna,
Rome, St. Peters-
bu rg, Bucharest,
Bangkok, Shang-
hai, K a n a g a w a,
Havana and Mex-
ico. Their salaries
range from $2 ,000 to
$6,000. There are
the following ranks
of consulates . Five
at $6,000 a year;
two at $5,000; one
at $4,500; six at
$4,000; eight at $3,-
500; twenty -one at
$3,000; sixteen at
$2,500; thirty-seven
at $2,000; forty-
seven at $1,500; and
twenty a t $1,000.
All Consuls receiv-
ing a fixed salary
pay into the Treas-
ury all fees received
by virtue of their
office. But there are many Consuls and Agents whose only com-
pensation cotnes from fees. Such officers are usually allowed to
go into business.

Secretaries of State.

Thomas Jefferson, Va.

Edmond Randolph, Va.

Timothy Pickering, Penn.

John Marshall, Va.

James Madison, Va.

Robert Smith, Md.

James Monroe, Va.

John Q. Adams, Mass.

Henry Clay, Ky.

Martin Van Buren, N. Y.

Edward Livingston, La.

Louis McLane, Del,

John Forsyth, Ga.

Daniel Webster, Mass.

Hugh S. Lcgair, S. C.

Thomas 1
James G.

1789

Abel P. Upshur, Va.

1843

■794

John C. Calhoun. S. C.

1S44

■795

James Buchanan, Penn.

1845

1S00

John M. Clayton, Del.

1S49

1S01

Daniel Webster, Mass.

1S50

1809

Edward Everett, Mass.

185a

1S11

William L. Marcy, N. Y.

1S54

18:7

Lewis Cass, Mich.

i8S7

1S25

Jeremiah S. Black, Penn.

1S60

1S29

William H. Seward, N. Y.

1S61

1S31

Elihu B. Washburn,

1S69

'S33

Hamilton Fish,

1869

»834

William M. Evarts

1877

1S41

James G. Blaine

1SS1

1S43

F. T. Frelinghuyseu

iSSi

F Bava

rd. Del., 1885

Blaine,

Maine. 1889

606

THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT.

_^LL of the moneys of the United States, all matters
" relating to the collection and payment of the ac-
counts of the Government, and, in a word, all of the
jJ?2k' duties appertaining to the finances of the nation,
fall naturally to the Secretary of the Treasury, lie
is assisted by a numerous corps, the Treasury Department
requiring naturally more clerical detail than any other in the
Government. There are three Assistant Secretaries, having
charge of appoint-
ments, public
money, revenue
marine, loans and
currency, engrav-
ing and printing,
the mints, and the
signature of doc-
uments; they al-
so attend to cus-
toms, special
agents, internal
revenue and navi-
gation, and the
general supervis-
ion of accounts.

There are two
Comptrollers.
The first counter-
signs warrants,
attends to the pay
of the diplomatic
service, and exam-
ines requisitions
and claims. The second has charge of the accounts of the Army,
Soldiers' Homes, Pensions, Marine Corps and Navy Yards,
Disbursing Agents, and of the Financial Agency of the Govern-
ment at London.

The Commissioner of Customs examines, revises and passes
all accounts concerning duties, tonnage, marine hospitals, fines,
penalties and forfeitures under the navigation laws, and ftpptW N
bonds of customs officers.

The Six Auditors.

UNITED STATES TREASURY Bl'll

There are six Auditors in the Treasury Department, among whom
the work, is divided as follows:

First Auditor: Customs, Judiciary, Public Debt, Warehouse and
Bonded Goods, Miscellaneous Accounts.

Second Auditor: Army Paymaster, Miscellaneous Claims, Indian
Affairs, Bounties, Frauds, Rook-keeping.
Third Auditor: Book-keeper, Quartermasters, Subsistence and

Engineering, State
W.ir Claims, Mis-
cellaneous Collec-
tions.

Fourth Auditor:
Prize Money, Navy
Agents, Paymas-
ters.

Fifth Auditor:
Diplomatic and
Consular division,
Internal Revenue.
Sixth Auditor:
Post-office ac-
counts.

Other Treasury
Officers.

The Treasurer of
the United States
has custody of ait
the public money;
he pays warrants,
Issues and redeems
Treasury N< I

deem* National bank notes, pays the interest on the public debt, an^
is custodian of the Indian trust funds.

Thi Comptroller of the Currency supervises and controls the National

banks throughout the country, under the Secretary of the Treasury.

The Solicitor of the Treasury examines all revenue frauds and orer-

Icg.il measures for their prevention and punishment. All of

t] business of the department goes through his hands, and the

secret service operations arc directed by him. When required he must

give his opinion on any legal question. The Solicitor of the Treasury

~7T

THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT.

607

is really an officer of the Department of Justice, as will be seen on
another page.

The Commissioner of Internal Revenue makes assessments and
apportions taxes. The bureau is divided into seven departments :
1. Appointments. 2. Laws. 3. Accounts. 4. Tobacco. 5. Distilled
Spirits. 6. Stamps. 7. Assessments. Special agents are appointed by
the Commissioner to watch the manufacture and handling of whisky.

The Superintendent of the Coast Survey has charge of all the sur-
veys of the ocean and coast and the making of maps, charts, etc.

The Bureau of Statistics collects and publishes information in regard
to trade and commerce, shipping, imports and exports, emigration, etc.
Its reports are published quarterly and distributed gratuitously.

The Mint in Philadelphia is the one to which the Mints at New
Orleans, Carson and Denver must send their reports. Each Mint has
a superintendent, assayer, teller, refiner, coiner and assistants, and the
one at Philadelphia has also an engraver. The Director of the Phila-
delphia Mint makes an annual report of the minting done in the
country.

Quarantine.

The Secretary of the Treasury executes the laws which restrain, stop
and govern vessels arriving at United States ports from places afflicted
with infectious diseases. The officers of the customs revenue are re-
quired to see to the execution of the public health laws of the General
Government and of the several States in this regard.

The Light-House Board.

The Light-House Board, which is appointed by the President, is
attached to the Treasury Department. It consists of two officers of
the Navy of high rank, two officers of the Corps of Engineers and two
citizens of high scientific attainments. This Board has general charge
of the light-house service of the United States.

The Life-Saving Service.

The life-saving service is divided into seven ocean districts and
three lake districts. The various stations are supplied with such
apparatus as may, in the judgment of the Secretary of the Treasury,
be best adapted to the purpose of each station, such as life-boats,
ropes, mortars for sending ropes on board wrecked vessels, contriv-
ances for getting passengers safely on shore, etc. Each district is in
charge of a sup— intendent, who possesses the powers and performs
the duties of an inspector of the customs for each of the coasts on
which stations are established. These districts number seven on the
Atlantic coast, and three on the great lakes, and each superintendent
receives from the Secretary of the Treasury the proper instructions
relative to the duties required of him.

Each station is in charge of a keeper, who is instructed in his duties
by the Secretary of the Treasury. At some stations experienced surf -
men are engaged to assist in aiding wrecked vessels.

Secretaries of

Alexander Hamilton, N. Y. 1789

Oliver Wolcott, Conn. 1795

Samuel Dexter, Mass. 1800

Albert Gallatin, Penn. 1802

George W. Campbell, Tenn. 1814

Alexander J. Dallas, Penn. 1814

William H. Crawford, Ga. 1817

Richard Rush, Penn. 1825

Samuel D. Ingham, Penn. 1829

Louis McLane, Del. 1831

William J. Duane, Penn. 1833

Roger B. Taney. Md. 1
Appointed during recess; V 1833

not confirmed by Senate. )

Levi Woodbury, N. H, 1834

Thomas Ewing, Ohio. 1841

Walter Forward, Penn. 1841

John C. Spencer, N. Y. 1843

Geo. M. Bible, Ky. 1844

Robert J. Walker, Miss. 1845

the Treasury.

William M. Meredith, Penn.
Thomas Corwin, Ohio.
James Guthrie, Ky.
Howell Cobb, Ga.
Philip F. Thomas. Md.
John A. Dix, N. Y.
Salmon P. Chase, Ohio.
William Pitt Fessenden, Me.
Hugh McCulloch, Ind.
George S. BoutwelL
William A. Richardson.
Benjamin H. Bristow.
Lot M. Morrill.
John Sherman.
William Windom.
Charles J. Folger.
Hugh McCulloch, Ind %
Daniel Manning, N. Y.
Chas. S. Fairchild, X. Y.
\V. Windom, Minn.
Charles Foster, Ohio,

1849
1850
1853

■857
i860
1861
1861
1864
1865
1870
1873
,874
1876
1877
1SS1
1SS1

"?♦

1SS5
,ss 7

I Sol

608

THE WAR DEPARTMENT.

THE WAR

1 . .

DEPARTMENT

f F ALL matters relating to military affairs the Secretary
of War has entire charge. He must communicate to
Congress estimates of the appropriations needed for
his Department, not only for its internal working, but
for the construction of public works and other public
service performed under his direction. He must report
annually a statement of the appropriations of the pre-
ceding year (always counting from the 1st of July), showing how
much was appropriated for each Bureau of the Department, and
the balance on hand, together with estimates of the amounts
necessary for the ensuing year. lie will submit to Congress
reports of surveys of rivers and harbors ordered by Congress.

He furnishes an abstract of the returns of the Adjutants-Gen-
eral of the militia of the States.

These annual reports are made at the beginning of each regu-
lar session and cover all the transactions of the Department dur-
ing the year. The Department is divided into ten branches,
governed by the following officers : The Adjutant-General, Quar-
termaster-General, Paymaster-General, Commissary-General,
Surgeon-General, Chief of Engineers, Chief of Ordnance, Chief
Signal Officer, the Judge Advocate-General and the In-
spector-General.
The annual salaries paid in this Department are :

Secretary, -

•

$S,ooo

3 engineers, •

3,Soo

1 chief clerk,

•

*.7So

65 messengers, •

720

46,800

1 disbursing clerk,

•

2,000

50 laborers, •

660

33.ooo

7 Bureau chiefs, e.

$2, COO

14,000

8 char-women

180

1.44°

5a clerks, each

1,800

93.000

125 physicians,

,200

150,000

52 clerks, each

1,600

83,200

185 hospital stewards

360

!«./<»)

95 clerks, each

■,400

>33.°°o

50 paymaster's clerks

1,200

60,000

390 clerks, each

1,200

468,000

90 Nat. Ccm. keepers

800

72,000

191 clerks, each

I,0CO

191,000

450 weather observers

720 324,000

33 clerks, each

COO

28,800

1,000 employes at ar-

1 draughtsman,
1 anatomist, •

•

i,Soo
1,600

8,800

mories and other
business of Dep't.

800 800,000

8 printers, •

593 .S9°

With rations, quarters and fuel in many cases, the expense of
the Department borders on $3,000,000 annually.

The Bureaus of the War Department.

Tub Adjutant-General's Office. From this office are
issued all orders with regard to the movements of the army.
All records of individuals in the army from the privates to the
officer of the highest rank may be found in this office. All com-
missions, promotions, charges and discharges, come through this
Bureau. In one word, the Adjutant-General is the insii
by which the Executive communicates with the army.

The Quartermaster-General's Office. This Bureau has
charge of the purchasing anil distributing of all supplies (except
subsistence) needed by the army, to furnish transportation for

soldiers, military stores and supplies, and to pay all expenses of
the military service not provided for in other Bureaus.

The Commissary-General's Office. The business of this
office consists in the purchase and distribution of subsistence
and supplies for the army.

The Paymaster-General's Office. Payments to the army
are made through this office. Arrears of pay shall never exceed
two months.

The Surgeon-General's Office. This Bureau has charge
of the surgical and medical department of the army, the pur-
chase and distribution of hospital and medical supplies. It has
authority in sani'ary matters, such as supervising the cooking
done in the army, and the preparation of rations for the enlisted
men.

The Office of the Chief of Engineers. This Bureau has
charge of the various fortifications, and provides for the surveys
of rivers and harbors. All matters connected with skilled labor,
such as building, bridging, excavation, mining, etc., in the mili-
tary service, belong to this Bureau.

Office of the Chief of Ordnance. This office has charge
of all skilled labor necessary in the preparation and care of the
ordnance and ordnance supplies. It purchases, inspects and
controls the construction, movement and storing of all the heavy
armament in the service.

The Office of Military Justice. This office is under the
charge of the Judge Advocatt-Generpil. The proceedings of all
Courts-Martial, Courts of Inquiry and Military Commissions are
received, revised and recorded in this office. All matters con-
nected with the administration of justice in the army are the
peculiar province of this Bureau.

The Signal Office. The Signal Service, which has proved
itself of incalculable benefit to the country, is an adjunct of the
War Department and is managed by the officers of the Army
detailed by the Secretary of \Y:ir.

The iNsrr.cTOR-CJENitMAL's Dkpartmfnt is specially estab-
lished to promote economy, efficiency sad compliance with the
laws Sad 'V commands and stations, at the

Military V.ul. n\ , .1 < .it all institution-: or departments thereof
under charge of oftCSfS of the Arinv.

The Military Academy at West Point

The corps of cadets consist of one from each Congressional
District of the United States, one from each State, one from the
; of Columbia, and ten from the United States at large,
who are appointed by the President. The cadets must be
between seventeen and twenty-two years old when admitted;
they must b 1 in reading, writing, arithmetic, gram-

mar, geography and history, particularly of the United States.
The course at the Academy lasus four years, and on graduation
the cadets are commissioned as second lieutenants in the army.

THE AMERICAN AKMY.

609

^EsT TaETTaETT^IsnSBTTaEn^IsTT^ETTaETraCsT^

s
a
5

15]

afais nai^i^isfiai^isnaEita^isu ^

i|VERY citizen of this Republic may well be proud of
jSJi the history of the American Army. Organized by
KJ George Washington and commanded ever since by
eminent chieftains, it has carried the Star-spangled
Banner over hundreds of stricken fields of battle, and
never without honor* It has fought through four great
wars and innumerable Indian revolts. Again and
again has its valor been proved, until to-day, one of the smallest,
the American Army is considered to be one of the most effective
in the world. In time of peace its work does not cease. All
along the Western frontier the scattered forces have all that
they can do holding the savage Indian tribes to good behavior,
Always fighting at tremendous odds, the service performed by
the soldiers in the far West can only be described by the word
"remarkable." The regular army is the skeleton upon which in
time of war the forces of the Republic form. It consists of about
25,000. On a war footing our army could, no doubt, be pushed
up to over three millions of men under arms. Towards the end
of the civil war the total of the Federal and Confederate service
was much larger than that figure. On the resignation of Gen-
eral U. S. Grant, who became President in 1868, General Wil-
liam Tecumseh Sherman, a soldier who fought his way to the
front in the time that tried men's souls, was assigned to the
highest rank. General Sherman retired from active service,
however, in 1883, and General Phil. Sheridan was placed
in command. Major-General John M. Schofield is the
present commander of the United States Army.

Pay-Roll of the United States Army.

GENERALS.

3 major-generals, each 7,500— S aides-de-camp, $200 addition to

line pay.
6 brigadier-generals, each 5,500 — 13 aides-de-camp, $150 addition to

line pay.

CAVALRY.

:o colonels, each • $3»5oo

10 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000
30 majors, each • 2,500

120 captains, each 2,000

10 adjutants, each - i,Soo

10 reg't quartermasters, ea. $i,Soo
120 1st lieutenants, each 1,600

120 2d lieutenants, oach i»Jjoo

2 chaplains, ea. r • 1,500

ARTILLERY.

5 colonels, each • $3»50o

5 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000
15 majors, each • 2,500

60 captains, each • ■ 2,000

5 adjutants, each • ? 1,800

5 reg't quarter-masters, ea. i,Soo
120 1st lieutenants, each 1,000

65 2d lieutenants, each, T .5°°

J majors, each
250 captains, each
25 adjutants, each

,000

25 colonels, each
25 lieutenant- colonels, each 3,
35 majors, each • 2,500

i,Soo
i,Soo

INFANTRY.

25 reg't quartermasters, e.
250 1st lieutenants, each
250 2d lieutenants, each
2 chaplains.

DEPARTMENTAL SERVICE.

8 brigadier-generals, each $5,500
12 colonels, each - 3,300

33 lieutenant -colonels, each 3,000

150 majors, each

127 captains, each

76 1st lieutenants, each

ENGINEER CORPS.

1 brigadier-general, • $5,500 | 24 majors, each
6 colonels, each - - 3,500 I 30 captains, each

12 lieutenant- colonels, each 3,000 I

1 brigadier-general,

4 major-generals,

33 brigadier-generals
59 colonels, -

34 lieutenant -colonels,
50 majors, - •

SIGNAL OFFICE.

$5>5°° I 32 lieutenants, each

RETIRED LIST.

131 captains,
72 1st lieutenants, •
15 2d lieutenants,
8 chaplains,

$1,800
1,500
Moo
i,5oo

$2,500
2,000
1,600

$2,500
1.S00

$1,500

Enlisted Men.

NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS,

The following enlisted men are paid these sums monthly dur-
ing their first terms of enlistment, with some modifications pre-
scribed by law : Sergeant-majors of cavalry, artillery and infan-
try, $23 each ; quartermaster-sergeants of cavalry, artillery and
infantry, $23 each ; chief trumpeters of cavalry, $22 ; principal
musicians of artillery and infantry, $22; chief musicians of regi-
ments, $60, and the allowances of a quartermaster-sergeant;
saddler sergeants of cavalry, $22 ; first sergeants of cavalry,
artillery and infantry, $22 ; sergeants of cavalry, artillery and
infantry, $17; corporals of cavalry and light artillery, $15;
corporals of artillery and infantry, $15; saddlers of cavalry,
$15; blacksmiths and farriers of cavalry, $15; trumpeters of
cavalry, $13; musicians of artillery and infantry, $13; privates
of cavalry, artillery and infantry, $13; sergeant-majors of engi-
neers, $36; quartermaster-sergeants of engineers, $36; ser-
geants of engineers and ordnance, $34 ; corporals of engineers
and ordnance, $20; musicians of engineers, $13; privates (first
class) of engineers and ordnance, $17; privates (second class)
of engineers and ordnance, $13. To these rates of pay $1 a
month is added for the third year of enlistment, $1 for the fourth
year, and one more for the fifth year, making $3 a month
increase for the last year of enlistment ; but this increase is " re-
tained pay," and is not given to the soldier until his term is
ended, and it is forfeited if he misbehaves himself before he
receives his discharge. Occasional extra services by soldiers and
non-commissioned officers also entitle them to additional pay.

610

THE WAR DEPARTMENT.

££«.

The Army During the Civil War.

The following table shows the dates of the President's proc-
lamations for men, the number of men called for and the num-
ber secured.

DATK OF PRESIDENT'S PROCLAMA-
TION.

April 15, 1S61

May 3, 1861

inly 99 and 25, 1861
lay and June, 1862

July 2, 186a

August 4, 1 862

June 15, 1863

October 17, 1863....
February 1, 1S64....

March 14, 1864

April 23, 1864

July 18.1864

December 19, 1864..

Total..

NO.
CALLED

FOR.

75,000

82,748 j
500,000 j

300,000
300,000
100,000
300,000 J
200,000 j
200,000
85,000
500,000
300,000

-VJl-,7-0

PERIOD OF
SERVICE.

3 months.

3 years.

3 months*
3 years.
9 months.
6 months,

2 years.

3 years.
100 days.
1,2,3 years

1 » v 3 y ears

Nt'MBER
OBTAINED

93.3*6
7*4^31

16,361

374.807
284,031

83,65a

2,690,401

The Strength of the Federal Army.

DATE

January ist, 1S61
uly 1st, 136:
anuary ist, 1862
anuary ist, 1863
anuary 1st, 1S64

January 1st, 1S65

May 1st, 1865

■4.66}
■S.1,588
527.204
698,802
611,250
620,924
797J8Q7

".704
J.'°3

48,7'4
219,3*9

249,487

338.S36

202,709

16.367
1S6751

575.9-7
qiS,.8i

86o.737
gSMfio
t*oo»Si6

Volunteers in the War.

The following
the Federal army

New York,
Pennsylvania,
Ohio,

Illinois, •

Indiana,
Massachusetts,
Missouri, •

Wisconsin, •
Michigan, •

Iowa, *

New Jersey,
Kentucky, •
Maine,

Connecticut, •
Maryland,
New Hampshire,
Vermont, •

West Virginia
Tennessee, •

Minnesota,

table shows the number of men furnished to
by each State in the Union.

Rhode Island,
Kansas, - .-

District of Columbia,
California,
Delaware, • .

Arkansas, .

New Mexico .

Louisiana, •

Colorado, - •

Indian Nation,
Nebraska, « •

North Carolina,
Alabama, • •

Texas,

Oregon, • •

Nevada, •

Wuhtngton Territory,
Mississippi, ■

Dakota Territory,

445.959
33V5S
3'0.654
258,162
"94.363
146,467
108,162
91,021
S8,m
75.793
75.3'S
75.275
69.73S
55.755
46,053
33,9'3
33,27'
32,003
31.092
24,002

23.248

20,095

'6,534

•5.725

12,26s

8.2S9

6,561

5.2*4

4.903

3.530

3.'57

3.'5o

a.576

'.965

I,Sio

i.oSo

964

545

306

The Bivouac of the Dead.

There were killed in action, or died of wounds in the Civil war,
commissioned officers, 5,221 ; enlisted men, 90,868. Died from disease

or accident, commissioned officers, 2,321 ; enlisted men, 182,329; mak-
ing a total loss of 289,739. Deaths which occurred after the men left
the army arc not included in these figures.

The Strength of the World's Armies.

COUNTRIES.

Argentine Republic
Austria-Hungary. .

Belgium

Bolivia

Brazil

Canada ........ ...

chili

Chin.i

Colombia

Denmark

Egypt

r ranee

Germany

Great Britain.

Greece

India, British.

Italy

Japan

Luxemburg...

Mexico ,

Netherlands ..

Norway

Persia

Peru

Portugal

Roumania....,

Russia

Scrvia

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland...

Turkey

United States.

Uruguay

Venezuela. . . .

1,400/100
J7.73M01

5.47G.&S

2fibOjOOO

11,108,201

4,352,060

2,400,3*/'
Wfa atpaa

3.774.COO

i.0*4£4
17,419,980
36,005,788
45,i94,'7 2
35,246.S&3

252,541^10

■SiSomoo

209,673

t«B

ijBo6#oo

7,0002300
3^>5cscoo

4.348.55'
5,376,000

72,520,000
1 jSoyDJO

16,333.293
«3>«3
»Si.7S7

62.622. acn
447^00

».7S.'97

8^27

46.3S3
32M

'5J»4
22200

3.573
JOOtOOO

3/3O0

35.727

'5*oo
502,764

tes
12,118

•8oj»

214,667
36,777

*4A5o
65,113
•8.750
57^oo
4.670
34^74
19,812

974.77"
50,000

00,000

4i,aSo
H7.500

350,000
2709°
2,357

2,240

304,000
'."5,833

■6S^77

32*00

70°.'S2
50J2CO

l,u«V«»l
3O.740

49*54
43*oo
". 753."64
■,492,10.
577 .906
_35*oo

y- ,"■'
736,502

5'.72'

•63,19s
241 JJCO

4CV000

78,024
200,000

2.7UJ05
265,000

■10*95

610,200
3,165,000

22,357

■3-s

ill

< "S

* 3k574.5'S

0,776,429
1,126,916

777*99

982,432
2,539,027

2,l./\2l6

114,279,761

9».3.V>^29
74*01,500

2,2**4,71/.
84,481,195

4- i ."47,-"'.?

{Mil

9.7**64

BJOMOO

I /-•'.. 75.1

4.373.833
5.222,227

137,^1.-. --02

1,7' >."-'
24 .So, ,.,30

■9May

40,466,

• ,"-70,1

o e
*.—• - r „•

*i-46

•35

1. 19

.12

3-09

3.17

2.12

'•34

•33

••52

•23

•43

1.04

3.10

•91

••*
.1

•5 :
.02

•*»

LSI

.So

.iS

'5-73
25.04

'4-54
3-"

12.63

21.' 1
2»37

15.82
23- >3
20-32
34-'9
15.52

40-S3

Secretaries of War.

Henry Knox, Mass.
Timothy Pickering, Penn.
James McIIcnry, Md.
Samuel Dexter, Mass.

■ >!d, Conn.
Henry Dearborn, Mass.
William Eustis, Mass.
John Armstrong, N. Y.
James Monroe, Va.
William II. Crawford, Ga.
John C. Calhoun, S. C.
James Barbour, Va.
Pctrr n. Porter, N. Y.
John H. Eaton, Tenn.
Lewis Cass, Ohio.
J.., 1 U. Poinsett, S. C.
John MI, Tenn.
John C Spencer, N. Y.
James M. Porter. Penn.

Negatived by Senate.

Secretaries of the Navy.

Benjamin Stoddard, Md.
Kobert Smith, Md.

iacob Crowninshicld, Mass
'.<ul Hamilton, S. C.
William Jones, Penn.
B. W. Crowninshicld, Mass. 181
Smith Thompson, N. Y.
Samuel L. Southard, N. J
John Branch, N. C.

■ N'4
1805
1809
181.I

1818

1829

Levi Woodbury, N. H.
Mahlon Dlckerson, N. J.
lames K. Paulding, N.Y.
George E. Badger, N. C.
Abel P. Upshur, Va.
David I Irnshaw, Mass.

Negatived by Senate.
Thomas W. Gilmer, Va.
John Y. Mason, Va.

1831 George Bancroft. Mass.

1834 John Y. Mason, Va.

1838 William B. Preston. Va.

1841 William A Graham, N. C.

• 841 John P, Kenned. . lid.

I 0. James C. Dobbin, N. C.

f ^ 3 Isaac Toncey, Conn.

1844 Gideon Welles. Conn.

1844 Adolph E. I

17S9

•795
1796
1S00
■Sol
1S01

IN, >
• Sl3
1S14

•Sis
ISI7
1825
1823
rfkg
1831
•S37
■84'
1S41

•S43

•845

is,(.
in,.,
1850
185a
18J3
1857
1861
1S09

William Wilkins, Penn.
William L. Marcy, N. Y.
George W. Crawfod, Ga.
Charles L. Conrad, La.
Jefferson Davis, Miss.
John B. Floyd, Va.
Joseph Holt, Ky.
Simon Cameron, Penn.
Edwin M. Stanton, Penn.
Ulysses S. Grant
Lorenzo Thomas.
John M. Schoficld.
John A. Rawlins.
William W. Belknap.

Alphonaa Tat't.

lames l>. Cameron.

. \\ . M ( Crary.
■ .inder Ramsey.

Robert I'. Lincoln. is-si

Maw. 1885

Kt diirld I'r.xtor, Vermont. 18S9

Stcsl.cn B. Elkins, W. Va. 1S9S

•844
■S4S
■S49
1S50
«8S3
"»S7

is/. I

1S6I
■S6l

IS68
IS68

iv.,
i960
■ 876

!>»70

'-7;

George M. Rob— on.
Richard W. Thompson.
Nathan C.off. Jr.
William H. Hunt.
Wm. E. Chandler. N. H.
Win. C. Whiten, N \.
B. F. Tracy, N. V.

1869

'Si 7

ISM
l88l

INS,

*;■*-

THE NAVY DEPARTMENT.

611

o^i ^Eptiiir^t^i^Ep^t.^

^ ^isifgEnaETrgETfHiEnaisTfaEna^f^tsuais^

151
5

a
a

a
a
a

15]

5
5

5
5
5
5
5

■HAT the duties of the Secretary of
the Navy are, is indicated in the
name of the Department. He has
control of the ships of war of
the Republic, and of all mat-
ters growing out of that con-
trol. There are eight Bureaus
in the Department, among which
the duties and responsibilities of the
naval work are divided. These are the Bureau
of Yards and Docks, presided over by an officer
selected from the navy, not below the grade of
Commander ; the Bureau of Equipment and Re-
cruiting, presided over by a similar office-; the
Bureau of Navigation, similarly officered; a Bureau
of Ordnance, a Bureau of Construction and Repair
follow in order, the chief of each being a naval
officer of rank ; the Bureau of Steam Engineering
is presided over by one of the chief engineers of
the navy ; the Bureau of Provisions and Clothing,
at the head of which is one of the paymasters of the navy, of not
less than ten years' standing; and lastly the Bureau of Medicine
and Surgery, presided over by one of the surgeons of the navy.
Each of these chiefs is appointed by the President; they hold
office four years and receive only the salary of their rank in the
navy. The Secretary in common with the other Cabinet officers
gets $8,ooo per year. The Judge Advocate-General re-
ceives $3,500.

THE LINE AT SEA.

6 rear admirals,
10 commodores,
45 captains,
S5 commanders,

$6,000
5,000

3.5°°

74 lieut.-com'ders, 2,800*3,000
280 lieutenants, 2,400 2,600

100, masters, - $i,Soo * 2,000
100 ensigns, - 1,200 1,400

40 midshipmen, - 1,000

334 cadet midship'n, 500 950
42 mates, .... 00c

STAFF.

15 medical directors, $2,800*4,400

13 pay directors, 2,Soo 4,200

70 chief engineers, 2,800 4,200

So surgeons, - 2,800 4,200

50 paymasters, 2,800 4,200
100 passed and assist*

ant surgeons, 1,900 2,200
30 passed assistant

paymasters, 2,000 2,200

20 ass't paymasters, 1,700 1,900

100 passed ass't eng's $2,
100 ass't engineers, 1
24 chaplains, - 2

1 1 naval constructors, 3
5 ass't constructors,

12 professors of math'
ematics,

9 civil engineers,
Cadet engineers,

1 colonel-commandant,

1 colonel,

2 lieutenant-colonels,
1 major,

THE MARINE CORPS,

$3.5°°
3.5°°

3.000
2,500

18 captains,

30 1st lieutenants,

20 2d lieutenants, *

000*2,200

,700 1,900

,500 2,800

,200 4,200

,000 2,600

,400 3,500

.4°° 3.50O

500 1,000

$1,800
•.5°°
•,400

MARINE CORPS STAFF.

$2,500 I 2 captains,

$2,000

RETIRED LIST.

12 commanders, - •

25 lieutenant-commanders, -
44 lieutenants.

3 majors,

41 rear-admirals,

10 commodores,

11 captains.

Attached to the Bureau of Navigation is a hydro-
graphic office which provides charts, sailing directions
and manuals for the use of the naval and merchant ma-
rine. The Nautical Almanac is prepared at the Naval
Observatory.

Rank in the Army and Navy.

The relative rank in the two arms of the service runs
as follows :

The rear-admirals with major-generals, commodores
with brigadier-generals, captains with colonels, commanders
with lieutenant-colonels, lieutenant-commanders with majors,
lieutenants with captains, masters with 1st lieutenants, and en-
signs with 2d lieutenants.

■te

612

— 9

THE AMERICAN NAVY.

THE /{MERie/lN Ravy.

The Atlanta and the Boston.

¥HE popular thine of late years, among papers and
people inclined to be flippant, has been to make in-
quiries regarding the whereabouts of the United
States navy. No one in authority ever took the
trouble to answer the questions springing from so
many anonymous sources, and the idea gradually
settled into a conviction that as a nation we had no
navy, other than a sort of a dress-parade affair, illy
able to do battle or protect our water-front incase
of invasion by foreign powers which might at some
time become hostile. Others, who recognized the
fact that the white-winged messenger of Peace hovered over the land,
questioned the necessity for a navy. Possible differences, it was
argued, were to be settled by arbitration, and the maintenance of a
naval fleet for home protection was a needless extravagance and one
the government was
hardly in position to
afford. But the theory
that it is best, in time
of peace, to prepare
for war, gradually
drew into itself more
supporters in official
life than any other
argument advanced,
and resulted in the
taking of some active
steps looking to the
decided betterment of
naval affairs. The de-
cision at the seat of
government was that
the claims of the navy
to. consideration and
for its maintenance in
becoming its
usefulness and dignity
rested not only upon
its power to protect
the commerce and
citizens of the nation in time of peace, or even when they might
become imperiled amid the sudden ebullitions of hostility which
occasionally burst forth in countries with which we are on terms
of amity, but rest also upen the most sacred traditions of the
Republic. As a protective measure, however, a navy has not been
necessary for years. At rare intervals the services of a man-of-war,
plying in distant waters, are brought into requisition to redress
or prevent a fancied indignity offered an American citizen by
some effete monarchy; but in a general way our "relations with
foreign powers," in the stereotyped language of Mrs. Victoria in her
message to my lords and gentlemen, have for so many years been of a
friendly and peaceable
character that " inva-
sion " has been a con-
tingency so remote as
to be hardly entitled to
serious consideration.

The government, how-
ever, since :88t has been
far from idle in putting
the navy of the United
States on a footing that
will make it the pride
of every good citizen in-
stead of a mark for ridi-
cule, and second only in
power to that of Great
Britain.
It will be remembered

that the decade between

1870 and 1880 was
marked by the most
masterly inactivity in government ship-yards, and all this time grim
decay was making a hearty meal on everything that had a hull With
the exception of a couple of monitors and torpedo boats, built in an
1 way, the entire naval fleet was comprised of wooden
hulls, and at (he time mentioned (1880) many were too far gone for
repairs: others were fast going in the same direction. This was rec-
i by the thi . of the Navy, the late Hon. William H

Hunt, and it wai under his direction in 1881 that the first advlaoi
inned foi the purpose of reporting upon the needs of th<
whieh they did to Congress, setting forth the fact that if it became
necessary to protect American life 01 propertT tha navy COOld make
but 1 sorry attempt at it, and were wholly unable to maV.
abroad which tended to inspire respect. The president of this

^^Z. "l i0&^^^~ —

Thp Vesuvius.

advisory board was Rear-Admiral John Rogers, and associated with
him were fifteen officers in the regular service representing its dif-
erent branches, all of them of recognized ability and experience.

To them it was left to determine the number of new vessels that
should immediately be built, their class, size, and displacement,
the material of and form in which they should be constructed, kind
and size of engines and other machinery, ordnance and armament
necessary in each, equipment and rigging, internal arrangement, and
probable cost of vessel when ready for service. The board began its
duties in June, 1881. and in November of the same year made its report.
Public interest in ihe general question of an American navy had by
this time reached a very high point, helped to it by a not unkindly
press criticism, and there soon began a revival of iron and steel in-
terests so far as they applied to vessel construction. It was found by
the board that the requirements of the naval service, to keep the

different squadrons
up to proper standard,
was seventy vessels.
Of this number the
naval register then
contained thirty-two,
including those avail-
able and in dry-dock,
leaving thirty-eight lo
be constructed. Of
this number twenty
were to be built for a
displacement of 793
tons and a speed of ten
knots per hour; ten
of 3.043 tons displace-
ment and thirteea
knots speed ; six of
4.560 tons displace-
ment and fourteen
knots speed, while
two were to make
fifteen knots per hour
and have a displace-
ment of 5,873 tons.
Five steel rams, the same number of torpedo gunboats, ten each of
harbor and cruising torpedo boats, were also recommended. The
board acknowledged the necessity of iron-clads for defense in time
of war, but claimed the time at its disposal for the preparation of
its report was too limited for it to reach a thoroughly satis-
factory conclusion, but recommending the subject to the careful
consideration of naval officers.

The requirements indicated above were based on a knowledge of
what it was then possible to do in the way of ship-building, but they
look old-fashioned; now when vessels of no larger size are constructed
in which the speed is increased fully thirty per cent. But it has never

been chaiged that the
first adx tsory board
made any mistakes.
The requirements 1 f
the service were
carefully conaidt
and among the fifteen
were men who had an
absolute, practical
knowledge in the differ-
ent branches of (lie
service. On the vital
question of construc-
tion material there was
almost a unanimiti 1 f
opinion in favor cl
and thi f the

board in this din
has since been most
highly commi

ioa was that

steel should be used for vessels, guns and machinery., 81 " 1 thai
than anything else gave the impetus to this Industry which ha* r«
in th< h I a material recognised everywhere as of tba

very "highest standard

In a paper on the subject read before the United States Normal In-
stitute, Lieutenant Commander Eaton, late steel inspector of the new
cruisers, had this to say:

• eaa be no shadow of doubt that the navy is now obtaining
for its latest additions a material superior in even- good quality to any
other over used in any ship. 1 make It is a

subject of congratulation that from the advisory board of 1SS3 to the

t day the navy has taxed the resources of the st<
produce a quality of metal superior to their best. The requirements

THE AMERICAN NAVY.

613

have been severe, the inspection rigid ; but it is gratifying to note how
the steel has successfully advanced to meet both. The specifications
for cruisers No. 1 to No. 5 and the four gunboats were denounced as
impracticable and absurd; but now the much more severe specifica-
tions for the Maine and the Texas are accepted and carried out with
thoroughness and cheerfulness. All attempts to set aside or reduce
the qualifications have
been firmly resisted by
the secretary of the
navy, and the steel
board laying the foun-
dation for ships which
will float or fight with
the best material on any
ocean or under any
flag."

In 1882 a second advis-
ory board was formed,
and, aided by the intelli-
gent report of the first
board, were soon ready
with specifications for
the construction of
four cruisers, named
later the Chicago, Bos-
ton, Atlanta and Dol-
phin. Their construc-
tion was authorized by acts of Congress August 5, 1882, and March 3,
1883, all four contracts being let in July following to John Roach &
Sons, of Chester, Pa., the lowest bidders. The first vessel completed
was the Dolphin.

This boat is schooner rigged, carries three masts, is 32 feet beam
and 265 long ; has an engine capacity of over 2,000-horse power, a dis-
placement of 1,485 tons,
and has a speed of 15%
knots. This, being a
maximum, is not regu-
larly made. She carries
a two-cylinder com-
pound vertical direct-
acting engine, propel-
ling a four-bladed wheel
of a little over 14 feet
diameter. She is effec-
tively armed, carrying
a 6-inch breech-loader
rifle mounted in such a
manner that it can be
used on either side. In
addition to this gun
there are on the fore-
castle two 6-pounders,
rapid firing, and in fixed
armoured towers at her
side four revolving can-
non. When launched
she was assigned to
the north Atlantic

squadron, but in '87 was changed to the Pacific and made a flagship,
for which service her ample cabin room makes her peculiarly fitted.

The cut on opposite page represents the Atlanta, though it answers
equally well for the Boston, as they are twins in every respect except
speed, the Atlanta falling on her trial trip 150-horse-power below the
required contract development of 3,500 horse-power, and the Boston
exceeding require-
ments by about the
same amount. They
are both of 3,189
tons, with an unus-
ually heavy arma-
ment for their class
of men-of-war, con-
sisting of one 8-inch
breech-loading gun,
firing a 250-pound
projectile, mounted
in barbette just for-
ward of the super-
structure on the
port side, and
another of the same
size, also in bar-
bette, aft on the
starboard side, and
six 6-inch guns in-
side the super-
structure; also a
secondary battery

feet long, 42 beam, draw 17 feet of water, and spread somewhat over
10,000 square feet of canvas. The contract cost of hull and machinery
for Atlanta was $617,000, and Boston $619,000. Their rigging is the
same, but presents some peculiar and unusual features, one of the
most marked being the bringing together of the poop deck and top-
gallant forecastle, thus forming a superstructure amidships, and leav-
ing the deck fore and
aft clear for gun service
in time of action. At
the time of the launch
there was considerable
adverse criticism on
this point, many sea-
men claiming the vessel
could not be handled in
a gale, could not be
made to " lie to," etc.,
but so far the boats
have behaved well at
sea and proved efficient
cruisers, the Boston a
little speedier than the
Atlanta, as stated. Both
are square rigged with
masts well amidships.
The Maine. These features were in

the nature of innova-
tions, and not kindly taken to by many, but theorists who were
formerly objectors realize now that with a 3,500 horse-power engine
aboard a cruiser does not lie in the trough of the sea, depending on
a close-reeled mainsail to keep her steadv.

When the Chicago, the fourth steel ship of the Navy to be built,
was completed, the people had reason to feel very proud. Her first

steam trial proved the
truth of the American
claim that as soon as a
want is really felt just
so soon that want will
be supplied. Not only
was this fine vessel
built of American ma-
terial by American
workmen, but her de-
signers were entirely
composed of the line,
engineer and construe*
tioh officers of the
Navy. She was built
by John Roach & Sons,
of Chester, Pa.; after
necessary changes had
been made, was com-
missioned into service
in iSSyj and is the
pride 01 the American
navy, the largest of the
cruisers, measuring
4,500 tons. Her length

hip Chicago.

The San Francisco.

of two 6-pounder rapid-tiring guns in broadside ports, two 3-
pounder rapid-firing guns, and two 47-mm. revolving cannons in
towers, two i-pounders on top of starboard forward and port after
tower, a 37-mm. revolving gun in each top, and two Gatlings. The
machinery consists of a three-cylinder compound horizontal back-
acting engine. There are eight horizontal return tubular boilers, and
a coal capacity of about 500 tons. A speed of sixteen knots has been
made under favorable circumstances. The protective plating over
engines and boilers is i'/i inches in thickness. These vessels are 283

is 33^ feet 4 inches over all, extreme beam 48 feet 2-5 inches.
She is bark-rigged, carrying nearly 5,000 yards of canvas ; has
capacity for 940 tons of coal, and draws but 19 feet of water.
Her motive power equipment consists of two compound over-
head beam engines, working two 4-bladed screws some 15*4 feet in
diameter. She has a nest of five double-ended externally fired boilers.

On her trial trip she
developed 5,084 col-
lective horse-power
and a mean speed of
15.3 knots, the max-
imum for one hour
being 16.3. Running
ten knots it is esti-
mated that she can
steam for twenty
days and make
about 5,000 miles.
She is, like the
Dolphin, intended
for a flagship,
though her arma-
ment is particularly
heavy. The mount-
ing of heavy guns
on half turrets is
original with the
Chicago. These —
four 8-inch cannon
— are carried on the
spar deck, built out from the ship's side, stand twenty-four and one-
half feet above the water line, and command the entire horizon. In
the broadside ports on the gun deck are six 6-inch guns and also a 6-
inch gun on each bow. In the after portion of the cabin there are
two 5-inch guns. Her secondary battery consists of two Gatlings, two
6-ponnders, two i-pounders, two 47-mm. and two 37-mm. revolving
cannon. This ship is manned by a crew of 300. Her steering ap-
paratus is considerably below water line, protected by a deck one
and one-half irches thick, worked well over the machinery.

_^,

It was not until March, 1883, that Congress again authorized the
construction of more vessels, the contracts this lima going to Messrs.
p of Philadelphia, who, In April, 1887, turned oat the gunboat
Yorktown and the dynamite cruiser Vesuvius. Competition for these
contracts w.i , the administration having advanc* m

encouraged them by offering premiums for the best plan:, Irre
of nationality of the designer. This stimulated a vtry healthy
competition, the government being decidedly the gainer in
that American ship-builders were forced to greater efforts
by reason t _ of for-
eign competition. The
contracts were let on a
better business basis
than formerly, in that
there were limitations
as to time, penalty
clauses, etc. On the
other hand there were
premiums for excess
of speed above require-
ments. This, as much
as anything, has tended
to do away with a re-
liance of sails and throw
more dependence on
steam-power. The ad-
vantage in absence of
spars and rigging is
considered very great.
Another marked advan-
tage gained by making
it an object for skilled interests to compete for American ship-building
has been the gradual increase in speed attained, the improved arrange-
ment of battery, rig machinery, and the doing away with useless spars
and rigging.

The Yorktown was the first gunboat constructed under the act of
March, 1885, at Philadelphia. Her size belies her name as a gunboat,
for her measurements are : Length, 230 feet ; beam, 36 feet ; displace-
ment, 1,700 tons ; at this tonnage she draws 14 feet of water. Her hull
is steel. She carries
two sets of triple ex-
pansion boilers, with
forced draught, will
doubtless develop 3,200
horse-power and result
in a speed of seventeen
knots. Her coal capac-
ity is 400 tons. For a
battery she has six
6- inch breech-loading
rifles, two being well
forward and two aft,
and one on either side
of her central section,
all fitted with steel
shields to protect the
crew, As a secondary
battery she carries five
rapid-fire guns, two
Hotchkiss revolving
cannon.one Galling, an a
eight torpedo tubes. She is propelled by twin screws. The contract price
of this vessel, including hull and machinery, was $445,000. Twelve
months after the letting of contracts were allowed in which to build
her, but departures from original plans and delays in getting proper
material for construction purposes made it necessary to extend this
limit somewhat.

The Charleston was launched at San Francisco in July, 18B8. A
peculiar feature in her
construction is that she
has a complete double
bottom divided into num-
erous water-tight com-
partments, with her en-
gine and other machinery
entirely surrounded and
protected by coal. Added
to this is a protection deck
curving from the point of
In 1 i tm to her item. Her
electric plant for lighting
and searching is in dupli-
cate. Although carrying
a fore-and-aft sail, her de-
pendence for speed is on
two sets of two-cvliiicl< 1
compound rii-iu
velopitiK under forced
draught ,»ower

and a speed of aln a t — n
knots. 1 1 * t ann. uncut is two 10-inch guns forward and aft, and six

D sponsons, increased train ben
mltted by u'cesscd bulwarks. As a secondary she has four 6-pound
rapid-fire gun-, til HotenklH nvolvituj .iiinoti, and font GatUnga
Dal supply is htm tons,

The Baltimore, a taw- launched at Snn FranctscVt, a couple of months
later than the Charleston, is a protected cruistr of 4,413 tons displace-

The Charleston

The Baltimore.

The Newark.

ment, 315 feet length, »-■'. faefl beam, drawing io'/i feet mean. Her
horizontal, triple-expansion engines are, like the Charleston's, pro-
tected. In addition to a regular armament of four 8-inch guns on the
poop and forecastle, on sponsoned platforms, and fix 6-inch guns on
the spar deck, with six Hotchkiss and four Catlings, she carries five
torpedo tubes, firing ahead, aft and sides, the bow tube training at an
angle of 45 degrees. She carries but two masts, with fore-and-aft sail,
the masts fitted, lik'- those on the Charleston, with military tops.
Her maximum speed over a measured mile is to be twenty knots with

forced draught

(blower), and seven-
teen knots with natural
draught.

The Petrel is a Balti-
more boat, launched by
Cramp, and is one of
the smallest yet con-
rustctcd. being only 175
feet in length, 31 feet
beam, displaceroe; ■
tons, and drawing 1 1
feet 7 inches of water.
She is barken tine
rigged, spreading 1,833
feet of canvas. A d •
ditional motive power
comes from a set of
compound engines de-
veloping 900 horse-
power. Her average
speed U 11% knots.
Although small it is considered she will do efficient work with four
6-inch guns, mounted for all-around fire; rapid-firing guns on forecastle
and poop, and a Hotchkiss revolving cannon on each side. Ten
officers and 100 men will handle her. While perhaps too small for the
comfort of those who will have to go to sea in her, she represents a
general type of small vessel of which the navy is greatly in need.

Five monitors, of which the Puritan is a fair illustration, the others
being the Miantonomab, Monadnock, Terror, and Amphitrite, should

be included in the list
of vessels comprising
the modern additions
to the navy. The Puri-
tan is the largest of the
five, 6,000 tons.
Terror and Amphitrite
being each 3,815 tons.
All nave a speed of
about ioH knots, and
engine capacity indicat-
ing 1 ,426 horse-power.
Amidships there is an
armor belt seven
inches thick, but at
the bow and stern it
tapers to five inches.
In all of them the
covering-towers,
smoke-stack and
revolving turrets are
protected by armor
varying from nine to eleven and one-half inches in thickness.

The Newark is abark-rigged ship and has a large sail area in addi-
tion to two sets of triple-expansion engines, capable of developing
8,500 horse-power and a speed of about 18 knots. Her deck, machinery,
etc., are thoroughly protected. She is 310 feet long, 49 feet beam, so^
feet draught, and 4,083 tons displacement. For a battery she carries
twelve 6-tncfa guns, mounted so as to secure direct ahead and stern fire

from four guns and beam
fire from six. She has
a secondary battery of
four 6-pound rapid-fire
guns, four Hotchkiss re-
volving cannon and four
Gatlings. Torpedo tubes,
six in number, are to be
fitted, having a train of 90
drones

The Philadelphia Is a
protected cruiser, some-
what similar to the Bal-
timore, currying twelve
6-inch guns, two on the
forecastle, two 00 the
poop, and two on either
DroaaaMa, Her speed

was to he nineteen I
her builders forfeiting
$00,000 for each quarter
oT a knot >hc tell b* low
this speed, but being paid an equal sum as a premium tor
quarter knot In excess of the requirement. On the trial atu
ceeded this by .67 of a knot, earning a premium of $50,000 for her
builders. The design for hull and engine was made
Cramp, the. contract prii 1 being $1,350,000, with two years allowed

for completion.

At the old Roach yard in Chester, Palmer & Co. have built the

Concord and Bennington, gunboats on the general plan of the York-
town. The keels were laid in 1888. On these boats the government
paid $100 for each horse-power in excess of the amount contracted
For, there being a forfeit of exactlv reverse terms. Exclusive of
armament the boats cost $490,000 each. The agreement was they
should be completed three years from November 15, 18S7, atwhicn
time the contract was stoned* They were launched in 1S00.

The battleship Texas is the largest yet attempted in the Norfolk
yards, and is to be constructed after plans furnished by Mr. W. John,
though they are subject to slight modification. Her displacement
with 950 tons of coal aboard is 6,750 tons. Her length, 290 feet ; ex-
treme beam, 51 feet 1 inch. She will have a double bottom, water-
tight compartments, complete electric outfit, and, exclusive of arma-
ment, will cost $2,376,000.

Her main battery will consist of two 12-inch guns in turrets en
echelon— the port one
forward and the star-
board aft — the turrets
having twelve inches of
steel armor. Her six 6-
inch guns, which com-
plete the main battery,
are mounted, two each
side of the lower deck,
in sponsons — one for-
ward on the upper deck,
and the other aft. The
secondary battery is
composed of four ex-
pounders, four 3-
pounders, eight revolv-
ing cannon, two Gat-
lings, and four launch-
ing torpedo tubes. The

estimated speed is seventeen knots ; indicated horse-power, 8.600
with forced draught. She has twin screw triple expansion en-
gines, with 39-inch stroke. She carries a water-line belt of 12-
inch steel armor, protecting magazines, engines and boilers, with an
armored redoubt running across the main deck, protecting the bases
of the turrets and their machinery. A protective deck 3 inches in
thickness, and heavy coal protection, are intended to further secure
her vitals against the enemy's projectiles.

The Maine represents an outlay of $2,500,000, or about $100,000 more
than the Texas. She is bark-rigged, carrying 7,135 feet of canvas, be-
sides an engine capacity of 8,750 horse-power, from which a speed of 17
knots will be derived, using the force draught; steaming at 10 knots
her coal capacity will carry her 7,000 miles. She is 310 feet in length,
57 feet beam, 6,648 tons displacement, and draws 2i'i feet of water.
Her armament is four 10-inch guns in pairs in the two turrets placed
" en echelon " on the main deck, the forward turret in this case being
on the starboard side and the after one on the port. Two of the 6-inch
guns are in recessed ports in the bow, two similarly placed in quarter
ports; the remaining two are in broadside on the superstructure deck,
all being provided with
2-inch shields for the
protection of their
crews. The secondary
battery is made up of
four 6-pounders and
four 3-pounders, rapid-
fire guns, 13 revolving
cannon and four Gat-
lings, with seven tor-
pedo tubes. Her twin
screws are worked by
two triple expansion
engines in separate
compartments. A
feature of the Maine
is her steel protection.
This consists of an
armor belt 180 feet long,
having a thickness of 11
inches to a depth of one
foot below the water
line. Athwart ship

there is a bulkhead six

inches thick. The base of turrets are protected by oval redoubts 10
inches thick, as are also loading tubes, machinery, etc.

Owing to the elastic nature of the proposals on this vessel, bidders
being allowed to submit figures on what they consider more suitable
than that proposed by the government.it is expected she will, when
finished, sometime during; 1803, be without an equal in any service
for the work she is intended to perform, that of coast defense. Her
entire material is to be American production. Some novel features
are expressed in the plans, particularly in the way of armament.
The /argest caliber gun yet recommended by the'ordnance bureau, a
16-inch no-ton gun, will be mounted forward, while aft she will carry
a 12-inch 46-ton. In the bow there will be a huge 16-inch dynamite
tube, and judiciously distributed for effective service fifteen rapid-fire
guns of various caliber. In the no-ton gun the projectile will weigh
a.ooo pounds, requiring a powder charge of 1,000 pounds. The smaller
gun, the 46-ton, will carry a projectile of 850 pounds, using a charge of

The Puritan.

425 pounds. It will thus be seen that for her displacement (0.648 tons)
she will be one of the heaviest armed vessels in the world, and in
conjunction with submarine mines and shore batteries will rendei it
almost impossible for an enemy's vessels to enter the harbor in which
she is stationed. The fore and main masts are fitted with military
tops, and carry machine guns and a powerful search light in the Lop.
Her duplicate electrical fitting-Steering fear and other arrangements
will be of the most approved patterns. She is to be of the low free-
board monitor type, and of sufficiently light draught to enable her to
enter all our principal ports. She will also be fitted for ramming,
having great speed, stability and handiness. A belt of steel armor 16
inches thick protects her hull. Magazines, machinery, etc., are sub-
ject to additional protection. The length of this vessel will be 250 feet,
beam 59 feet, draught 14 feet. Vertical and inverted triple-expansion
engines generate a horse-power estimated at 9.000.

The dynamite cruiser
Vesuvius is a veritable
dealer of death and
destruction totally un-
like anything yet
launched. She is built
largely for speed, long
and narrow {252x26;,
81 1 tons displacement,
and draws but nine feet
of water. Two triple-
expansion engines of
four cylinders each
give her a speed of
considerably over
twenty knots, and
proves her the fastest
vessel of the kind in
the world. Her arma-
ment is for throwing dynamite shells from three 16-inch tubes mounted
in her forward section and solidly built into the ship at a permanent
angle of i6degrees, the vessel itself being the gun-carriage. All training
is to be accomplished by the steering apparatus, the range of the pro-
jectiles being regulated by the amount of pressure of the air admitted to
the tubes, which are 54 feet in length. The charge for these fiendish pro-
jectiles is 600 pounds of explosive gelatine, having a destructive radius
of more than 100 feet.

The San Francisco was launched at the city whose name she
bears. Her hull resembles the Newark, but her battery disposition is
thought to be more effective. Guns are placed on the forecastle and
poops, extreme forward and aft sponsons being done away with. Her
guaranteed speed is 19 knots for four consecutive hours, provision be-
ing made in the contract for a forfeit of $50,000 for each quarter of a
knot she falls below that, and also a bonus for the same excess. Her
sail arrangement is fore-and-aft rigging carried on three masts, the fore
and main mast having military tops. Contracts for her construction
were let in October, 1887, for $1,428,000 to the Union Iron Works at
San Francisco, and she went into commission in 1890.

The torpedo boat
Cushing is the only
other vessel now iii
service that was built
for the new N;iw; the
Stiletto, commissioned
in 18SS, having been
purchased. Another
torpedo boat is build-
ing at Dubuque, low*.
"The Pirate," Cruiser

No. 12, is nearly ready
to he launched at Phil-
adelphia, and her sis-
ter, No. 13, is soon to
follow. Other ships,
now in course of con*
struction are, the ar-
mored vessels Monte-
rev, New York. Mass-
achusetts, Indiana, Or-
egon and Harbor De-
The Texas. tense Rain No. 1; the

unarmored cruisers
Cincinnati, Detroit, Raleigh, Montgomery. Marblehead and Cruiser
No. 6: the steel gunboats Machias and Gunboat No. 6; and the
Practice Cruiser for naval cadets.

Besides the above vessels completed and in commission, or in
course of construction, there are several others that would he useful
in case of actual war. including six cruisers of iron, the iron torpe-
do-boat Alarm, and the thirteen iron-clads or "cheese-box" single-
turreted monitors of the Ericsson design.

The history of ship-building on American soil, as shown by this
exhibit, proves that a constant and successful effort has been made
in the direction of lessening displacement, increasing speed, doing
away with cumbersome rigging, perfecting machinery and bring,
ing batteries up to the highest point of destructive power.

4, 9_

616

THE POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT.

Jd B; i

T|lE*pO£T- OFFICE *DEpAl(TME|\lT.

jy//. i v//-o7_^-

'HE Postmaster-General is ftp*
pointed by the President His term,
unk-ss he dies, resigns or is removed,
continues for one month after the

Presidential term expires. Then- are
four Assistant Postmasters -General,
appointed by the President, and an
Assistant Attorney* General, appointed
by the Postmaster- General, in this
"*^ Department.

THE OATH.
Every peiton employed in the postal service,
from the Postmaster-General down, before en-
tering upon his or her duties, or drawing ;mv
salary, takes the following oalh :

"I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or aftinn) that
I will faithfully perforin ail the duties required "1
me, and abstain from everything' forbidden by
the laws, in relation to the establishment of
post-offices and post-roads within the United
States ; and that I will honestly and trul j
count for, and pay over, any money belonging'
to the said United States which may come into
my possession or control: So help me God."

Controlling the machinery of the whole
postal system, the duties of the Postmaster -Gen -
eral are multifarious, and most of them appear plainly in the detailed
workings of the service. The Postmaster-General reports annually
to Congress all contracts for carrying the mails made within the pre-
ceding year, with all particulars concerning them ; a statement of all
land and water mail routes established within the year, and of all
allowances made to mail contractors above the contract prii
why ; a detailed statement of the finances of the Department ; a repOl t
of fines assessed against mail contractors ; a eop\ Of eaeh COn1
carrying mails between the United States and foreign countries, and a
Statement showing its benefits to the Department; a report on the

p.. -.i ii hmrinsss and agencies la foreign countries ; a statement of the
money expended In the Department, with details.

The Personnel

Of a post-office In one of ' ties consists of the Post

his pri\ .Hi- secretary and inquiry clerk, Assistant Postmaster, auditor

of accounts, bookki IT, watchman, mailing elerks, delivery

clerks, lettei ;isterod letter clerks, money order clerks,

special postal agent-..

The Work.

The Postmaster having general supervision, his private secretary
attends to the correspondence relating to the business of the office.

Tiik INQUIRY Clerk receives all complaints about missing let-
ters, and institutes searches tor them.

The Assistant Postmaster is the ever present superintendent.

Tiik. Aiditor examines and corrects the accounts of the Postmaster
witli the Government, and with his subordinate officers, clerks and
eniplo

Till Bookkeeper keeps the accounts of the Postmaster with the
Government, and with every person doing business with his post-
office.

Tiik Casuikk has supervision of all the money paid into or out of
the post-office, and provides for its safe keeping and proper deposit
with the Unitod States Sub-Treasurer or in some other designated
place.

The Mail Clerks open all packages of letters addressed to the
office, count and compare them with the pott hills accompanying the
packages, and check any errors in the oills, Hie the hills and send the
letters to the letter carriers' department, the general delivery, the
registry office or the money order office, as may be neces-

If the office is a distributing post-office, letters for other places
within the distributing limits ot the office are sorted, billed, repacked
and forwarded ; some of the clerks sort out newspapers and period-
icals for delivering or mailing; other clerks receive, sort, stamp, bill
and mail letters for other places; others receive and mail transient
ners ; others receive newspapers and periodicals sent from
publishers direct to subscribers, weigh them to find out the amount of
to be prepaid, and send the account to the proper officer.
( > tpcrs arc then forwarded without further charge.

1>m iveky Clerks receive letters, papers and periodicals not
directed to any special box, street or number, and place them in the
general delivery, to be called for by the owners. Letters directed to a
i box are placed in it and remain until called for.

ThI Sii'KKiNrKMiKM or Free Delivery has charge of the letter-
carriers.

One or more clerks in the general delivery- assort and deliver the
letters and papers sent to their department.

When letters remain a set time in the general delivery without being
called for, thev are advertised and kept a certain time longer, and are
then forwarded to the Dead Letter Office.

Superintend the railway postal service, and the
agents in the tree delivery and money order sen Ice, in the in-
terest of the Post office Department.

■s, «_

THE POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT.

617

Writer's Address.

Letters bearing upon the outside the name and address of the writer are
not advertised, but, if not called for within the time mentioned on them,
having been prepaid, are returned without further charge.

Postal Cars.

On the railway postal cars the clerks sort the mails for each station on the
route and deliver them whilst in motion by throwing the bags off the car at
the proper places, or handing them to the mail messengers at the depots
where the train halts.

Postmasters.

There are four classes of postmasters. The fourth class, who
dc the least business, are appointed by the Postmaster-General; the others
by the President. A Postmaster must reside within the delivery of his office.
He must, before entering upon his duties, give bond to the Government for
their faithful performance, with good security. If a money order office,
there are additional conditions on the bond. He must every three months
report to the Postmaster-General a sworn statement of all moneys received
by him from postage or other sources connected with his department. If he
neglects for one month to make this quarterly return he and his sureties
forfeit and pay double the amount of the gross receipts at his office during
any previous or subsequent period of time, and if at the time of trial no
account has been rendered, they are liable to a penalty in such a sum as may
be estimated equivalent.

In a city where there is an Assistant Treasurer of the United States, the
Postmaster must deposit with him all moneys collected. Where there is no
Assistant Treasurer the Postmaster must keep such funds safely, subject to
the order of the Postmaster-General. He can neither lend, use, deposit in
an unauthorized bank, nor exchange for other money, the public funds which
come into his hands.

Contracts for carrying the mails (except in the railway service) are made
with tho lowest bidder, he giving ample security for the performance of the
work.

The Railway Service is classified according to the amount of mail
moved. Companies owning routes of the first class are paid $300 per mile
per year; second class, $100; third class, $50.

Letter-Carribrs are employed in towns where there are 20,000 inhab-
itants. They must give bond with security. They are uniformed. Any
person assaulting a letter-carrier while performing his duty is liable to a line
of from $100 to $1,000, or imprisonment from one to three years.

Rates of Postage.

Postal Cards, i cent each, go without further charge to all parts of the
United States and Canada. Cards for foreign countries (within the Postal
Union), 2 cents each.

All Letters, to all parts of the U. S., Mexico and Canada, a
cents per ounce or fraction thereof.

Local, or m Drop " Letters, that is, for the city or town where
deposited, 3 cents where the carrier system is adopted, and I cent
where there is no carrier svstem.

First Class.— Letters and all other written matter, whether
sealed or unsealed, and all other matters sealed, nailed, sewed, tied
or fastened in any manner so that it cannot be easily examined, 2
cents for each ounce or fraction thereof. Postal cards, I cent each.
Postal cards are unmailable with any writing or printing on the ad-
dress side, except the direction, or with anything pasted upon or
attached to them.

Second Class.— Only for publishers and news agents; 1 cent per
pound.

Third Class. — Printed matter, in unsealed wrappers only (all
matter inclosed in notched envelopes must pay letter rates), 1 cent
for eac h tw o ounces or fraction thereof, which must be fully pre-
paid. This includes books, circulars, chromos, engravings, hand-
bills, lithographs, magazines, music, newspapers, pamphlets, photo-
fraphs, proof-sheets and manuscript accompanying the same, repro-
uctions by the electric pen, hektograph, metuilograph, papyro-
graph, and, in short, any reproduction upon paper oy any process
except handwriting and the copying press. Limit of weight, 4
pounds, except for a single book, which may weigh more.

Fourth Class. — All mailable matter, not included in the three
preceding classes, which is so prepared for mailing as to be easily
withdrawn from the wrapper and examined. Rate, t cent per ounce
or fraction thereof. Limit of weight, four pounds. Full payment
compulsory.

Foreign Postage.

COL'KTBIE).

Cot'*TBiia.

E y

---

Cape ''oloii v ....
China, via Brindisi .
Comoro Islands
Madagascar (except French Sta-

tlODSt, British mail.
H010000 (except 8p. possessions).

IS
13
5

13
16

4
4

Natal and Zululaod .
Norfolk Island ....
Orange Free State . . ■
Queensland ....
Samnan Islands ....
St. Helena
Transvaal and Bechuanaland .

15
12
11

12
15
19

4
5

f Per 3 ounces. I Per copy. .

All Countries Except the -Above are in the Universal
Postal Union, within which the rates are as follows:

Letters per },£ ounce 5 cents.

Postal cards, each 2 cents.

Newspapers and other printed matter, per 2 ounces 1 cent.

t Packets not in excess of 10 ounces. . 5 cents.
Commercial papers. < Packets in excess of 10 ounces, for

* each 2 ounces, or fraction thereof. 1 cent.

1 Packets not in excess of 4 ounces 2 cents.
Samples of merchandise. } Packets in excess of 4 ounces, for

( each 2 oz. t or fraction thereof. 1 cent.

Postmasters-General .

Samuel Osgood, Mass. 1789

Timothy Pickering, Perm. 1791

Joseph Habersham, Ga. 1795

Gideon Granger, Conn. 1802

Return J. Mejgs, Ohio. 1814

John McLean, Ohio. 1823

William T. Barry, Ky. 1829

Amos Kendall, Ky. 1S35

John M. Niles, Conn. 1840

Francis Granger, N. Y. 1841

Charles A. Wickliffe, Ky. 1S41

Cave Johnson, Tenn. 1845

Jacob Coilamer, Vt. 1849

Nathan K. Hall, N. V. 1S50

Samuel D. Hubbard, Conn. 1852

James Campbell, Penn. 1853

Aaron V. Brown, Tenn. 1857

Joseph Holt, Ky.
"Horatio King. Mo,
Montgomery Blair, Md.
William Denison, Ohio.
A. W. Randall, Wis.
John A. T. Creswell.
Marshall Jewell.
James N. Tyner.
David M. Key.
Horace Maynard.
Thomas L.James.
Timothy O. Howe.
W. Qj Gresham.
Frank Hatton, Iowa.
William F. Vilas, Wis.
Don M. Dickinson, Mich.
John Wanamaker, Pa.

1859

IN.l
lS6l
I664

IS66
lS09

t§M

lS-6

1S80
1881

1S81
1SS3
1S84
i$S<;

BOHRD ON GEOGRHPHIC NHMES.

That uniform usage in regard to geographic nomen-
clature and orthography shall obtain throughout the
Executive Department of the Government, and particu-
larly upon maps and charts issued by the various de-
partments and bureaus, this -board is constituted. To it

shall be referred all unsettled questions concerning
geographic names which arise in the Departments, and
the decisions of the board are to be accepted by
the Departments as the standard authority in such
matters.

-X

B V

618

THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.

THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE INTERIOR.

LIST of the Bureaus over which the Secretary of
the Interior has supervision includes the follow-
ing: The census, the public lands and mines,
the Indians, pensions and bounties, patents for
inventors, and education. He reports annually
to Congress all claims for depredations committed
by the Indians, all the expenditures of the different
branches under his charge, and estimates for further ap-
propriations. The transactions of this department are
conducted through six branches, each governed by a
Commissioner:

The General Land Office.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs.
The Petition Office.

The Patent Office.

The Bureau of Education.

The Bureau of Railroads.

V-

The Commissioner of the General Land Office

Superintends the survey and sale of the public lands of
the United States; issues patents for all lands granted
by authority of government. Plats of surveys and all in-
formation concerning the public lands can be found in
his office. All patents issued from the office are signed
by the President, countersigned by the Commissioner,
and have the seal of the office affixed.

A Surveyor-General is appointed to each of the dis-
tricts : Oklahoma, Louisiana, Florida, Minnesota, Kansas,
Nebraska, Iowa, Dakota, Oregon, Washington, Colorado,
New Mexico, California, Idaho, Nevada, Montana, Utah,
Wyoming and Arizona. When the surveys in any State
are finished and all the maps, field notes and other records
turned over to the Secretary of State of such State, the
office of Surveyor-General ceases in that State.

How to Secure a Homestead.

The public lands open to settlement are divided into two classes
with respect to price, one clas6 being held at $1.25 per acre as the
minimum price, the other at $2.50 per acre; being the alternate sec-
tions reserved by the United .States in land grants to railroads, etc.
Such tracts are told on application to the Registers and Receivers

of the district land offices to legally qualified parties upon condi-
tions of actual residence and improvement under the pre-emption
laws. Widows, heads of families, or single persons over twenty-
one years of age, if citizens of the United States, or aliens who have
declared their intention to become citizen*, have the right of pre-
emption to the maximum quantity of 160 acres each on becoming
settlers and complying with the regulations.

Under the homestead laws a citizen, or an alien having declared
his intention to become a citizen, has the right to 160 acres of either
the $1.25 or $2.50 class after actual residence and cultivation for five
years. Under the timber culture law a citizen, or one who has de-
clared his intention to become such, if the head of a family, or a
single person over twenty-one years, may acquire title to 160 acres
on cultivating 10 acres of trees thereon for eight year. By the act
of August 30, 1800, no person can acquire under all the land laws an
aggregate area of more than 320 acres of the public lands.

Land Offices.

In Missouri, at Boonville, Ironton and Springfield; Alabama. a\.
Iluntsvillc and Montgomery; Louisiana, at New Orleans and
Natchitoches; Michigan, at Grayling and Marquette; Arkansas,
at Dardanellc, Little Rock, Camden and Harrison; Florida, at
Gainesville; Iowa, at Des Moines; Wisconsin, at Menash
land, Waus.ni and Eau Claire; California, at San Francisco,
Marysville, Humboldt, Stockton, Visa ha. Sacrament. ■_
Angeles, Independence, Redding and Susanville; Strada.
sun City and Eureka; Washington, at Olympia, Vancouver,
Yakima, Seattle. Spokane Kails, Watervillc and Walla- Walla;
Minnesota, Taylor's Falls, St. Cloud, Duluth, Crookston an
shall; Oregon, at Oregon City, Roseburgh, I-c Grand, Burma, The
Dalles and Lake View; Kansas, at Topeka, Salina, Garden City,
Kirwin, Larned, Obcrlin and Wa Keene\ ; Nebraska. Lincoln,
Grand Island, North Platte, Alliance, Bloomin^on, Broken Bow,
Chadron, McCook, Neligh, O'Neill, Sidney and Valentine; Colo-
rado, at Pueblo, Akron, Del Norte, Durango, Qlenwood Springs,
Gunnison, Hugo, Lamar, Leadvillc, Montrose, Sterling, Denver
t itv and Central City; New Mexico, at Santa Fe, FoUom, Las
Cruccs and Roswell; Idaho, at Boise City, Rlackfoot, Ccrur d*
Alcnc, Hailey and I.ewiston; Montana, at Helena, Bowman. Lew-
IttOWB, Miles City and Missoula; Utah, at Salt Lake Cit\; Wyo-
ming, at Cheyenne, Buffalo, Kv.utston, Lander. Douglas and Sun-
dance; Aritona, at Prescott and Tucson; Vi*.«i,«.*i//i, at fnrfrurl ;
North Dakota, at Bismarck, I). vi!'> Lake, Fargo, Grand Forks
and Minot; South Dakota, at Aberdeen, Chamberlain. Huron,
Mitchell, Pierre, Rapid City, Watcrtown ami Yankton; Alaska,
at Sitka; Oklahoma, at Oklahoma Cit> . B« a\ei , Guthrie and King-
fisher.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.

619

"i S/ *'4 \S i"i \S &!'* W I

2J-~5

THE BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS.

- "»

^MPA^LL matters concerning the Indians are in charge of
^ the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. He examines
all accounts and vouchers for claims and disburse-
ments connected with Indian affairs. He reports an-
^^^^^^^^ nually a tabular statement showing the several objects
rrfiiA^ of expenditure under his supervision, and embodying
the statements of all agents issuing supplies of any
kind to the Indians, with the number of Indians re-
ceiving them.

There is an Advisory Hoard connected with this Bureau, consist-
ing of not more than ten persons, appointed by the President.
Members of this Board receive no compensation; they are chosen
as men eminent in
the community, who
have exhibited some
peculiar mark of fit-
ness for the position.
The Board supervises
the expenditures of
money appropriated
for the Indians, and
inspects all goods
purchased for them.
It has access to all
books and papers re-
lating to Indian af-
fairs in any Govern-
ment office. The
Board has no direct
power further than
that of inspection.

Inspectors.

From one to five
Indian Inspectors ire
appointed by the
President. Their duty
is to visit twice a
year each Indian su-
perintendency and agency, and fully investigate all matters belonging
to the business of each, including the examination of accounts, the
manner of expending the money, the number of Indians provided for,
contracts of all kinds, the condition of the Indians, their advance in
civilization, the extent of the reservations, and what use is made of
the lands set apart for that purpose, and all matters belonging to the
Indian service.

Each inspector has power to examine on oath all officers and others
in and about the superintendencies and agencies, and to suspend any
superintendent or employe and appoint others temporarily. He
has power to enforce the laws in the several agencies and superinten •

dencies. The same inspector does not visit and investigate any
agency or superintendency twice in succession.

Four or more superintendents are appointed by the President. Their
duties are each in his own district to supervise and control the official
conduct and acts of all persons employed by the Governmentin Indian
affairs.

Indian Agents.

THE PATENT OFFICE.

Indian Agents are appointed by the President. They must give bond
wi^h good security before enlisting upon their duties Every agent
must reside and keep his agency near the tribe of Indians to which he

is assigned. Within
his agency he man-
ages and superin-
tends the intercourse
with the Indians and
enforces all rules pre-
scribed to him. Xo
person emploved in
Indian affairs may
have an interest in
any trade with them,
under a penalty of
$5,000 and removal
from office.

Teachers may be
employed for the im-
provement of the In-
dians, when it is
deemed opportune.

Indian

Traders.

J A bond of $5 ,000. with
approved security,
must be given war-
ranting the observ-
ance of all laws with

respect to intercourse with the Indians, by any one proposing to

become an Indian trader.

Pension Office.

The Commissioner of Pensions has the management of this office.
Pension Agents are required to give bond; they receive a salary ot
$4,000 per annum, and fifteen cents for each voucher in excess of
four thousand vouchers prepared and paid by them. Agents and
their clerks may take the affidavits of pensioners and their wit-
nesses, but receive no fee for that service. In paying pension the
agent is authorized to deduct the attorney's fee for aiding the pen-

-H

620

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.

sioner. He retains a fee of thirty cents for this service. Pension
surgeons receive 1 1,800 a year; the medical referee receives $2,500.

Hoards of examining surgeons consist of three members. In ordi-
nary cases each member receives one dollar fee; in spec ial exami-
nations, three dollars.

Patent Office.

In this Bureau are kept all records, books, models, drawings,
• )n 1 iticutions and other papers and things belonging to pat-
inventions.

The Commissioner of Patents and the chief clerk are required to
give bond. No officer or employe^ in the Patent Office is allowed to
acquire or take during his or her term of office any right or interest
in any patent issued by the office. The Commissioner of Patents
has copies of patent claims, laws, regulations and circulars printed
for the information of the public. He makes an annual report to
Congress of ail matters committed to his charge.

Commissioner of Railroads.

The Commissioner of Railroads is charged with prescribing a
system of reports to be rendered to him by the railroad companies
whose roads are in whole or in part west, north, or south of the
Missouri River, and to which the United States have granted any
loan of credit or subsidy in lands or bonds; to examine the books,
accounts and property of said companies; to see that the laws relat-
ing to said companies are enforced, and to assist the Government
Directors of any of said railroad companies in all matters which
come under their cognizance, whenever they may officially request
such assistance.

Geological Survey.

The Director of the Geological Survey has charge of the clarifi-
cation of the public lands, and examination of the geological struc-
ture, mineral resources and product* of the national domain.

The Census Office.

The Superintendent of the Census supervises the taking of the

census of the United States every tenth year, and the subsequent
arrangement, compilation and publication of the statistic* collected.

Bureau of Education.

The duties of the Commissioner of this Bureau consist in the col-
lection of facts and figures showing the condition and progress ot
education in the several States and Territories, to diffuse informa-
tion with regard to the management of schools and methods of
teaching, and promote the cause of education.

Secretaries of the Interior.

Thomas Ewing, Ohio. 1S49

Alex. II. II. Stewart, Va. 1850

Robert McClelland, Mich. 1853

Jacob Thompson, Miss. 1857

li. Smith, Ind. 1861

John P. Usher, Ind. 1863

James Harlan, Iowa. 1S65

O. II. Browning, 111. 1806

Jacob D. Cox. 1S69

Columbus Delano.
Zachariah Chandler.
Carl Schurz.
Samuel J. Kirk wood.
Henry M. Teller. Colo.
I. Q. C. Lamar, Miss.
William F. Vilas, Wis.
John W. Noble.

1870
1875
1877
1SS1
1884
.885
1888
1S80

-**g.TllE DErnRTAETlT OF LnDOR.^^

4±

BUREAU OF LABOR, connected with the
Department of the Interior, was established by
act of Congress, June 27, 1884. By an act of Con-
gress June 13, 1888, a Department of Labor was,
created, and the Bureau of Labor transferred to
the Department of Labor.

The Department is placed in charge of a Commis-
sioner of Labor, who is directed to acquire and diffuse
among the people of the United Stales useful informa-
tion on lubjecta connected with labor, in the most gen-
eral and comprehensive sense of that word, and es-
pecially upon its relation to capital; the hours of labor;
the earnings of laboring men and women, and the means
of promoting their material, social, intellectual and
moral prosperity. He is also especially charged, in ac-
cordance with the general design and duties prescribed
by the law, at as early a date as possible, and whenever
industrial changes shall make it essential, to ascertain
the cost of producing articles, at the time dutiable in the
United States, in leading countries where lUCh articles
are produced, by fully specified units of production, and

under a classification showing the different elements of
cost of such articles of production, including wages paid
in such industries, etc.

It is also the duty of the Commissioner to ascertain
and report as to the effect of the customs laws upon the
currency and on the agricultural industry; especially as
to their effect on the mortgage indebtedness of farmers;
what articles are controlled by trusts, or other combina-
tions of capital, business operations, or of labor, and
what effect lUCh trusts, or other combinations of capital,
business operations, or of labor, have on production and
prices.

The Commissioner is also to establish a system of
reports, by which, at intervals of not less than two years,
he can ascertain the general condition, so far as produc-
tion is concerned, of the leading industries of the
country, lie is also especially charged to investigate the
causes of, and facts relating to, all controversies and dis-
putea be tw ee n employers and employe's as they may
occur, and which may happen to interfere with the

welfare of the people of the different state-.

The Department of Agriculture

^-^^-^-^

fjHE Secretary ol Agriculture is charged with the super-
\ Ision of all public business relating to the agricultural in-
' dustry. He directs the management of all the divisions
and sections and the bureaus embraced in the Depart-
ment. He exercises advisory supervision over the agri-
cultural experiment stations deriving support from the
National Treasury, and has control of the quarantine
stations for cattle.
The Chief of the Weather Bureau has charge of the forecasting of
weather; the issue of storm warnings; the display of weather and
flood signals; the gauging and reporting of rivers; the maintenance
and operation of sea-coast telegraph lines, and the collection and
transmission of marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and

inquiry, aids the stations in the conduct of co-operative experi-
ments^ helps to make available to them the processes and results of
experimental inquiry in the United States and abroad, and compiles,
edit* and publishes accounts of station investigations.

The Entomologist disseminates information regarding insects in-
jurious to vegetation; investigates insects sent him in order to give
appropriate remedies, and arranges specimens for illustrative and
museum purposes.

The Ornithological Division investigates the economic relations
of birds and mammals, and recommends measures for the preserva-
tion of beneficial and destruction of injurious species.

The Division of Forestry is occupied with investigations dealing
with the subject of forestry; with the distribution 01 seeds of valu-

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

navigation; the reporting of temperature and rainfall conditions;
the display of frost and cold-wave signals; the distribution of me-
teorological information and the taking of such meteorological ob-
servations as may be necessary to establish and record the climatic
conditions of the United States, or as are essential for the proper
execution of the foregoing duties.

The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the
existence of dangerous communicable diseases of live stock, super-
intends the measures for their extirpation, makes original investi-
gations as to the nature and prevention of such diseases^ and reports
on the condition and means of improving the animal industries of
the country. It also has charge of the inspection of import and ex-
port animals, of the inspection of vessels for the transportation of
export cattle, and of the quarantine stations for imported neat cat-
tle; supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and inspects live
stock and their products slaughtered for food consumption.

The Statistician collects information as to the condition, prospects
and harvests of the principal crops, and of the numbers and status
ol farm animals, and obtains similar information from European
countries monthly. He records statistics of agricultural production,
distribution and consumption, and publishes a monthlv bulletin for
the use of editors and writers, and for the information of producers
and consumers, and for their protection against combination and
extortion in the handling of the products 01 agriculture.

The Chemist makes analyses of natural fertilizers, vegetable pro-
ducts and other materials which pertain to the interests of agricul-
ture. Applications are constantly made from all portions of the
country for the analysis of soils, minerals, liquids and manures.

The Office of Experiment Stations represents the Department in
its relations to the agricultural experiment stations in the several
States and Territories. Its object is to promote uniformity of
methods in the work of the stations, and, in general, to furnish to
them such advice and assistance as will best promote the purposes
for which they were established. To this end, it indicates lines of

able trees, and with the dissemination of information upon forestry
matters.

The Botanist investigates plants and grasses of agricultural value
or of injurious character, and answers inquiries relating to the
same; also has charge of the Herbarium, receives botanical contri-
butions and purchases for its improvement, and distributes duplicate
specimens to agricultural colleges and educational institutions.

The Pomologist distributes information in regard to the porno-
logical industry; investigates the habits and qualities of fruits, their
adaptability to various soils and climates and conditions of culture,
and introduces new fruits from foreign countries.

The Division of Vegetable Pathology investigates the diseases of
plants, and seeks to determine remedies for their prevention.

The Microscopist makes investigations relating to parasitic
growths, to the characteristics of fibers, and to the adulteration of
foods.

The Division of Records and Editing exercises supervision of the
Department printing 1 ; issues press notices ol interest to agricultur-
ists, and distributes synopses of Department publications.

The Division of Illustration and Engraving comprises the artists
and engravers engaged in preparing illustrations for the Depart-
ment publications.

The Seed Division collects new and valuable seeds and plants for
propagation and distributes them to applicants in all parts of the
country.

The Division of Gardens and Grounds is charged with the care of
the park surrounding the Department buildings, and with the duties
connected with the conservatories and gardens for testing and prop- t
agating exotic and economic plants.

Secretary of Agriculture.

Jeremiah M. Rusk, Wisconsin 1889

*. «-.

622

THK ATTOKNhYc.hNKKAL.

-7

THE /Ittokney-Gener/il.

¥HE Attorney-General of the United States lias
charge of the Department of justice. The officers
under him are the Solicitor-General, three Assistant
Attorneys-General, a Solicitor of the Treasury, a
Solicitor of Internal Revenue, a Naval Solicitor and
an Kxaminer of Claims for the Department of State,
all of whom are appointed by the President and
hold office lot four years.
Whenever required by the President, it is the duty of the Attorney-
General to give his advice and opinion on questions of law. He must
decide on the validity of the land-title to any property where the Gov-
ernment proposes to erect buildings.

He must give his opinion on any question of law arising in any of
the Executive Departments, when called upon by the head of such
!><•[». u tineiit.

Hi- rape, intends the District Attorneys and Marshals of the United
States, and may employ other counsel to aid District Attorneys in
their duties. He may send the Solicitor-General or any officer of his
Department to any State or district of the United States, to attend to
the interests of the Government in any Federal or State court. He
has supervision of the accounts of District Attorneys, Marshals,
Clerks and other officers of the United States courts. He signs all
requisitions for the payment of moneys appropriated for the use of
his Department.

II e reports to Congress annually a full account of the business of
his Department during the year, the expenses of the Federal courts,
number of pending suits, number of additional counsel and attorneys
employed, statistics of crime, etc. The approval of the Attorney-
I re&ei il is necessary to make the opinions of his subordinates valid.
All questions of law referred to him he may submit to his subordi-

nates for examination and opinion, except such questions as involve a
construction of the Constitution of the United States.

The officers of this Department assist in performing all legal service
required for the other Departments, in prosecuting or defending Gov-
ernment claims and suits. The traveling expenses of the officers of
this Department when on duty are paid in addition 10 their salaries.

Attorneys-General,

Edmund Randolph, Va. 1789

William Bradford, Penn 1794

Charles I.t-t . Ya. 1795

Levi Lincoln, Mass. 1801

Robert Smith Mil 1805

John Breckenridge. Ky. 1805

Casar A. Rodney, Del. 1807

William 1'inkney, Md. 1811

Richard Rush, Penn. 1814

William Wirt. V.i 1817

John M. Berrien, Ga 1819

Roger B. Taney, Md. 1831

Benjamin T. Buller, N. Y. 1834

Felix Giumlv. Trim 1838

Henry D. Gilpin, Prim. 1840

John J. Crittenden. Ky. 1841

Hugh S. I.rgarc. S. C. 1841

John Nelson, Md. 1844

John Y. Maaoo, V 1 1845

Nathan Clifford, Me. 1846

Isaac Toucey, Conn.
Reverdy Johnson, Md.
John J. Crittenden, Ky.
Caleb Gushing. Mast.
Jeremiah S. Black, Penn.
Edwin M. Stanton, Penn.
Edward Bate-
James Speed, Ky.
Henry Stanbery, Ohio.
William M. Evans.
E. Rockwood Hoar.
Amos T. Ackerman.
George H. Williams-
Edwards Pierpont.
Alpbonso Taft.
Charles Devens.
Wayne MacVeagh.
Benjamin H. Brewster.
A. II Garland. Ark.
W. H. H. Miller, lod.

1S4S

■*■

1S50

l8»
1857
i860
1861
•864
■866
1868
1869
1870
1871
1875
1876
1877
1 881
■881
188]
i--y

"The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one
Supreme Conn, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from
time to time ordain and establish."— Constitution.

Judges both of the Supreme and inferior courts hold office during

good behavior, and there can be no decrease in the compensation they

receive daring their continuance in office. The power of the judiciary

I 1 to all cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution,

the laws of the United States, and all treaties with foreign countries.

The Supreme Court of the United States consists of a Chief Justice
and eight Associate Justices, appointed by the President.

Precedence of the Associate Justices is according to the dates of
their con 1 missions. Should the commissions of two or more bear the
date, precedence will be according to their age.

Should a vacancy occur in the office of Chief Justice, his duties de-
volve Upon the Associate Justice who is Hist in precedence.

If one of these Judges, after having held office for ten vears. being

then seventy years of age, resifnt, he win receive for the remainder
of his life the same ( -ompens aion as he did whilst a member of the
court.

Any six of the Justices form a quorum.

The Siipienir Court appoints ■ clerk, a marshal and a reporter.

TBI Ci.ikk is Under the same oath, restrictions and bond as the
clerks iu the Unite. 1 States District Courts. Deputy clerks when
lit eded utaj be KppotutOd Utd innoved by the court.

'I iu. Marshal i | attend the court at its sessions, to

lerve and execute all processes | suing from it, or made by

the Chief or Associate Justice,, in purauiDCC of law. and to take charge
of all property of the United St.Ues used by the COUfl or iis members,

He may, subject to the approval of the Chief Justice, appoint assist-
ants and messengers to attend court, with the same allowance of com-
pensation as is received by similar officers in the Lower House of
Congress.

Thf. Reporter of the Supreme Court must print and publish the

of the court within eight months after they are made, and

every subsequent year he must issue a similar volume. He receives

for his first volume $2,500, and for each of the succeeding ones $1,500.

.uist be completed at the prescribed time.

Annually, beginning on the serond Monday in October, the Supreme
Court holds its session. Adjourned or special terms are held when
necessary.

11 Isdiction of the Supreme Court is pointed out by the Consti-
tution, and need not be repeated here. In action at law against citi-
zens of the United States, trials of issues of fact are always by jury.

Federal Courts.

Supreme Court

9 Circuit Courts

55 District Courts

Attorney-General.
Solicitor-General.

Chief Justice. i CUik
Bight Associate < Marshal.
|UStli / K. porter,

sticesof i Clerks.
Supreme, and 9 < District Mar
Circuit Judges. / shals.

Marshals. i «*«!? *"*
I Grand Juries. I n ' ym -
Juries are called in all courts when requisi'e.

\ 55 Ju

.lil.-s

District Attorneys.

Districts.

The United States are oivlded into hfty-nve Federal judicial district!.
A Judge fi appointed for each district by the President Each Judge .
must reside in the district for which he is appointed All the records
of the court are kept at the place where the District Court is held.

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT.

623

1 <*1THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT.^ 1

Duties of the American Congress.

LTHOUGH the duties and re-
sponsibilities of the American Con-
gress are very plainly laid down in
the Constitution, a further exam-
ination of the functions of the
Legislative Department cannot but
be of interest Congress is divided
into the Senate and the House of
^"'Representatives, a division which
'JyFwus made because our Government
was founded upon the model of England,
whose Parliament consists of a House of Peers
and a House of Commons. The Senate is
supposed to play the same part in American
legislation which the House of Peers does in
Britain. It is a sort of governor in the ma-
chinery of the body politic, which exerts a con-
servative and prudent influence on law-making.
The Senate originally, although that meaning
has been largely neglected, meant the conclave
of the sovereign States of the Union, a council which was to
look more closely after the general and external affairs of the
confederacy, while the House of Representatives was to repre-
sent the people of the whole Union. This meaning, it has been
said above, has been largely lost in the course of time, but the
fiction remains, and the division of the powers of Government
between the two bodies illustrates the purpose which the fathers
of the Government had in the original separation in M ; fWO
Houses.

The Senate.

The Senate consists of two Senators from each State of the Federal
Union; these Senators are chosen by the Legislatures of the respective
States and hold office for six years. There was a strong effort made
at the time of the drafting of the Constitution to extend the term for
life, but this was believed to savor too much of aristocracy, and after
long debate six years was agreed upon as a compromise measure.
The pay of Senators is $3,000 per year. The Senate is presided over
by the Vice-President, and when he has for any cause vacated his
office a President pro tempore of the Senate is elected. There are
now (1S92) eighty-eight Senators. All impeachments are tried by
the Senate, and when the President of the United States is on trial the
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court must preside. The Senate must ap-

prove of treaties made with foreign governments bv the President be
fore they can become binding, and the consent of the Senate is nec-
essary to the appointments to all the great offices of the State made
by the President. The Senate is the only permanent body in the
United States Government, the elections being always so ordered that
two-thirds of the Senators hold over.

The House of Representatives.

In the early days of the Federal Union the only legislative body was
the Continental Congress, which exercised both the executive and
legislative functions of government, and which occasionally per-
formed judicial duties also. The old Congress piloted the nation
through the Revolutionary war, but, although effective for its original
purpose, it was not able for the work which fell upon its shoulders
under the articles of confederation. The articles themselves were
unsuited to the land, and in a little while it became evident that the
United States experiment would end in disaster and disappointment
unless something was done to give it shape and direction.

The man that had led the Continental Army to glory and freedom
through the Revolution again came forward and preserved by his
wise statesmanship the Republic which his military genius had
founded. At the call of George Washington the American Constitu-
tion was born, and the keystone of the Constitution is the House of
Representatives. This body is the brain of the nation ; on its floor
ail the momentous issues of the Republic have been settled; no
higher office can a citizen win than a seat in the council of the
Nation, none greater in the influence which it wields, not for America
alone, but for the future of the human race.

The number of Representatives is decided by the census, which is
taken every ten years. As soon as this is done, Congress decides upon
the number of Representatives for the ensuing decade. The number
since the establishment of the Constitution has been as follows :

'7*9 — '793.

• - 65

1843 — 1S33,

223

1793 — 1803,

105

1SS3 — 1S63,

"37

1S03 — 1S13,

■49

1863 - 1873, •

*43

1S13 — 1823,

.89

1873 - 1883,

293

1S23 — 1833,

213

18S3 — 1S93,

■ • 3»5

1833-1S43,

240

1S93 - 1903,

356

These Congressmen are paid $5,000 a year, with certain additions tn
the shape of mileage, stationery, etc., etc. The qualifications for a
Representative are fully explained in the Constitution.

^^SC

624

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

2Tfye carious Ailments of tfye ftuman iSoby, ano
IQow to Crcat iZTfyem.

<» ■ ».i ? . 3 i |f t t « ^ i» «■ ^>

?HE mechanism to be studied in the body of a living
animal — more particularly the highest of all animals,
man — is of such wonder and beauty, exquisite finish
and perfection, that, could it all be comprehended
and long enough retained by the memory to afford
one broad contemplation of its simplest facts, all the triumphs
of art could bear no relation to its loveliness.

Huxley so concisely and clearly begins his delightful little
volume of Elementary Physiology, that for the purposes of
this article we cannot do better than to quote his opening lines.
" The body of a living man," he says, " performs a great divers-
ity of actions, some of which are quite obvious, others require
more or less careful observation, and yet others can be detected
only by the most delicate appliances of science.

" Thus some part of the body of a living man is plainly always
in motion. Even in sleep, when the limbs, head and eyelids
may be still, the incessant rise and fall of the chest continues to
remind us that we are viewing slumber and not death.

"More careful observation is needed, however, to detect the
motion of the heart, or the pulsation of the arteries, or the
changes in the size of the pupil of the eye with varying light,
or to ascertain that the air which is breathed out of the body
is hotter and damper than that which is taken in by breathing.

" And lastly, when we try to ascertain what happens in the
eye when that organ is adjusted to different distances, or what in
a nerv« when it is excited ; or of what materials flesh and blood
are made; or in virtue of what mechanism it is that a sudden
pain makes one start — we have to call into operation all the
methods of inductive and deductive logic, all the resources of
phytici and chemistry, and all of the delicacies of the art of
experiment. "

It is plainly obvious that man differs from the stones and
earth, the flowers and trees, and all inanimate objects. He is
warm, whiic these things are cold; he is able to move about at

will while they must remain always in one place ; he can exert
power and force, while they must remain forever inactive; he is
possessed of mind and purpose to guide him, while they are
influenced only by the elements.

Combustion and Heat.

Now warmth is clearly due to the burning of something.
The warmth of the day and the heat of the summer come to
us from that great central fi e, the sun, whose flames leap up
from its surface tens of thousands of miles. The warm breezes
at night, when the sun does not shine upon us, and the temper-
ate winds which from time to time visit us in winter, all gain
their warmth from some great tract of southern land or tropical
body of water, which, previously heated by the fires of the sun,
now radiates the heat absorbed therefrom, warming the sur-
rounding atmosphere, which, moving in currents, carries heat
from the tropics even to the very poles.

When the sun's heat is not sufficient for our purpose, we make
artificial fires of wood, coal, oil or gas. There is no heat or
warmth, however slight, that is not produced by combustion , or
oxidation, or, in other words, the burning of something. But
all things do not oxidize or burn with a flame, as in the case
of our furnace fires. You every day see objects burn with-
out coming to a°blaze, but only with the red glow of a live
coal. Other things you see burn and crumble to ashes which
never even come to a glow. If you hold over a lamp, and at
a little distance from it, a piece of writing-paper, it will bum
black atul finally crumble in ashes without showing a single
spark of fire or light, and yet it so rapidly bums that it crum-
bles to pieces in the space of only a few moments. The char-
acter or appearance of combustion or oxidation depends entirely
upon the rapidity with which the article is burned. Thus, -ome
objects burn with an explosion, some with Ajfame, some with a
glow, while some show only a simple evolution of heat. Gun-

Jfe

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

625

powder so quickly burns that great force is exerted, though we
see but a single flash of light. Dry pine burns far more slowly ;
the force of its heat is distributed over a greater length
of time, and hence there is no disastrous explosion, though
it burns with a roaring flame. Peat burns still more slowly,
and with the glow of a live coal. In the slaking of fresh
lime an oxidation or burning takes place, and great heat
is given off, but there is no flame, no glow, no spark of light.
A thousand things burn still more slowly, some of them requir-
ing years or centuries, under certain conditions, in oxidation,
and, while constantly giving off heat, the burning is so slow and
the amount of heat given off therefore so exceedingly small,
that it is not detectable except by the most delicate instruments
of science.

If combustion takes place almost instantly, as in the case of
dynamite, or gunpowder, or certain gases, we call the result
explosion. If it goes on more slowly, as with wood, coal or
peat, we call the process bunting. If combustion takes place
still more slowly, as in slacking lime, or in a bin of wheat or
barley, where heat is given off, but without a spark of fire
or light visible, we commonly call the process oxidation. Thus,
you see, the words explosion, combustion, burning and oxida-
tion mean practically one and the same thing, and that all
force, or heat, or warmth, comes from the oxidation or burning
of something, either rapidly or slowly, visibly or invisibly.

" If a mass of seeds be laid together," says Draper, " as barley
in the making of malt, the operation conducted at a gentle tem-
perature, and with the access of atmospheric air, oxygen disap-
pears, carbonic acid is set free, and the temperature rises forty
, or fifty degrees. A process of oxidation must, therefore, have
been carried into effect, and to it we trace the heat disengaged ;
for carbon cannot produce carbonic acid without a rise of tem-
perature ensuing. The loss of weight which the seed exhibits
is therefore due to its loss of carbon, and the whole effect is
explained in the statement that atmospheric air has united with
a portion of the carbon contained in the seed, producing car-
bonic acid gas and an evolution of heat."

If we put a lighted candle into a glass jar and seal it up air-
tight, it will continue to burn for a certain time, the duration of
which will depend upon the size of the jar ; the flame will grow
less and less, until finally it will go out, and the candle will
cease to burn. As soon as the air in the jar has cooled a little,
drops of moisture will collect on the inside of the jar, showing
that in burning the candle has given off water. If we now open
the jar and test the temperature with a thermometer, we find the
air of the jar warmer than when the candle was put into it, showing
that in burning heat was given off. If we now force some of
the air of the jar through lime water, the water becomes milky
from the precipitate of carbonate of lime, showing the presence
of carbonic acid in the air of the jar, which was not present
before the burning of the candle — showing that in the burning
carbonic acid -was given off. If a further analysis be made it
will be discovered that the oxygen of the air in the jar has dis-
appeared, and if the candle be weighed, it will be found to have
lost weight.

Such is the result of all combustion or oxidation — heat is
given off, -.uater and carbonic acid are evolved, oxygen is con-
sumed, and the burning object loses substance.

Oxidation and Animal Heat.

If, in winter, we place a healthy living man in a cold, dry
room with closed glass windows, having carefully noted the
temperature of the room and the exact weight of the man, and
shut him in as we did the burning candle in the glass jar, and
then require him to walk up and down for an hour, the same
important facts may be observed as in the case of the candle.
In his exercise he will have obviously exerted a great amount of
mechanical force — as much at least as would be required to lift his
own weight as high and as often as he has raised himself at every
step, which, in the aggregate, would be about a mile or more
above the ground. At the end of an hour let the temperature
of the room again be taken, and it will be found to be warmer
than at the beginning. The man has. therefore, given off heat.
If the windows of the room be observed, the glass will be found
covered with the vapor of water, wh.ch, if the air outside be
sufficiently cold, will be converted into ice or frost, such as is
seen in the morning upon the window-panes of our sleeping-
rooms in winter — showing that he has given off water. If some
of the air in the room be now forced through lime water, the
water will be found milky from the precipitate of carbonate of
lime, showing the presence of carbonic acid in the air, which,
like the heat and the water, has been given off by the man, just
as we have seen that heat, water and carbonic acid are given off
by a burning candle.

And so, if the air of the room be further analyzed, a large
amount of oxygen will be found to have disappeared. The
flame of the candle died and the light went out when all the
oxygen in the jar had been consumed ; so would the fires of life in
the man likewise have died out had he not been released before
all the oxygen in the closed room had been breathed into his lungs
and consumed. Furthermore, if the man be now again weighed
at the end of the hour, he will be found to have lost weight just
as the candle lost weight in burning and the barley in oxida-
tion. Thus, in the concise language of Huxley : "A living,
active man constantly exerts mechanical force, gives off heat,
evolves carbonic acid and water, and undergoes a loss of sub-
stance." In other words, his tissues are constantly burning up,
or oxidizing, and when this process ceases he grows cold and
dies. Oxidation of the candle is started by applying a flame to
the wick. Once begun, it needs no further aid. The oxygen of
the air unites with the carbon of the candle, and the evolution
of heat, carbonic acid gas and water in the form of vapor is the
result, and the process continues until the candle is consumed or
the supply of oxygen shut off.

As we have seen, a man, like the lighted candle, is con-
stantly burning up, or oxidizing — giving off heat and water and
carbonic acid, and the ashes of his burned tissues. He loses
every day 300 grains of nitrogen (which is the ashes of his mus-
cles), six and a half pounds of water, and burns ten and a half
ounces of carbon. Altogether he loses from seven to ten pounds
in weight daily. It is clear that this state of things could not
continue very many days or the man would dwindle to nothing-
ness. He would last but a few days longer than his candle.
But long before this loss of substance can be noticed by another
it is felt by the subject, who suffers from hunger and thirst. He
takes food and drink, which being digested and made into
blood, his wasted tissues are repaired, and the loss by oxidation

626

~7\

PHVSIOI.OGY AND MEDICINE.

is made good. A man may be likened to a lamp that is cease-
lessly fed and as ceaselessly wastes away. Or he may be likened
to a steam engine. The food which he takes, digests, assimi-
lates and burns, corresponds to the coal which is burned in the
furnace of the machine ; his warmth and life and strength cor-
respond to the heat and power of the engine. The warmth and
strength of the man and the heat and power of the engine are
due to the fuel burned in the tissues of the one and the furnace
of the other.

Power and Life Due to Heat.

All force, of whatever kind, is due to heat. A large part
of the machinery of the world is run by steam power, which
is produced by heat. The winds are caused by the heated
tracts of land or bodies of water, where the atmosphere in
consequence becomes rarified, and currents of colder air rush
across the face of the earth with gentle, or sometimes terrific
force, to fill the vacuum. All the force of the stream and the
waterfall is due to heat, which evaporates the water of the sea,
and, lifting it up in vapor, carries it in the warm breezes back
to the high land, where, cooling, it falls in rain and rushes with
force through gulleys and the river-beds back to the sea. In
like manner heat is the cause of power in animals and men.
Food is the fuel ; the entire body is the furnace ; through the
lungs is the draft of air. Oxidation and heat and life and
power and force are the result.

But the fuel proper for the steam engine is w-hollv unsuitable
for this human engine. To enable the body to continue exert-

ing force and giving out heat, water and carbonic acid at the
same rate, for an indefinite period, it is absolutely necessary
that the body should !w supplied with three things, and with
three only. These are fresh air, water and food. Mr. Huxley
says: " In a properly nourished man a stream of food is con-
stantly entering the body in the shape of complex compounds
containing comparatively little oxygen ; as constantly the ele-
ments of the food (whether before or after they have formed a
part of the living substance) are leaving the body combined
with more oxygen. And the incessant breaking down and oxi-
dation of the complex compounds which enter the body are
definitely proportioned to the amount of force which the body
exerts, whether in the shape of heat or otherwise. Let a man
lift a heavy body from the ground, and the loss of weight
which he would have undergone without that exertion will be
immediately increased by a definite amount, which cannot be
made good unless a proportionate amount of extra food be
supplied him; just in the same way as the amount of work to
be gotten or.t of a steam engine and the amount of heat it and
its furnace give off bear a strict proportion to its consumption
of fuel."

In every instance the production of animal heat and force is
due to oxidation taking place in the economy. This oxidation
takes place in the blood, and in the tissues themselves in every
part of the body. The food, which is the fuel of this human
engine, before it can reach the tissues where it is burned, must
undergo elaborate preparation.

l^TTHE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.^"

There are a large number of organs whose sole use is the
preparation and elaboration of the food, rendering it suitable
for cousumption by the economy. These organs, taken to-'
gether, are known as the digestive organs. They consist of
machinery for dividing and grinding the food and testing its
quality ; of glands for the manufacture of chemical fluids for
dissolving it ; of receptacles for holding and warming it while
it is acted upon by the dissolving fluids; of canals through
which it is passed from one receptacle to another ; of absorb-
ents which take up and carry the refined product into the
current of the blood, and of a further tube to carry out of the
body the insoluble and unsuitable constituents of the mass taken
into the stomach. These organs are the mouth, tongue, palate,
teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestines, large intestines, the liver, and the pancreas, or
sweetbread.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
The Mouth.

The mouth is the cavity into which food is first introduced.
It is supplied with organs for testing the quality of the food ;
with organs for dividing and grinding, and with a fluid for
moistening and softening, and for converting the insoluble
starch of the food into a soluble sugar. It has a fixed roof,
formed by what is known as the hard palate (3), and with a

movable floor made up of the tongue and the lower jaw.
Around the sides and front of the mouth are two rows of sixteen
teeth each, which spring from the upper and lower jaws, and out-
side of these the cavity is closed at the sides by the cheeks, and
in front by the lips When the mouth is closed the tongue
comes in close contact with the roof (3), and back of the hard
palate the communication with the nasal cavity and the pharynx
is further impeded by a curtain of flesh, the soft palate, in the
middle of which, at the ick part of the cavity of the

mouth, is a small prolongation or teat of flesh, the uvula (4).
On each side are double muscular cords (5 and 6), which are
known as pillars of the fauces, and between these on each
side are the tonsils (7). At the back part of the base of the
tongue is a lid, the epiglotis (9), made of cartilage, or gristle,
which closes the entrance to the trachea (12). Behind the uvula
and the epiglotis is the cavity of the pharynx (8 and 11), which
h i, u.ilK of muscles and covered with mucous membrane. It
is larger at the top than at the bottom and has seven openings
into it: two from the kick part of the nasal cavity; two (one
on each side) above and close to these — the openings of the
eustachian tube (2), leading to the ears ; one from the lack part
of the cavity of the mouth (8): one from the trachea (12) or wind-
pipe, and one leading into the atophagus (11) or gullet. The
whole cavity of the mouth and the pharynx (as well as the entire
alimentary tract, which includes the gullet, stomach and intes-

■fe

*r?

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

627

"7T

r*»

tines) is lined by a delicate membrane, known as the mucous mem -
brane. It commenceson the lips where it joins the skin ; it isred
and moist and soft and tender ; its structure is like that of the
skin, only more delicate and more easily wounded. It is full of
minute little glands which secrete a fluid known as mucus, and
which keep the membrane moist. Besides these little mucous
glands there are three pairs of large glands which secrete
three different kinds of fluid, known as saliva, and the glands
as salivary glands. These glands are named according to
their situation : the sub-lingual, under the tongue ; the sub-
maxillary, under and to the inside of the lower jaw. The
saliva secreted by these two pairs of glands is emptied into the
mouth through a small duct under the tip of the tongue. The
parotid gland lies in front of the ear, and its duct opens into
the mouth on the inside of the cheek opposite the second upper
double tooth.

The Teeth.

Each of the thirty-two
teeth has a crown, a pulp,
and one or more roots or
fangs, which are received
into sockets in thejaw-bone.
The teeth are composed of
jvory, an enamel and a ce-
ment which securely fastens
them in their sockets.

Every person who lives to
adult life is given two sets
of teeth. The first set, con-
sisting of twenty teeth (ten
above and ten below), are
known as the temporary set,
and the last, consisting of
thirty-two ( sixteen above
and sixteen below), are
known as the permanent
set.

After these, now-a-day,
a person can have as many
additional sets of teeth as
he can pay for.

The four teeth in each
jaw which are directly in
front have sharp, chisel-like
edges, and are known as the
incisors, or cutting teeth.
Next these on each side is a
long, round-cornered and
sharp tooth, something like
the tooth of the dog, and

hence known as the canine or tearing tooth. The next two
teeth on each side have two prominent points or cusps on
the surface of the crown, and are therefore called bi-cuspids.
All of these have generally but a single root or fang. The
remaining twelve teeth have two or more roots and broad,
heavy crowns, and are known as molars or grinding teeth.
(See Fig. 2.)

Fig. 1.

3, Opening cf the eustachian tube ; 3, hard palate; 4, soft palate; 5 and 6, pillows
of the fauces; 7, tonsil; 8 and 11, pharynx; 9, epiglotis; 1 3, larynx

Each tooth is supplied with blood-vessels and a nerve, which
enter, to pass into the pulp, at the root of the tooth, as shown
by the illustration.

When solid food is first taken into the mouth, it is first
submitted to division and grinding by the teeth. It is kept
between the teeth by the muscles of the cheeks on the outside,
and by the tongue from the inside. When the teeth are closed
together the food is pressed out on either side, but is immedi.
ately replaced by the action of these muscles, and this is con-
tinued until the entire mass is thoroughly rubbed down. Dur-
ing this process the salivary glands have been excited and have
poured into the mouth their fluids, which have become incorpor-
ated with the food, while the glairy mucus from the mouth
coats the bolus of food thus prepared for the action of the
stomach. By the action of the tongue the bolus is forced
backward into the pharynx, the soft palate and valve prevent-
ing its passage upwards into
the back part of the nasal
cavity, while the epiglotis
closes down securely over
the entrance into the wind-
pipe, and, the muscles of
the pharynx contracting
upon the bolus, the move-
ment or act of swallowing
is performed. The bolus
glides over the epiglotis
and is then carried through
the oesophagus, or gullet,
into the stomach, where it
is digested.

The Stomach.

The stomach (see Fig. 3)
is the principal organ of
digestion. It lies immedi-
ately below the diaphragm
in the cavity of the abdo-
men, being separated from
the heart and lungs above
by the diaphragm, and lies
more upon the right side of
the body than the left. It
is a muscular pouch, being,
when moderately full, about
twelve inches long by four
inches deep. It is covered
on the outside by a delicate,
smooth membrane, which
covers also the intestines
and lines the entire cavity
of the abdomen. This membrane secretes a small amount of
fluid in health, sufficient to so lubricate its surfaces that the
organs may glide over each other without injury. The stomach
is lined by the mucous membrane, spoken of previously as lining
the entire alimentary tract. This membrane in the stomach is
thick, smooth, soft and velvety. When the stomach is empty it
lies in folds, or ruga. When the stomach is full these folds are

-4*

628

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

obliterated. When the mucous membrane of the stomach is
examined by a magnifying-glass, it presents a peculiar honey-
combed appearance, which is due to the opening of the ducts
from little glands situated in and beneath the membrane. These
glands secrete an acid fluid known as the gastric juice, and a
certain substance known as pepsin, which, together, have the
power to dissolve a certain class of foods known as proteids,
presently to be described. The stomach has two openings, one
by which food is received from the gullet, or asop/tagus, and
called the cardiac orifice ; the other by which the contents of
the stomach are passed into the small intestine, and known as
the pyloric orifice, which is guarded by a kind of valve — the
pylorus.

Fig. a.

The Inteetines.

The intestines form one long convoluted tube with muscular
and mucous coats like the stomach, lie wholly within the
abdominal cavity, and are enveloped by the peritoneum. They
are divided into the small intestines and the large intestines,
the latter having a far greater diameter than the former. The
small intestine is about twenty feet long and divided into the
duodenum, the jejunum and the ilium. The lining mucous
membrane is thick, velvety, and full of blood vessels. It is
thrown into transverse folds, which are about two inches long,
and half an inch in depth in their broadest place, and are called
valvule conniventes. These folds are covered by a net-work
or tufts of capillary and lacteal vessels known as villi. These
are very numerous — the number in the whole length of the
intestines being estimated at four millions. In the upper part
of the duodenum empties the duct from the pancreas and the
bile duct from the liver, both of which organs secrete a digest-
ive fluid which, being poured into the duodenum, completes
the solution of the food received from the stomach.

The large intestine extends from the termination of the small
intestine to the outlet. It is about five feet in length. It
differs from the small intestine in its greater size, more fixed
position and its sacculated form. It is divided into the cecum.

the colon and the rectum. The caecum is a dilated pouch,
into which the ilium empties. It is situated on the right side
of the body in the lower part of the abdominal cavity. Con-
tinuous with this rises the colon. It passes upward on the right
side of the body, until it reaohes the under surface of the liver,
when it crosses transversely to the left side of the body, and
then descends. It is lined by mucous membrane, but its struc-
ture is not of sufficient importance to demand attention here.

1, 4, Liver; a, ligai,.«at of liver: j, gall-bladder ;
end of the oesophagus ; 7, stomach; 8, 10, omentum. 9. spleen;

5, diaphragm; 6, lower
m. o. spleen; ti. duo-
denum; 12, 12. small intestine; 13, caecum; 14. ensiform appendix; 15.
15, transverse colon; 16, descending colon; 17, urinary bladder.

The Liver.
The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing from
three to four pounds. It belongs to the digestive apparatus its
faction being chiefly the secretion of bile ; still it undoubtedly
effects important changes in the blood during its passage through
the gland. It is placed in the abdominal cavity, on the right
side of the body, on a level with the lower ribs. Its upper
surface is in contact with the diaphragm, which separates the
liver frcm the right lung. It measures, from side t.> side, ten to
eleven inches ; from before backwards, six to seven inches, and
is about three inches thick in its thickest part. It is held in
place by strung ligament-,, and is covered by the same serous
membrane, the peritoneum, which covers the stomach and other
abdominal organs. The liver is made up of hepatic or liver
cells, whose function it is to secrete the bile, and of a substance
known as glycogen, which will be spoken of again. The Hie
or gall is a compound fluid of golden yellow color, and very

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

629

bitter in taste, and the total quantity secreted in twenty-four
hours is probably not less than two or three pounds. It is
both a secretion, i.e., an essential digestive fluid, and an
excretion, i.e., contains elements of waste — the ashes, so to
speak, of oxidized tissues, which, being emptied into the intes-
tines, are carried out of the body.

The Pancreas.

The pancreas is very similar in structure to the salivary
glands. It is placed in the abdominal cavity beneath the
stomach, and extends from the duodenum on the right to
the spleen on the left. The pancreas is oblong in shape,
and larger at one end than the other. The larger end, known
as the head, is in contact with the duodenum, gently tapering to
the left as it approaches the spleen, into what is called the
tail. The entire gland is about six or seven inches long, an
inch and a half broad, and three-quarters of an inch thick, and
averages three ounces in weight. The pancreas secretes a
digestive fluid very similar to the saliva, which empties into the
duodenum through an orifice in common with the bile from the
gall-bladder.

The Process of Digestion.

When the stomach is empty the lining membrane is pale,
the blood-vessels contracted, and the stomach glands secreting
scarcely more than enough fluid to moisten the surface. As
soon, however, as food is taken into the stomach, the nerves of
the part are stimulated to activity, the blood-vessels dilate, the
mucous membrane becomes red, and little drops of fluid begin
to appear at the mouths of a thousand little glands and run
down as gastric juice. The presence of food in the stomach
sets up a contraction of its walls, which rolls the food about,
not unlike cream in a churn, until the digestive or dissolving
fluid becomes thoroughly incorporated with the food. We
have seen that saliva has the power of acting upon starchy
foods, converting the starch into sugar, but has no power to
dissolve that class of foods essential to life and known as vital
food-stuffs — proteids. Among the proteids may be mentioned
the gluten, albumen, fibrin, syntonin, casein, etc., which are
the chief food constituents of bread, eggs, meat, cheese and
milk. Now the gastric juice has the power of dissolving 'these
articles of food at the temperature of about 100 degrees, or
that to which the food is raised in the stomach. The motion
of the food in the stomach has no other value than to thor-
oughly mix it with the digestive fluid. When the proteids,
whether from meat, or bread, or eggs, or cheese, are dissolved,
we have a substance known as peptones. Peptones are readily
absorbed and taken into the current of the blood. Still there
are many articles of food that are not dissolved in the stomach.
As soon as the starch-foods, or amyloids, become incorporated
with acid fluid of the stomach, the solution which has begun
by the alkaline saliva ceases, and these starchy foods pass out
of the stomach unchanged. The fats, too, are not digested in
the stomach ; neither is the solution of proteids — bread, meat,
cheese, etc. — completed in the stomach. A large part of the
peptones are absorbed by the stomach and taken into the cur-
rent of the blood. The remaining contents, the starches, fats,
and half-dissolved proteids, are permitted slowly to flow out of
the stomach through the pyloric orifice into the duodenum.

Here it mixes with the bile from the liver, which has been saved
up in a little reservoir, the gall-bladder, for this purpose, and
with the fluid from the pancreas, and with the juice from the
intestinal glands, which together have the power of digesting
the starchy foods, breaking up the fats into an emulsion (or
held in suspension, as butter is in new milk before it is churned)
and completing the solution of the proteids, so that here all
the starch of the vegetables we eat is converted into a peculiar
sugar known as grape sugar ; all the butter, fats and oils made
into an emulsion ; all the gluten, and syntonin, and casein, and
albumen of the bread, and meat, and milk, and cheese, and
eggs which we eat is converted into peptones. Now this grape
sugtr, and the emulsions, and the peptones, are very readily
absorbed by the millions of villi, or the velvety little tufts of
blood-vessels and lacteals which cover the folds on the intes-
tinal mucous membrane. Those parts of the food unfit for the
use of the body, or which are not needed, are passed along into
the large intestine, and finally carried out of the body.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

We have seen how perfect is the machinery for the elabora-
tion of our food, and the many processes through which it goes,
by which it is rendered fit to be taken into the current of the
blood to rebuild the wonderful organs of man's mechanism and
to restore the tissues which have been burned up in the produc-
tion of power necessary in work, and in the production of animal
heat, which is essential to life. More than this, man is supplied
with every desirable means of testing the kind and quality of his
food before it is introduced into this wonderful laboratory. To
digest the stone of a peach would be impossible ; such things,
taken into the stomach, could not result otherwise than in death.
The pit is taken into the hand, or tried between the teeth, and,
perceiving its hardness, it is rejected, even by a starving idiot, as
unfit for food. Two wonderful faculties is man possessed of
necessary to the proper inspection of food — the sense of smell
and the sense of taste. The aroma and flavor of substances fit
for food he is made to like ; while the odor and taste of sub-
stances unfit for food and harmful to the body are made disa-
greeable, nauseous, or even disgusting to him. Tainted meat,
or decomposing eggs, would be most harmful taken into the
stomach. Hence, such articles are promptly rejected by the
official inspectors — smell and taste. Certain harmful substances
may fail of detection, either by sight, or smell, or taste, or any
of the senses a part of whose function is to inspect the food, and
therefore, as in the case of certain poisons, be taken into the
stomach. But even in the stomach there seems to reside a
sense of the fitness of things, and the poison is, by the act of
vomiting, immediately rejected. If any part of an offending
substance is carried into the duodenum, an action is there imme-
diately set up to hurry it out of the body. Nothing could be
more perfect than this system of inspection and elaboration of
the food. Nothing further in this direction could be desired, so
long as the apparatus of this wonderful laboratory continues in
good repair — in other words, so long as the organs remain in
health. Every organ and tissue in the body is liable to get out
of repair. Whenever any organ fails to do its work or shows
any defect, we say it is diseased.

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I HVSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

Mumps.
Parotitis, or Mitmps, is an inflammation of the parotid
gland — that one of the salivary glands which is situated in
front of and below the car. While the swelling and soreness
are local, the disease is evidently constitutional. The amount
of swelling, soreness and pain varies in different cases. There
is usually considerable pain, particularly upon moving the jaw.
The swelling may be limited to one side, or both sides may be
involved. When both sides are affected, usually one side is
invaded a day or two in advance of the other. It is commonly
believed to be contagious, although some high authorities deny
this. Whether it may be communicated from one person to
another or not, it is sometimes, at least, endemic. Persons
between 18 and 30 years of age are most susceptible to the dis-
ease. It never occurs but once in the same person. The
disease is usually trivial and never dangerous. No physician
is needed — the popular fear of taking cold is groundless. If
the pain is severe, the patient will do well to lie down and
keep quiet. Hot fomentations may be applied to the swelling,
and twenty drops of laudanum may be taken once in three or
four hours to relieve the pain.

Acute Tonsilitis — Quinsy.

Quinsy, or Tonsilitis, is an inflammation of the tonsil.
One or both tonsils may be involved. It is a very distressing
and painful disease, and swallowing is rendered very difficult by
the great swelling of the tonsils, which often apparently quite
closes the opening into the pharynx. The affection, however,
is not dangerous. It usually ends in an abscess, which breaks
upon the inside. There is a predisposition to the disease in
some persons, who suffer from repeated attacks. An attack is
sometimes caused by exposure to cold. Persons predisposed to the
disease should have the tonsils removed, as should be done in all
persons with permanentlyenlarged tonsils. A perfect instrument
is made especially for this purpose. The removal of a tonsil
is but the work of a moment on the part of the surgeon. The
operation is attended with scarcely any pain, the wound is alto-
gether trivial, and a permanent cure is effected and the patient
relieved from a constant source of discomfort. During an
acute case of tonsilitis, or quinsy, the patient should remain in
bed ; poultices, or flannels wrung out of hot water, may be
applied to the throat ; steam may be inhaled, and a gargle of a
saturated solution of chlorate of potassium in water may be
used. In addition, the following prescription will be found of
great use :

Quinine, 24 grains.

Morphine, ..... 1 grain.

Make six powders. Take one every four hours.

Acute Pharyngitis— Sore Throat— Cold.
Acute Pharyngitis is an acute inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the pharynx, and is one form of a cold. On
looking into the throat the membrane is found to be red and
inflamed. If it extends deep into the pharynx there will be a
cough, which is not in any way husky, showing that the larynx
is not affected. There is considerable soreness and pain when
an attempt is made to swallow, and very often there is a

white exudation, both in the throat and on the tonsils, which
are usually more or less inflamed. These white points often
lead to mistaking the disease for diphtheria. The affection is
often attended with considerable fever. The duration of the
disease is from five to ten days. The treatment recommended
for quinsy should be employed.

Chronic Granular Pharyngitis — Clergyman's Sore
Throat.

Chronic Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the pharynx of long standing. It frequently exists
without the patient making any complaint. There is usually,
however, a dry, hacking cough, which is increased by fatigue
or mental depression, and the voice frequently becomes hoarse
from speaking. It is a disease of middle life, is much more
common in men than women, and from the annoyance it occas-
ions clergymen it has received the name of clergyman's sort
throat. It occurs no more frequently among clergymen than
other persons, but, because of the necessity for using the
voice, it occasions them more inconvenience. The disease is
not dangerous and has no tendency to run into consumption or
any other disease. Still it is apt to persist for many years, and
is very difficult to cure. The following prescription will do
good, and, with proper hygienic care, may produce a cure.
Iodide of potassium, - - - 4 drams.
Bromide of potassium, - - - 1 ounce.
Compound tincture of gentian, - 6 ounces.

Dose. — One teaspoonful in a wine-glass of water three times
a day after meals.

The above should be continued for a long time. Quinine in
two-grain doses may be taken three times a day. Outdoor
exercise should be taken ; relaxation from mental labor, together
with recreation and good living, will be found of the greatest
benefit. If the patient is dyspeptic, particularly, he should
abandon the starvation brown-bread diet, and demonstrate his
ability to live as other men do, upon a generous diet such as
his appetite craves. Let the variety of food taken be as great
as possible.

Dyspepsia.

AcfTE Dyspepsia — commonly called a bilious attack, or fit
of indigestion — is a disorder of short duration. It begins by a
sense of weight and fulness, and of pain in the region of the
stomach ; nausea and vomiting often occur, and later there may
be adiarrhcea. There is generally slight fever and considerable
pain in the head.

Sick Headache is an acute dyspepsia, differing from the
above only in the more frequent occurrence of vomiting and
severe headache. The vomited matters usually contain bile,
and the patient is commonly described as bilious. The disease
is commonly held by physicians to be an affection of the mucous
membrane of the stomach, while it is by good authority also
claimed to be of nervous origin. Whatever the original cause,
acute indigestion is the result, and the evacuation of the
stomach and bowels is the way of relief. One or tw.
pound cathartic pills may be given after the first occurrence of
vomiting. Strict rest in bed must be required. The writer has

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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

63I

found the following prescription, after vomiting has occurred,
to be of the utmost service in numerous cases :

Hydrate of chloral, - - - 15 grains.

Sulphate of morphia, - - - l /% grain.
Dissolve in a wine-glass of water, and take at one dose. If
the patient does not find rest and sleep in one hour, repeat
the prescription.

Sometimes it is better to give 20 grains of chloral at the first
dose. Often such treatment will afford the patient from five to
eight hours' sleep ; he then awakes free from headache and
nausea. The disease sometimes appears to be hereditary,
several members of the same family being subject to frequent
attacks. It is a disease of early adult and middle life, usually
disappearing after 40 years of age.

Dyspepsia — a chronic- affection — is characterized by dis-
tention of the stomach and bowels by gas, and consequent
uneasiness and pain, with an oppressive sense of fulness ; fre-
quent regurgitations of fluid from the stomach which has either
a salty, insipid or acid taste. Sometimes it is acrid and
intensely disagreeable. This regurgitation is commonly known
as water-brash. This condition is not unfrequently attended
with a burning, painful sensation at a point where the oesopha-
gus opens into the stomach, extending upward along the course
of the cesophagus — a symptom commonly called heart-burn.
Constipation is also generally present. Vomiting is rare. The
gas in the stomach and bowels may be derived in large part from
the fermentation qf undigested food, but it is certain that in many
cases it has its origin in a disordered state of the nervous
system. Dyspepsia is attended with depression of spirits.
This is greatest when the stomach and bowels are most dis-
tended by gas, and is never seen, I believe, unless accompanied
by more or less distention. This state of depression, carried
beyond a certain point, eventuates in a form of mental aberration
known as hypocondriasis (vulgarly called hypo), or even
melancholia. We have in mind a night-watch in a public hos-
pital, who was subject to attacks of rapid accumulation of gas in
stomach and bowels, attended with considerable pain. Not-
withstanding the frequency of the attacks and the always happy
termination within an hour or two, his memory and experience
seemed of little use. He always believed that he was within a
few minutes of death, and that the Lord had made this special
visitation upon him as a punishment for his sins (although he
was not noted for this sort of religious faith at other times),
which he would proceed to contess, and which were ridiculous
trivialities : he had failed to be polite to some one, or he had
reported some employe for neglect of duty, or some other
equally trivial fault, or even a virtue, which at these times he
would distort into a fault. He was no coward, but a brave,
courageous and sensible young man. As soon as the pain and
distention was relieved, these melancholy delusions appeared as
ridiculous to him as to his physician, although the experience
was of no possible aid to his reason on the next occasion.

Prof. Austin Flint, of New York, is authority for the state-
ment that " in a large proportion of cases, dyspepsia originates
and is perpetuated by mental causes. It is induced and kept up
by anxiety and depression. In the first place it is produced by
mental causes, and then the dyspepsia reacts upon the mind,

increasing its morbid condition. Most cases show the affection
to have been preceded by mental inquietude of some sort. Per-
sons who are constantly anxious about something, such as
acquiring success in life, getting out of debt, securing independ-
ent positions, or imaginary troubles, are those who are prone to
the disease. The disease is most frequent from early adult to
middle life, during the time when anxieties are greatest."

The Treatment. — The scope of this article will not permit
more than to indicate the general character of the treatment to
be employed. First, attention should be given to the mind.
The patient should be made to understand that his gloomy fore-
boding regarding his health has no foundation in fact ; that his
anxiety constitutes his dyspepsia, and that there is not another
such a father of " the blues " as " wind on the stomach. " Exer-
cise is a good thing, but if ordered to take it at stated times
without any other purpose than treatment, it will fail of its best
results by keeping the mind of the patient upon himself and
his dyspepsia. He should have a change of scene — should go
where new objects will engage his attention and take possession
of his mind. Nothing is better than foreign travel. Objects
of interest engage his mind, and he forgets nimself. He finds it
impossible to stick to his brown bread and limited variety of foods
(which he has had cooked in a particular way for years, perhaps,
under the delusion that he could not live if he should dare to
go beyond his self-imposed restrictions), for it is not to be
obtained. By his exercise and cheerful interest in what is
novel to him, he becomes hungry and indulges freely in the
variety of table fares which he finds at the various hotels, and
he soon learns that he suffers no inconvenience from whatever
he chooses to eat, so that often a few months' travel is sufficient
to permanently dispel the delusions and cure the most chronic
case of years' standing.

There is no more prevalent American fallacy than the notion
that one should not sleep soon after eating — the notion that,
no matter how hungry one may be, he must not eat before
retiring. This notion is not held by any other nation in the
world, and how it became so prevalent here, it is difficult to
account for. Those people who eat the largest meal at from
7 to 9 o'clock in the evening, and perhaps take a luncheon the
last thing before retiring, and who require, consequently, a
very light breakfast, are far less frequently attacked by dys-
pepsia than those who exercise after eating.

As regards diet, the patient should take in sufficient quantities
and great variety all kinds of nutritious food. Milk and nice,
tender meats of all sorts should particularly be largely eaten.
Pastry, sweets and sugars had better be discarded. Ripe fruit
is very useful, and generally any article which the appetite
craves — roast pork, or oysters, or melons, or even the infamous
cucumber, if called for by the appetite — will do good and not
harm.

Medicinal remedies are useful in relieving some of the symp-
toms. The regurgitation of fluid from the stomach, -Mater-
brash, and the heart-burn, may be relieved by moderate doses
of subnitrate of bismuth.

The distention by gas and the constipation are best relieved
by an enema, which should be retained for fifteen or twenty
minutes. The patient should drink a great deal of fluid — milk
and water. Water should be taken in large quantity between

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632

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

meals — not until an hour after or half an hour before meals.
A movement of the bowels every morning should be sought
directly after breakfast. Every effort should be made to induce
this habit. A glass of cold water directly upon rising will be
useful in this regard. A general tonic will be found most use-
ful, and should be occasionally changed for another. Among
the best may be mentioned quinine, in two-grain doses ; com-
pound tincture of gentian, in teaspoonful doses, and tincture
of nux vomica, in fifteen-drop doses.

Polyphagia — Excessive Appetite — Gluttony.

Polyphagia is characterized by a voracious appetite, and the
ingestion of enormous quantities of food beyond the demands
of the system. Sometimes the capacity of digestion is increased
in these cases, which leads to excessive accumulations of fat,
and to fatty degeneration of the heart and other organs. In
the sense in which the term is used, it implies a disease. It is
sometimes observed in cases of mental derangement. The
excessive craving for food may be diminished by the use of
opium in some form. Recovery is to be expected.

Polydipsia — Excessive Thirst.

Polydipsia is a very rare disease It consists in an excessive
craving for the imbibition of enormous quantities of water.
The quantity of urine voided is proportionately great, is pale
and limpid, with nearly the specific gravity of distilled water.
It contains no sugar or other abnormal constituents. There is
no other evidence of disease. The patient drinks several gal-
lons of water daily. A young man, a patient in a public asylum,
in excellent physical health, developed this curious affection.
As soon as the fact was discovered, an investigation was made
by confining him to his room, where he was permitted to have
all the water he desired, all of which was carefully measured to
him. Tile amount drunk during the day was fourteen quarts.
The urine voided during the same time was also measured, and
corresponded precisely to the water drunk— -fourteen quarts.
The next day he was permitted to have only a pint and a half
of fluid — half a pint with each meal. The third day he was
also restricted to a pint and a half of fluid, and the urine
voided during the third day was precisely the same as the water
taken — a pint and a half. Recovery in this case was com-
plete, without other treatment than restriction in the amount
of water drunk. The symptoms shown during the excessive
water-drinking were indifference and excessive laziness. Now,
after three years, there has been no recurrence of the symp-
toms.

Dipsomania.

Dipsomania is the term used to express a morbid craving
for alcoholic stimulants. The habit maybe developed through
dyspepsia or other disease of the digestive system. We have in
mind a pitiable case of a lady who developed the habit through
efforts to get relief from a distress which afterwards proved to
have been caused by a tape-worm. The desire for drink in
some of these cases assumes the nature of the delusions of
insanity. In such cases it is useless to reason with the patient,
and the only certain hope of relief is by placing the patient in
some institution, where stimulants will be withheld and suitable
medicinal and hygienic treatment can be enforced. The patient

should reside in such an institution long enough to have the
physical health fully restored and the morbid appetite quite
fully overcome.

Inanition — Starvation.
Inanition. — To preserve the health and strength it U abso-
lutely necessary that food should be supplied in generous
quantity and variety. There is no one article of food which
contains all those principles which are necessary to the perfect
nutrition of the body ; and among the first organs to suffer for
lack of proper nutrition are the organs of digestion. Every
one knows the pain and exhaustion produced by a single day's
abstinence from food. Especially is this excessive if work has
been necessary in addition to the abstinence from food. Now,
we have very little to do with cases of famine, or starvation by
shipwreck. If our assistance could be made available in such
cases, we should not need to seek the advice of a physician ;
but the first move of the best informed as well as the most
obtuse person would be to supply proper food. How differently
even the best informed often treat the sick of their own
families, not knowing what is best to do. In a fever of what-
ever kind, the tissues are being far more rapidly oxidized or
burned up than in health, as evidenced by the great heat of the
body and the rapid loss of weight. Under such circumstances,
the patient, to keep up the loss, really requires more food than
in health, and yet how often he is deprived of food entirely for
days together, with the idea of "starving a fever." It is the
patient, and not the fever, that is being starved. The tissues of
the body are being rapidly consumed, arid if food is not
furnished to rebuild these tissues, the patient must die from
exhaustion. If a well person even were put to bed, and there
kept practically without food, and scarcely permitted water, for
three or four weeks, as many typhoid- fever patients are, a very
large proportion of them would die, and it would be plain that
such a person had been starved to death. Many a fever patient
has been starved to death who is said to have died from fever.
Many a dyspeptic continues ill for years because he restricts
himself ignorantly to too small a quantity or to too small a
variety of food. Patients with cancer of the stomach, or ulcer
of the stomach, or chronic diarrhoea or dysentery, and many
other diseases of the digestive organs, generally die of starva-
tion. The prime object, then, in all such diseases, is to supply
such food as can be digested and taken into the blood, in the
greatest possible variety, and in such quantities as will repair
the waste by disease. Either an insufficient quantity or variety
of food is certain to be followed by disease. Disease and pesti-
lence always follow famine. Certain diseases, as scorbutus
(scurvy), are developed for want of variety of food.

Gastritis— Inflammation of the Stomach.
Acute Gastritis is a very rare affection. It seldom occurs
except as the result of a wound or of some corrosive poison.
Pain is intense ; thirst is excessive ; vomiting is frequent and
very distressing. The vomited matters are at first of a greenish
color ; but if life is prolonged, in fatal cases, the vomited matters
are black, with the appearance of coffee grounds. The surface
is cold, and prostration is extreme. Besides poisons, the taking
of Urge quantities of alcoholic stimulants without food may act
as the cause of an attack. Death, in fatal cases, takes place in

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

6 33

£.

from a few hours to a few days. Cases of this disease are so
grave that a physician is always promptly called. The treat-
ment will therefore best be left to his advice. When the cause
is by a corrosive poison, the proper treatment will be found
under the head of poisons.

Subacute Gastritis, or catarrhal inflammation of the
stomach, is much more frequent in infants than in adults. When
it occurs in adults, appetite is impaired or lost ; nausea and
vomiting are very likely to occur ; sometimes it is a very severe
and persistent symptom. Thirst is very great, and cold water
is craved. Headache is usually very great, and weakness and
exhaustion keep the patient in bed. Many of the symptoms are
identical with the disease already spoken of under the heads of
acute dyspepsia and sick headache. The most prominent dis-
tinction is found in the duration of the attack, subacute gastritis
continuing for from one to three weeks. The termination is
almost always favorable ; only very rarely, and in the most
severe cases, when the symptoms approach those of acute
gastritis, is there any cause for alarm concerning the termination
of the case. The cause of the disease is not always clear.
Among adults, those addicted to intoxicating beverages are
especially liable to it.

Treatment. — The patient may, for a few days, be restricted
to a milk diet. If the stomach is intolerant of food, enemas of
milk may be given, half a pint at a time, and as often as once
in three or four hours, until the condition of the stomach has
improved. Small pieces of ice may be swallowed to relieve the
thirst and the nausea. The following prescription will perhaps
prove the most useful of any that could be taken to relieve the
pain and vomiting :

Subnitrate of bismuth, - - - i dram.
Sulphate of morphine, - - - iyi grains.

Make eight powders. Give one powder as often as necessary
to relieve pain.

Neither emetics, cathartics nor laxatives should be used. If
constipation exists, an enema or injection of warm water should
be used to produce an evacuation.

Chronic Gastritis is a chronic inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the stomach. It is sometimes very difficult to
distinguish between chronic gastritis and the functional disease
dyspepsia. If there is great thirst, tenderness and soreness at
all times over the stomach, loss of weight, occasional vomiting,
the symptoms point to gastritis rather than to dyspepsia, in
which none of 'the above symptoms are prominent.

Many causes lead to the disease. Insufficient food is perhaps
the most frequent cause.

Persons suffering from functional dyspepsia brought about by
a nervous condition due to anxiety or depression, may, by limiting
the quantity and variety of the food, bring about a real inflam-
mation of the coats of the stomach. Remember that harm
is always the result of severe so-called " dieting," that is, limit-
ing the food taken to an insufficient quantity and small variety.

Another and almost as frequent a cause is, as in the subacute
variety, the use of alcoholic stimulants. It is also caused by
the continued use of arsenic, taken sometimes as a medicine,
but more often to improve the complexion. Disease of the
liver, by causing congestion of the stomach, also acts as a cause.

Treatment. — The food be'st adapted in cases of this sort is
millc, bread, butter and eggs, beef extract, rice, corn-starch, etc.
A change of scene, fair exercise, and recreation for the mind,
are in the direction of the best results. As regards medicine,
nothing can be better than the treatment recommended in
dyspeysia.

Ulcer of the Stomach.

GASTRIC Ulcer is a. tolerably frequent disease. It is also a
disease of gravity and danger.- The ulcer is of two kinds. One,
known as the perforating ulcer, is small and deep, and affects
chiefly young people — girls and young women with much
greater frequency than young men. It is said that servant-
girls are more often afflicted by this form of ulcer than others,
although I can see no reason for this and doubt the fact. The
other form is larger and not so deep. It may be as large as a
silver dollar, or even larger, and people of middle age are more
often the subjects.

The prominent symptoms are pain directly after eating, local
tenderness on pressure, vomiting after eating, and hemorrhage
or bleeding into the stomach. If blood is poured out into the
stomach it is very likely to be vomited. If it is not vomited
immediately it is turned black by the action of the gastric juice.
From the fact that the matter vomited is Hack, without further
examination it can be almost certainly relied upon as being
blood. If vomited immediately that hemorrhage takes place,
it will have the red color of blood. If the above symptoms
occur in a young person, it is almost certain that ulcer of the
stomach is the cause. Hemorrhage may take place into the
stomach, however, without causing vomiting. But even with-
out this proof, the other symptoms are usually sufficiently clear
to render an opinion upon. In case of ulcer, pain occurs im-
mediately upon introducing food into the stomach. In other
stomach diseases (with the exception of cancer) the pain does
not occur until some time later. If any considerable bleeding
takes place and is not vomited, the patient shows the fact by
weakness, paleness, prostration, thirst, and a peculiar throb-
bing of the arteries in the neck, caused by being only half
filled with blood at each pulsation. If the patient is young
we may be absolutely certain that the ulcer is not a cancer of
the stomach (which, in many respects, has the same symp-
toms), for canoer rarely happens in young people. If the
patient is of middle age, then we may not be able to decide the
case at once, although the peculiar symptoms as regards the
appearance, in addition to peculiarities in the character of the
pain in a patient suffering from cancer, are usually sufficient to
render an opinion tolerably safe.

In fatal cases death takes place by different ways. It some-
times happens that the vomiting of blood is the first symptom
pointing to the disease. Hemorrhage sometimes is so great as
to cause death. By the ulceration af a blood-vessel of consid-
erable size, the patient bleeds to death. Another cause of
death is by the ulcer perforating the walls of the stomach, thus
permitting some of the contents of the stomach to escape into
the abdominal cavity, and thus setting up an inflammation of
the lining membrane of the abdomen {peritonitis, a very pain-
ful fever), which, when produced by this cause, speedily results
in death. The other way in which gastric or stomach ulcer
causes death is by inanition, or starvation. When food is

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634

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

vomited as soon as taken, day after clay and week after week,
the patient rapidly loses weight, and if nutrition is not sup-
plied in some other way, soon dies for want of food.

Treatment. — To stop hemorrhage, pieces of ice may be given
to the patient to swallow, and cold may be applied over the
stomach. If perforation takes place, nothing can be done. If
vomiting is persistent, it is well not to give the patient any food
by stomach, but give enemas of half a pint of good rich milk,
beef-tea or mutton broth, and the white of eggs beaten up with
the milk. This is for the purpose of giving the stomach a rest,
and the ulcer, being thus left free from irritation, a chance to
heal. This method of feeding has, in some cases, been kept up
for two or three months at a time, with the best results.

Morphine and bismuth may be given, to relieve pain and
vomiting. If food is given by stomach, it should consist princi-
pally of milk.

Cathartics or laxatives should never be given by stomach. If
at all, they should be given by enema. Usually enemas of
water are all that will be required.

Cancer of the Stomach.

Cancer of the Stomach is not a frequent disease. Sim-
ple ulcer of the stomach is far more common. Perhaps or.e-
third of all cancers are of the stomach. The disease rarely oc-
curs before forty years of age. It is most common between fifty
and sixty. It is twice as common in men as in women. Some-
times there is considerable difficulty in finding out what is the
matter. There is usually loss of appetite and loss of flesh, with
weakness and exhaustion. There is pain in the stomach,
which is increased after meals, and frequently vomiting also.
Often there is a peculiar yellow complexion, which points to
cancer as the cause. If these symptoms should occur in a young
person, simple ulcer of the stomach is more probable. Some-
times a tumor can be felt through the abdominal walls over the
stomach. If this can be done, and the other symptoms are
present, there can scarcely be two opinions in the case. The
loss of appetite, the cutting pains, the vomiting, the black, cof-
fee-grounds-appearing substance (blood acted upon by gastric-
juice) in the vomited matter, indicate that the trouble is not
dyspepsia. The pain of cancer is " cutting. " Of simple ulcer
it is described as " burning " or " gnawing. "

The pain in cancer is more constant, while in ulcer it occurs
more particularly after eating ; vomiting more immediately
after eating in simple ulcer. Hemorrhage is more frequent
and greater in amount in ulcer than in cancer. A tumor is
never found in simple ulcer, and is often to be found in case of
cancer of the stomach. These things, taken in connection
with the history of the case, are usually sufficient to decide the
case.

Treatment. — There is no treatment that is of any avail in
curing the disease. Remedies may be given to relieve pain,
and life may be prolonged by careful attention to the nutrition
of the patient.

Diairhcea.
DlARRH<EA is an affection of the small intestines, and is due
ny different causes. It may be temporary, lasting but
for a few hours, or it may be chronic, lasting for months. It

may be caused by any trivial thing, as a slight change in the
weather or some temporary indigestion, or may be a symptom
of some grave or chronic disease, as typhoid fever, consump-
tion or intestinal catarrh. The»e is one type which is prob-
ably due to disease of the pancreas, in which fat, in appear-
ance like melted butter, is evacuated, which upon cooling over
the stool gives it the appearance of being mostly fat. ThU
form is of considerable gravity, and often proves fatal.

Diarrhcea occurs most frequently during the summer months.
In September, when the weather suddenly becomes cooler,
there are always a large number of cases.

Treatment. — If in the beginning of a diarrhcea Ae bowels
are freely evacuated by some mild cathartic, nothing further it
generally required. For this purpose a small dose of salts, or
what is better, castor oil, may be taken. If the diarrhcea con-
tinues, twenty-five drops of laudanum may be taken every
three to six hours. Or instead, five-grain doses of Dover's
powder, or a sixth of a grain of morphine.

In case of chronic diarrhoea, more dependence for a cure
must be had upon suitable diet. Those articles should be
eaten which are principally or wholly digested in the stomach,
and not those which are digested in the small intestine. Ten-
der meats of all sorts are best digested ; milk may be taken also,
and ripe fruits. Vegetables generally should not be eaten.
The food should be taken frequently, and a small amount at a
time. If the patient lives in the city, a change should be made
to the country. A malarious district should be avoided, and
care should be taken as to dress. Woolen should be worn
next the person at all seasons. Rest in bed is useful Tonics
should be taken — among the best are iron and quinine. Fif-
teen or twenty drops of laudanum may be taken when required
to check the diarrhcea.

Summer Complaint.
Diarrhoea occurring in young children, and prevailing during
the warm season, is known as summer complaint. It is com-
mon during teething, and may begin in an acute attack of
cholera infantum. It is a cause of great mortality among lit-
tle children. In the large cities during certain months fully
one-half of the deaths are due to this cause. The little pat ient
should l>e removed to the country if possible. A spot should
be selected that is free from malaria, that is cool and dry.
Pure, fresh, sweet milk, together with lean, tender meats,
rare done, or raw tender beef chopped fine and seasoned to
taste, should be fed the chiML Tonics may be given, and from
twenty to sixty drops (according to the age of the child and
severity of the diarrhcea) of the camphorated tincture of
opium (paregoric) may be given every few hours. Food
should be taken often, and a small amount at a time.

Enteritis — Inflammation of the Small Intestine.
i RITIS, either acute or subacute, is very rare after the
age of infancy. The diagnosis is not always clear, but diar-
rhoea is always a sympton, and is generally in children classed
under summer complaint or cholera infantum. TTie treat-
ment advised under these heads should be employed. When
occurring in adults, rest in bed is to be strictly enjoined, hot
poultices or hot water dressing over the abdomen may be used.

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINK.

6 35

and opium in some shape, laudanum or morphine, is to be
given, together with quinine.

Dysentery — Inflammation of the Large Intestine.
Acute Dysentery, or ''flux," occurs in single, isolated
cases, and as an epidemic. The disease is more frequent in hot
than in temperate or cold climates. It is more common in the
summer or fall than at other seasons. The inflammation is
confined to the large intestine, and in many cases affects only a
very small portion of it. The isolated cases usually end in
recovery, although death sometimes results in the most severe
cases. The epidemic variety, commonly known as the bloody
flux, very frequently proves fatal.

The disease usually begins with loose passages having the
appearance of an ordinary diarrhoea, but within a short time
the character of the evacuations changes, showing a large
amount of mucus, commonly spoken of as slime. Following
this, very dark evacuations frequently take place, the color being
due to blood, the red color of the blood being changed to
black by the contents of the intestine. There is considerable
griping and pain with a constant desire (called by physicians
tenesmus) to evacuate the bowels. There is more or less fever
and weakness. Vomiting is also common.

In the epidemic variety the progress of the disease is much
more rapid. All of the symptoms are exaggerated. The quan-
tity of slime is more abundant ; blood in its red color is evacu-
ated, sometimes in considerable quantity. The fever is much
higher, and exhaustion and prostration are much more marked.
Death sometimes takes place within a few hours, and some-
times not until the third week. The great majority of cases
recover. The disease may occur at any age, but is most com-
mon from thirty to forty years.

Treatment. — A full dose of castor oil or salts may be admin-
istered in the beginning of the disease, to remove all offending
substances from the bowels. This is not to be repeated. The
treatment from this on consists in efforts to support the strength
of the patient and to limit the movements from the bowels.
The patient should be kept quiet in bed, and should restrain a
movement as long as possible. Meat broths and milk should
form the chief part of the diet. Vegetables should not be per-
mitted. Opium in some form, either as laudanum or mor-
phine, or Dover's powders, should be given after every move-
ment. It is well to introduce this medicine by injection or
suppository if it can be so retained ;' otherwise it must be taken
by stomach. If vomiting is present, efforts to relieve this must
be made, directions for which will be found in this article,
under its proper head. Quinine in four-grain doses should be
given to keep up the strength. In malarious districts espec-
ially is quinine imperatively called for. Stimulants, as brandy
or whisky or milk punch, should be given in all cases of great
prostration.

Chronic Dysentery rarely occurs except as it follows
acute dysentery. It is a very grave and. most intractable dis-
ease. It may be difficult to determine whether a given case is
chronic dysentery or chronic diarrhcea ; that is, whether the
inflammation is of the large or small intestine.

Treatment. — Enemas of warm water should be used after
each movement, and immediately returned, the object being to

keep free from irritating matter the ulcerated and inflamed
spots. Tonics must be given, and the diet should be most
nutritious, and contain as little waste as posiible to pass over
the diseased parts. Opium should not be used except when
especially indicated by pain, for the reason that it interferes
with the appetite. The tendency of the disease is to progress-
ive loss of appetite and flesh, and gradual decline, prostration,
apathy and death from exhaustion.

Constipation — Costiveness.

Constipation, or costiveness, may proceed from a variety
of causes. It is an affection of the large intestines, and is gen-
erally functional, i.e., it is not due to any organic change in
the part. It is a very frequent, and is generally not at all a seri-
ous affection, although it brings about great discomfort, and may
be the origin of dyspepsia, piles and various other troublesome
diseases. It occasions headache, dulness of mind, palpitation
of the heart, accumulation of gas in the stomach and intestines,
colic pains, and sometimes diarrhcea. Severe straining may
produce great harm. Blood-vessels in the brain have been rup-
tured, and protrusion of the rectum has been occasioned by it.

It is caused most frequently by neglect to attend to the calls
of nature when it is demanded, and both the sensation and de-
sire after a time subside. It may be twelve or twenty-four
hours before the call is repeated. Again it may be ignored,
and again subside. In this way a habit is formed which
becomes very troublesome, destroys one's comfort, and fre-
quently, by interfering with digestion, undermines the general
health. This habit of neglecting the calls of nature is brought
about chiefly by two causes : the mind may be occupied and
the patient driven with work. He will not take the time either
to eat properly, or to visit the closet. But the far more fre-
quent cause, in my opinion, especially in the country, is the
neglect of people to provide themselves with comfortable
closets, and sometimes not even uncomfortable out-houses. In
winter, when the thermometer is from five to forty degrees
below zero, with deep snow-drifts, and the wind blowing a gale,
a trip to a stable, or to a cold out -house, through the cracks of
which the wind drives a freezing blast, is indeed a dreaded
experience. To bare oneself in such cold, and perhaps stop
the wind out of the privy with a portion of one's anatomy, is
not an experience that seeks frequent repetition. Again, when
it rains in spring and fall,, there is a dread of going out into the
storm. And in summer the stench from the privy vault is
often so offensive as to deter frequent visits. Thus, by these
inconvenieces, people develop a habit of waiting as long as pos-
sible, frequently for days together, until a troublesome consti-
pation is developed, which may be very difficult to cure.

Treatment. — Attention should first be directed to a cure of
the bad habit of irregularity. The patient should go regu-
larly every morning after breakfast, and take plenty of time to
complete the act. Every house should have a comfortable
closet, free from bad smells. If in the country where there
are no sewers, and no closet is possible in the house, the privy
should be well built, the outside well boarded up and battened
and the inside lathed and plastered, so as to keep out the wind.
A wooden box should extend up through the privy and open
outside, so as to ventilate the vault, which should be often

6 3 6

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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. ,

cleaned out. A good board walk should extend from it to the
house ; then, if the house will keep an umbrella for rainy
weather, the comfort and health of the family will be greatly
enhanced, and the doctor's bills will be smaller.

Of course there are other causes, but, whatever they are, care
should be taken to remove or avoid them. If constipation is
only temporary, a laxative pill may be taken, or an enema of
water. If, however, it be habitual or chronic, other means
will have to be employed to cure it. The diet should be, in
good part, articles which leave a large residue of undigested
matter to be carried out of the body, such as vegetables,
salads, cabbage, greens ; or corn-bread, oat meal, cracked
wheat, etc. A glass of cold water taken fifteen or twenty
minutes before breakfast is often very useful. If medicines
be taken they should be taken in small doses and frequently
repeated, so as to bring about a regular habit. Free purga-
tion should never be sought ; much harm is done by it. A
small pill of aloes, or of aloes and strychnine, which may be
had at the drug stores, will be found very effective. One pill
should be taken every night ; sometimes one every night and'
morning may prove most effective.

Colic.

Colic, strictly speaking, is a functional affection of the
colon, characterized by spasmodic pains. It has, however, by
common usage, been made to apply generally to all severe spas-
modic pains in the abdomen. Thus it is applied to the pains
in certain inflammations, as peritonitis, enteritis and dysentery,
to the pain caused by the passage of gall-stones, and to that
caused by the passage of small stones from the kidney into the
bladder, as well as to certain neuralgias of the abdominal
organs, as that caused by lead-poisoning. So the distinctions
are made by prefixing a word, as flatulent, or wind colic ; cra-
pulous colic, or that caused by indigestion, as in cholera mor-
bus ; hepatic colic, caused by the passage of gall-stones; ne-
phritic colic, caused by passage of calculi from the kidney, and
lead colic, caused by lead-poisoning.

For treatment of the, colic of dysentery, peritonitis, cholera
morbus and cholera, as well as of the pain accompanying the
passage of stones from the gall-bladder and kidney, see the
proper heads as above.

The pain in colic is caused by spasm of the muscular coat of
the intestine. The object of treatment is to relieve thisspasm.
Some persons are subject to frequent attacks, which are brought
about by slight causes. Constipation is a frequent cause.

Treatment should first be directed to the relief of the pain.
Hot cloths placed over the abdomen, or cloths wrung out of
hot water, will aid, and will sometimes alone fully "relieve the
patient. Various hot and stimuluting drinks are useful, but
there is no remedy so absolutely certain of relief as some form
of opium. Twenty-five to forty drops of laudanum maybe
given every half hour to an adult, either by injection or by the
stomach, until relief is obtained. For children, a proportionate
dose. For infants and children under four years, paregoric is
safest. For adults, morphine may be given in quarter-grain
doses, every half hour until relieved. If the patient is consti-
pated, two or three compound cathartic pills may be taken, or

what is better, a large injection of warm water, so as to free
the bowels. This, in most instances, will complete the cure.

Lead Colic is caused by poisoning by lead. The lead mmy
be taken into the system by many different ways, without the
knowledge of the patient. Persons manufacturing paints or
working in shot-factories or other places where lead is used
may be poisoned. Painters are very liable to lead-poisoning.
Persons have been poisoned by sleeping in a newly-painted
room, or by using certain face-washes and hair-dyes which con-
tain lead, or by drinking water which has stood in lead pipes,
or beer or cider which has been for some time in contact with a
lead faucet, and by many accidental or intentional adulterations
of food. Lead-poisoning is manifested by various affections of
the nervous system, such as paralysis, as of the extensor muscles
of the hand, and neuralgias, of which colic, or neuralgia of the
intestines, is one.

The bowels are usually constipated. The pain is sometimes
dull and heavy, and sometimes sharp and cutting. It usually
comes on very gradually, beginning with slight pain, and grows
worse until it may become very severe. There is seldom entire
relief from pain, but there are periods of great increase, when
the paroxysms are excruciating. If not relieved by treatment,
the pain is likely to continue for days, and perhaps for weeks,
and attacks will frequently occur. Persons do not die from
lead colic, although they may from other effects of lead-poison-
ing. A blue line along the gums next the teeth is usually
present in these cases.

Treatment should first be given as in ordinary colic. When
the pain is relieved and the bowels moved, the following pre-
scription should be taken, which will produce a permanent
cure:

Iodide of potassium, - - - - i ounce.
Distilled water, ad. • • • I ounce.

Mix.

Dose: As directed.

The above is a saturated solution. Begin with five drops in
a wine-glass of water three times a day after meals, and increase
one drop each day until the patient is taking twenty-five to
thirty drops three times a day.

Cholera Morbus.

CHOLERA Morbus, or sporadic cholera, begins very suddenly
by vomiting and colic pains. This is followed by purging and
increase in pain and continued vomiting. The vomiting is
sometimes preceded by a sense of weight and uneasiness in the
stomach. If the vomiting and purging continue long, both
the vomited matters and the dejections become entirely fluid
and acrid. The skin is usually cool or cold ; cramps occur in
the legs and feet and in the abdominal muscles. During the
interims between vomiting and purging, the patient is greatly
prostrated and exhausted. The mouth is dry, and the patient
suffers from great thirst.

The disease is more frequent in the summer months, and is
more likely to occur at night than in the day-time. The
patient usually recovers.

Treatment. — There is but one remedy worthy of mention
in this disease, and that is opium in some shape. The injec-

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

6 37

tion of i. solution of morphia under the skin is the best way to
administer it. But none except physicians are possessed of the
necessary instrument for this purpose. Therefore, if the
method of administration given below should fail, by being
vomited or evacuated before an effect can be produced, a phy-
sician should be called.

Half a grain of morphia should be taken dry on the tongue
and dissolved in the mouth, and should be given directly after
vomiting. If this is rejected, the dose should be at once
repeated. If this is again rejected, it may again be repeated, or
from sixty to eighty drops of laudanum may be given in two
tablespoonfuls of water by injection. This should be given
directly after a movement of the bowels, so as to have time to
take effect before the next movement occurs. If this be
rejected, the injection should be repeated.

To relieve thirst, small pieces of ice may be taken into the
mouth, or a spoonful of water may be allowed every few min-
utes. Sometimes a very hot cup of tea, taken without milk or
sugar, acts well in relieving the vomiting. The body should
be wrapped in a warm blanket.

Cholera Infantum.

The affection treated of under this head is similar to the
cholera morbus of adults, except that it is applied to children
usually under two years of age. Unlike the disease in adults,
where recovery is almost certain, in children under two years
"it is frequently fatal. Indeed, cholera infantum, together with
the more chronic affection known as summer complaint, causes,
In the large cities of the United States, nearly one-half the
deaths during the hot season. Children of the poor living in
crowded tenement-houses are more liable to the disease than
others. Change of food, as in weaning, frequently acts as a
cause. Children brought up on a bottle are especially liable to
it. Doubtless poor, diluted, changed or soured milk is a cause.
The greatest care should be taken to obtain fresh and pure
milk for infants during these months. Unless there is urgent
need in the interest of the mother's health, a child should not
be weaned during the hot months.

The attack usually begins with vomiting and purging, which
acts are frequently repeated. The vomited matters and the
dejections are very fluid ; pain, prostration and cramps ensue ;
the body is cold. If the purging and vomiting can be arrested
recovery may quickly take place. If this cannot be controlled,
however, the child rapidly fails, suffers from thirst and pain
and prostration, aud in the course of two or three days goes
into collapse and dies. It may, however, become chronic, an
affection previously treated under the head of summer com-
plaint, when the child, in unfavorable cases, gradually fails,
becomes emaciated and dull, and finally dies of starvation.

'Treatment. — When an attack begins the babe should be
■wrapped in a warm shawl or blanket. Twenty to thirty drops
of paregoric should be given directly after vomiting. If it is
rejected the dose is to be repeated. If this is again rejected or
if relief does not follow, it is again to be repeated. Each time
it should be given directly after the act of purging. If purg-
ing is not so frequent the medicine is better given by injection.
Drinks of very warm, tea may be given ; let the tea be as hot

as can be well taken. A physician should be called if relief is
not soon obtained.

The treatment for the chronic form will be found under the
head of summer complaint.

Epidemic Cholera.
Epidemic or Asiatic Cholera is a disease which seems
to take its origin in India. There it exists sometimes in isolated
cases, and sometimes as an epidemic. Frequently it leaves its
native country, and makes trips over the entire civilized world,
following the highways of travel and commerce. It first occur-
red in the United States in 1832 ; again in 1834. Again it
took its origin in India in 1847, and reached this country in
1849, and prevailed herein 1850, '51 and '52. Beginning again
in India in 1864, it reached the United States in '66 and pre-
vailed somewhat in '67.

The pathology and cause of the disease are not well under-
stood. But this much is quite well established : That it has a
special cause, and that this special cause can be transported and
reproduced in places where the conditions are favorable to its
development — conditions similar to those where it first took its
origin. That this special cause may be rapidly developed under
conditions favorable to it ; that it may be destroyed by disin-
fectants, and that it suddenly becomes inert, inoperative.or is .
carried away by causes not understood. There are many well-
established facts concerning its communicability, which, how-
ever, are often apparently contradictory, and hence there are
few physicians who do not hold in reserve or doubt any opin-
ion which their experience has led them to entertain.

The introduction of cholera into New York in 1866 was not
traceable to any particular emigrant passenger, nor any particu-
lar lot of baggage or goods, nor to any particular ship ; but it
followed the arrival of infected ships into the harbor.

The first cases occurred almost simultaneously, and in widely
separated districts. This could hardly have been the case if the
disease had been communicated from one person to another.

As the season advanced and cases became more frequent, the
disease was found to prevail in certain low and insalubrious
localities, while the rest of the city was almost free from the
epidemic. These localities were widely separated.

There was no evidence that the disease was ever directly com-
municated from one person to another. Persons in the same
house, and who waited upon the sick, werenotmore frequently
attacked than other persons who resided in the insalubrious dis-
trict, but at a distance from any case.

Where the epidemic has prevailed in Europe and in this
country, no more than from one to ten in a hundred physicians
and nurses who cared for the cholera patients had the disease.
In the .London hospital, out of one hundred persons employed
in the cholera wards only five had the disease, and of eleven
laundry-women en.oloyed at the hospital to wash the soiled
clothing and bedding of cholera patients, only one was at-
tacked.

It is thought by some to have its origin in germs developed
in the alimentary canal of cholera patients, which are further
developed in the soil, the condition of which, as regards com-
position, temperature and moisture, must be favorable. This
one, of all the theories, would best explain the phenomena as

«U —

638

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

usually observed. In New York, for example, only in the low
and unhealthy parts of the city did the disease make its appear-
ance. Some cases occurred in persons after leaving these
unhealthy districts for healthy ones, but none of these communi-
cated the disease to persons living in the healthy district to
which the patient had gone. The germs from the infected
ships seem to have reached all of the infected districts at about
the same time, and, it may be, could only become active by
development in the soil peculiar to these districts, for the high
and clean parts of the city never became affected.

In the great majority of cases cholera is preceded by a sim-
ple diarrhoea, which continues from a few hours to a week, in
different cases, before the full development of the disease.
This is not attended by pain and is usually considered by the
patient as of no consequence. Vomiting during this stage
rarely occurs. This diarrhoea occurs in not less than ninety
per cent of cases. Suddenly the diarrhcea changes its aspect,
and large watery evacuations take place. This marks the
beginning of the disease proper. The dejections may be clear
like water, or may be milky or muddy in appearance. Some-
times the dejections are very large, sometimes small. The act
is not attended by pain. Gurgling sounds in the bowels are
common. Vomiting is also a common symptom. The matter
vomited is a watery liquid. As the disease progresses there is
a sense of great prostration and weakness. The skin is cool.
In some cases cramps occur in the muscles of the legs. If the
disease pursues a favorable course, the vomiting and purging
cease at the close of the stage of invasion, and the patient at
once becomes convalescent, and in the shortest space of time is
restored to his usual health.

If the disease does not end with the first stage, all the bad
symptoms continue. The pulse usually is frequent and very
feeble, ranging from no to 150 per minute. The surface of
the body becomes cold, the lips and face blue. The breath is
cold and the respiratory act is more frequent and irregular.
The voice is feeble ; the patient is indifferent and has no appre-
hensions for the result. The cramps la the feet and legs is the
only pain suffered. Thirst is very great ; the patient craves
cold water. The face becomes so changed and old in appear-

ance as not to be recognizable. The patient may sink into
complete collapse in from three to eight hours, in which state
death usually ensues.

If the patient rallies from the state of collapse, he is likely
to continue-in a critical condition for some time before reach-
ing convalescence. Diarrhcea and vomiting frequently con-
tinue, the matters now being greenish yellow in color, and the
patient may finally sink into a typhoid state and die. If
recovery finally takes place, convalescence is generally slow,
and the health is not fully restored for a long time. Excep-
tionally, even from the collapsed state, recovery rapidly super-
venes.

Prevention of Cholera.— Much may undoubtedly be
done to prevent the disease by attention to cleanliness, and by
disinfectants, and none of these things should be omitted.

There is, however, in nearly all cases, a premonitory diar-
rhcea, and if this be effectually treated there is little danger of
the full development of the disease. Prudent and intelligent
people who give prompt attention to any occurrence of diar-
rhcea during the prevalence of the disease rarely have cholera.

If the diarrhcea occurs in a young child, full doses of pare-
goric should be given every time the bowels move. If more
than eight years old, full doses of laudanum should be given,
together with acetate of lead and bismuth. For an adult,
twenty-five to forty drops of laudanum, or, instead, one-sixth to
one-quarter grain of morphine after every movement of the
bowels. Small doses of red pepper, in addition to the opiates,
are useful. The above treatment, taken in time, will prevent
the further development of the disease in almost every case.

The treatment of cholera, when fully developed, does not
differ during the first stages from that recommended during the
premonitary diarrhoea, except that the opiates should be given
in larger doses. After collapse has taken place there is little
that can be done with any hope of success. Sometimes active
treatment in this stage does harm; it rarely does good. The
body should be kept warm by the application of dry heat.
The nutrition should be kept up, and brandy and water may
be given frequently in small quantities.

-*THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS AND THE BLOOD.

Absorption.
Under the head of " Physiology of the Digestive Organs "
was described the elaborate process of the solution of the
food. When this process lias been completed, absorption takes
place by the blood-vessels upon the walls of the stomach and
small.intcstines, and by a special system of little vessels called
lacteals, which open upon the Intestinal walls. The solution
of albuminous substances ami the emulsion of fats must be per-
fect, or they will not be taken up. Whether they are taken up
by the blood-vessels or lacteals, the product is emptied into
the large veins. With the exception of that carried by the

thoracic duct, and one or two other lacteal trunks, the product
of digestion, chyle by name, is carried, with venous blood,
directly to the liver, where it is distributed to the liver cells
in minute capillaries, and is here probably further modified,
elaborated and refined, and also gains the substance glyco-
gen, a liver sugar, and is then carried to the heart in the cur-
rent of venous blood, and from the heart is sent to the lungs,
there to be purified by the oxygen of the inspired air, and again
returned to the heart, fit to 1* used in nourishing all the deli-
cate tissues and organs, ami in turn to be oxidized or burned
and carried out of the body.

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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

639

=7f

THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS.

The heart is the central organ of the circulatory system. It
is situated almost in the centre of the chest, between the right
and left lungs. Its base is above and to the right, and its apex
downward and to the left. It may be felt beating a little below
and toward the median line from the left nipple. It is in size
about as large as the closed fist of the person to whom it be-
longs. It is a hollow muscle containing four cavities, two of
which are upon the right and two upon the left side of the
organ ; the heart thus being a double, or, indeed, two distinct
organs, a right and a left heart, which, though bound together,
are entirely distinct from each other, each having its own par-
ticular work to perform. The two cavities of the right side of
the heart communicate with each other, as do also the two
cavities on the left side. The openings between the cavities
are guarded by valves, which permit the blood to flow only in
one direction.

Fig, 4. The Human Heart.

Connected with each of the four chambers of the heart are
large blood-vessels. The large veins (Fig. 5), the vena cava
ascendens (1), and the vena cava descendens (2), bring the
blood from all parts of the body to the right heart, and pour it
into the upper chamber (3), which, from its fancied resemblance
to the ear of a dog, is called the auricle. This upper cavity of
the right side of the heart into which the veme cava: empty, is
known as the right auricle. It has very thin walls and serves
only as a receptacle for the venous blood until it can be received

into the cavity below, which is called the right ventricle. As
soon as the right auricle is filled, its walls contract, and the
valves which guard the opening (5, 5, Fig. 6) are pushed open
as shown in the cut, and the blood flows into and fills the cav-
ity (6) of the right ventricle. The right ventricle thus being
filled, its walls immediately contract, the movement of the
blood closes the valves (5, 5) called the tricuspid valves, which
guard auricular ventricular opening (4), thus preventing
(as shown in Fig. 7), the regurgitation of the blood back
into the auricle. At the same time it pushes open the valves

Fig. 5.

1, 2, Venae cavae, ascendens anc* -icscendens : 3, right auricle; 4, 4, 4, 4,
lungs; 5, pulmonary artery: 6, right ventricle ; 7, 7, 7, 7, pulmonary
veins; 8, left auricle ; 9, left ventricle; —

10. aorta.

(9, 9) called the pulmonary valves, which guard the entrance
(7) into the pulmonary artery, so that all the blood in the
right ventricle (6) is forced into the pulmonary artery (8),
which leads to the lungs (4, 4), as shown by the black vessel
(5) in Fig. 5, where it divides into a minute capillary net-
work upon the walls of the sixty million air-cells of the lungs.
In these capillaries the pulmonary veins begin by little rootlets
which flow together, forming minute veins, and these unite to
form larger veins, these again to form still larger, until the four
(7i 7> Fig. 5) large pulmonary veins — two from each lung —
are formed. These bring back the purified blood from the
lungs and empty it into the upper cavity (8, Fig. 5, or 14,
Fig. 8), of the left side of the heart. From this cavity,
by contraction of the auricular walls, the blood flows down-
ward through the auriculo-ventricular opening (15), guarded
by the mitral valves, into the left ventricle (16, Fig. 8),
in the same manner as fin the right side. As soon as the
left ventricle is filled with blood, its strong muscular walls con-
tract. The movement of the blood closes the mitral valves (15,
Fig. 8), which prevents the blood from flowing back into the left
auricle, and pushes open the semilunar valves (g, Fig. 9) which
guard the entrance into the aorta, so that all the blood in the
ventricle is sent into the aorta, and thence all over the body,
with such force that all the larger arteries swell and throb as the

(,,..

640

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

blood rushes through them. This throb of the arteries is called
the pulse. Physicians make use of this knowledge to ascer-
tain, in disease, how the heart is doing its work.

Fig. 6. Diagram of Right Side of the Heart.

i, a. Vena cava, ascendens and descendens; 3, cavity of right auricle:
4. auriculo-ventricular opening; 5, 5, tricuspid valves; 6, cavity of right
ventricle; 7, opening leading to pulmonary artery; 8, pulmonary artery;
g, pulmonary valves.

The aorta ( 10, Fig. 5 ; 1 8, Fig. 8) branches and subdivides into
a great number of large arteries leading to the head, arms, trunk,
lower extremities and internal organs. These arteries again
branch and subdivide a great many times, until they are reduced
to only T^jrtj of an inch in diameter. They are much smaller than
the finest hair, and can be seen only by a magnifying-glass. They

Fig.

1. Diagram of Right Side of Heart, with Tricuspid
Valves Closed and Pulmonary Valve* Open.

lie so closely together that the point of a needle cannot be thrust
into any part of the body without wounding a greater or less
number of them. The circulation of the blood iu the capillaries
may be beautifully seen by placing the web of the foot of a
living frog under a microscope magnifying about 400 diameters,
when all the little capillaries, with the blood-corpuscles rapidly
coursing through them, may be seen, as in Fig. 11. If the frog

♦

is not allowed to breathe for a moment the circulation in the
capillaries stops, to begin again when respiration is resumed.
In these capillaries the system veins begin by little rootlets
which flow together into minute vessels, these into small veins,
these into larger, and these again into still larger, until all
are collected into the two great trunks, the venae cavz ascendens
and descendens, which, as we have seen, empty the impure blood
collected from the body into the right auricle of the heart.

The heart is enclosed by a serous membrane, the pericar-
dium, which forms a kind of a double bag. The inner layer of the
membrane is closely attached to the heart, the outer layer being
free. Between the layers is a space, containing an ounce or
two of fluid, which is secreted by the membrane to lubricate
its surlaces, so that the movements of the heart will not cause
friction and consequent inflammation.

The heart is lined by a delicate membrane, the endocardium,
folds of which form the valves at the openings leading from
the auricles into the ventricles, and from the ventricles into the
arteries.

Diagram of Right and Left Sides of Heart.

( 1, a, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, same as Fig. 5; 10, pulmonary artery leading to tb«r
right lung; 1 1, branch of pulmonary artery to the leftjung; 1 a, pulmonary
veins from left lung; 13, pulmonary veins from the right lung; 14. cavity
of left auricle; 15, left auricuto-ventricuUu* opening; 16, cavity of left
ventricle; 17, opening into aorta; 1 8, aorta.

The muscular walls of the auricles (Figs. 8, 9 and 10) are very
thin. As they have little work to do, it is not necessary that
they should be strong. The walls of the right ventricle (Fig.
10) arc much thicker than the auricular walls, for the reason
that it has to force the blood through the capillaries of the
lungs, while the auricle has to force the blood into the ventri-
cle only. But the walls of the left ventricle ( h k. Fig. 9) are
much thicker than those of the right, for the reason that it has
many times its amount of work to perform. The right ven-
tricle has to send the blood only to the lung, while the left has
to send it over the entire system — from the crown of the
head to the tips of the fingers and toes, and to all the organs,
the brain, liver, stomach, muscles and bones.

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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

64I

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£.

Diseases of the Heart.

Tht heart, in health, is a most wonderful and beautiful
mechanism. It performs its work quietly and regularly, day
and night, sleeping and waking, year after year, never stopping
for a quarter of a second. But, like all parts of the body, it is
subject to disease and injury, and, when out of repair, may
cause the most distressing symptoms, and, not unfrequently, sud-
den death.

Fig. 9. Showing Right Side of Heart.

a, b. Columnar; carnese; c, cavity of righ auricle; d, d, openings of pul-
monary veins into left auricle; g, semilunar or aortic valves ;/, aorta; k, A,
muscular walls of right ventricle.

The diseases of the heart are many. The enveloping mem-
brane, the pericardium, may become inflamed, when the dis-
ease is known as pericarditis, signifying " an inflammation
around the heart." Or the lining membrane may become
inflamed, which is called endocarditis (endo, within ; cardium,
the heart, and itis, inflammation), " inflammation within
the heart." In consequence of pericarditis, the fluid around
the heart may be greatly increased, so as to interfere
with its movements. This is dropsy of the heart. Or the
smooth surfaces of the pericardium or enveloping membrane
may become agglutinated together, so that at every contraction
the heart must lift the whole weight of the diaphragm. Or,
from endocarditis, the openings between the cavities may be
almost closed up, or the valves shortened or deformed so as
not to close perfectly, and hence permit the blood to regurgi-
tate, like the leaky valves of an old pump, which permits most
of the water to flow back into the well, instead of raising it to
the spout, no matter how hard one may work at the handle.
A heart with the openings greatly contracted by disease may
be likened to a pump with a spout too small. It is easy
to understand how, if the openings of the heart are con-
tracted, as they sometimes are, to the size of a goose-quill, or if
the valves leak badly, permitting the blood to regurgitate, the
work of the heart is greatly increased. If a schoolmaster
should become a blacksmith, by work at the forge he would

soon increase the muscles of his arms to double their former
size. So, when by damaged valves or contracted orifices the
heart is called upon to do more work, the first effect is to in-
crease the thickness of its muscular walls. By this' cause the
heart sometimes becomes three or four times its normal size.

This condition is called hypertrophy. But there is a limit
to muscular development, and after a time the walls begin Xo
weaken and to dilate. They are no longer strong enough to
force all the blood out of the cavity when it contracts upon it.
More and more blood remains in the ventricle after contrac-
tion, until the day comes when, perhaps, in a moment of excite-
ment, the ventricle becomes filled with blood, and, the muscle of
the heart not being strong enough to force it out, there is a
sudden paralysis of the heart from exhaustion of the heart mus-
cle, and death immediately ensues, the patient suddenly falling
down dead. Or the blood may be dammed back in the veins,
because it cannot get through the heart. In this way death
may take place from congestion of the lungs. When the lungs
are congested, there is a great difficulty in breathing. This is a
common symptom of heart disease. The blood may be dammed
from the heart back into the veins of the trunk and lower ex-
tremities. When this is the case, the feet and legs swell, from
the watery portions of the blood escaping outside of the vessels
into the tissues. Sometimes the swelling is very great. There
may be dropsy of the abdomen in consequence, or the liver
and kidneys may be congested, and their functions impaired.

Fig. 10. Showing Right Side of Heart.

a, i, Venae cavae; d, left auricle; e, /, tricuspid valves; g, pulmonary
artery; h, aorta.

Sometimes fat is deposited in the muscular fibre of the heart
in place of the true muscular substance. This condition is
known as fatty degeneration. It always greatly weakens the
power of the heart, and its walls dilate. Sometimes the heart
is paralyzed from this cause, and, occasionally, when one part
is more degenerated than another, the walls of the heart may be
ruptured by its own contraction upon a quantity of blood.
Death in either case, of course, immediately takes place.

^=^ l v

Palpitation of the heart is not a disease proper of the heart.
It depends upon a derangement of the nervous system, just as a
trembling hand or jerking eyelid is due to a fault of the nerves
and not to any disease of the hand or of the eyelid. There
is nothing dangerous in palpitation of the heart.

Neuralgia of the heart is a disease of the nervous system, and
not of the heart.

Most lesions of the valves of the heart are caused by inflam-
mation of the lining membrane, endocarditis, during an attack
of inflammatory rheumatism. If the patient does not die
during the time of the acute inflammation, he is likely to suffer
from heart symptoms after a few years, by which time the valves
become so deformed or the orifices so contracted as to interfere
with the function of the heart, and the patient becomes aware,
for the first time, of his condition. Valvular disease may have
other causes than rheumatism.

Diagnosis. — A skilled physician is able, by percussing or tap-
ping the chest wall, and taking note of the sounds thus produced,
to say positively whether the heart is enlarged or not ; and, by
listening to the beating of the heart, he can tell certainly
whether there is any leakage at the valves, and say with confi-
dence which pair of valves are at fault, or whether there i or is
not a contraction at any of the orifices. Where the valve leak,
or the orifices are obstructed, there are certain hissing or blow-
ing sounds, called murmurs, which, heard over different parts of
the chest, and at different times with reference to the normal
sounds of the heart, enable the educated and skilled physician to
determine the character of the lesion, or to say that no disease
at all of the heart exists.

Fig. 11.

Circulation of the Blood in the Foot of the Frog.

Treatment. — If one suspects, for any reason, a grave dis-
ease of the heart, he should go to some skilled physician in
whom he has full confidence, and be examined. He will prob-
ably learn, as is generally the case, that there is no organic dis-
ease of the heart at all, and that the symptoms which occa-
sioned the alarm, such as palpitation, are referable to a disor-
dered state of the stomach or of the nervous system. The
patient should not undertake to treat himself, if really suffering
from valvular lesions of the heart, so that treatment had best
be left to the physician whose advice is sought in the case.

Digitalis is, perhaps, the most valuable remedy which exists
for strengthening the heart's action. The body should be well
nourished, the food of good quality and variety, and the meals
taken regularly. The bowels should be kept regular, and no
very severe exercise should be taken. A gentleman, a patient
of the writer, suffering from valvular disease, together with
great enlargement and dilitation of the heart, came very near
death every Sunday night on account of difficulty of breath-
ing, due to congestion of the lungs, from damming the blood
back into the pulmonary veins, the left heart not having
strength to empty the ventricle. It seemed strange to the
patient that the distress came only on Sunday nights, but upon
enquiry it was found that on the six week-days he took three
meals a day, and on Sunday but two, the last of which was
about 2 o'clock p. m. The full power of the heart, when well
nourished, was required, in its damaged condition, for the per-
formance of its functions, and the abstinence from food for a
few hours so weakened its action as to make death imminent.
Sunday night suppers were ordered, and thereafter Sunday
night ceased to be an especiaUlread.

Fig. 18.

Red and White Blood-Corpusclci Highly Magnified.

THE BLOOD.

The blood is a compound fluid. In man, and all the higher
order of animals, it is of a red color ; in some of the lower
forms of life it is colorless. The quantity in nun is about one-
eighth that of the weight of the body. The vessels of a man
weighing one hundred and forty pounds would contain nearly
eighteen pounds of blood. The office of the blood is not alone
to carry nutriment to the tissues to assist in their repair, but
is also to carry out of the body the products of waste — the
-0 to speak, of the oxidized tissues which have been
burned up or consumed in the production of force and animal
heat. If a small part of a drop of blood be examined under
a microscope, it will no longer present the appearance of a
simple red fluid, but little circular bodies with a yellowish-red

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

643

tinge will be seen, and, if magnified two hundred and fifty
times, will present the appearance shown in the lower part (A,
A) of Fig. 12. These are the red corpuscles. They are little
flattened circular bodies about yj^ij of an inch in diameter,
and not more than one-quarter as thick. It would take
120,000,000,000 of them to make a cubic inch. The flat surfaces
are somewhat concave, so that the centre of the corpuscle is its
thinnest part. If examined with a lens magnifying 1,000
times, the corpuscles will present the appearance of B, C, D
in the figure. After standing a few minutes the flat surfaces
of the corpuscles are inclined to stick together, and so arrange
themselves in the form of a roll of coin (D, D). If treated
with a drop of vinegar they become clear (A"). If instead of
vinegar a drop of water is added, they swell up (E), and
become globular. If exposed to the air for a time, they
become shrivelled (H, H) and irregular. In the lower part of
Fig. 12 are to be seen two bodies (a, a) which do not look
like the other corpuscles. They are larger in size, globular in
shape, present a granular appearance, and are of a white color.
They are known as the white corpuscles. Only one white cor-
puscle exists to four hundred of the red. The coloring matter
of the blood is in the red corpuscles. When they are removed
a clear fluid remains.

If a quantity of blood be drawn into a bowl from the veins
of an animal, it will be, at first, quite fluid, but in a few mo-
ments will become thick like a mass of jelly. This mass is
called a clot, and the process coagulation. If allowed to stand
for a day or two the clot will continue to contract, and will be
found at the end of that time in the bottom of the bowl, cov-
ered with a clear liquid called the serum.

If, as soon as the blood is drawn from the vein, it be whipped
with a bunch of twigs, a white stringy substance, like the
gluten obtained by washing flour, is found to cover the twigs,
binding them together. This substance is called fibrin.
Blood, subjected to this whipping, does not form a clot, for the
reason that the coagulating substance, fibrin, has been removed
upon the twigs. If this whipped or defibrinated blood be now
permitted to stand, the red corpuscles settle to the bottom of
the bowl, while the clear serum remains on top. These three
constituents of the blood, fibrin, serum and corpuscles, are
rendered plain to the sight, but they are made up of many
other substances, such as albumen, fat, sugar, soda, salt, iron,
lime, magnesia, water, carbonic acid gas, oxygen, etc., etc.

The serum and the fibrin are not separated in the living
blood, but together form the plasma. The office of the plas-
ma is to nourish and rebuild the tissues and to carry the prod-
ucts of waste and combustion to those organs — such as the
liver, kidneys and skin — whose function it is to separate them

from the blood and carry them out of the body. The particu-
lar office of the corpuscles is to carry oxygen from the lungs to
the tissues and carbonic acid gas from the tissues to the lungs,
there to be exchanged for oxygen.

Diseases of the Blood.

The plasma of the blood is replenished in its nutritive constit-
uents by the food taken at frequent intervals. Water is neces-
sary to render the blood sufficiently fluid, and to hold the other
constituents in solution. The presence of certain chemical sub-
stances is also essential. Lime, iron, and certain other minerals,
must also find a place. Besides these conditions, certain constitu-
ents manufactured in the body itself, as liver sugar and the cor-
puscles in normal quantity, are necessary to health. Water is
more essential than food, and oxygen more than water. One
deprived of food dies from impoverishment of the blood ; if
deprived of water, death takes place much sooner ; but if
deprived of oxygen, death ensues within five to eight minutes.
About a ton and a half in the shape of food and drink is added
to the blood of an ordinary man during the year. As there
is the same amount of waste, a ton and a half of material,
therefore, must be carried out of the body through the blood
during the same time. Some of the products of oxidation, as
urea and carbonic acid gas, are very poisonous to the nervous
system. Certain organs, as the kidneys, skin and lungs, are
designed especially to remove these poisons from the current
of the blood, and carry them out of the body. If, through
disease of these organs, they fail to perform their functions, the
blood becomes highly charged with the poison, and, unless
speedily relieved, death is the result. If the lungs fail to
eliminate the carbonic acid, death results within a few minutes.
If the kidneys fail to remove the urea, death must follow in a
short time. The same is true if the skin fails in its office.

From the above it may readily be seen that the disorders of
the blood are many. There may be too much blood, when the
condition is called plethora ; or too little, when it is called
anosmia ; or it may contain too much water, or too little ; or
too many red corpuscles, or too few ; or the plasma may be
deficient in tissue-building constituents ; or the blood may be
poisoned by the retention of carbonic acid and urea ; or it may
contain living germs.

Treatment. — A considerable quantity and wide variety of
food should be taken regularly. A sufficient amount of water
and fluids should also be taken. Frequent baths and a reason-
able amount of exercise are advised. The sleeping-room should
be well ventilated, and plenty of fresh air supplied. Where the
blood disease is due to disease of some particular organ, the
latter requires primary attention.

-r&'gt^lfifrZ*-

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644

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

-*THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

It is essentially necessary to the life of all animals that the
nutrient fluid should be carried to all parts of the system, and
since the functional activity of the nervous and muscular tissues,
and all tissues, is dependent upon their oxidation, it is also neces-
sary that oxygen should be carried to and brought directly in
contact with every fibre and cell in the whole body. This im-
plies the introduction of air. It is necessary in every animal,
moreover, to keep up the temperature or body heat to a specific
point. This is also accomplished by oxidation or burning
either the disintegrating material which is passing to waste, or
the combustible substances, such as sugars and fats, found in the
blood.

Fig. 13. Head and GUIs of the Menobranchus.

As we saw in the early part of this article, all organic mate-
rial, at its death and combustion, gives rise to two products, car-
bonic acid and water, and we have seen by experiment that
these are the products alike of the burning candle and the oxi-
dizing tissues of a living man. These products of combustion
of the tissues are poured into the current of the blood. But
the conditions of life are such that carbonic acid gas acts as a
poison in the system, and me^ns must therefore be provided for
its removal. The introduction of life-giving oxygen into the
system and the removal of the poisonous carbonic acid are ac-
complished by the same mechanism, the breathing apparatus.

lip.-. 14. Swlmnilng-niadder of the Fish.

a, 6, Air chambers; d, c, wind-pipe: o, oesophagus.

THE LUNGS.

The breathing apparatus, or mechanism by which oxygen is
introduced into, and carbonic acid is removed from the blood,
in all forms of life, consists of a thin membrane so arranged as
to permit the blood to flow upon one side of it, while the other
side of the membrane (which must be moist) is in contact with the
air. The oxygen gas of the air, having a greater affinity or

attraction for the blood corpuscles than the carbonic acid gas,
passes, therefore, through the thin membrane into the blood
and displaces the carbonic acid gas, which passes out through the
membrane into the air. The membrane, or breathing apparatus,
in all cases, is the skin, or some extension, reduplication or
modification of it, as the mucous membrane.

In the lower forms of aquatic life, and in
certain worms, which are always moist, the
skin serves the full purpose of lungs in purify-
ing the blood, and no special organs of respir-
ation are required. The moist skin of the
frog is so delicate as to serve this purpose.
We may remove its lungs, and it will continue
to live and breathe, so to speak ; the heart
will continue to beat, and the blood to circulate
and be purified so long as the skin is kept wet.
But if allowed to dry, so that the exchange
of gases can no longer take place through
the skin, the animal soon dies " from the
want of breath. "

In fishes, the gills, which are covered by a
delicate membrr.ne, take the place of the lungs.
There is a rich plexus of blood-vessels on one
side of this membrane, while the other side
is bathed in water. Oxygen is held in solution
in the water, and is appropriated by the
blood, while carbonic acid is exhaled through
the membrane. Humboldt placed fishes in
water which contained 20 per cent of air in
solution, this consisting of 29.8 parts of oxy.
gen, 66.2 parts nitrogen and 4.0 carbonic acid.
After the fishes had remained in it a due time,
analysis showed but 2.3 parts oxygen, while
the carbonic acid had increased to 33.8 parts,
showing the ordinary results of respiration.

In the menobranchus the gills (Fig. 13) are
external feathery tufts on the sides of the
neck. Each filament consists of a fold of
mucous membrane connected with that of the pharynx, and con-
tains a net-work of capillary blood-vessels. Respiration takes
place as described in the above paragraph.

But the first approach to the true lung is seen in the swim-
ming-bladder of fishes. In the carp there is, in its double-
chambered swimming-bladder (Fig. 14), an approach to the
double lungs of the higher order of animals. It is connected
by means of a wind-pipe, d, c, with the oesophagus, so that the
fish is enabled at will to increase or diminish the amount of air
in the chambers. While this is a rudimentary lung, its real use
is to vary the specific gravity of the fish, by compression or
rarification of the included air. As explained above, the gills
in fishes fill the office of the true lung.

Fig. 15.

Lungs of Reptile

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

645

•

Fig. 16. r,vuigsof
the Frog.

The lungs of the reptile present a sack-like, form (Fig. 15).
The two lungs are not equal in size, one, A, being fully devel-
oped, while the other, B, remains in a more or less rudimentary
state. There is a pulmonary artery, c c, which brings the im-
pure blood to the lungs, where it is broken up into minute
capillaries and distributed over the walls of the membranous
bag, where the blood is purified and sent through the pulmo-
nary vein, d d, back to the heart. The air is taken into the
sack through the trachea, a, by a kind of swallowing process,
and is forced out again by contraction of the abdominal mus-
cles.

The progress from the simple sack, as
shown in the swimming-bladder of the
fish and the lungs of the reptile, to the
I million-chambered respiratory organs of
I the higher animals, is well illustrated in
the lungs of a frog (Fig. 16), which has a
' number of imperfect membranous parti-
tions dividing up the sack into many cham-
bers, with the effect to greatly increase
the respiratory surface. If the surface of
the membrane forming the walls of the
sack amounted to two square inches, the
effect of the fifty or sixty partitions would
De to increase the surface of the respiratory membrane to per-
haps fifteen square inches, so that the lung with the partitions is
capable of purifying
seven times more
blood per minute than
the simple sack with-
out the partitions.

In man the trachea,
or wind-pipe, divides
into two bronchial
tubes, one of which
enters each lung, and
then branches like a
tree. The terminal
tubes are only about
g^ of an inch in diam-
eter. Upon the sides
of these minute tubes
the air-cells open ;
sometimes single ones
and sometimes many
cells co m m u n i c a t e
with one another ( Fig.
17). Such a tubelet,
with the air-cells thus
clustered upon it, is a
miniature representa-
tion of the lungs of the frog. The air cells vary in size from 7^
to 5 i„ of an inch in diameter. It is said that each terminal
bronchus has 20,000 air-cells clustered upon it, and that the total
number in both lungs is more than 600,000,000, the walls of
which, if united and spread out in one continuous sheet, would
present a surface of 1,500 square feet. The cell walls are formed
of an exceedingly delicate membrane, covered by the richest plexus

of capillary blood-vessels in the economy, which lie so thickly
together that the spaces between them are less than their
own diameters. Figure 18 represents five air-cells, with the
capillary blood vessels distributed upon their walls. These capil-
laries are only jo'oo of an inch in diameter, requiring 200 of
them to equal the size of a cambric needle. As the cells are
close together and the partition walls of incomprehensible thin-
ness, the little capillaries passing
between them are brought in com-
munication with the air on both
sides. The blood corpuscles are
obliged to pass through the little
vessels in single file, and so, with
air on both sides, they rapidly and
completely exchange their poison-
ous carbonic acid gas for pure life-
giving oxygen, and change their
color from blue to crimson. Then,
by the contraction of the abdom-
inal muscles, the chest walls, and
the elastic walls of the air-cells
themselves, the impure air is forced
out of the body, and by a new in- ™S^ u ^™u S Er£g
spiration the lungs are refilled with Air-Cells.
pure air. This in turn loses its oxygen to the blood, becomes
impregnated with carbonic acid, and is expired, and the lungs

again refilled with
pure air.

The Mechanism of
Respiration.

The minute anato-
my of the pulmonary
lobule and the physi-
ology of the respira-
tory membrane hav-
ing been explained, it
remains only to recite
the gross anatomy of
the respiratory or-
gans, and the mech-
anism by which the
lungs are filled and
emptied of air.

The nose may be
very properly consid-
ered the first of the
respiratory organs.
By its turbinated
bones and the numer-
ous cells connected
with its cavity, a con-
siderable surface is produced, all of which is lined by the nasal
mucous membrane ; over this surface the air passes, and is
warmed and cleansed from dust before passing into the lungs.
At the entrance of the nostril are a number of stiff hairs, which
act as a barrier to dust. Within the nose resides the sense of
smell, which informs us of the quality of air we are breathing.
The cavities of the hose communicate with the throat by two

Showing a Portion of Five Air-Cells, with the Capillaries Upon Cell
Walls (Greatly Magnified).

6 4 6

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

openings. (See Fig. I.) Except during the act of swallowing,
the epiglotis, or lid which covers the opening into the larynx,
stands wide open, as shown in the cut, while the gullet below the
larynx remains closed, so that there is a continuous tube from
the nostrils, into the lungs.

The Larynx is a kind of a triangular box placed at the top
of the trachea, or wind-pipe, and is made up of rigid and
unyielding rings of cartilage or gristle. The larger end of the
larynx is placed upward, and across the superior opening are
stretched four ligamentous bands covered by a most delicate
mucous membrane. These bands are the vocal cords. The
two upper cords are called the/alse, while the two lower bands
are called the true vocal cords. To the vibration of these
latter the voice is due. In front they are attached to a fixed
point, the thyroid cartilages, which project forward on the
neck, especially in men, and are called "Adam's apple. " Behind
they are attached to movable pieces of cartilage, which are
controlled by little muscles, and can be so moved as to separate
the cords from each other, as seen in inspiration (A, Kig. 19,
or Fig. 22), allowing the air a free entrance into the trachea. In
expiration the cords fall together, leaving only a narrow slit (B),
through which the air passes out. When an attempt is made to
produce a sound there is a great change in the conformity of
the larynx ; the vocal cords are approximated more closely
together and put upon the stretch. The air from the lungs is
then forced through the narrow slit, causing the free edges to
vibrate, at the same time forcing them slightly apart in the
centre, leaving a narrow oval slit, C, as shown in Fig. 19.

Fig. 10. The Vocal Cords.

A, as teen in inspiration; B, as seen in expiration; C, as seen while
uttering a high-pitched sound.

Below the larynx is the trachea, a long air-tube, composed of
rings of cartilage bound together by connective tissue and
lined with mucous membrane. The trachea divides into two
tubes called the bronchia, one of which leads to each lung, and
there subdivides and branches like a tree into the ultimate
bronchial tubules which open into the air-cells.

The lungs are contained in the cavity of the chest (A, Fig.
20). This cavity is separated from the cavity of the abdomen
(C) by an arched muscle (B) called the diaphragm.

The lungs are placed one upon each side of the heart (Fig.
21). Each lung is enclosed in a double membranous sock
called the pleura, one fold of which is closely attached to the
substance of the lung, while the outside layer lines the chest
wall. Between the two layers is a cavity which contains a little
fluid called serum, which is secreted by the membrane, and
serves to lubricate its surfaces, so that they glide smoothly over
each other with every movement of the lungs. The right lung
is divided into three (6, 7, 8) and the left into two (1, 2) lobes.

Movements of Respiration.
When the diaphragm contracts, it approaches a straight line
across the body ; at the same time the costal muscles elevate the
ribs, which are also, because of their direction, carried outward.
This increases the size of the cavity of the chest. The descent
of the diaphragm increases the length of the chest-cavity, while
the movement of the ribs increases its breadth. This causes a
vacuum in the chest -cavity, and the outside air rushes in through
the trachea and dilates the air-cells until the cavity is filled.
This is known as inspiration. The diaphragm and costal mus-
cles now relax, the ribs return to their place, thus narrowing the
chest, while the abdominal muscles contract, forcing the stomach
and liver upward against the diaphragm, which rises into its

Fig. 20.

A, cavity of chest; B, diaphragm; C, cavity of abdomen,
arched position, decreasing the length of the chest-cavity.
These movements, together with the elasticity of the air-cells,
force the contained air out through the trachea, emptying the
lungs. This act is called expiration, which is followed by and
alternates with the act of inspiration, and comprises the phe-
nomenon of respiration.

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

Diseases under this head may be divided into those affecting
the mucous membrane lining the air-passages, those affecting the
serous membrane covering the lungs, and those affecting the
substance of the lung itself.

Cold — Catarrh — Bronchitis.

Coryza, or cold in the head, is an acute inflammation of

the lining membrane of the nose. The eyes, in this disease, are

also frequently inflamed and red, and the tears flow over the

face. The symptoms begin with an itching or tingling sensation

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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

647

l.kl

in the nose, which is followed by sneezing. A slight fever ac-
companies these symptoms, and not unfrequently there is more
or less headache.

Treatment. — Twenty or twenty-five drops of laudanum
should be taken at bed-time, the first evening after the symp-
toms are noticed. Not unfrequently this will effect a cure. If
not, another dose may be taken the following evening, and this
repeated the next. If the cold is severe the laudanum should
be taken night and morning until relieved. It is also well to
take four grains of quinine night and morning. Instead of
laudanum, one-sixth of a grain of morphine, or a full dose of
Dover's powder, will serve the purpose equally well. Treated
in the beginning,
nothing is surer than
a perfect cure in from
twenty- four to forty-
eight hours, but if
not effectually treat-
ed, it is apt to extend
to the larynx and be-
come a severe bron-
chitis, or eventuate in
a chronic, low-grade
inflammation of the
nasal membrane,
called ca'arrh.

Catarrh.

Catarrh is a
name that properly
applies to all inflam-
mations of any part
of the mucous mem-
brane.such as catarrh
of the stomach or of
the bladder, but by
common usage, un-
less qualified by an-
other word, has come
to mean a chronic in-
flammation of the
nasal mucous mem-
brane. It is a very
troublesome disease,
and is often very dif-
ficult to treat. Pa-
tients are frequently
seen who have suf-
fered from the disease for years. The inflammation is apt to
extend through the eustachian tube to the ears, and sometimes
with not only the effect to impair the hearing, but to quite de-
stroy it. The odor is, in bad cases, most penetrating, rendering
the patient very offensive to his associates.

Treatment. — In the beginning the most effective treatment is
that recommended for coryza. Later, tonics should be given.
Quinine in two-grain doses, three times a day ; laudanum in
small doses and iodide of potassium in five-grain doses three
times a day. In the beginning powders and solutions sniffed up

the nose usually do harm, and it is a question whether they ever
do good in any stage. The most effective treatment for a
chronic case is, perhaps, a change of climate. The writer has
known some excellent cures to result from a residence in North-
ern Wisconsin, or in the region of Lake Superior.

Acute Laryngitis.
Acute Laryngitis is an inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane lining the larynx. It is attended with a cough and hoarse-
ness, and frequently with much difficulty of breathing. The
hoarseness is due to inflammation and swelling of the vocal
cords. Medicinal treatment should be the same as that recom-
mended for coryza.
At night the throat
may be bound with a
bandage wrung out
of cold water. Qui-
nine should be taken
in four-grain doses
three times a day.

Disease of Vocal
Cords.

It not unfrequently
happens that speech,
or the power of pho-
nation, is lost in con-
sequence of disease or
injury of vocal cords,
or of ulceration or
swelling of the sur-
rounding parts.
Within the last few
years a little instru-
ment, called a laryn-
goscope, has been in-
vented, by which a
view of the larynx
and vocal cords may
be obtained. It con-
sists of a little round
mirror, about the
size of a copper cent,
fastened at an angle
upon a small stem or
handle. This is in-
troduced into the
mouth, as shown in

Fig. 81. Showing the Lungs in Situ.

, Upper and lower lobe of left lung; 6, 7, 8, upper, middle and lower lobe of right lung; 5,
space occupied by the heart

Fig. 22, the tongue having been drawn forward. Then, by the
aid of a bright light; placed beside the patient, and reflected
from a mirror worn upon the forehead of the physician, the rays
are thrown upon the little mirror in the mouth of the patient,
from which it is again reflected down to and illuminates the larynx,
the image of which is reflected back into the little mirror in the
mouth of the patient. In Fig. 22 the image of the larynx ind
vocal cords is shown as seen by the physician. By this means a
physician skilled in the use of the instrument is able to examine
an ulcer of the larynx as critically as he might a burn on the hand.

4k<

648

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

In case of loss of the voice, not clearly due to an acute cold,
or in case of hoarsenesss of long standing, such an examination
should be sought directly, les't the voice may become perma-
nently impaired or destroyed. Sometimes one or both of the
vocal cords may be paralyzed. As the symptoms may be due to
different causes, it is best not to undertake self-treatment, but
go at once to a skilful physician.

Fig. 38. Showing the Manner of Using the laryngoscope,
with the Image or the Larynx, Eplglotis and Vocal Cords in
the Mirror.

Bronchitis.

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining membrane of the
trachea and bronchial tubes. It may be either acute or chronic.
If acute, there will be a slight fever and considerable cough.
The treatment should l>e the same as that advised for coryza.

Chronic Bronchitis usually eventuates from an acute attack.
The disease may be of years' standing. Those cases of death of
elderly people from exhaustion, attended by cough and expec-
toration, and accredited to consumption, may usually be put
down as bronchitis. Consumption rarely attacks persons after
40 or 45 years of age.

Treatment should consist partly in good living and warm dress-
ing. Any of the bitter tonics, with iron, may be taken, together
with some form of opium to relieve the cough. Iodide of potas-
sium in five-grain doses, with two grains of carbonate of ammonia,
taken after meals, will l>e found very useful.

Pertussis — Whooping Cough.
Whooping Cough is an infectious disease, attacking the
mucous membrane of the air passages. It attacks children,
not exclusively, but chiefly. Among the first symptoms the
child appears to have taken cold. Slight fever, suffused eyes,
running nose and a cough make up the early symptoms. The
cough is worse at night, and the tern] erature and pulse are
higher. At this time there is nothing "to distinguish it from
an ordinary cold. This stage may last but a fow days or be
protracted over a period of two weeks, when these symptoms
are changed for a distinct paroxysmal cough, hr.-ing more
or less of a metallic ring. The child makes a peculiar noise

during inspiration. There is more difficulty in inspiration
than expiration during the paroxysm. The paroxysm over,
the patient seems to be well. The number of paroxysms
during twenty-four hours varies from ten to twenty in ordinary,
to from seventy-five to one hundred in aggravated cases. Dur-
ing the cough the child becomes black in the face, and blood
may be forced from the nose, throat or lungs, and at times from
the ears. The little patient soon learns to dread these attacks,
and seeks something to seize upon for support during the par-
oxysm. If lying in bed, he springs up and perhaps stands upon
his feet, the tongue being thrust out of the mouth during the
cough. The material expectorated is a clear, tough mucus. In
young children the nurse will be obliged to remove this mucus
with a handkerchief upon the finger. It seems sometimes as
if the patient would die of strangulation before it can be
removed. If the paroxysms are frequent the front teeth may
chafe the under part of the tongue so as to form ulcers which
greatly annoy the patient. An uncontrolable diarrhoea may set
in, or the brain may become affected, when convulsions or stupor
make their appearance.

Treatment. — Cough medicines as a general thing disturb the
stomach without mitigating the cough. Small dosesof the syrup
of ipecacuanha may do good. The patient should be kept warm
with good flannel underclothing. It is not advisable to keep him
shut indoors, but if the weather is at all propitious, it is perhaps
better that he should remain out in the fresh air.

Tonics arc needed. Small doses of quinine or cinchona mix-
ture will do good. Three or four drops of tincture of belladonna
at bed-time may give the patient a good rest.

If the child has not been vaccinated, it will be well to vacci-
nate him, for vaccina seems to favorably modify the symptoms of
whooping cough.

Asthma.

Asthma is caused by a spasm of the muscular fibres of the
small bronchial tubes, which obstructs the outward flow of air
from the lungs ; hence the great distress for want of breath,
ar.d the loud wheezing sounds. The disease is of nervous origin,
and is sometimes hereditary. It is generally worse at night.

Treatment. — There are many remedies which for a time re-
lieve the bid symptoms, and a change of climate is almost
always attended by relief. An attack may be brought on by any
irritating smoke, or vapor, or dust contained in the breathing-
air. The emanation from a feather pillow is sufficient in some
persons to produce a paroxysm. The writer has found the fol-
lowing prescription of use in a greater number of cases than any
other. It usually cuts short the attack within a few hours :

Iodide of potassium,
Carbonate of ammonia.
Syrup of orange-peel,
Simple syrup,

90 grains.

60 grains.

1 ounce.

Mi\.
Take a teaspoonful every two to four hours until relieved.

Pleurisy.
Pleurisy is an inflammation of the pleura, or the membrane
whii li envelopes the lungs. It is usually confined to one side.

the left more frequently than the right,
very rarely, both sides are attacked at the

Sometimes, though
same time. The

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

649

tack begins with sharp pains in the side, and in the region of the
nipple. Soon it becomes impossible to take a deep inspiration
on account of the severe pain caused by friction of the two
layers of the inflamed membrane. Considerable fever is present.
Examination by a physician will be necessary to determine
whether the symptoms are due to pleurisy or pneumonia.

Pleurisy is not usually a grave disease. The patient generally
recovers within a few days. Sometimes, however, a great
effusion of fluid takes place in the pleural sack, compressing the
lung so that, if the fluid is not soon absorbed, the lung may
become permanently disabled. Sometimes the effused fluid
becomes purulent.

Treatment. — Strips of adhesive plaster, an inch wide and
from fourteen to sixteen inches long, may be applied by
sticking one end over the spine and carrying the strip around
the body upon the affected side, to act as a splint, thus prevent-
ing any movement of the inflamed parts. A quarter of a
grain of morphine may be given, or, instead, twenty-five drops
of laudanum. This may be repeated every hour or two until
relieved from pain. If effusion takes place the treatment should
be left to the advice of a physician.

Pneumonia.

Pneumonia, lung fever, winter fever, or inflammation of
the lungs, is an inflammation of the substances of the lung.
But a single lobe of the affected lung is usually attacked. The

disease rarely attacks both lungs at the same time. In such a
case a double pneumonia is said to exist. The lower lobes
(8 and 2, Fig. 21) are more frequently attacked than the upper
(6 and 1) lobes.

An attack may occur at any season of the year, but the disease
is prevalent in winter and spring. The attack begins with symp-
toms similar to those of pleurisy, congestion of the affected
lobe rapidly supervening. The temperature rises, and the pulse
beat and respiratory movements become more frequent. An
exudation takes place into the air-cells of the affected lobe,
completely filling them, solidifying the lobe and rendering that
portion of the lung entirely useless. A very high fever ensues,
and the patient becomes dangerously ill, and may remain in a
critical condition for several weeks. In unfavorable cases
death results in from ten to twenty days, from exhaustion.
Occasionally the inflammation involves both lungs, or more
than one lobe if but one lung is attacked ■; under such cir-
circumstances death may, in rare cases, result during the first
or second day from suffocation.

Treatment. — In so grave a disease, a skilful physician
should be called without delay, and his directions for treatment
carefully followed. Good nursing is of great importance,
and the most nourishing food must be given from the begin-
ning, in order to guard against danger from exhaustion toward
the close of the disease.

THE EXCRETORY ORGANS.

The name excretory is applied to those organs whose func-
tion it is to remove from the blood the elements of waste —
the ashes, so to speak, of the oxidized tissues — which have
been taken into its current during its passage through the
capillaries. Besides the lungs, which act as excreting organs in
so far as they remove from the blood carbonic acid gas and
water, and the liver, which also eliminates from the blood cer-
tain poisonous excretions, there exist two other organs whose
chief or exclusive function it is to purify the blood, by removing
from its current the debris of the worn-out and oxidizing tissues.
These organs are the kidneys and the skin.
The Kidneys.

The kidneys are two in number, placed in the abdominal cavity
one on each side of the spinal column, on a level with the
lower ribs. The kidney is shaped much like a lima bean. It is,
in the adult, about four inches long, two inches wide, one inch in
thickness, and weighs from four to six ounces. It is surrounded
by a thick cushion of fat which protects it from injury. The
concave margin, which presents a deep notch called the hilum,
is turned toward the spinal column. At the hilum enter the
blood-vessels and nerves and the excretory duct, called the ureter,
which carries away the urine as fast as it is secreted, and
empties it into the bladder, a membranous reservoir for holding
it, until such convenient time as it may be voided.

On making a vertical section through the kidney (Fig. 23)
from its convex to its concave border, it appears to be made
up of two substances, an outside or cortical substance, and an
inside or medullary substance. The cortical substance forms
the greater part of the gland and occupies its surface. It is
soft and dark-colored and contains numerous small red bodies,
called Malpighian bodies, scattered throughout its substance.
The medullary substance is of a pale red color and consists of
thousands of little tubes arranged in pyramids (1 1, 2 2, 4 4,
Fig. 23), called the pyramids of Malpighi. The little tubes,
or urinary tubules, of which the pyramids are made up, are
connected, one with each of the Malpighian bodies, from which
they are gathered together in pyramids, and empty, by com-
mon ducts (5, 5, 5, 5), into a cavity (7) shown in the cut, and
known as the pelvis of the kidney, from which the ureter (8)
conducts the urine away to the bladder. Figure 24 shows the
Malpighian bodies (1, 5, 6) greatly magnified ; 3 is a branch of
the renal artery, from which little branches (4, 4, 4) enter the
little bodies and break into minute looped capillaries (5), which
again unite, forming a vein (7, 7, 7), which passes out of the
little body, branches and subdivides (8, 9), and finally again
breaks up into capillaries (10) to nourish the substance of the
kidney. From the Malpighian bodies extend the little tubes
(2, 2, 2), which finally unite to form the pyramids.

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650

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

It is in the Malpighian bodies and in the little urinary
tubules that the urine is separated from the blood. The
capsules of these little bodies, Mr. Huxley says, may be likened
to a funnel, and the membranous walls of the little capillaries
to very delicate filtering-paper, into which the blood is poured.
A substance called urea, the ashes of the oxidized muscular
tissue, and certain saline substances, among which are common
salt and the phosphates and sulphates of potash, soda, lime and
magnesia in solution, are filtered out of the blood, carried
away by the little tubules (2, 2, 2) to the pelvis of the kidney,
from which it flows through the ureter into the bladder, and

Fig. 23. A Longitudinal Section of the Kidney.

I, 2, 4, Pyramids of Malpighi; 7, cavity of the pelvis; 5, 5, mouths of
the urinary tubules ; 8, the ureter.

thence out of the body. Thus the function of the kidney is to
purify the blood, by removing those poisonous elements of waste
which cannot be removed by the other excretory organs.

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS.

The kidney is liable to disease, inflammation and degenera-
tion, the same as other parts of the body. Anything which
interferes with the proper secretion and elimination of urea by
the kidney may properly be considered a disease. Sometimes
irritation of the nerves of the kidney is sufficient to stop the
secretion of urine for a considerable time. Mental emotions
may diminish or increase the secretion. It has long been ob-
served that the urine of an hysterical patient is excessive in
amount and of a very pale color. During a fever the urine is
small in amount and of .1 very high color. This is due to the
great evaporation which takes place from the skin in conse-
quence of the high tcmju-rature. Almost all the diseases to
which the kidney is liable have been classed together and called
Brigkt's disease, so called because Dr. Richard Bright first

described one type of inflammation of the kidney, and almost
all knowledge subsequently gained regarding diseases of the
kidney, in which albumen is excreted, has been included under
that name.

An inflammation may be either acute or chronic ; may be
confined to the pelvis or to the urinary tubules, or the tub-
stance of the kidney may be inflamed. An acute inflammation
may cause death within a few days, or it may become chronic,
or complete recovery may take place within a few weeks. A
chronic inflammation may last for many years. Where the kid-

Fig. 24.

1, 6, 5, Malpighian bodies: a, a, a, urinary tubules: 3. renal artery:
4, 4. 4, branches of renal artery: ;, 5, plexus of looped capillaries: 7, 8, o,
veins and venous plexus.

neys are so much diseased as to fail in removing the urea from
the blood, nervous symptoms and convulsions rapidly super-
vene, caused by uremic poisoning. The kidneys failing in their
duty, the stomach attempts to perform the work of the kidney ;
urine transudes into the stomach, and vomiting is se' jp.
The vomited matter has a strong ammoniacal smell like urine.
Treatment. — Where disease of the kidney is suspected a
skilled and educated physician should be consulted. By an
examination of the urine, he can ascertain whether or not a

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

651

sufficient amount of urea is being eliminated, whether nutri-
tive constituents of the blood are being lost in the urine, and
by the use of the microscope can tell, by the presence or ab
sence of epithelial casts, whether the urinary tubules are dis
eased or not. Do not begin taking quack patent -medicines
before you ascertain whether or not any disease exists. If dis
ease of the kidneys is suspected, because of pain in the back
the chances are ten to one that no disease whatever of the
kidneys exists. The trouble is, in nine cases out of ten, due to
the muscles of the back, which may be affected with rheuma-
tism or neuralgia, or simply strained. The writer has known
a number of patients who supposed they were suffering from
kidney disease because of backache, which was in reality caused
by sleeping in an uncomfortable, sagging bed. With a new bed-
spring, the backache and supposed " Bright's disease " disap-
peared. Certain quack patent-medicines have obtained a pop-
ular reputation by the fact that many people, who never had
any disease of the kidneys, have recovered from a backache
while taking the medicine ; the cessation of the backache being
in no way more dependent upon the medicine taken than upon
the water drunk during the time. Pain in the back is not a
symptom of kidney-disease. Swelling of the feet, dropsy of
the face or loss of strength is most often the first symptom
noticed by the patient, indicating that he is out of health. Not
unfrequentiy faiiure of sight is the first symptom observed.
The treatment should be left to the advice of a physician.

THE SKIN.

The skin is a hard, firm, elastic membrane which covers
the body and serves to protect the soft parts from injury. It
is also an excretory organ, exhaling, as it does, a large portion
of the fluids given off from the body, besides being the chief
means of maintaining the animal heat at an equable point.
The skin is composed of two layers. The deeper one is called
the derma, or true skin, and the outer layer the epidermis
(Greek; epi, upon, and derma, skin). The derma is composed
of strong elastic and inelastic fibres interlaced with each other ;
between the fibres in some parts is found much adipose, or fat-
tissue. In its substance are found also the sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, hair follicles, lymphatics and nerves. The
epidermis has no fibres, but is composed of several layers of
cells placed one upon another. In the deepest of these is the
pigment or coloring matter upon which depends the com-
plexion. The hair and nails are appendages of the skin, and
are but a modified form of the epidermic cells.

At the root of each hair is a little gland, sometimes two or
more, called a sebaceous gland, which secretes an oily substance
which lubricates the hair and surface of the skin. Coiled up in
the deepest part of the true skin, or beneath it, are little tubes,
which pass up through the entire thickness of the skin and
open on the surface. They are called sudoriparous or sweat
glands.

There is a constant exhalation from the skin, generally not
visible, when it is calle&insensible perspiration. When visible,
it is called sensible perspiration, or sweat. The skin excretes,
perhaps, more water than the kidneys, amounting to between
one and two pounds daily. Other excretions are also eliminated

by the skin, so that it becomes one of the most important organs
of the body.

Diseases of the Skin.

It is beyond the scope of this article to consider the rarer dis-
eases of the skin, or to more than indicate the character and
simpler means of treatment of the more common affections.

At one time most of the skin diseases were thought to be
constitutional, and that the eruption was caused by attempted
elimination of the poison. It is now known that most of the
skin diseases are of local origin. A certain class are caused by
vegetable parasites ; another class by animal parasites ; others by
the local effects of heat or cold, or by the irritation of mechan-
ical or chemical agents ; others are in a measure dependent upon
the general health, and others to specific poisons, which include
syphilis and the eruptive fevers. The eruptive fevers will be
treated under the head of fevers.

Phthiriasis — Lousiness.

There are three distinct forms of pediculi, or lice, which in-
fest thehuman body: the pediculus corporis, or body-louse ; pedi-
cutus capitis, or head-louse; a~"d the pediculus pubis, or crab
louse. Low and filthy people may be infested with any or all
of these forms. Cleanly and respectable people are, therefore,
never affected by phthiriasis, or the lesions caused by these ped-
iculi, for if they come in contact with filthy people infested
with either variety, and should by accident get lice upon the
body or head, the fact is soon discovered, and the body rid of
them before sufficient time has elapsed to produce the charac-
teristic lesions or wounds. The fworite seat of the body-louse
is about the Iiips or shoulders. They are seldom found upon
the body when the clothing is removed, but may be found in the
seams of the under-garments, where they also lay their eggs.
The head-lice, by their bites and by the excoriations caused by
scratching, not infrequently cause an eczema of the scalp which
sometimes eventuates in abscesses. The c-ab-louse may cause a
considerable'eruption over the parts of the body infested by
it. It is a small red louse, very difficult to see. It clings very
firmly to the roots of the hairs and to the skin by means of crab-
like claws. Like the head-louse, it deposits its eggs or nits upon
the hairs.

Treatment. — In the case of phthiriasis from head lice,
the hair of the head should first be thoroughly soaked in com-
mon kerosene oil, two or three times a day, and wrapped up in
cloth for the first twenty-four hours. This will kill both the
lice and their nits. It is never necessary to cut the hair. At
the end of twenty-four hours the hair should be thoroughly
washed, and the excoriated patches may be treated with a little
oxide of zinc ointment. When caused by body lice the treat-
ment is very easy. The clothing is to be removed and thor-
oughly boiled and carefully ironed, and a thorough bath
given the body with soap and warm water. The excoriations
readily heal.

The crab louse is more difficult to destroy. By a thorough
application of one of the mercurial ointments, however, the
object may be accomplished.

652

PHYSIOLOGY AND MKDICINE.

]

Tig. 25.

The Acarus Scablei, or
Iteli Inject.

Scabies— The Itch.

The Itch is quite a different disease from phthiriasis,
although due to a parasite. It is caused by a minuteinsect, the
acarus scabiei, which bores into and underneath the epidermic
layer of the skin. A good idea of its appearance under the
microscope may be gained
from the accompanying
cut (Fig. 25). The female
causes the eruption and
itching by burrowing be-
neath the epidermis to de-
posit her eggs. The male
is said never to penetrate
the skin. The seat of the
eruption is most frequent
between the fingers, on the
inside of the wrist and on
the soles of the feet. Itch-
ing may be quite severe.
It is* a contagious disease,
and is frequently contract-
ed at school, where some
unkept child introduces it.
The disgrace attending it
is such that it is becoming a rather rare disease.

Treatment. — First rub the patient all over with strong soap,
and follow this by a hot bath, lasting an hour or more, after
which rub him thoroughly with a sulphur ointment. The clothes
are to be thoroughly boiled or baked.

Tinea Trichophytina — Ringworm.

Ringworm is caused by a vegetable parasite. It begins by
a smajl red spot, which enlarges with rapidity. As it increases
at the border it heals in the centre. The margin is red and
raised above the healthy skin. The centre of the patch is
scaly and of a dirty yellow color. There may be several
patches.

Treatment. — Red precipitate or citrine ointment well rubbed
in will usually cure the disease.

Acne.

Acne is a disease of the sebaceous glands at the roots of the
hairs. There are several varieties, all of which consist of an
eruption upon the face. The different forms are due to differ-
ent causes, but in most there is a disturbance of the general
health, frequently attended with dyspepsia and nervous de-
rangements. A very common variety is the acna puncta nigra,
or little black specks over the nose and face, due to little plugs of
sebaceous matter in the ducts of the glands, the projecting end
becoming blackened by a collection of dust. Another variety
consists of little white specks in the region of the eyes, consist-
ing of sebaceous matter beneath a very thin layer of skin.
Other varieties consist of inflammation surrounding the gland,
causing hard indurated nodules as large as half a pea.

Treatment. — The general health should be built up. If dys-
pepsia and constipation exist, remedies should be employed for
their cure. The local treatment of the disease should be left
to a physician.

Eczema — Salt Rheum.

Eczema is, perhaps, the most common of all skin diseases.
It occurs at all periods of life. It is non-contagious and may
be either acute or chronic. It may make its appearance upon
any part of the body, although it is most common upon the
hands, feet and scalp. Eczema has been called a catarrh of
the skin. It begins generally by itching and burning, redness
and congestion. Vesicles or pustules may appear. There is,
in all cases, an exudation, and crust or scales are formed. In-
filtration sometimes takes place, followed by fissures or cracks.
Itching is a prominent symptom. The most varied appearances
present themselves in different cases, but the essential- condi-
tion is a moist surface upon which an exudation or scabbing
takes place, which is attended by an unbearable itching, in
comparison with which the itching of the itch is a most pleas-
ant sensation. It appears upon the scalp and face of the-
infant, and spreads until sometimes the entire scalp and face are
completely covered by the crust. The feet and hands of adults
are the parts most affected.

Treatment. — Many cases of eczema are very difficult to
treat. In acute cases the most soothing applications are best.
The skin must be protected from the air. Both air and water
are very irritating in cases of eczema. The oxide of zinc oint-
ment is, perhaps, as soothing and valuable a dressing as can be
used. In chronic cases the scales must be removed, and some-
times require rather severe stimulating treatment, even to scrub-
bing with a brush and soap. If this is done, the parts must be
immediately dried and covered by a mild and soothing applica-
tion. Water is to be avoided when possible. The different
preparations of tar are most popular in the treatment of chronic
cases. Attention must be given to the general health. Tonics
are always required, together with cod liver oil. Starch and
sugar should be avoided in articles of diet, and a large amount
of fats taken. Any measure that will promote the general
health is in the right direction.

Erysipelas.

A disease characterized by fever, with a local inflammation of
the skin. The part inflamed is very red. The boundary-line
dividing the healthy from the diseased skin is very marked.

Erysipelas may arise from two circumstances. It may be
caused from a specific, contagious virus. When so arising it
is called idiopathic erysipelas. It may be preceded by some
wound, from which the inflammation radiates. Under this con-
dition it is called traumatic erysipelas.

At times this disease is very contagious and very fatal The
inflammation may extend to the tissue beneath the skin, forming
extensive abscesses. A large amount of connective tissue morti-
fies. There is a tendency for it to spread, principally on the
surface, but it may involve internal organs, as the throat and
the membrane covering the brain.

This is not a local, but a constitutional disease, and the patient
is not protected against but rather more liable to future ni:

A puerperal woman, coming in contact with erysipelatous
virus may contract some form of puerperal fever.

Treatment. — An erysipelatous patient should be kept by him-
self, especially away from wounded and puerperal patients. The

-?p

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

6 53

inflamed skin may be bathed in copperas water or painted with
the tincture of iodine. To prevent the inflammation fromspread-
ing, make a ring around it, upon the healthy skin, with nitrate
of silver or collodion. Internally : tincture of iron in twenty
drops, dose in water every two or three hours, and two grains of

quinine every hour or two. If the inflammation has extended
to the parts beneath the skin, and the skin is tense, incisions
should be made to relieve the tension and evacuate the pus.
Poultices are of great service when there is a tendency to gan-
grene.

-*THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM.**-

In the preceding pages we have seen how new matter, in the
form of food from the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms,
is being constantly introduced into the body to supply the
waste which is constantly taking place there.

To discover and appropriate these articles of food, to pro-
vide clothing necessary to sustain the temperature of the body,
and to secure shelter, it is necessary that man be provided with
power of locomotion, as well as power of movement of one part
of the body upon another, as the arms upon the trunk and the
fingers upon the hands.

This power of motion and locomotion is resident in certain
organs, the lean meat of the body, called muscles. Muscles
are of two kinds, voluntary and involuntary. The voluntary
muscles are those which contract in response to the will, such

as the muscles of the face, arms and legs. The involuntary
muscles are those whose contraction does not depend upon
our wishes, such as the heart, which goes on contracting month
after month, and year after year, sleeping or waking, never
stopping while we live. It is estimated that during a life of
eighty years it propels half a million tons of blood ! Every
muscle is a bundle of tens of thousands of fibres. These fibres
are from ^hs to ttVst of an inch in thickness, and are made
up of hundreds of fibrillae only 25 J )0I ) of an inch in diameter.
The substance of these fibrillae presents a peculiar striated
appearance, due to the fact that thev are made up of elongated
bead-like nuclei.

Every fibre has the power, under certain conditions, of shorten-
ing its length, while it at the same time increases its thickness.

Fig. 36.

A, a muscular fibre breaking up into its fibrillae; C, a muscular fibre
breaking up into disks; D, a muscular fibre with contractile substance
torn, and the sarcolemma still intact.

Fig. 37. Muscles of the Arm.

P, the power; F t the fulcrum; IV, the weight

This power is called muscular contractity, and when, in virtue
of this power, a muscular fibre contracts, it tends to bring its
ends together with whatever may be fastened to them.

The great majority of the muscles are attached to levers,
which are the bones of the body. Figure 27 will illustrate the
different kinds of levers described in mechanics, and sufficiently
explain the movements of the different levers of the body upon
each other.

JiJ

654

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

-frTHE BONES.-h-

To give form and symmetry to the body, as well as to afford
attachment and leverage to the muscles, by which locomotion is
made possible, an essentially different tissue from any yet con-
sidered is necessary. This tissue must be hard, strong and un-
yielding, and so disposed as to form a frame- work for the sup-
port of the soft parts.

Such a frame-work we find in the skeleton, which is made up
of bones of various sizes and shapes, and known as long, short,
flat and irregular bones, and so disposed as to perfectly
fulfil the offices for which they are intended. Some of the
bones are designed principally for the protection of soft and
delicate parts. Such are the bones of the cranium, which are
immovably dovetailed together so as to form a strong box for
the enclosure and protection of the brain.

Some not only afford protection to delicate organs and aid in
preserving form and symmetry, but at the same time afford at-
tachment for muscles, and thus aid in movements essential to
life. Thus the ribs afford protection to the heart and lungs,
maintain the form and symmetry of the chest, and afford attach-
ment for the respiratory muscles.

The long bones are found in the limbs, where they form a
system of levers, which, in the lower extremities, have to sus-
tain the weight of the trunk, and, besides, confer the power of
locomotion. In the upper extremities (Fig. 27) they are essen-
tial to those movements necessary in all manual labor.

The short and irregular bones are found where great
strength and solidity are required. They are shaped also for the
attachment of numerous muscles and for protection of certain
delicate organs.

Fig. 88. A Perfectly Mlianed Foot.

Bone tissue is the hardest structure of the animal body, and
at the same time possesses a certain degree of toughm
elasticity. Kvery bone, be it long or short, is composed of
what is called fundamental substance. It is a r>
organic animal substance, called ostine, in combination with
various inorganic salts, of which the phosphate and carbonate

of lime largely predominate. To the organic substance are due
its toughness and elasticity, while to the inorganic salts must be
credited its hardness and solidity.

If a bone be soaked in dilute hydrochloric acid for a time,
its mineral constituents will be removed and the organic sub-
stance will remain in the shape of the
original bone. This is no longer hard
and unyielding, but is soft, pliable and
elastic ; and, if a long bone, it may be
tied in a knot, as shown in Fig. 29.

If, on the other hand, the bone be
burned for a short time in an open fire,
the organic substance is consumed, and
the mineral constituents remain, in
which case the bone remains hard and
in its original shape, but has lost its
elasticity. It is now very brittle ancL
easily broken.

The point of union between two
bones is called a joint. Here the sur-
faces are coated with smooth cartilage
and covered with a delicate membrane
which secretes a peculiar fluid for lubri-
cating the articular surfaces.

DISEASES OF THE BONES.

In children and young people the or- "*" a9 " A **oi» wlili

ganic substance of the bones preponder- °" In ? , I^ n ! , ; Sm,, " "T
__ , , moved. Tied in » Knot.

ates. The bones are, therefore, elastic

and very difficult to break, but are soft, and easily bent and
deformed. Bow-legs may be caused by requiring a child to
sustain the weight of its body upon its legs too early.

In old people the inorganic constituents of the bones
preponderate, and therefore their bones are very brittle and
easily broken. With them, great care against falling should be
observed.

Rickets.

There is a disease of early childhood known as rickets, in
which the mineral constituents of the bones are not deposited in
normal quantity, and, as a result, the bones become Tery soft;
and, by action of the muscles, they are bent i»to all sorts of
deformed shapes. Thus result bow-legs, knock-knees, pigeon-
breasts and deformities of spine and pelvis. Enlargement of the
. kes place ; the head grows too fast and the face too slow.

The usually caused by poor food and damp,

unhealthy apartments. The little patient seldom dies, but gen-
erally becomes more or less deformed.

Treatment. — Correct diet, plenty of g">od. pure milk, suf-
ficient animal food, and an abundance of fresh air. Give the

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

655

child cold sponge baths of short duration, and rub briskly with
a towel. The child must be kept off its feet and required to
sleep on a mattress. The limbs may require splints.

Deformities from Clothing.
Silly young girls — and most young girls are silly in matters of
dress— deform their bodies for life by wearing corsets laced so as
to compress the lungs and heart, and force downward the ab-
dominal organs into unnatural positions, when, by the compres-
sion of the blood vessels, the organs of the abdomen and pelvis
become congested, and conditions are developed from which
they can never recover. The great regret is that so many of
them remain silly, and that even mothers may be found as silly
as the girls. Corsets which are used to destroy the vital organs
of our girls are capable of doing vastly more harm than the
little iron shoes which are used to destroy the feet of Chinese
ladies, because of the greater importance of the organs involved.
A young American girl would have no difficulty in seeing that
the compressed and deformed baby foot of a Chinese lady is not

handsome, but it is really too bad rtiat she cannot be made to
see that her permanently deformed body, with her ribs all
crushed in upon her vital organs, is not beautiful.

Deformed Feet.
But deformed feet are not alone found in China. American
young men and young women will often wear shoes one or two
sizes too short and with narrow toes, which pile the toes of the
foot one on the top of another until the most terrible perma-
nent deformities exist, and which, with corns and enlarged
joints, cause the ugly shapes which we see in men and women.
Besides the deformity and the excessive pain, the young lady or
gentleman is unable to walk or dance, except in a hopping,
most awkward way. The motive for this species of self-
imposed torture is to be handsome and admired, but they
defeat their purpose in making for themselves ugly, deformed
feet, and substitute an awkward and stumbling gait for a grace
and beauty of movement possible only with a well-shaped and
unbound foot.

Ht*THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.**-

The parts and functions of the body which we have thus far
considered stand in subordination to the wonderful system now
to be examined. "It may truly be said," are the words of
Draper, " that the position of any animal in the scale of life is
directly dependent on the degree of development of its ner-
vous system. Through this it is brought into relation with the
external world, deriving sensations or impressions therefrom.
Through this, also, all voluntary muscular contractions or
movements take place. "

Whatever the grade of intelligence may be, the degree of
development or expansion of the nervous system is in close cor-
respondence thereto, from the lowest conditions in which it is
first making its appearance, in forms of animal life which are
scarcely distinguishable from vegetable forms, up to its highest
elaboration in the cerebro-spinal system of man.

The nervous system may be considered as of two portions,
the cerebro-spinal system and the sympathetic system. The
cerebro-spinal system consists of the brain, the spinal cord,
and the nerves which proceed from them, together with their
ganglia. The sympathetic system consists of a series of ner-
vous ganglia placed on the posterior wall of the thoracic and
abdominal cavities upon each side of the vertebral column, and
of nervous threads or filaments which connect these together,
and supply the walls of the blood-vessels and the internal
organs. Comparatively little is known about the functions of
the sympathetic system, except in so far as it may regulate the
size of the blood-vessels ; and, indeed, this action appears to
depend upon the filaments received from the spinal nerves.

In both divisions are found two kinds of structure— fibrous
and cellular. The latter are found in masses of greater or less
size and of various shapes, and are called ganglia. The former,
consisting of fibre, serve to connect the ganglia together and

to put them in communication with the integument, the mus-
cles and all parts of the body. The function of the ganglia or
nerve centres is for the reception of impressions and for the
origination of motions. The cortex of the brain is the great-
est of these ganglia in extent and in function. In this won-
derful ganglion originates voluntary motion ; here also are
received, through the special senses, the impressions of exter-
nal objects and circumstances, and from it originate the pro-
cesses of intellection.

It would be beyond the scope and purposes of this article to
recite the more minute anatomy of the nervous system, for to
be of service to the reader it would necessitate space for explan-
ation and illustration beyond the compass of the entire article.
It will be sufficient to indicate the position and character of
the larger organs which go to make it up.

The brain is that part of the nervous system contained within
the cavity of the skull (Fig. 30). It consists of the cerebrum,
cerebellum, pons varolii and medulla oblongata. Besides the
protection afforded this delicate organ by the strong bony
walls of the skull, the brain is enveloped by three distinct
membranes. The outer one, called the dura mater, is thick
and strong, and lines the bones of the skull. It dips down
between the different parts of the brain, forming strong parti-
tions, so that one part shall not press upon and injure another.
Next beneath are two layers of a thin membrane called the
arachnoid, or spider's web. This is a serous membrane, with
functions like that covering the heart and lungs ; it is covered
with epithelium, and secretes a fluid, small in amoum, which
lubricates and serves in a measure, perhaps, as a kind of
cushion to protect the brain from jars received by the body.
Beneath this is a very delicate membrane, composed principally
of minute blood-vessels. It is closely adherent to the substance

ik.

■7-

.■

6 5 6

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

of the brain, dipping down into all the sulci, and even finding
its way through the posterior fissures into the ventricles or
cavities occupying the centre of the brain. Its use is to nourish
the brain.

The cerebrum (C C) represents the principal mass of the
brain. It is divided by a deep fissure, from before backward,
into two lateral halves, called the right and left hemispheres.
The two hemispheres are connected together at the bottom of
the fissure by a large bundle of white fibres, called the corpus
callosum. In the centre of each hemisphere is a large cavity
called the right and left lateral ventricles. The surface of
the cerebrum is composed of cellular gray matter and presents
a convoluted appearance, as shown in Figure 30. This gray
cellular matter of the surface of the cerebrum is the anatomical
substratum of the intellect. In
that part of the surface of the
hemisphere mid-way between
the forehead and the back part
of the head originates volun-
tary motion. One special func-
tion of the part just back of
this seems to be the reception
of impressions of external ob-
jects, brought hither by the
nerves of special sense. The
forward part of the hemi-
spheres appears to be wholly
for the purposes of intellec-
tion. By reference to Figure
30 the reader will observe a
sharp point of bone in contact
with the brain just back of and
a liule above the eye. From
it extending upward and back-
ward is a deep fissure, the fis-
sure of Sylvius. Toward the
front part of this fissure, and
just above it, is a small convo-
lution of gray substance called
the third frontal convolution.
The back portion of this con-
volution on the left side of the
brain is the anatomical substra-
tum of the faculty of speech.

Fig. 30. The Human Brain.

C, C, cerebrum: cb., cerebellum; m. ob., medulla oblongata.

When this part is destroyed all language is lost. Language,
moreover, is never lost except by disease of this part.

The interior of the hemispheres is composed of white matter
which consists of fibres connecting together different parts of
the brain, and of fibres passing down into the spinal cord. The
fibres are probably connected with the cells on the surface of
the hemispheres, and after being gathered into a bundle pass
down to other ganglia, there to be put in communication with
the skin, muscles and viscera of the body. There are certain
collections of gray matter at the base of the hemispheres, called
the basal ganglia. Fibres from these ganglia unite with the
fibres from the convolutions in two triangular-shaped bundles,
the crura cerebri, one from each hemisphere, and pass down-

ward through the pons varolii into the medulla oblongata (m.
ob. ), as the oblong body at the top of the spinal cord is called.

The cerebellum or little brain (cb.) is situated beneath the
posterior lobes of the cerebrum. It measures about three and
a half by two and a half inches, and is about two inches thick
in its thickest place. It weighs about five ounces, being only
about one-eighth as large as the cerebrum. It is composed of
gray and white matter, and, like the cerebrum, is divided into
two lobes. Its functions are not well understood, but are,
at least, related to the co-ordination of movements.

The pons varolii is a bond of union or bridge between the
cerebrum above, the cerebellum behind, and the medulla oblon-
gata below — being made up of fibres from these bodies and
passing in different directions from one to another.

The medulla oblongata is
the upper enlarged part of the
spinal cord. It lies within the
cranial cavity, and is connected
with other parts of the brain
by bundles of fibres passing up-
ward through the pons varolii.
It is composed of gray and
white matter, but, unlike the
cerebrum, the white matter oc-
cupies the surface, while the
masses of gray matter are in
the interior. From the me-
dulla are given off all of the
cranial nerves except two pairs,
the olfactory, or nerves of
smell, and the optic, or nerves
of sight. These two pairs take
their apparent origin at the
base of the cerebrum.

The spinal cord is the contin-
uation of the nervous matter
from the me Julia down through
the spinal canal. Were it not
for the gray matter in its inte-
rior, which is a real ganglionic
centre, it might be considered
a great nerve trunk from which
all the other nerves are but
branches. The spinal cord, like
the cerebrum, is divided into two lateral halves by a deep fissure
in front and behind. The two halves are connected together in
the centre, throughout the length of the cord. The surface of
the cord, like t'.e medulla oblongata, is composed of white mat-
ter. In the interior of each half is a crescentric-shaped collec-
sion of gray matter which extei ds throughout the length of the
cord. The forward horn of the gray crescent is broader than
the posterior horn, and contains some very large nerve-cells.
These horns are called the anterior and posterior cornua.
The centre of the crescent to which they belong is connected
with the gray crescent of the opposite side by a band of gray
matter. The white matter of the cord is made up of fibres
which connect the gray matter of the brain with the gray matter

•f s ""

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

657

"71

of the cord and with the ganglia on the roots of the spinal
nerves.

There are thirty-one pairs of nerves given off from the cord,
one pair passing out at each vertebral arch enclosing the
spinal canal.

Each nerve arises from the cord by two roots, the anterior
and posterior roots, which then unite to form a single trunk or
spinal nerve.

If the trunk of a spinal nerve be irritated as by pinching,
two things happen : in the first place, all the muscles to which
its filaments are distributed contract ; in the second place,
acute pain is felt, and the pain is referred to that part of the
skin to which the fibres of the nerve are distributed.

If the anterior root of the nerve be irritated in the same way,
all of the muscles to which the nerve is distributed will contract,
but no pain will be felt.

So, if the posterior root of the nerve be irritated in the same
way, and the anterior root be left untouched, acute pain will be
felt and referred to the whole area of the skin to which the
nerve is distributed, but none of the muscles contract.

It is, therefore, clear that all the power for causing muscular
contraction which a spinal nerve possesses is centered in the
fibres which comprise its anterior roots, while all the power of
giving rise to sensation resides in its posterior roots. The
anterior roots, therefore, are commonly called motor, and the
posterior roots are called sensory.

If the anterior roots of a spinal nerve be divided in a living
animal, it is unable to move or contract the muscles to which
the nerve is distributed, but every part of the skin remains sen-
sitive to touch. But if the anterior root be left uninjured and
the posterior root be divided, the animal will be able to move
or contract all the muscles, but is unable to feel anything over
any part of the skin to which the filaments are distributed.

By these experiments, then, it is clear that the anterior roots
are composed of fibres which convey impulses from the gang-
lionic centres in the brain or cord to the muscles, causing the
muscles to contract. It is also plain that the posterior roots
are composed of fibreswhich carry impressions from the surface
where they originate to the centres in the brain and cord.

Those nerves which carry impulses from the central organ
to the periphery are called efferent nerves, while those which
convey impressions from the outside to the central organ are
called afferent nerves.

If similar experiments be performed upon the spinal cord, it
will be found to act in many respects similar. If the cord be
divided in the back, the animal will be unable to move the hind
legs, and this part of the body will be insensible to pain, while
all the parts forward of the cut will retain all the powers of
motion and sensation.

If, by an accident, a man should suffer a similar injury, all of
the parts below the wound would be paralyzed. The patient
would be unable by his own will-power to move his legs ; neither
would he have any sensation in the parts. If he should be
blindfolded, and the soles of his feet be tickled with a feather, he
may jerk up his legs in the most violent manner, still he will not
only know nothing of the tickling, but will have no knowledge
of the jerking of his legs, for the reason that all impressions
made upon his lower extremities are cut off from his brain,

which is the anatomical basis of his mind. He can make no
intentional or voluntary movement of his legs for the same
reason ; his brain is cut off from the muscles of his legs at the
point where the cord is cut in two. The movement in response to
the tickling of the feather is very easily explained. The impres-
sion from the sole of the foot passes up by the sensory fibres
to the gray matter of the cord, which, acting as a centre, origin-
ates there an impulse or stimulus, which, passing out over the
motor filaments to the muscles, causes them to contract, thus
giving the violent jerk to the legs.

The above is but an illustration showing that many of our
common movements, such as walking, or any habitual and oft-
repeated movement, may be executed without requiring the
attention of the mind ; some of the basal ganglia of the brain
acting as a centre, and originating the motor impulses.

If not the whole cord, but only the anterior part, be injured,
a paralysis of motion below the injury results, while sensation
will remain perfect. If the posterior part be injured, on the
other hand, sensation is lost while motion is unaffected.

If one lateral half of the spinal cord be divided, say on the
right side of the body, the patient will immediately lose all
power in the right leg, but sensation in the right leg will be
perfect. He will, however, lose all feeling in the left leg,
while the power of motion in this leg remains good. Hence,
it must be true that the sensory fibres cross over from the
side where they enter to the opposite side of the cord to pass
up to the brain, while the motor impulses sent down from the
brain must pass down on the same side of the cord by which
they pass out to the muscles.

Fig;. 31. Mode of Termination of Motor Nerves.

A, primitive fasciculus of a muscle of the human subject: 2, nerve tube;
3, medullary substance of nerve tube; 4, terminal plate situated beneath
the sarcolemma.

If this be true, it follows that a longitudinal division down
the centre of the cord throughout its entire length would
destroy sensation on both sides of the body, without interfering
at all with motion.

If, however, the longitudinal incision be carried up through
the lower part of the medulla, paralysis of motion on both
sides immediately results, for at this point all of the motor
fibres from the right side of the brain cross over to the left side
of the cord, while those from the left side of the brain cross
over to the right side of the cord.

■ •? s •>-

J^I

■♦<.

658

HYSIOLOGV AND MEDICINE.

Nerve Endings. — The motor fibres of the spinal nerves
originate in the anterior cornua of gray matter in the cord, and
are believed to be intimately connected there with certain
nerve cells, which are capable of originating motor stimulus.
The distal end of the motor fibre passes through the sarcolemtna
of each muscular fibre and is brought into the closest relation
with the muscular substance, as shown in Figure 31.

The sense of touch is possessed by all parts of the body,
some parts more perfect than others. Wherever the sense of
touch is delicate, the deep layer of the skin is raised up into
little conical papilla. Into these papillae the terminal ends
of the sensory nerve fibre enters. In certain localities, as the
tips of the fingers, where the tactile sense is very acute, the

Fig. 32. Taste-Buds From the Rabbit.

nerve ending is enlarged in the papillae, forming a little oval
swelling called a tactile corpuscle. Filaments of the nerve of
taste terminate in a similar manner in papillae upon the tongue.
Surrounding these papillae are peculiar cells, or taste-buds, in
which is supposed to reside the sense of taste. Figure 32
shows these taste-buds in the rabbit.

Fig. 33. Olfactory Ganglion and Nerves.

The endings of the filaments of the olfactory nerve, or the
special nerve of smell, upon the delicate mucous membrane in
the upper part of the nasal cavity, is beautifully shown in Fig-
ure 33. The termination of the auditory and optic nerves is
explained in the chapter upon the special senses of sight and
hearing.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The diseases of the nervous system, as might be expected
from its delicate anatomy and complicated functions, take a
wide range, from the slightest twinge of pain in a minute nerve
filament to total paralysis or hopeless insanity.

In all the graver manifestations of nervous disease, the advice
of a physician skilled in the treatment of disease is naturally
sought ; this will render discussion of the more serious affec-
tions unnecessary. Xo class bf diseases are more serious than
those of the nervous system, and while it may be true that
there is less tendency to a spontaneous recovery than any other
ciass of diseases, yet it is also true that no class of diseases are
more favorably influenced by proper treatment.

The chief symptoms of nervous disease are usually manifested
either by pain, convulsions, paralysis, trembling, sleeplessness,
imbecility or insanity. Two or more of these conditions majr
exist in the same patient. Pain is a symptom common to
many diseases. The disease in which it constitutes the only
symptom is

Neuralgia.

Pain may have its seat along the course of any nerve. It re-
ceives different names corresponding to the seat of pain. Thus
we hear of facial neuralgia, inter-costal neuralgia, occipital
neuralgia, sciatica, or neuralgia of the sciatic nerve, gastralgia,
or neuralgia of the stomach, etc., etc.

The pain of neuralgia varies in different cases and at differ-
ent times from a slight, dull ache to the most excruciating tor-
ture. The nerve which is the seat of the pain, in many instances
at least, is in a state of inflammation. It is usually tender,
as shown by examination, at points where pressure can be made
upon the nerve, and following an attack there is usually a
certain soreness and tenderness over the seat of the pain.

Treatment. — It is impossible in this article to give the space
which the subject demands. The treatment embraces a large
number of remedies and many methods of procedure. That
which has affected a permanent cure in one case may have no
effect in another. In some cases the pain is so persistent as to
tax the physician to the utmost, who finds a remedy after hav-
ing almost exhausted the pharmacopoeia.

Some form of opium will always afford temporary relief if
taken in sufficient doses, and it is one of the most valuable cura-
tive remedies in many cases. The patient is apt to be in poor
In such a case, if a permanent cure is to be anticipated,
the general health must be improved, and the body weight
greatly increased. A method has, of late years, been very suc-
lessfully employed in sanitariums, where the patient is required
to take the necessary amount of rest in bed, to take a large
amount of the most nourishing food, at intervals of only a
few hours, and accompanied with baths, massage and suitable
tonic treatment. By this means the body weight is greatly
increased, the general health built up, and this is almost always
followed by entire and ]iermanent relief from pain.
Convulsions.

The term convulsion may be applied to an acute spasmodic
contraction of the whole muscular system, as in infantile con-
vulsions, or to an occasional paroxysm, as in an epileptic fit, or
to the constant irregular contraction of certain muscles, as in
chorea or Saint Vitus' dance.

-X

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

6 59

Treatment. — In the case of infantile convulsions the child
may be placed in a tub of warm water, and cold water may be
poured upon its head. After the first paroxysm is over, the
cause of the convulsion should be sought out. If due to denti-
tion, or " cutting teeth," or to worms in the bowels, the proper
remedy for such conditions should be applied. Paregoric or
bromide of potassium will quiet the system.

In case of chorea the general health must receive attention.
Quinine and iron will be found to be most valuable tonics.
Malt or cod-liver oil is called for. A solution of arsenic,
given in large doses, is perhaps the most valuable of all medi-
cinal substances in this dis-
ease, but should be given
only under the observation
of a physician.

Epilepsy.

Epilepsy, or "fits,"
needs no description here,
since there is no difficulty
in recognizing the disease
when it exists. If all cases
of epilepsy could receive
proper and thorough treat-
ment from the beginning,
I believe that in the ma-
jority of cases it could be
cured, but frequently no
physician is consulted until
after a large number of
paroxysms have fi n al 1 y
aroused the friends to the
danger. Even when ad-
vice is sought, treatment
is seldom thorough or car-
ried on for a sufficient
length of time. In few
cases should treatment be
left off before the end of,
at least, two years.

The treatment of benefit
in the greatest number of
cases is the bromide of
potassium or sodium, to-
gether with tonic treat-
ment and a generous diet, sleep, rest and quiet. The bro-
mide of sodium affects the stomach less, and, therefore, in
most cases is to have the preference. It should be taken,
according to the age of the patient, in doses of from two to
ten grains, in a wine-glass of water, three times a day after
meals.

Paralysis.

Paralysis may o«cur at any age, and is due to many causes.
It may vary in extent from a single muscle, or group of muscles,
to a loss of power over almost the entire body.

Paralysis may result from an injury to a nerve, in which case
only the muscles supplied by that particular nerve are affected.
It may result from an injury to or a disease of the spinal cord.

In such a case the paralysis may be found on one or both sides
of the body, or in only a single group of muscles, according to
the seat and extent of the injury. But in every case the par-
alysis is always below the point of disease or injury of the cord.
It may result from injury or disease of the brain, in which case
the paralysis usually affects one entu;e side > r the body, when it
is called lumaplegia. When the disease or injury is upon the
right side of the brain, the left leg and left arm are paralyzed ;
and when the disease is upon the left side of the brain, the par-
alysis is upon the right side of the body. This is explained by
the fact that the motor fibres arising from one side of the brain

cross over in the medulla
to the opposite side of the
body.

Infantile paralysis oc-
curs usually in children be-
tween one and four years
of age. The child may
be fretful and troublesome
for a day or two previous,
but frequently the first
symptom noticed is the
paralysis. This may oc-
cur in the leg or arm on
the same side, or the leg
on one side and the arm
on the other, or both legs
may be paralyzed and the
arms not affected, or both
arms may be paralyzed and
the legs remain well ; or
only one leg or one arm
may be the seat of the
paralysis. The paralysis
is due to an inflammation
of the anterior cornu of
the gray matter of the
spinal cord, and the extent
of the paralysis will de-
pend upon the extent of
the inflammation. The
child will probably not
die. Some of the paralyzed
muscles will regain their
power. Others never will, but will waste away. The child
will grow up more or less of a cripple. The treatment should
be left to a physician.

In paralysis of the extensor muscles of the hand, due to
lead-poisoning, recovery will take place under proper treat-
ment. Remove the cause. If the patient be a printer or
worker in lead, a change of occupation will be necessary.
Iedide of potassium may be taken in ten-grain doses three
times a day after meals in half a glass of water.

Hemaplegia, or paralysis of one side of the body due to
injury or disease of the brain, may be caused by embolism or
thrombosis (plugging of a blood vessel), thus cutting off nutri-
tion from a portion of the brain, or may be caused by a hemor-

Fi g. 34, Superficial Branches of the Facial and the Fifth Nerves.

Trunk of the seventh or facial nerve; 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, branches
of the fifth nerve.

660

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

rhage into the substance of the brain or upon its surface, and
thus, by tearing the nerve fibres, or by pressure, the function of
the organ is destroyed ; or paralysis may result from a tumor
or an abscess in the brain, or from other causes. The results as
regards the question of recovery from the paralysis will depend
upon the exact seat and extent of the injury. The treatment
should be left to the advice of a physician.

There are a great number of diseases which manifest strange
symptoms, affecting both the motor and sensory nerves, but
which would require the attention of a physician, and which
would take up too much space to treat here.
Insomnia.

Insomnia, or sleeplessness, is a symptom common to many
nervous diseases, and one which requires prompt attention, as
without sleep little good can be accomplished in other directions
by treatment. The treatment must depend very much upon the
age, occupation and other circumstances of the patient. If in
a child, out-door play at games requiring exercise sufficient to
produce fatigue should be encouraged.

In men and women worried by business or domestic cares,
disappointments or anxieties, the case is much more serious.
If possible, they should, for a time, leave home and business,
when they will often leave their worries, also, behind them.
Mental labor should be abandoned entirely, and physical labor
or sports requiring little thought, of a kind most comform-
able to the tastes of the patient, and affording the most pleasant
diversion, should be chosen and followed to the point of
fatigue. A generous diet of the most nutritious food should be
taken, and a comfortable spring-bed, in a well-ventilated, cheer-
ful room, should be provided. One of the bromides, with tonics,
may be prescribed, together with meat and milk. In severe
cases the hydrate of chloral, in from fifteen to thirty-grain
doses, may be given at bed-time.

Insanity.

Insanity, the most dreaded of all the nervous diseases, is a
mental symptom dependent upon a disease of the brain. It is

commonly classified according to the character of the delusions
and conduct of the patient. Thus we have mania, melan-
cholia and dementia. This classification is further divided
into the acute and chronic of each class.

The cause of the disease is more often hereditary than other-
wise. Aside from hereditary taint, general poor physical
health, nervous prostration, anxiety and worry will rank next
as causes of attack. Where a predisposition exists, the most
trivial disorders and circumstances, which, in other persons,
would be unfelt, may act, in these individuals, as exciting causes.
Child-birth, typhoid fever, business failures, disappointment in
love, religious or other excitement, and a hundred other things,
may act as an exciting cause in a person of an unstable nervous
system.

In the beginning of an attack there is usually lack of aDpe-
tite, loss of weight, sleeplessness, constipation. If these
symptoms were promptly relieved many cases of insanity might
be averted.

Treatment. — After the disease is fully developed, if melan-
choly delusions are present, the greatest care and watchfulness
should be observed to guard against suicide or self-injury. In
case of violent mania, care is to be taken that no injury is done
to others.

Prompt attention should be given to secure a movement of
the bowels, to induce the patient to take a suitable amount of
food, and to secure not less than eight hours' sleep during the
twenty-four. If this cannot be secured at home, the patient
should be sent to an institution where he can have the proper
care, without a clay's delay. The choice of an institution will
depend upon the circumstances of the patient ; if possible, an
institution should be chosen where there are not too many
patients, where individual care is certain to be given by physi-
cians skilled in the treatment of such cases. If the patient is
poor, he will have to be sent to a State institution, in which
case avoid, if possible, a crowded ward. With the best treat-
ment, from forty to fifty per cent of patients recover.

1 An ** " - i ^i"

-<* THE EYE.*-

Anatomy.
The eyeballs and nearly all of their accessory parts are
securely contained in two bony cavities called the orbits. These
are shaped like four-sided pyramids, with their bases pointing
forward and outward, and their apices backward and inward.
They are about 1 \ inches deep, and their axes are incljned to
each other at an angle of 42 degrees t a 43 degrees. Each orbit
has a roof, floor, inner and outer wall. The roof is very thin
and separates the orbital from the cranial cavity. At its outer
angle there is a depression for the lachrymal or tear gland, and
another at its inner angle for the pulley of the superior oblique
muscle. The inner wall has in front the lachrymal groove for
lachrymal sac. The base or facial opening of the orbit has a

strong, bony edge, and is about !# in. wide, and 1)$ in. high.
The apex is formed by the optic foramen and canal, which con-
nects the orbit with the interior of the skull, and through which
the optic nerve passes.

The orbits are lined by a vascular membrane, which nourishes
the bony walls, and which is continuous at fissures and sutures
with the periosteum of facial bones, and dura mater within the
skull. It also forms a tendinous ring around optic foramen,
giving origin to the ocular muscles.

Upon this membrane, or periorbita, and filling the space not
occupied by the eyeball and its appendages, is found connective
tissue and loose fat, which serve as a support to the globe and
facilitate the various movements of which it is capable. The

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

66 1

connective tissue is thickened in places, forming sheaths for the
muscles, vessels and nerves, and fascia for connecting the parts
within the orbit with one another, and with the periorbita.

The optic nerves originate at the base of the brain, in the
thalami optici and corpora quadrigemina, and receive filaments
from other portions of the brain and spinal cord. From their
origin they run forward as optic tracts until they unite just pos-
terior to the optic foramina and form the optic chiasm, in which
they decussate. The fibres of the inner side of each tract cross
over to inner side of opposite nerve and supply the inner half of
the retina on that side. The outer fibres of each tract pass
directly, without crossing, to outer half of nerve and retina of
same side. The optic nerves proper begin at the outer anterior
edge of chiasm, and, rapidly diverging as they leave the cranial
cavity, pass through the orbits to the eyeballs, which they enter
about two lines within and half a line below the posterior pole.

The eyeball is situated in the anterior part of the orbit a lit-
tle to the outer side of its axis, and about equi-distant from the

Fig. 35.

i, Optic nerve: 2, sclera; 3, cornea; 4, Schlemm's canal: 5, choroid; 6,
body: 7, iris: 8, crystalline lens: 9, macula lutea of retina; 10, retina; 11,
sory ligament and canal of Petit: 12, vitreous.

upper and lower walls. It is maintained in position by the
optic nerve behind and the lids in front, and is further sup-
ported behind and on the sides by a cushion of fat. It is
nearly spherical in form, but a side view shows it to be com-
posed of segments of two spheres of different diameters. The
anterior segment, which forms the transparent cornea, has the
shorter diameter and is therefore more prominent than the pos-
terior or scleral portion. The eye is longer from before back-
ward than transversely, and is shortest vertically. The ante-
rior pole is the geometrical centre of the cornea, and the pos-
terior pole is the geometrical centre of the bottom of the eye.
The axis is an imaginary straight line extending from pole to
pole. The equatorial plane is an imaginary plane through the
centre of the globe perpendicular to the axis. The equator is

the line where the equatorial plane cuts the surface of the eye-
ball. Meridianal planes are imaginary planes coinciding with
the axis. Meridians are lines where meridianal planes cut the
surface.

The eyeball has three investing membranes or coats which
maintain its shape and enclose three transparent humors. The
outer coat embraces the cornea and sclera, the middle coat the
choroid, ciliary body and iris, and the inner coat is the retina.
The humors are the aqueous, crystalline and vitreous.

The greater part (five-sixths) of the outer coat, commonly
known as the "white of the eye," is called the sclera (from
Gr. skleros, hard). It is very firm and elastic, nearly one-half
a line in thickness behind, where it is re-enforced by the sheath
of optic nerve, and gradually becomes thinner toward the
anterior border, where it is only one-fifth of a line thick.
The sclera is continuous in front with the cornea, being
joined to the latter by bevelled edges, the outer overlapping the
cornea more than the inner edge. The opening in the sclera
behind, for the passage of the optic nerve fibres, is par-
tially closed by a few fibres from the sclera, which are
joined by the sheaths of the nerve fibres, and together
form a sieve-like membrane called the lamina cribrosa.
Near the inner anterior edge of the sclera is a circular
channel called Schlevim' 1 s canal. It encloses venous
plexus, receives veins from sclera and ciliary plexus, and
communicates with the anterior chamber and anterior
ciliary veins.

The cornea (Latin, cornu, horn) forms the anterior
oae-sixth of the outer coat and is also very dense and
elastic. It fits into the sclera very much as a watch
crystal does into a watch. It is made up of five layers,
viz. : the outer and the inner epithelial layers, the outer
and inner elastic membranes, and the corneal substance
proper. The latter embraces the bulk of the cornea, as
the epithelial and elastic layers are very thin. The cor-
neal substance is composed of elastic fibres, which are
arranged into bundles, and these again into layers,
whose general direction is parallel to the corneal surface.
The spaces between the fibres, bundles and layers is filled
by a cement-like substance, in which is a system of
canals and spaces containing serous fluid, lymph cells
and corneal corpuscles. The cornea, unlike the other
coats of the eye, has no blood-vessels, except at its edge,
where a very narrow zone of capillary loops is found.
It is sustained through the circulation of serum in the lymph
channels. Nerves are freely distributed throughout, chiefly
near the anterior surface in epithelial and elastic layers.

That portion of the middle coat which lines the inner sur-
face of the sclera is called the choroid behind, and the ciliary
body in front. The choroid extends from the optic nerve
entrance to a line just anterior to the equator. The ciliary
body extends from the anterior termination of the choroid to
that of the sclera, where it joins the iris, with which it is con-
tinuous. The iris hangs like a curtain from the anterior edge
of the ciliary body, floating in the aqueous humor. The cho-
roid is composed chiefly of blood-vessels with connective tis-
sue, pigment cells and a few muscular fibres. The ciliary body
may be considered as a prismatic ring with a posterior, anterior

ciliary
suspen-

Q sw

662

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

and inner edge. The inner edge gives attachment to the sus-
pensory ligament of the lens. In the anterior outer portion is
fotmd the ciliary, or muscle of accommodation, the outer fibres
of which are meridional and the inner are circular. The inner
posterior surface is raised into from seventy to eighty folds, the
ciliary processes. The iris has a central opening, the pupil,
through which the light passes to the interior of the eye. The
amount of light admitted is regulated bytwo muscles in the iris,
one of which dilates and the other contracts the pupil.

The retina is attached to the inner surface of the choroid,
and with it extends from the entrance of the optic nerve to the
ora serrata. It has ten layers, but only two are of special
importance, the others being accessory. The layer of rods and
cones receives the images of objects viewed, and the layer of
nerve fibres, which is an expansion of the fibres of the optic
nerve, transmits the impressions to the sensorium, and is recog-
nized as vision. The most sensitive part of the retina, the
macula lutea, corresponds very nearly with the posterior pole.

The aqueous humor is a watery fluid which fills the place
between the cornea and crystalline lens. This
space is divided by the iris into the anterior
and posterior chambers, which communicate
through the pupil.

The crystalline lens is a transparent double
convex lens, situated behind the iris and be-
tween the aqueous and vitreous humors. It
is enclosed by two structureless membranes,
the anterior and posterior capsules, which are
continuous, near the peripheral edge of the
lens, with the zonule of Zinn, or suspensory
ligament. Between the folds of the zonule
and the border of the lens is a triangular
space, canal of Petit, which is closed during
life by the folds falling together. The ante-
rior capsule supports the margin of the pupil
unless the pupil be dilated, in which case the
iris floats freely in the aqueous humor. The
lens, though clear and apparently homogene-
• ous in structure, is composed of flattened hex-
agonal fibres with dentated lateral edges, by
which they are firmly joined together. The
convexity of the lens is greater on the posterior than on the
anterior surface.

The vitreous body (Lat. vitreum, glass) fills the cavity
within the retina and behind the lens. It is a structureless,
gelatinous substance, possessing a refractive power less than
the lens, but greater than the aqueous humor. During foetal
life the hyaloid artery runs from papilla (optic nerve entrance)
to posterior surface of lens, rudiments of which sometimes per-
sist. The canal through which it passes is the canal of Cloouet,
or hyaloid canal. The anterior surface of the vitreous is hol-
lowed out for reception of the lens, forming the hyahidea
fossa. The vitreous has no vessels or nerves, and receives its
nutriment from the retina and uveal tract (middle coat).

The eyeball is moved by six muscles, five of which take their
origin from the tendinous ring around the optic foramen at the
apex of the orbit. Four are called the recti (straight) mus-

cles. They pass directly from their origin, over the globe, and
are inserted in the sclera near the corneal margin, one above,
one below, one on the inner and one on the outer side. The
fifth muscle, the superior oblique, passes to the upper inner
angle of the orbit, then through a tendinous ring — the pulley —
then backward and outward, beneath the superior rectus, to
upper, outer and posterior quadrant of the eyeball, where it is
inserted. The sixth muscle, the inferior oblique, arises at the
inner lower angle of the orbit and passes outward, downward,
backward, beneath the inferior rectus, then upward and back-
ward between external rectus and globe, and is inserted
close to the insertion of the superior oblique.

The superior rectus moves the eye upward and inward, and
rotates it slightly inward. The internal rectus, the strongest,
moves the eye inward, and the external moves it outward. The
superior oblique moves the eye downward and outward, rotat-
ing it inward. The inferior oblique moves the eye upward and
outward, rotating it outward. Three of the recti, the superior,
inferior and internal, and the inferior oblique, are controlled in

i, Inferior oblique:
'/, pulley of

Fig. M. Muscle* of the Eye.

a, cxt. rectus; 3. int. rectus: 4. inf. rectus: 5, sup. rectus: 6, sup. oblique:
sup. oblique: 9, 10, levator palpcbrz superior-is; 11, optic nerve.

their action by one nerve, the third, or oculo motorius. The
superior oblique is governed by the fourth, or trochlear nerve.
and the external rectus by the sixth, or abducens. The third
nerve also sends a branch to the ciliary muscle (muscle of ac-
commodation).

There are certain appendages of the eye which serve either
as a means of protection or aid in the performance of its func-
tion. Of these, the eyebrows, eyelids and lachrymal apparatus
arc the most important. The eyebrows are arched elevations of
skin above the orbits, covered with rows of short hairs, and serve
to protect the eye and to slightly influence the amount of light
admitted. The eyelids are two movable folds of skin covering the
eves in front and closing the orbital entrance. The upper lid
is the larger, measuring about four-fifths of an inch in height
11 1 von its inner surface. The lower is only about half an inch
high. The outer or skin covering of the lidt is continuous at

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

663

their edges with their inner mucous lining or conjunctiva (Lat.,
conjutigere, to join together), which is reflected from the lids
on to the eyeball, forming the retrotarsal fold of the conjunc-
tiva, and joining the lids to the globe. Between the skin and
conjunctiva the lids are composed of loose connective tissue,
muscle, cartilage, ligaments, glands, blood-vessels and nerves.
The so-called cartilages of the lids are not true cartilage, but
consist of dense fibrous tissue. They are two in number, one in
each lid. The upper is the larger, and is crescentric in shape.
The lower one is elliptical. They serve to maintain the form
of the lids and as points of attachment for ligaments which
bind the lids to edge of the orbit, and the muscle which lifts
the upper lid, the levator palpebne superioris. This muscle
arises just above the origin of the recti muscles and passes for-
ward along the roof of the orbit to its insertion around the
upper margin of the cartilage of the upper lid. It is supplied
by the third nerve.

The muscle which closes the lids, orbicularis palpebrarum,
arises from the edge of the orbit, near the inner angle of the
opening between the lids, and its fibres pass around the lids,
between the skin and cartilage, and unite at the outer angle.
It is supplied by the facial, supra-orbital and superior maxillary
nerves.

The eyelashes, or cilia, are rows of short, thick hairs on the
free margins of the lids, those of the upper lid curving upward
and those of the lower curving downward. Their follicles lie
in the connective tissue upon the cartilage, and are connected
with sebaceous glands which lubricate the cilia.

Imbedded in the cartilages are blind tubes into which open
secondary follicles (thirty to forty in upper lid, twenty to thirty
in lower). The tubes, meibomian glands, lie parallel and
open in a row near the inner edge of the free border of the
lid. They furnish a sebaceous secretion which lubricates the
margin of the lids..

The size of the opening between the lids, palpebral fissure,
determines the apparent size of the eye ; a large opening allow-
ing the globe to bulge forward and become prominent, while a
small fissure prevents much of the eyeball from being seen.
The angles formed by the margins of the lids at the extremi-
ties of the fissure are called the internal and external canthi.

The conjunctiva, when the lids are closed, form a shut sac,
with its palpebral and ocular surfaces in contact. It forms a
crescentric fold at the inner canthus— semilunar fold, or
plica semilunaris. This is regarded as the rudiment of the
third eyelid, or membrana nictitans, in birds. Lying upon the
semilunar fold in the inner canthus is a small red body, the
caruncula lachrymalis. It consists of hair follicles, sebaceous
glands, connective tissue and fat, is covered by mucous mem-
brane, and has a few fine hairs on its surface.

The lachrymal apparatus consists of a secreting portion, the
lachrymal gland and conjunctival glands ; and the conduct-
ing portion, canaliculi, sac and nasal duct. The lachrymal
gland is almond-shaped and lies in a depression in the roof of
the orbit at the outer angle. Its lower surface rests upon the
outer part of the eyeball, and its longest diameter, the trans-
verse, is about three-fifths of an inch. The secretion of the
gland (the tears) is conveyed to the conjunctival sac by six to
twelve ducts, which open in a row at the outer third of the

superior retrotarsal fold. The accessory glands consist of a
group of small glands arranged in a row just above the con-
junctival reflection. The secretion of the lachrymal and acces-
sory glands is composed of water, albumen and salt, and is
spread over the front of the eye by winking of the lids, lubri-
cating its surface. The excess is collected in a triangular space
at the inner canthus, the lacus lachrymalis, and is forced into
the canaliculi by the orbicularis muscle, or flows over the cheek.
Ordinarily the lachrymal gland pours out very little secretion,
and its removal does not materially affect the moisture of the
eye, the secretion from the accessory gland* being quite suf-
ficient for this purpose. Under the same circumstances the
tears evaporate from the surface of the eyeball, very little pass-
ing into the nose.

The canaliculi are two mucous canals about one-quarter of
an inch long and half a line in diameter, which begin in the
centre of a small elevation, the puncta, about one-fifth of an
inch from the angle of the lids, and run along the edge of the
latter (one above and one below), to the lachrymal sac. The
lachrymal sac lies in a groove in the upper end of the lachrymal
canal, oval in form, and flattened from before backward; is about
two-fifths of an inch long and one-sixth of an inch wide ; is
continuous with nasal duct, sometimes direct and sometimes
interrupted by folds of mucous membrane. The nasal duct
runs in a bony canal downward, backward and outward, three-
fifths to four-fifths of an inch long and one-eighth of an inch
in diameter, and usually opens in inferior meatus of the nose.

Certain changes are observed in most of the tissues of the
eye in old age. The sclera loses its elasticity to some extent,
and presents calcareous deposits, favoring the development of
the disease called glaucoma. The cornea diminishes in size
and thickness, and also loses tone ; the elastic layers become
brittle and show warty elevations at margins. Usually after
fifty years of age fatty degeneration begins in the upper and
lower margins of the cornea, forming arcus senilis. These
grayish, crescentric opacities gradually extend until their ends
join and form a ring. The choroid, ciliary body and retina
undergo degenerative changes, and their blood vessels become
atheromatous. The lens increases in density, becomes flatter,
and loses its elasticity, the nucleus assumes amber color, and
small opacities appear. The zonule of Zinn is weakened,
resulting in a tendency to dislocations of the lens.
Physiology.

The eyeballs may be considered as hollow, spherical boxes,
blackened upon their inner surfaces, and having a system of
convex lenses and transparent media, which unite the rays of
light, forming inverted images of external objects, upon a
special nervous membrane — the retina — which appreciates
both intensity and color. Each eyeball, therefore, resembles a
camera obscura. Images formed in the bottom of the eye may
be seen by removing the sclera and choroid behind and leaving
only the retina.

The impressions perceived by the retina are conveyed to the
brain by the optic nerves, producing the results we call vision.
The exact way in which our visual perception is gained of an
object, single and erect from its two inverted retinal images,
cannot be satisfactorily explained. We know, however, that
the two eyes act in perfect harmony, and that the images are

66 4

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

Ifron

symmetrically disposed on the two retinae, and are combined
into a single impression. The two retinal images are slightly
different, the eyes being separated sufficiently for each to com-
mand a different view. Our ideas of solidity result from the
union of the two images ; our ideas of distance from the mus-
cular efforts required to sec distinctly and from experience.

The iris, with its central perforation, acts as a diaphragm reg-
ulating the amount of light admitted into the eye, by what is
known as the reflex movement of the iris, the pupil contract-
ing in a strong light and dilating in a feeble one.

The rays of light coming from any object, when entering the
eye, pass through the cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous
before they reach the retina at the bottom (fundus) of the eye.
As the light rays pass through these media they are bent (re-
fracted) from their original course and united (focused) in the
perfectly shaped eye, on the retina. It is absolutely necessary
that they be focused upon the retina to form a perfect image
upon that membrane. If the focus be at any point not on the
retina, a blurred image results, and vision of course is indistinct.
To see perfectly, it is further necessary that the focus be formed
on the most sensitive part of the retina (macula lutca). The
retina is sensitive to the impressions of light throughout, but
especially so near the posterior pole, and therefore, when ac-
curate vision is desired, the eyes are so directed by the ocular
muscles that the light is focused on the macula.

Rays of light coming from any point of illumination, how-
ever distant, are divergent, but as the pupil ordinarily is only
about two lines in diameter, rays coming from a distance more
than twenty feet are so slightly divergent when they enter the eye
that the divergence is not recognized. So, for all practical pur-
poses, rays coming from a distance of twenty feet or more may
be regarded as coming from an infinite distance, and, therefore,
as being parallel. In the ideally perfect eye parallel rays are
focused by its refractive media upon the macula, and a per-
fect image is formed upon the perceptive layer of the retina.

When rays enter the eye, coming from a distance less than
twenty feet, they are perceptibly divergent, and the shorter the
distance the greater the divergence. It will therefore be seen
that the refractive media must undergo a change, i.e., increase
the refractive power sufficiently to unite the divergent rays on
the same place that the parallel rays were focused. This
change the eye is capable of making, and it is called accommo-
dation, because the eye can be adjusted or accommodated for
different distances. The change is brought about by the ciliary
muscle contracting. The suspensory ligament is in this way re-
laxed, and the lens, of its own elasticity, is rendered more con-
vex, chiefly on its anterior surface. The iris is at the same time
pushed forward, and the pupil contracted. The changes thus
produced in the refracting media greatly increase the refrac-
tiv» power, accurately focusing divergent rays. There is a
point, however, where the divergence is so great that the ut-
most effort at accommodation fails to unite the rays on the
macula. This is the near point of distinct vision, and Itl dis-
tance from the eye gradually increases with age, owing to
physiological changes in the lens, diminishing its elasticity. l!y
means of accommodation the eye sees everything distinctly,
from within a few inches to fifteen or twenty feet away,

beyond which it is unnecessary, as the vision is perfect with
the media in a passive condition.

While viewing distant objects, the axes of the eyes are par-
allel, but near objects require a certain amount of convergence
to allow the focus to be formed upon the macula of each eye.
The interal rectus is the principal muscle concerned in the act
of convergence, but the other ocular muscles are more or less
called into action to maintain a certain position or change the
direction of the eye. Wheri we consider that six muscles con-
trol the movements of each eye, and while viewing near objects
each eye must be accommodated and converged so that a perfect
image may be formed on a corresponding point in the rejina of
each, we can but wonder how it is possible for this complicated
muscular action to be maintained for any great length of time
in a normal state of perfection, much more when some portion
of the delicate mechanism is defective, and the harmony of
action is seriously disturbed.

Errors of Refraction and Accommodation.

Contrary to popular opinion, the perfect eye is the excep-
tion instead of the rule. In many cases, however, the defect
is so slight that the eyes give very little trouble unless used
excessively for close work, especially by artificial light. Very
often the defect so materially disturbs vision, and requires such
an unnatural strain to overcome it, that a variety of troubles
result. The eyes not only feel fatigued and ache, but the lids
may swell, or become inflamed, the eyes becoming so sensitive
that mere exposure to light will bring on a severe paroxysm of
pain. Again severe attacks of headache, dizziness and a host
of nervous disorders may follow.

Emmetropia is the term applied to the normally-shaped eye-
ball.

Hypermetropia, or over-sight, is a condition where the
eye-ball is shorter from before backward than it should be, and
as a consequence parallel rays of light are not united when they
reach the retina unless the accommodation be called into play.
A hypermetropic eye never sees at any distance without mak-
ing an effort at accommodation ; hence it is never at rest
except during sleep, and the constant strain tends often to
produce very serious consequences. In the majority of cases
where hypermetropia exists, one eye is more defective than the
other, and thus makes the defect much more difficult to be
overcome by accommodation. The muscle of accommodation
is under the same nerve control as the muscles of convergence,
and hence the action of the ciliary muscle calls for a corre-
sponding effort on the part of the converging muscles, and vice
versa. When, however, one or both eyes are hypermetropic,
a greater effort at accommodation is required, and while the eyes
are focused for a given point they are converged for a nearer
one, and double vision is the result. The double vision is pro-
duced by the images being formed at different points on the
retina in the two eyes. Under such circumstances distinct
vision is only obtained when the image of one eye (the
weaker) is suppressed. If the difference in the refractive con-
dition be very great, it will be a comparatively easy matter to
suppress the image formed in the weaker eye ; but if there be
but little difference, one will turn inward, and the image, being
formed on a less sensitive part of the retina, is finally ignored.

-^l

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

66 5

In the former case, the weaker eye may remain " straight," but
in the latter the eye which turns in will soon become perma-
nently " crossed. " In this way nearly all cases of convergent
squint, or strabismus, are produced.

Treatment of Hypermetropic. — The only thing that can be
done to relieve this condition is to correct the defect by hav-
ing the person affected wear convex glasses, which should be
adjusted by an oculist who thoroughly understands the subject.
The accurate correction of refractive defects is a matter of such
great importance that no one but a competent person should
undertake to do it.

Presbyopia, or far-sightedness, is a condition that is the result
of natural changesdue to age. At about forty years of age most
people find that they are compelled, in order to see well, to
hold their newspaper a little farther from their eyes than for-
merly. The eyes also feel fatigued much sooner, especially
when artificial light is used. This is the result of a diminished
power of accommodation, and can be easily relieved by using
properly fitted convex glasses.

Myopia, or near-sightedness, is the opposite condition from
hypermetropia, that is, instead of being too short, the eyeball
is too long. Parallel rays unite before they reach the retina,
and divergent rays focus without the aid of accommodation.
In hypermetropia the defect exists from birth, but in myopia it
is usually acquired, although a predisposition, as a weakened
condition of the coats of the eye, may be inherited. Close
work favors the production of a myopic condition in the eye.
Straining the accommodation and convergence increases the
tension of the eye, and this interferes with the escape of the
venous blood from the interior. As the veins pass through the
sclera obliquely, any increase of pressure from within would
tend to obstruct the flow of blood through them. The retarded
escape of venous blood tends to still further intensify the
intra-ocular pressure, and this to increase the myopia. The
trouble, once begun, therefore, is very likely to become pro-
gressive, unless proper means are promptly employed to stay its
further development.

Treatment. — As a myopic should be considered as a "sick
eye," no time should be lost in having it cared for by one
skilled in the treatment of such difficulties. Unless checked,
the defect is liable to go from bad to worse until all useful vision
is irreparably destroyed. All strain should be removed as far
as possible, and close work abandoned until the progress of the
difficulty has been checked. Concave glasses carefully selected
should be worn all the time. A full correction of the myopia
should be made by glasses for distant vision ; and, if the defect
be great, about one-half correction for near objects.

Astigmatism (Gr. : a, without, and stigma, a point). — In
this condition the rays of light entering in one meridian are
focused at a different point from those entering in another
meridian, the meridians of greatest difference being at right
angles with each other.

In simple myopic astigmatism, one meridian is emmetropic
(normal) and the meridian at right angle is myopic. Simple
hypermetropic astigmatism has one meridian emmetropic and
the other hypermetropic. Compound myopic astigmatism has
both meridians myopic, but one more than the other. Com-
pound hypermetropic astigmatism has both meridians hyper-

metropic, but one more than the other. In mixed astigmatism
one meridian is myopic and the other is hypermetropic.

On account of the inability to focus all meridians at once in
astigmatism, the defect is a source of much greater difficulty,
and its correction is far more important than either hyperme-
tropia or myopia. Neither convex nor concave glasses will cor-
rect astigmatism, because, the surface of the glass being curved
equally in all meridians, when a glass is found that will correct
one meridian, the other is either corrected too much or too lit-
tle. A glass is required that will correct one meridian and
leave the other unaffected. This is found in what is called the
cylindrical glass, the shape of which shows it to be the segment
of a cylinder, that is, in the direction of the axis of the cylinder
the glass is the same thickness throughout, but its surface is
curved in a direction at right angles with the axis. A cylin-
drical glass may be either convex or concave. The ordinary
convex and concave glasses are spherical in shape. Compound
astigmatism is corrected by using a lens that is ground spherical
on one side and cylindrical on the other. Mixed astigmatism
is corrected by one ground concave-cylindrical on one surface
and convex-cylindrical on the other, with the axes of the cylin-
ders at right angles with each other.

Diseases of the Eye and Their Treatment.

Diseases of the eye are so numerous and their diagnosis so diffi-
cult, that it requires long study, special training and experience
to recognize and treat them with safety and success. Simple
troubles will usually recover without treatment if not meddled
with, but may ultimately prove serious if allowed to go un-
checked or become aggravated by harsh or improper remedies.
Grave difficulties may be overlooked as such, until vision has
been permanently impaired or destroyed. In view of these
facts, it is considered unnecessary if not dangerous to outline
the symptoms and treatment of the various eye diseases in this
article. Nevertheless, a few hints with reference to the hand-
ling of some of the simpler affections, conduct in emergencies,
and the care of the eyes, will not be out of place.

If a foreign body should get into an eye, the tears will quickly
begin to flow freely, and, in many cases, will wash it out. But
if the substance be rough and angular, it may be imbedded in
the cornea or the folds of the conjunctiva. When a foreign
substance is supposed to be in the eye, the cornea should be
thoroughly inspected by aid of a convex lens, if at hand, to
concentrate the light upon the eye. The body may be so small
as to escape detection with the unaided eye, but sufficient to
cause great pain and dangerous inflammation. The best method
of removing substances from the cornea, when a surgeon can-
not be had, is to sharpen a lead pencil very fine, and, standing
behind the person seated in a chair, steady the eye and separate
the lids with the left hand, and gently pick it out with the point
of the pencil. After removal of the foreign body, the eye
should be rested, bathed in warm water if irritable, and the per-
son instructed not to rub it. In case nothing be found in the
cornea, the lower lid should be drawn down by placing the ball
of the thumb on the cheek below, and, by pressing downward,
the inner surface of the lid exposed. This should be carefully
examined, and, if nothing is found, the upper lid should be
everted, as shown in Figure 37, by seizing the eyelashes at the

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666

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

middle of the lid, and, directing the person to look down,
pulling the lid downward and outward, then placing a pencil
or match on the lid about half an inch from its edge and gently
pressing downward while the edge is lifted upward and over the
pencil by means of the lashes. If anything is discovered on
the upper or lower lid, it can be readily removed by the corner
of a handkerchief being twisted to a point and used as a swab
to brush it off.

Fig. 37. Method of Turning: the Upper I. id.

If the conjunctiva becomes reddened from any cause, it
denotes, if long continued, that inflammation has been estab-
lished ; this may be confined to the conjunctiva or be a com-
plication of some deep-seated trouble. It is not safe to tam-
per in such cases, but if a surgeon cannot be had at once, use
nothing but simple remedies until professional advice can be

secured. Warm salt water (one quarter teaspoonful to pint)
is a safe remedy in all inflammatory conditions of the eye, and
if used for ten or twenty minutes three or four timesdaily, will
relieve most acute affections of the lids and conjunctiva. All
patent eye-washes should be avoided, because most of them
contain acetate of lead, and if this is employed when there is
an abrasion of the cornea the lead will be deposited and a per-
manent opacity remain.

Should the warm salt water not prove sufficient until a physi-
cian can be seen, bathe the eyes in a weak solution of alum or
boracic acid (two to five grains to ounce).

As a rule, so long as the vision remains perfect there is
nothing dangerous affecting the eye ; when, however, sight
is impaired, an oculist should be consulted as quickly as
possible.

For the first twenty-four hours cold applications are advisa-
ble in all injuries of the eye, especially of the lids and con-
junctiva ; but after that time has expired, warm dressings are
usually followed by the best results.

When mortar, lime or an alkali by accident gets into the
eyes, they .should be quickly washed with vinegar and water
(one part to eight or ten). After being thoroughly cleansed, if
any part of the conjunctiva ; s found eroded, fresh castor oil or
vaseline should be applied over the raw surface, and care take i
not to allow the lids to "grow" to the eyebalL If the con-
junctiva be very much injured, the lids should be kept from
coming in contact with the eyeball by a piece of cotton soaked
in oil. In cases of injury from acids, the eyes should be washed
immediately in bicarbonate of soda (salaratus) and water (one
part to ten) uid then dressed as a burn.

•VTHE EAR.-H-

Anatomy.
The anatomy of the ear is usually divided, for the sake of
convenience, into that of the external, middle and internal.
The external ear embraces the auricle and exterior auditory
canal ; the middle car the membrana tympani, cavity of tym-
panum, mastoid cells and eustachian tubes ; the internal ear
the vestibule, semi-circular canals, cochlea and auditory nerve.
The nuricle is the external funnel-shaped appendage attached
to the malar and temporal bones by elastic fibres. It consists
of fihro-cartilaginous framework closely covered by perichon-
drium and skin. From the lower end of the cartilage a pro-
jection extends, formed principally by the skin, the lobe of the
car. The outer edge of the auricle is called the helix ; within
this a depression, the fossa naviculars, at the inner edge of
which is another ridge, the anti-helix. In front of the open-
ing of the auditory canal is a projection, the tragus ; opposite
this on the other side of the canal is another projection, the
anli-tragus. The concavity around the orifice of the canal is
known as the concha. The triangular depression above the
concha is the fossa triangularis.

f <3 •"

The meatus auditorium externus, external auditory canal,
extends from the auricle to the membrana tympani forward and
inward, by a crooked course ; average length about one inch.
The outer one-third is cartilaginous, continuous with cartilage
of the auricle. The inner two-thirds is formed by the bony
canal in the temporal bone. At the bottom of the canal the
membrana tympani is inserted in the tympanic groove, sulcus
tympanicus. The membrane is placed obliquely, and hence
the anterior and inferior walls of the canal are longest. The
canal is lined by integument containing soft hairs, sebaceous and
ceruminous glands. The secretion of the glands, corumen
(wax), is chiefly fat and coloring matter.

The membrana tympani, or drum-head, separates the
auditory canal from the tympanic cavity. It is so obliquely
placed that the upper border is about a quarter of an inch
nearer the entrance to canal than the lower. The posterior
border is about one-fifth of an inch nearer than anterior. It is
ellipsoidal in shape, with its long axis (one-third of an inch)
downward and forward. At the upper portion, the short pro-
cess of the malleus shows as a conical protrusion, from which

?HYSIOLOGV AND MEDICINE.

667

"71

extend two folds, the anterior and posterior. The membrane
is slightly concave externally. The deepest concavity surrounds
the end of the handle of the malleus, and is called the umbo.
The membrane is inelastic, and about yjn inch in thickness.
It is composed of three layers, a middle fibrous layer, covered
externally by skin of auditory canal, and mucous membrane of
tympanum internally. The middle layer has two layers of
fibres, an outer radiating and an inner circular.

When viewed through the auditory canal, the healthy mem-
brane presents a delicate bluish-gray color and is translucent.
The short process of the malleus appears as a whitish tubercle,
near upper margin, and the handle of malleus as a light stripe,
running from this downward and backward to centre of the
membrane. The " light spot " is a bright triangular reflection
from the oblique surface of the membrane. Its apex points to
end of handle, and its base toward margin.

The cavity of tympanum, or drum of the ear, is an irregular-
shaped space, lined by mucous membrane, which is continuous
with that of eustachian tube and pharynx. The antero-posterior
diameter is about % inch ; the anterior-vertical, % ir.ch, and
the posterior-vertical, three-fifths of an inch ; transverse, one-
eighth to one-sixth; opposite drum-head, one-twelfth inch. The
eustachian tube opens into upper part of anterior wall. Above
the tube is the canal for the tensor tympani muscle, separated
from it by a thin plate of bone. The posterior wall separates
the tympanum from the mastoid cells, the openings into which
are found at the upper part, close to the roof. The drum-head
forms most of the outer wall. The inner wall forms outer wall
of the labyrinth. An oval opening (fenestra ovalis) is found
opposite support of drum-head in the inner wall which leads
into the vestibule. The opening is closed by a membrane upon
which rests the base of the stapes. A smaller opening below
(fenestra rotunda) leads into the cochlea. The latter opening
is closed by a membrane called the membrana tympani secon-
daria. Anterior, and between the fenestras, is a rounded pro-
jection, the promontory. This corresponds with the first whorl
of the cochlea. The upper wall is very thin and separates the
tympanum from cranial cavity.

The bones of the ear (ossicles) are three in number — mal-
leus (Lat. for hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup).
They form a chain across tympanum from membrana tympani
to membrana ovalis. The malleus presents a head, neck, short
and long process, and manubrium (handle). The incus has a
head, long and short process. The head articulates with mal-
leus, and is joined to roof of tympanum by a ligament ; short
process runs back to articulate with posterior wall of tym-
panum. The long process descends parallel with and behind
the handle of malleus and terminates in a lenticular tip which
articulates with the head of the stapes. The stapes has head,
neck, crura and base. The latter rests in fenestra ovalis.

The tensor tympani muscle arises from the periosteum of
the upper wall of its canal and upper wall of cartilage of
eustachian tube, and from border of sphenoid. Before leaving
the canal it becomes tendinous, and as it enters the tympanum
turns nearly at right angle and is inserted into the anterior half
of the inner side of malleus between short process and begin-
ning of the handle. It draws the handle inward and makes the
membrana tympani and the ligaments of the ossicles tense ; at

the same time the long process of the incus rotates inward with
the malleus handle, and presses the stapes against the oval win-
dow and the fluid of the labyrinth. The stapedius muscle
originates in the cavity of the pyramid and is inserted in the
neck of the stapes. It is supposed to depress the base of the
stapes and compress the contents of labyrinth.

The mastoid cells consist o r a number of irregular cells con-
tained in the mastoid process of temporal bone. In the upper
part of the process a single large cell is found, the mastoid
antrum. This communicates with the lower cells and the
tympanic cavity. The eustachian tube is about a line in diam-
eter, and extends from the pharynx upward, outward and
backward to tympanum. It has a cartilaginous and bony por-
tion. The tympanic end is bony, about half an inch long.
The narrowest part of canal is at isthmus, the juncture of car-
tilaginous and bony parts. The pharyngeal orifice is trumpet-
shaped, and is found in posterior nasal space just above floor of
nostril. Its mucous membrane is continuous with that of the
pharynx and tympanum.

Fig. 38.

auditory i
cartilaginous portion: 5, ceruminous glands; 6, membrana t

r.Auricle; 3, opening of ext. auditory canal; 3, bony part of canal: 4,

ibr;

-- tympani; 7,
incus; 8, malleus; 9, manubrium; 10, tensor tympani muscle; 11, 12,
eustachian tube; 13, 15, semi-circular canals; 16, cochlea.

The internal ear, or labyrinth, contains the essential parts
of the hearing apparatus, the ultimate filaments of the audi-
tory nerves. It embraces several bony cavities contained in
the petrous portion of the temporal bone. Within these
osseous chambers are membranous sacs which receive the dis-
tribution of the nerve. The sacs and intervening spaces are
filled with a clear fluid. The bony cavities are three in num-
ber, the vestibule, semi-circular canals and cochlea.

The vestibule is an irregular ovoid cavity, situated internal
to the tympanum. Its height and depth, antero-posteriorly, is
about one-fifth of an inch, and its transverse diameter about
one-tenth of an inch. The semi-circular canals are three
C-shaped canals, starting from the vestibule and returning to it

Ir?

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668

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

again ; are from" one-twentieth to one-fifteenth of an inch in
diameter. Length of posterior verticle, eleven-twelfths inch ;
anterior verticle, four-fifths ; horizontal, one-fifth inch.

The cochlea (snail) is a tube that coils around a central pillar
or axis, and tapers toward one extremity where it ends in a
blind sac. It is about one and one-half inches long, one-tenth
of an inch in diameter at the beginning and one-twentieth of
an inch at the end ; makes two and a half turns from below
upward from left to right in right ear, and vice versa in the
left. The cupola, or apex, is directed forward and outward.
A thin wall separates the cochlea from the carotid canal in
front. Internally it is in contact with the blind end of the
internal auditory canal. It projects slightly, as the promon-
tory on the inner wall of the tympanum. Its axis, spindle or
modiolus, is made up by the inner walls of the tube and a
central spongy bone substance ; gradually diminishes in size
from base to apex. Diameter at base, one-eighth of an inch ;
at apex, one-fiftieth of an inch ; length, one-sixth of an inch.
Base rests upon the bottom of the internal auditory canal.
The apex is formed by the inner wall of the last half whorl,
ending in a thin section of funnel, the infundibulum. The
walls of the cochlear canal are lined by a very delicate perios-
teum.

The bony cavities of the vestibule and semi-circular canals
contain membranous sacs which correspond in shape to the
osseous chambers in which they are enclosed.

The utricle (Lat., utriculus, a little leathern bottle) is a
flattened elliptical tube resting on the inner wall of the vesti-
bule. The outer wall is free and is separated from the outer
wall of the vestibule by a narrow space filled with endolymph.

The membranous semi-circular canals are of the same shape
as the body canals, and open into the utricle by five openings,
the same as the osseous communicate with the vestibule. The
membranous fill the osseous canals at the openings, but in other
parts considerable space exists between the two, which is filled
by connective tissue, vessels and fluid. The walls of the utri-
cle and canals are very thin and delicate.

The auditory nerve, or portio mollis of seventh nerve,
begins by two roots in the medulla oblongata. One nucleus of
origin is in floor of the fourth ventricle ; the other is in the
crus cerebelli ad medullma. The roots are in communication
with the gray matter of the cerebellum and border of calamus
scriptorius. The nerve winds around the rest iform body, from
which it receives filaments, and then passes forward in com-
pany with the portio dura, or facial nerve, to the posterior
border of crus, and enters the internal auditory canal, where
some fibres connect them together. At the bottom of the
canal the auditory nerve divides into two branches, one
passing to the vestibule and the other to the cochlea. The
nerve, like the optic, is one of special sense, receiving and
transmitting the impressions of the waves of sound.

Physiology.
The ear, as a whole, is a very complicated structure. The
sound-waves are collected by the auricle, reflected into the
auditory canal, are received upon the membrana tympani,
which is thrown into corresponding vibrations ; these are car-
ried by the chain of bones across the tympanum to the fluid of

the labyrinth, and thence to the auditory nerves and through
them to the "brain, where they are recognized as sound. The
membrana tympani, by the aid of its tensor muscle, can be
maintained at various degrees of tension adapting it to differ-
ent kinds of waves.

The atmospheric pressure within the cavity of the tym-
panum is governed by its communication with the mastoid
cells and pharynx. The elements of the terminal auditory
apparatus in the cochlea are supposed to be tuned to vibrate
in harmony with all the different notes in our musical scale.
The semi-circular canals are thought to preside over the equi-
librium of the body, and to be concerned little, if any, in the
function of hearing. There are still a number of points in
connection with the physiology of audition remaining unsatis-
factorily explained.

Diseases of the Ear and Their Treatment.

The statements made in the article on the eye are also appli-
cable to the ear. The apparatus is so delicate that any disturb-
ance of function should be referred to a skilled specialist for cor-
rection. Many erroneous ideas still exist in the public mind,
which seriously interfere with the work of the aurist. Theear if
regarded by some as so "delicate " that nothing can be done to
alleviate its disorders, and cases of partial deafness are allowed
to go uncared-for that could be readily cured.

The so-called " rising " in the ear, followed by an offensive
discharge, is neglected because " it is dangerous to meddle with
the ear " or stop a discharge from it. Many children are per-
mitted to go in this manner without attention, at the imminent
peril of their lives and with a serious impairment of hearing.
The inflammation which causes such a discharge is located in
the tympanic cavity, and is very liable to extend into the mas-
toid cells and the cranial cavity, resulting fatally. No possible
harm could result from stopping the discharge, and no time
should be lost in endeavoring to check it.

Children often put beans, coffee grains and other small sub-
stances into their ears, and the friends, in attempting to remove
the foreign body, push it further into the canal. No instru-
ment should ever be used, except by an aurist, to remove any-
thing from the ear. The only thing that can be safely em-
ployed for this purpose is a syringe.

In case an insect gets into the ear, water should be poured in
to kill it or cause it to come out. If this should fail to accom-
plish the desired result, a physician should be called.

If the ear itches or attracts attention in any way, it should
be examined by a surgeon, or washed out, or a little vaseline
applied on a pleget of cotton ; and on no account should it be
picked at with a hairpin, ear-spoon, or other hard instrument.

One of the most common forms of deafness is caused by an
extension of inflammation from the throat to the ear through
the eustachian tube. The first thing noticed by the person is
a ringing noise in the ear and a slight impairment of hearing.
ThWB symptoms may come on so gradually as not to attract
attention for some time. The disease can be checked in the
early stages, and it is therefore important to attend to it as
soon as noticed.

Children frequently suffer with " earache," and as the attacks
often occur in the night when it is inconvenient to call medical

4±

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

669

aid, every family should know how to render prompt relief. The
pain is usually indicative of inflammation in the middle ear
which has begun in the pharynx and extended to the ear. Hot
cloths should be applied to the throat and hot water poured into
the ear. The water should be used as hot as can be borne, and

if it fails to relieve, a small quantity (^ grain) of morphine,
dissolved in a few drops of warm water, should be dropped into
the ear while the head is inclined so as to allow it to run in. It
is not advisable to use oil or laudanum, because the oil may clog
up the canal, and the alcohol in the laudanum will irritate it

X-J%X-J%-

-*FEYERS.*-

Fever is that morbid condition of the body characterized by
increased heat, thirst, loss of appetite, dryness of skin, acceler-
ated pulse, hurried respiration, muscular weakness, more or
less pain and wakefulness, and general functional disturbance.

Fever may be symptomatic — as when it is the result of in-
flammation in some part of the body — or it is said to be ideo-
pathic, or essential, when it is not the result of some other ail-
ment, but of some specific poison which has entered the body,
as measles, typhoid fever, small-pox, etc.

The temperature of the body in fever will range from 99 to
108 degrees. This is told by the use of a thermometer made
for this purpose, called a clinical thermometer, which may
be placed in the arm-pit or under the tongue, and allowed to
remain there for about three minutes.

The temperature may run higher in some fevers without
alarm than in others : 105 degrees is a high fever ; 106 degrees
is dangerous ; 108 degrees, if long continued, is fatal. For
instance, J04 degrees in typhoid fever is a high temperature,
while it is comparatively low for scarlet -fever.

Heat is a stimulus, whether it originates within or without
the body ; hence the increased action of the heart.

The pulse of an udult in health ranges from 70 to 80 beats
per minute. In fever it may range from 90 to 140 or 150. A
pulse of 120 indicates a high fever ; 130, if long-continued, is
a dangerous symptom.

In a normal condition, there are about four beats of the pulse
to each inspiration. Hence, the respiration in all fevers is
hurried in proportion to the increased pulse, and the pulse rate
should go up and down with the temperature. It is a bad omen
to find a high temperature with a low pulse, and vice versa.
Also, it is a bad symptom to find a rapid pulse with a low
breathing rate.

Pain alone may produce all the symptoms of fever, and upon
the removal of the cause of pain the fever will subside. The
great object to be sought in the treatment of fevers is the
lowering of the temperature, which can be accomplished by a
free use of cold water. If not advisable to use the pack — which
consists in rolling the patient in a sheet lightly wrung out
of cold water — frequent sponge-baths may be given instead.

The higher the temperature, or body-heat, the greater the
evaporation. The water of the body is carried away very
rapidly. Here we see the great importance of free use of
cold water as a drink, which not only replaces the water lost,

but also lowers the temperature of the body. Lowering the
temperature lowers the pulse in force and frequency, and
also diminishes the breathing rate.

The heart's action may be controlled by the use of the
tincture of aconite root or the tincture of belladonna in noses
of about five drops ; or the tincture of veratrum viride in
doses of from two to three drops every three or four hours.
Some prefer smaller doses given with greater frequency, which
can and must be done when the stomach is at all irritable.

If there is much nervousness, the aconite should be given ; if
pain, belladonna is better ; if at all desirable to produce
nausea, as in pneumonia, veratrum viride may be given.

In all fevers there is more or less increased destruction of
tissue ; hence the importance of keeping all of the emmetories,
the bowels, kidneys and skin, active or open to carry out all
this increased debris of the system, thus keeping the blood
pure.

It is also of vital importance that the patient should have an
abundance of cool, fresh air, and sufficient nourishment to
keep up the strength of the organs, especially the heart.

Fevers are generally divided into three classes : those in
which the febrile condition continues from the beginning to the
end, called continued fevers ; those which come and go with
more or less regularity, called periodical fevers ; and those
characterized by an eruption on the skin, and called eruptive
fevers.

Typhoid Fever.

Typhoid Fever is a disease caused by bad sewerage, the
odor from old privy vaults, or drinking water contaminated
with human excrement, especially from typhoid-fever patients.
It is a low grade of fever, which attacks a person but once.
It comes on so gradually that it is hard to say when the disease
began. It generally runs its course in spite of treatment.
Treatment may save a case from a fatal termination, or reduce
its duration to the minimum, which is three weeks. At first
the patient complains of fatigue, loss of appetite, mental dul-
ness and lack of interest in his work. There may be diarrhoea.
Pulse ranges from 90 to no per minute ; temperature from
100 degrees to 104 degrees. The skin is dry and of a bronze
hue. There may be bleeding from the nose. The tongue will
have a brown coat, which, if the patient is not given an abund-
ance of water, will become very dry. The lips and teeth collect
a dark brown or blackish, gum-like matter, called sordies. In

•f « »-

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

the second week the patient may become more or less delirious,
and, if not closely watched, may get out of bed, in conse-
quence of delusions. It is a common thing for the patient to
imagine himself away from home. Little red spots, like flea-
bites, may make their appearance upon the abdomen. If there
has been diarrhoea, the abdomen may become distended with
gas. Hemorrhage from the bowels may take place. During
the third week any or all of these symptoms may become
aggravated.

If the patient does well, at the end of the third week he
will begin to improve, the tongue will clean, the skin become
moist or wet with perspiration, and the mind perhaps become
clear. He has not asked for anything, but now he may express
a desire for food or drink.

The treatment for this disease, in a mild case, is simply good
hygienic surroundings and care. On account of the low mental
condition, he may not be conscious of his wants. Hence he
may never call for water or food. m

He should have milk and other nutritious food in such quan-
tities as he can digest, at short but regular intervals.

The bowels will need attention. If there be diarrhoea, some
mild astringents may be given, as fluid extract of logwood.
If the bowels are distended by gas, spirits of turpentine maybe
given. If constipation ensue, some mild laxative, as castor-oil,
syrup or tincture of rhubarb, or an enema of tepid water, will
relieve the symptoms. The temperature and circulation can
be controlled, as laid down under the head of fevers in general.

In bad cases any or all of the symptoms may be aggravated,
and will need special attention.

Young persons are more likely to recover than persons
advanced in life. They are also more liable to contract the
disease.

Typhus Fever.

Typhus Fever is a disease arising from the crowding of
human beings into a small space, as in emigrant ships, In prisons
and in the poorer quarters in large cities. Typhoid fever is
produced from human effete matter thrown off from the bowels.
Typhus is liable to become epidemic after famine or excessive
privation of any kind. When once originated, it is contagious
in densely populated districts ; thence it may spread to cleaner
and more healthy parts of the city.

The attack is more sudden and its duration shorter, and the
temperature and pulse somewhat higher than in typhoid. The
eruption on the skin is somewhat like measles. Gangrenous
spots are liable to appear, and may assume a very serious
aspect. The tongue becomes contracted, dry and black ; the
bowels are constipated ; no appetite ; delirium is present, and
is followed by coma, in which condition the patient may sink
and die, or gradually pass into a riore natural sleep, from
which he may wake convalescent.

Treatment similar to typhoid. Personal cleanliness; perfect
ventilation; good, easily-digested food; milk in its various forms;
an abundance of cold water. The circulation and temperature
are to be controlled as directed in fevers in general
Malarial Fever — Ague.

Intermittent Fever is one form of malarial fever. It
has cold, hot and sweating stages, with a normal interval fol-
lowing. The patient may go through these stages every day,

every other day, or every third day. This disease is caused by
decaying vegetable matter. It prevails in new countries, river
bottoms, districts which overflow, or in the neighborhood of
canals or mill-ponds. It may prevail in houses with bad cellars,
or where the sills and floors are in a state of decay. It does
not make its appearance while the land is under water, but
when the water recedes and exposes the half-rotten vegetable
matter to the sun. Some physicians suppose this disease to be
caused by a microscopic vegetable germ which enters the sys-
tem, contaminating the blood.

Intermittent fever is not self-protecting nor self-limiting.
Some persons are never free from it while they reside in a
malarial district. It runs an indefinite course if not checked
by remedial agents. If not treated, the blood of the patient
becomes impoverished, the lips pale, the skin sallow, the mus-
cles weak and the body emaciated. The spleen becomes large,
vulgarly called an ague take. Some persons may become accli-
mated, improve, and finally get well without medicine, but the
majority would go from bad to worse and die, or become so
weak as to have no physical endurance or resistance, and would
finally succumb to some other disease which they, in the de-
praved state of the system, are not able to withstand. The
system may become so surcharged with the poison as to cause
death from the severity of the chill before reaction or the fever
stage comes on. This is what is called a "congestive chill."
Every chill is in reality a congestive chill — that is, during the
chill some internal organ is congested, or contains an abnormal
amount of blood ; hence the variety of symptoms during this
stage. One may have difficulty of breathing because of con-
gestion of the lungs ; another may have pain in the head ;
another, in the stomach or heart.

Instead of the cold, hot and sweating stages, the patient may
have severe periodical pains along the course of a nerve.
This constitutes one form of neuralgia. At another time,
or another patient, instead of suffering from either chills or
neuralgia, may have a periodical diarrhoea, or there may be
hemorrhage from some part of the mucous membrane.

Treatment. — The night-air contains the malarial poison in
greater abundance than that of the day ; so that if persons must
live in a malarial region, they can lessen the liability to contract
disease by being in the house before sunset, and remaining
there until after sunrise in the morning. An attack may be
induced in some persons by eating anything which is difficult to
digest. It becomes thpse who are susceptible to the influence
of this virus to look well to their food.

Some preparation of Peruvian bark enters into almost every
formula for the cure of intermittent fever. Sulphate of cin-
chona is the cheapest, but it is more likely to disturb the stom-
ach. Cinchonidia is cheaper than quinine, and is like it in ap-
pearance. It is not as likely to disturb the stomach as the sul-
phate of cinchona, but more so than quinine. Quinine is more
used because it is less irritating to the stomach, though it is of
a higher price. Quinine is the king in this realm of remedies.
If the interval between the paroxysms is short, we must give
larger doses, and closer together. When the paroxysms are
farther apart, we can give smaller doses — three or four grains
every two hours. We believe we shall have better effect from
small doses close together than by giving doses of five or

-« s>

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

6 7 I

ten grains, four or five hours apart. We need, in ordinary
cases, to administer from twenty to thirty grains between the
paroxysms. The taste of quinine can be disguised by putting
it in cold coffee or tea. A few doses of bromo-hydric acid
will prevent the disagreeable effects and the ringing in the ears
produced by quinine.

Occasionally we meet with persons who cannot take quinine.
We can use salicine in the same doses as quinine, or a little
larger doses even.

Arsenic is used in chronic forms of the disease, and may be
used where quinine cannot be employed.

Nux vomica or strychnine may be used in combination with
other remedies.

Remittent Fever.

Remittent Fever is by some authors treated under the
head of intermittent fever, considering it simply another form
of the same disease. Its origin appears to be the same as that
of ague, but the disease is of such intensity, and the stage of
febrile excitement lasts so long, as to crowd out the cold and
sweating stages. In this fever the hot stage is severer in
intensity as well as longer in duration. The stomach is so
disturbed that it demands the major part of our attention.
Vomiting is very distressing to the patient and annoying to
the physician. Bile is vomited, and thirst is very great. The
skin and the white of the eye become yellow. This is a more
serious disease than the intermittent type. The bile may be
absorbed and the urea not thrown off. Both contaminate the
blood. The patient may sink into a low typhoid condition
and become delirious. This condition is called typho-malarial
fever.

In treatment the stomach first demands attention. Aro-
matic sulphuric acid may be given in five-drop doses in water
every hour or two. Or ten drops of dilute muriatic acid and
five drops of the tincture of aconite root in water every two or
three hours may be given.

To control the vomiting it is at times advisable to apply a
mustard poultice over the pit of the stomach. Lemons are also
useful. Either let the patient suck the juice or drink a little
strong lemonade. After we have controlled the stomach
symptoms, the treatment should be as advised in intermittent
fever.

Yellow Fever.

Yellow Fever originates in hot, low, filthy localities.
Having once originated, it may spread, as other contagious
diseases — may be carried a great distance in clothing or goods.
Exposure and dissipation are strong predisposing causes. Non-
acclimated persons are more liable to be attacked than natives.
It is more fatal among the white population. The death-rate is
high. Patients recovered from this fearful disease onjoy immu-
nity from attacks in future. The attacks generally begin rather
suddenly. The temperature ranges from 101 to 107 degrees.
The symptoms are a dry skin, rapid pulse, thirst, frontal head-
ache, pain in the back and calves of the legs, and vomiting. At
first, the vomited matters consist of mucus and of portions of
food. There is a cream-like coat upon the tongue, and tender-
ness at the pit of the stomach. After a day or two the pains
abate, but the vomiting is likely to increase, and the skin becomes
yellow. About the fourth day, the vomit contains blood, hav-

ing the appearance of coffee-grounds, and known as " the black
vomit. " The urine and stools also contain blood. The tongue
becomes dry and black, the pulse rapid but feeble. Delirium
and coma now set in.

Death or convalescence may take place at any time. Con-
valescence may take place so early in the disease as to leave
some doubt as to the correctness of the diagnosis, and death
may strike the patient down before any of the characteristic
symptoms are established. At times blood is found not only
in the stools and urine, but the eyes, nose and mouth may
bleed profusely, thus rendering the patient the most pitiable
object imaginable.

This disease demands the highest hygienic skill. It can be
perpetuated by the virus contained in exposed clothing or fur-
niture. Treatment should be according to general principles.
Pain and vomiting are best controlled by the hypodermic in-
jection of morphine. Muriatic, nitric and sulphuric acid and
quinine are called for.

The convalescence is generally protracted. The yellowness
of the skin continues for a long time. At this period the main
thing needed is good, judicious feeding and tonic treatment.
Rubeola — Measles.

This is a very infectious febrile disease. As a rule it is ex-
perienced but once. Children are more frequently attacked
than adults, partly because most adults have, as children, suffered
from an attack, and thereafter enjoy immunity from the disease.
But it is also true that adults unprotected by a former attack are
less susceptible. About two weeks elapse from the time of
exposure to the development of the disease. The first symptoms
are those of a cold. The patient coughs and sneezes ; the eyes
are suffused, and a thin mucus flows from the nose. There is a
pink appearance of the eye, and during the catarrhal period
there is a slight fever. On the third or fourth day the fever is
increased, and an eruption begins to make its appearance at the
roots of the hair and upon the forehead and temples. The
eruption is of minute red spots scarcely raised above the surface,
and smooth to the touch. In small-pox the eruption has a sandy
or gritty feel. The first attack of small-pox is somewhat like
remittent fever — a high temperature with vomiting. In measles
it is more like a cold. The fever rises with the eruption. In
small-pox it falls. Two days are required for the eruption to
become general, and in about three or four days more it begins
to disappear in the order in which it came. Now the tempera-
ture suddenly falls to the normal, or very near it. The temper-
ature seldom rises above 104 degrees.

At times the lungs become involved to an alarming extent.
The cough from the beginning is very annoying, and it is liable
to continue for a long time after every other symptom has dis-
appeared. The eyes become inflamed during the catarrhal
period, and they so remain long after the patient is well in
every other respect. At times the eyelids become granulated.
The throat symptoms may also continue for some time, but
never become a serious complication, such as that occasioned
by ~arlet fever.

Treatment. — In this disease, great care against exposure
is required. More Soldiers, during the late civil war, died from
measles than from small-pox, because in small-pox less harm
is occasioned by exposure. All the windows and doors may not

%*?

672

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

be permitted, in the case of measles, to be thrown open, unless
it be summer ; but from experience we know that the nurse needs
be cautioned more against keeping the room too warm, against
steaming, sweating and stimulating the patient. If it is an ordi-
nary case, nothing is required beyond securing the greatest
amount of comfort. Sometimes the eruption is very tardy in
coming out. In such cases, a warm bath is useful in bringing out
the eruption. Hot drinks may also be given. Such cases are
exceptions, however, and not the rule. A few drops of aconite
and sweet spirits of nitre, in water, may lower the pulse rate and
temperature, but are generally not required. Syrup of ipecacu-
anha and syrup of tolu will mitigate the cough. The bowels
may need some attention. If there should be a diarrhoea, pare-
goric may be added to the cough syrup. If constipation exist,
syrup rhubarb may l>e given.

The " black " measles is not another disease, but a malig-
nant form of the same, the eruption being attended by small
hemorrhages under the skin, analogous to that in the malig-
nant form of small-pox. This condition is attended with
danger.

Variola— Small-Pox.

Smai.l-pox is a highly contagious, sj)ecific fever, which makes
its appearance in about two weeks after having been exposed to
the contagious influence. One attack secures the patient im-
munity from the disease in future. The attack begins with a
very high fever and intense backache. The pain is in the centre
of the back, and is not relieved or altered in the least by any
change of position. There may be vomiting as in remittent
fever. At first there is no eruption, nor anything, except the
peculiarity of the pain in the back, which would lead any one to
suspect the true nature of the disease. On the second or third
day the eruption makes its appearance at the roots of the hair
on the forehead. The eruption is raised above the surface, and
gives to the touch a gritty or sandy feeling. If this is looked for
diligently, there need be no mistaking small-pox for measles,
since the eruption of measles at first is not elevated, but is
smooth, while that of small-pox is sharply elevated. This
sharp, papillary eruption develops into little vesicles or blisters
filled with a watery fluid. About the seventh day these little
blisters become filled with pus, hence are called pustules. A
peculiarity of these pustules is that the centre is depressed,
forming an umbilicattd pustule. About the tenth or eleventh
day the pustule is fully developed, and dries into a crust by the
fourteenth day. The mucous membrane of the throat, and
sometimes the trachea, is also effected by the eruption. The
patient coughs and ex|iectorates a very tough and disagreeable
mucus.

On the appearance of the eruption the fever abates and the
patient feels much better, while in scarlet fever the temper-
ature increases with the eruption. In small-pox the reverse is
true. About the eighth or ninth day, at which time the pustules
are developed, the fever rises again. This is termed the second-
ary f ever, and is the most dangerous period of the disease. The
patient is weaker and has less power of resistance.

The pustules are very likely to destroy the true skin beneath
them, hence the pit, so commonly seen after this disease.
Where the pustules are not so numerous, but 6tand alone, the
eruption is said to be discrete. When they are so numerous

as to touch each other, it is called confluent. Sometimes,
instead of the vesicle filling with a watery material, they fill with
blood ; hemorrhage also takes place from the various parts of
the mucous membrane. This form is called hemorrhagic or
malignant small-pox.

Treatment. — From beginning to end the sufferer needs an
abundance of cool, fresh air. In ordinary weather windows and
doors should be open, provided the wind does not blow directly
upon the patient. The neighbors need not object, for the con-
tagion of small-pox is not carried through the air. The virus
must be carried from the sick to the well, and whatever can be
the means of this transfer of virus (usually in clothing) will
communicate the disease, and it cannot be communicated in any
other way. An abundance of bland drinks to soothe the irritated
throat — such as flax-seed tea, barley-water and milk. Chlo-
rate of potassium may be freely used for the same purpose.
The temperature must be treated as stated under the head of
fevers in general.

When the pustules are formed, the skin, especially of the
face and hands, may be covered with olive oil. It soothes the
itching and prevents a too hard crust forming. Some cover the
face with mercurial ointment for the same purpose, to prevent
pitting. If stimulants are needed, it is not until the secondary
fever sets in. This is looked upon as a critical period. The
patient needs to be well fed. If the throat is sore, solid food
may be out of the question.

The eyes will need at times special care. The room may have
to be darkened. A solut ion may be made of sulphate of zinc,
two grains to an ounce of distilled water. A few minims of this
solution may be dropped into the eyes two or three times a day
to control the inflammation.

Varioloid
Is a modified form of small-pox. One who has had small-pox,
or has been vaccinated, but is not fully protected, if exposed to
the disease, may become ill with all the symptoms of small-pox,
but in a modified degree. The eruption makes its appearance,
there being, however, but few pustules, and these are less likely
than the pustules of variola to leave scars. No secondary fever
is developed in varioloid. Hut little treatment is needed, and
that little does not differ from that of small-pox.

Vaccination— Cow- Pox.

Cow-pox is contracted from small-pox in the cow. If matter
be taken from the pustule of a small-pox patient and introduced
into the cow, in due time the eruption will make its appearance
upon the udder. Pus taken from a pustule on the udder of
the cow and introduced under the skin of a human being will
produce the disease of tine or cov>-pox t which is believed to pro-
tad the subject against an attack of true variola. At the point
where the virus has been introduced, a vesicle appears, which in
a day or two develops into a pustule. This pustule is depressed
in the centre.

The course is precisely the same as in small-pox, only that
the pustules are confined to the one point where the virus was
introduced into the system. The fever is insignificant in com-
parison with that attending small-pox. Why the disease should
be thus modified by passing through the cow, we do not know.

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

673

But, knowing that small-pox protects a person from any future
attack, and knowing that cow-pox is small-pox, we can readily
understand why cow-pox protects against small-pox.

If by introducing an insignificant disease the human family
can be protected from such a loathsome, disfiguring, devastating
scourge as small-pox, he who opposes it should be considered a
misanthrope, and should be treated as such by all intelligent
citizens.

Vericella — Chicken-Pox.

Chicken-pox is a contagious but an insignificant disease,
generally confined to children. The fever is so mild as to need
no attention. The eruption at first consists of pimples with
inflamed bases, which develop into blisters, or vesicles, as large
as split peas, or even sometimes as large as copper coins.
These become filled with a milky fluid, and finally break and
dry up into crusts or scabs. The eruption comes out in suc-
cessive crops, so that in a well-marked case it can be seen in its
various stages at the same time. The eruption lasts about a
week, and in about another week the crusts fall off. This
disease, like the other eruptive fevers, protects against itself.
No treatment beyond good nursing is required.

Scarlatina — Scarlet Fever.

Scarlet Fever is a highly infectious malady, attacking
children chiefly ; not because the child is any more susceptible
to its influence, but because the older children and adults have all
had the disease or are not susceptible to it. Why some should
pass through several epidemics without taking it, and then some
time in after life should contract the disease, we do not know.

The beginning of the disease is generally sudden. A child
exposed a week ago has been in perfect health until now. The
attack begins with a high temperature, headache, vomiting, and
sore throat. Young children may have convulsions at the
very beginning of the attack. Within the next twenty-four
hours a fine red rash may be seen over the chest. Within a few
hours it may make its appearance on the arms, lower part of
the abdomen and upper and inner part of the thighs, and be-
come ger .-ml within the next twenty-four hours. It will take
three o iour days to fully develop. The temperature increases
with .e rash. It may rise to one hundred and six degrees with-
out much alarm — even one hundred and seven or one hundred
and eight— but if this temperature long continues we may look
for an unfavorable issue. The eruption begins to fade about the
fifth or sixth day, and the temperature and pulse should fall
as the eruption fades. We may expect the rash to disappear
about the tenth day of the disease.

This disease may be so mild as to demand no attention, there
being nothing but a red rash and very little fever. At another
time the throat symptoms are the only ones of gravity. The
throat trouble may be of secondary consideration, or the swell-
ing may threaten suffocation. Ulceration of the throat may
become serious. This form has been called malignant or
putrid sore throat.

Treatment. — The patient should be removed from all unpro-
tected persons. Cold water may be used to sponge the patient.
We must keep down the temperature to the lowest point.
Aconite and belladonna may be used to lower the temperature.
Chlorate of potash for the throat (not only as a gargle, but we

may administer from forty to sixty grains in twenty-four hours).
The room should be cool and well ventilated. A small quan-
tity of carbolic acid may be put into the water used in bathing.

When the skin begins to scale off, it will be well to anoint the
patient with vaseline containing five per cent of carbolic acid.
The kidneys will need attention, as well as the ears. It is not
uncommon for a child to get well of this fever and die of dropsy.
Many deaf persons owe their misfortune to the sequels of scarlet
fever. Patients convalescing from this disease need as much if
not more care than during the higher stages of the fever. A cold
may produce irreparable mischief.

Diphtheria.

Diphtheria is a contagious febrile disease, during which an
ash-colored false membrane forms, generally in the throat. It
may form in the nose, in the larynx or trachea. The first symp-
tom is usually a chill, followed by high temperature (105 or 106
degrees Fahrenheit), and more or less swelling of the parts in-
volved, threatening death by suffocation or inability to swallow.
There is a peculiar odor of the breath of the patient. The
disease may be communicated by the matter coughed up ; hence
the necessity of especial care. Handkerchiefs and towels used
by the sick of this disease should be properly taken care of. It
is better to use old cloths and bum them.

This is a disease of all countries, persons, ages, sexes and
conditions, but children are more liable to be attacked, and it is
more fatal with them. The mortuary rate is high.

This disease, in a particular case, may be so mild as not to
occasion inconvenience to any extent beyond a little sore throat.
It may be so severe and the swelling so great as to threaten
death by shock or by suffocation in a few hours.

The sequels may be serious ; by attacking the kidneys, and
interfering with the proper evacuation of urea, the patient may
die of uremic poisoning. The throat may become paralyzed,
so that the patient cannot swallow, the paralysis extending to
the organs of speech. It may extend also to the limbs. The
patient, in the majority of cases, recovers from the paralysis
within four months, if he survives the acute stages of the disease.
Diphtheria is not to be treated wholly as a local disease. The
tendency is to loss of strength and death from exhaustion ;
hence tonics should be administered from the beginning. Qui-
nine is well borne. Two grains every hour or two may be
given, or tincture of iron in doses of ten drops every two or three
hours in a tablespoonful of water. It will be well to have the
patient drink this slowly so that it may have a local effect upon
the throat. If the throat is badly swollen a gargle of tincture
of iron and water may be used every three or four hours. In all
cases of diphtheria a physician should see the patient daily.

Rheumatism.

Rheumatism is a constitutional disease, characterized by
certain local manifestations. These manifestations are due to
inflammation, acute or chronic, of the synovial membrane
lining th,e joints, of certain serous membranes, particularly
those of the heart, and of fibrous tissue elsewhere in the
body. Rheumatism is classified as acute articular rheuma-
tism and chronic rheumatism.

In Acute Articular Rheumatism the lining membranes
of the joints are inflamed. In the course of the disease cer-

'vf «

674

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

"7f

tain complications involving internal organs are liable to arise.
The parts more likely to become affected are the serous mem-
branes, the endocardium and pericardium lining and surround-
ing the heart.

The attack usually begins suddenly. Sometimes there is a
slight amount of fever for a day or two preceding the joint
affection ; sometimes the pain and tenderness of the joints
precede the fever, but usually these symptoms appear together.
The disease may attack any joint of the body, and is indeed
very seldom confined to one or two. The affected joints are
swollen, red and extremely tender. Pain is not so great except
when attempting t~> move, or when disturbed or jarred. The
slightest movement causes the most excruciating pain. Swell-
ing is most apparent when the knees, ankles or wrists are the
joints involved. The swelling is usually in proportion to the
severity of the inflammation. One joint after another gen-
erally becomes involve i. Sometimes upon attacking a new
joint all tenderness ana swelling disappear from the joints first
involved. The fever ranges in this disease between 102 and
108 degrees. Profuse sweating is a common symptom.

The disease very rarely proves fatal. When it does it is due
to the extension of the inflammation to the heart, and the
development of pericarditis. Even then the number of deaths
during the acute attack is very small, but in the fact that the
heart is so frequently attacked lies the danger of the disease, for,
as explained under the head of diseases of the heart, the great
majority of valvular diseases of the heart are due to endocarditis
developed during an attack of acute rheumatism. Usually,
however, the lesion of the valves causes no inconvenience until
a number of years afterward. The heart is more likely to
become involved, the more intense the disease. Other organs,
such as the pleura, the peritoneum and the membranes envel-
oping the brain, have been known to suffer inflammation during
the attack, but it is extremely rare. The head is usually free

from pain. The duration of the attack varies from ten days to
five or six weeks. There are sometimes relapses. One who
has once suffered from acute rheumatism is more liable to sub-
sequent attacks.

Treatment. — Notwithstanding the popularity of salicylic
acid, or the salicylate of soda, in the treatment of rheumatism
during the last few years, we believe that as much or more may
be accomplished by the use of what has been known as the
alkaline treatment. The alkali, either bicarbonate of potass*
or soda, should be given in full doses, every three or four
hours. Lemon juice may be added to the dose and taken while
effervescing. As soon as the urine is rendered alkaline (which
may be told by testing with red litmus paper, which turns to
blue if dipped into an alkaline fluid), the dose should be greatly
diminished, and taken thereafter only once or twice a day.
Tonics are useful. Quinine in two-grain doses may be given.
Tincture of aconite applied to the swollen joints often affords
relief. Chloroform liniment or soap liniment is also used for
this purpose. The salicylate of soda is much employed — per-
haps at this time more than any other remedy.

Chronic Rheumatism differs from the acute variety in
the degree of severity of the symptoms, and in their duration.
In mild cases the patients are able to go about their work, but
suffer more or less pain in the affected joints. In other cases,
more severe, the patient is confined to his bed, and frequently,
with those about their avocations, there is more or less deform-
ity of the joints.

Treatment. — The alkalies may be used in small doses ; also
the salicylate of soda. Iodide of potassium is sometimes very
useful, and in malarious districts quinine is to be employed.

The local applications to the joints here are of more impor-
tance than in the acute variety. Tincture of aconite, tincture of
iodine and chloroform liniment are very useful.

-* EMERGENCIES.**-

Hemorrhage.
A rapid loss of blood is one of the most alarming experi-
ences in life. Nothing is more startling than the hemorrhage
from a large vessel, in the case of wounds made with a sharp
instrument. If the wound is of one of the limbs, the bleeding
may be easily controlled until a surgeon can arrive. If the
blood is of a bright-red color, and flows in spurts with the pulse,
the wounded vessel is an artery, and the blood comes directly
from the heart. The artery must be compressed above the
wound. The best way to do this, in case of the arm, is to tie a

Fig. 39. Bandage Applied on Arm to Stop Bleeding.

The dotted line indicates the course of the artery.

hard knot in a handkerchief ; then pass the ends around the arm
and tie firmly, having placed the knot over the course of the
artery ; then insert a small stick, and tighten the bandage by
twisting, as shown in Fig. 39. If the wound be of the leg,
apply the knotted handkerchief as shown in Fig. 40. The
bandage thus made is correctly applied if the bleeding ceases.
Otherwise the position of the knot must be changed until the
bleeding vessel is successfully compressed.

If the wound is of the trunk, or if the bleeding is not severe,
the edges should be brought closely together with adhesive plas-
ter, or with a common needle and thread, and the wound filled
with cobwebs, or any substance favoring coagulation of the
blood. The patient should be laid down and kept perfectly
quiet.

Bleeding from the Nose is caused by the rupture of a
small vessel of the nasal mucous membrane. Generally, the
loss of blood is not great, and soon ceases without treatment.
Occasionally the hemorrhage is so profuse as to greatly weaken
the patient, and even endanger life. Cold applied to the back
of the neck, by means of a piece of ice or iron, is useful.
Plugging the nostrils is sometimes of benefit, but in severe cases
the blood will then flow backward into the throat. In the most
severe cases it is sometimes necessary to plug also the opening

of the nose into the throat. This last measure is always success-
ful, but a physician should be called to do the operation, as
a person without experience would be apt to fail.

Bleeding from the Lungs. — A small amount of blood
sometimes takes place into the bronchial tubes, giving rise to
"spitting of blood." With this variety there in no immediate
danger from loss of blood. Sometimes, however, in cases of
consumption, rupture of vessels of considerable size takes place,
causing a copious hemorrhage. This is sometimes so severe as
to cause death. The patient should be put to bed at once and
required to lie quietly upon his back. Twenty drops
of laudanum may be given every two hours. Also ace-
tate of lead or tannic acid. A lemon may be sucked,
and in some instances has a most excellent effect. A
large spoonful of common salt, dissolved and taken
into the stomac'i, is said to be very useful in control*
ling the hemorrhage. The patient should be kept quiet
for several days.

Accidents.

BRUISES, SPRAINS, DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES.

A Bruise should be dressed with a cold water band-
age and kept wet. Perfect rest should be given the

Fig. 40.

Bandage Applied on Thigh so as to Stop Bleed-
ing from a Wound Below.

The black line indicates the course of the artery.

part. In case of a bruise about the face or eyes, much of the
discoloration may be prevented by at once applying a cold water
dressing, or ice, which is better.

-M

676

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

~7\

A SPRAIN, whether it is of the ankle, or knee, or wrist,
should at once be tightly and thoroughly bandaged, and perfect
rest should be given the part. A speedy recovery by this means
will usually result, when any other course may make a cripple.
In bandaging the knee or ankle the bandage must be applied
down to the toes, to prevent swelling and stoppage-of the cir-
culation.

In case of either Fractures or Dislocations the patient
should not be allowed to make an effort, lest he may do himself
additional injury. A great many times, by attempting to walk
with a broken leg, patients have thrust the end of the fractured
bone out through the flesh, thus greatly increasing the danger
of a serioms result. The injured member should be straightened
out, and the patient placed in the most comfortable position to
await the coming of the surgeon.

Bites and Stings.

Bite of a Mad Dog. — The wound is to be immediately
sucked either by the patient or another person. No harm can
result if there are no abrasions or scratches upon the lips, and it
is a very ready and effective way of removing the poison from
the wound. Send at once for a medical man to cut or cauter-
ize the wound. If none can be had within a few minutes, any
person can cauterize the wound with lunar caustic, or, if none
be at hand, the wound may be burned to the bottom by a small
red-hot iron. The bite of a dog not mad is usually very pain-
ful, and is attended with considerable inflammation and swell-
ing. Cloths wrung out of hot water may be applied. Later,
a flax-seed poultice, with a half-teaspoonful of laudanum
sprinkled upon it, should be applied.

Bite of a Venomous Serpent should be treated in the
same way as the bite of a mad dog. Brandy or whisky should
be given in considerable quantity.

Stings of Wasps and Bees may be treated by bathing
the parts with ammonia or hartshorn, diluted with an equal
amount of water. In case of the honey-bee sting, if there is
much swelling, a poultice of flaxseed should be applied.

Burns, Scalds and Frost-Bites.

In case of Burns or Scalds the parts should be protected from
the air at once. If a quantity of white oil-paint is at hand,
cover the burn at once by applying gently a very thick coat
of the paint. In a little while another coat is to be given. If
no paint is to be had, apply olive oil and cover with flour. If
no sweet oil is to be had, lard will do.. If no oil of any sort is
to be had, then cover the part with dry flour. The patient
should be given a full dose of laudanum or paregoric, or opium
or morphine. If the burn has been very extensive, a physician
should now be sent for.

Incase of Frost-Bite, the circulation must be slowly restored;
hance great care should be taken not to bring the patient into a
warm room. The frozen part may be rubbed with snow in
a cold room, or immersed in very cold water, and kept there
for two or three hours, until the circulation has been fully
restored.

Suffocation.

Suffocation takes place whenever the air is shut out of the
lungs ; this may lie done by compressing the windpipe, as in
choking or hanging; or filling the lungs with water, as in

drowning ; or with poisonous gases, as charcoal gas from burn-
ing charcoal, or by the escape of illuminating gas into the
sleeping-room ; or by the poisonous gas in mines and old
wells.

In case of strangulation, as by hanging, the pressure upon the
windpipe is to be instantly removed, and the bands about the
neck and body loosened. In the case of inhalation of a poisonous
gas the patient is to be at once removed into the open air ; while
the drowning person is, of course, to be removed at once from
the water, and movements made for emptying the water out of
the lungs. The wet clothes should be stripped off and the
body wrapped in a warm shawl, blanket or dry coat ; no time
should be lost in changing the clothing, but efforts at artificial
respiration should be made at once, and the clothing can be
gotten off while these efforts are in progress. Artificial respir-
ation should be employed in all cases, whether of hanging,
drowning, or suffocation by a poisonous gas. The following
method of Marshall Hall is as good as any other :

1. Treat the patient instantly on the spot, in the open air,
freely exposing the face, neck and chest to the breeze, except in
severe weather

2. In order to clear the throat, place the patient gently on the
face, with one wrist under the forehead, that all fluid, and the
tongue itself, may fall forward, and leave the entrance into the
wind-pipe free.

3. To excite respiration, turn the patient slightly on his side,
and apply some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as
vetratrine, dilute ammonia, etc

4. Make the face warm by brisk friction ; then dash cold
water upon it.

5. If not successful, lose no time ; but, to imitate respira-
tion, place the patient on his face, and turn the body gently,
but completely, on the side, and a little beyond ; then again on
the face, and so on, alternately. Repeat these movements
deliberately and perseveringly, fifteen times only in a minute.
(When the patient lies on the thorax, this cavity is compressed
by the weight of the body, and expiration takes place. When
he is turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and inspira-
tion occurs.)

6. When the prone position is resumed, make a uniform and
efficient pressure along the spine, removing the pressure immedi-
ately, before rotation on the side. (The pressure augments the
expiration; the rotation commences inspiration.) Continue
these measures.

7. Rub the limbs upward, with firm pressure and with
energy. (The object being to aid the return of venous blood
to the heart.)

8. Substitute for the patient's wet clothing, if possible,
such other covering as can be instantly procured, each bystander
supplying a coat or cloak, etc. Meantime, and from time to
time, to excite inspiration, let the surface of the body be
slapped briskly with the hand.

0. Rub the body briskly till it is dry and warm, then dash
cold water upon it, and repeat the rubbing.

Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a
dangerous loss of time ; also, the use of bellows, or any forc-
ing instrument ; also, the warm bath, and all rough treatment.

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

677

"7f

Poisoning.

In cases of poisoning something must be done at once, before
a physician can have time to reach the patient. The first effort
should be to get the poison out of the stomach. This can be
done by inducing vomiting. This should be done in every
case, no matter what poison has been swallowed.

Endeavor to wash out the stomach in the following manner :
a tablespoonful of common dry mustard is to be added to about
two quarts of warm water; stir well and give to the patient by
the tumblerful until he vomits freely. In some cases, half the
mixture will be required before vomiting is induced. If no
mustard is at hand, then use the warm water alone.

The patient should be undressed and put to bed. If the skin
becomes cold and the breathing rapid, stimulants are required,
such as bottles of hot water placed at the feet and in contact
with the body, always taking care not to burn the skin.

In the case of known opium or morphine poisoning, in addi-
tion to the above the victim should be walked rapidly by a
strong person on either side.

Acids (Oxalic, Sulphuric, Nitric). — Give large draughts of
cooking soda in water, then wash out the stomach as directed
in general rules.

Carbolic Acid kills very rapidly. Pour oil into the victim's
mouth freely. Apply friction to the surface. Inject diluted
whisky into the bowels. Children have been seriously poisoned
by carbolic acid injected into the bowels to destroy pin worms.
In such cases empty the bowels completely by warm soap suds
injected into the bowels, and stimulate the victim by whisky
and water in the stomach.

Aconite. — Wash out the stomach. Rub the entire surface of
the body with a coarse towel. Inject a tablespoonful of whisky
with an equal quantity of water into the bowels.

Antimony (Hive Syrup). — A draught of sweet oil or milk,
followed by washing out the stomach. Give diluted whisky by
the mouth and inject it into the bowels.

Arsenic (Fowler's Solution).— Draughts of milk or starch,
followed by washing out the stomach. Stimulants injected into
the bowels.

Alkalies (Potash, Ammonia). — Pour sweet oil or milk into
the mouth freely; afterward wash out the stomach.

Belladonna. — Wash out the stomach. Apply friction to the
surface. Stimulate with whisky.

Chloral. — Empty the stomach. Artificial heat to the sur-
face. Stimulants by injection.

Chloroform. — If taken into the stomach, wash it out. If
respiration threatens to cease, use artificial respiration and ap-
ply heat and friction to the surface. If inhaled, the victim
should be placed head down while efforts are being made to
maintain respiration artificially. Keep the body warm. All
persons should make themselves familiar with methods of in-
ducing artificial respiration, and remember to employ them with
steady persistency in cases of drowning.

Mercury (Corrosive Sublimate). — White of eggs, or, if not
at hand, give milk freely. Wash out the stomach afterward.

Opium (Morphine). — The greatest difficulty will be experi-
enced in emptying the stomach, which may be facilitated by
tickling the front portions of the throat with a feather. Com-
pel the patient to walk rapidly if possible. If not, use the most
vigorous friction to the surface without ceasing. If necessary,
severe pain should be produced by sharply pinching the thumb
nail until the patient responds. Hot black coffee. Artificial
respiration. Children are frequently killed by soothing syrups.
These should never be given except by medical advice.

Fainting.
The cause of Fainting is lack of blood in the brain ;
hence, the patient, in case of a faint, should be placed in a posi-
tion favoring the flow of blood to the brain. The patient should
be laid at once flat down upon a bed, a sofa, or the floor, with-
out any pillow under the head ; then cold water can be dashed
in the face, which will have the desired effect.

Sunstroke.

In case of Sunstroke, unfasten and remove all excess of cloth-
ing and dash pails of cold water over the head and chest of the
patient. As soon as ice can be procured make an ice-cap of
towels, and cover the head with ice broken in small pieces.
This treatment of cold to the head is to be kept up for many
hours, or even for days in some cases. A physician should be
called as soon as possible, but treatment should go vigorously
forward until his arrival.

-r*r-

•ttor

678

PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE.

-i»POSOLOGICAL TABLE,

MEDICINES, WITH DOSES FOR ADULTS.

For patients over 20 years of age, the full dose ; from 14 to 20 years, % of full dose ; 7 to 14 years, % dose ; 4 to 7 years, #

dose ; 3 years, £ dose ; 2 years, y„ dose ; 1 year, r^ dose.

Mwllclne. Doge.

Arsenic, Fowler's Solution of 2 to 10 drops.

Aconite, Extract of. ito j4 grain.

Aconite, Tincture of I to 5 drops.

Aloes, Purified I to 5 grains.

" Pills of 1 to 4 pills.

" Pills of Asafcetida and. 1 to 4 pills.

Asafcetida, Mixture of .'/£ to 2 tablespoonfuls.

" Tincture of % to 2 teaspoonfuls.

" Pills of. 1 to 4 pills.

Atropia, Sulphate of t 4o to fa of a grain.

Belladonna, Extract of. % to 1 grain.

" Fluid Extract of I to 5 drops.

" Tincture of 5 to 30 drops.

Bismuth, Subnitrate of 10 to 30 grains.

Bromide of Ammonia 5 '° 2 ° grains.

" of Potassium 5 to 20 grains.

" of Sodium 5 to 20 grains.

Buchu, Fluid Extract of 10 to 60 drops.

Calibar Bean, Extract of % to 1 grain.

Calomel ito 10 grains.

Camphor, Spirits of 5 to 15 drops.

Camphor Water t to 4 teaspoonfuls.

Capsicum, Tincture of 10 to 20 drops.

Castor Oil. ...'.... X to 2 tablespoonfuls

Chloral, Hydrate of 5 to 30 grains.

Cinchona, Sulphate of. 5 to 30 grains.

Cinchona, Compound Tincture of. 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls.

Cod Liver Oil % to 1 tablespoonful.

Copper, Sulphate of i to % grain.

Corrosive Sublimate fa to fa grain.

Cream of Tartar 5 to 60 grains.

Croton Oil I to 2 drops.

Digitalis, Extract of }£ to 2 grains.

Digitalis, Tincture of. 5 to 60 drops.

Dover's Powder 5 to 10 grains.

Epsom Salts % to 2 tablespoonfuls.

Ergot, Fluid Extract of. ^ to 2 teaspoonfuls.

Gentian, Extract of. I to 5 grains.

Gilsemium, Fluid Extract of 5 to 10 drops.

Hydrochloric Acid, dilute 1 to 5 drops.

Hyosciamus, Fluid Extract of 5 to 20 drops.

Hyosciamus, Tincture of % to 2 teaspoonfuls.

Iodine, Compound Tincture of 2 to 5 drops.

M<Mlicine.

Iodide of Potassium 5 to 30 grains.

Ipicacuanha, Fluid Extract of 2 to 30 drops.

Ipicacuanha, Syrup of 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls.

Ipicacuanha, Troches of Morphine and. ito 10 troches.

Iron, Reduced 1 to 2 grains.

Iron, Pyrophosphate of. 2 to 5 grains.

Iron, Tincture of the Chloride of 5 to 30 drops.

Lactic Acid 15 to 30 drops.

Laudanum 15 to 40 drops.

Lead, Sugar of. ^ to 5 grains.

May Apple, Resin of y& to % grain.

May Apple, Extract of 3 to 8 grains.

Muriatic Acid, dilute 5 to 10 drops.

Morphine }i to % grains.

Magnesia, Sulphate of )£ to 2 tablespoonfuls.

Mustard, Ground 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

Nitre, Sweet Spirits of ^ to 1 teaspoonful.

Nitro-Muriatic Acid, dilute. 2 to 10 drops.

Nux Vomica, Tincture of 10 to 25 drops.

Opium, Extract of. ^ to 2 grains.

Opium, Tincture of 15 to 40 drops.

Opium, Camphorated Tincture of % to 2 tablespoonfuls.

Paregoric X to 2 tablespoonfuls.

Potassium, Bicarbonate of. 5 to 20 grains.

Potassium, Bitartrate of 5 to 60 grains.

Potassium, Bromide of. 5 to 20 grains.

Potassium, Chlorate of 5 to 20 grains.

Potassium, Iodide of 5 to 30 grains.

Potassium, Liquor of 2 to 20 drops.

Pepsin 5 to lograins.

Quassia, Tincture of 5 to 60 drops.

Quinine 2 to 10 grains.

Salicin 5 to 20 grains.

Senna, Confection of. 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

Senna, Fluid Extract of 1 tablespoonful.

Soda, Bicarbonate of 5 to 30 grains.

Soda, Salicylate of to to 30 grains.

Squill, Syrup of Ji to I teaspoonful.

Strychnia, Sulphate of fa to fa of a grain.

Turpentine, Spirits or Oil of 5 to 10 drops.

Valerian, Tincture of % to 2 teaspoonfuls.

Veratrum Viride, Tincture of 1 to 4 drops.

Zinc, Oxide of ){ to 5 grains.

! lv

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

079

P^ JpDERN f IJflE£.

With Plans and Estimates.

HILE the aim of this department is to give a practical ex-
position of the science of Architecture as modified by
modern thought and necessity, and more especially in its
relation to the building of country homes, a brief introductory al-
lusion may be made to the general principles of architectural beauty, which,
though founded upon ideas evolved and matured by the ancients, are to-day
the main sources of inspiration for the builder who seeks to render what he
builds beautiful as well as convenient and comfortable. Many as may be the
styles of architecture, the science is divided into five great original divisions,
known as the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan and Composite orders. Of
these, the three first named are of Greek origin; the last two are Roman
adaptations of the former, the Composite order being a rich and glowing union
of the Ionic and Corinthian, while the Tuscan is merely an elaboration of the
Doric. With the political partition of the Roman Empire came a division of
its architecture into the Byzantine, which became tinged with orientalism, indicated in its richness of color and decoration, and
the Early Christian and Romanesque, both of which are more simple. Among other styles which strongly influence modern
building are the Gothic, and the Renaissance, which is a revival of Grecian architecture adapted to modern requirements. Other
styles, which are very seldom resorted to, are the Egyptian, marked by sloping walls, great solidity, and ornamentation in hiero-
glyphics and the lotus-flower ; the Assyrian, of fantastic design, with huge flights of stairs and lengthy terraces ; the Chinese, char-
acterized by curling eaves and a succession of roofs tapering one above the other ; the Indian, exemplified by temples cut from
the solid rock, and the Moorish, richest of all in its combination of light colors and elaboration of minute and beautiful details.

<«c==s# PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. -^=^=^

A commendable tendency of the times is to combine in all things beauty and utility. A house is the physical exponent of the
standing and character, the tastes and aspirations of its owner, and nothing is more worthy of a man's thought and at-
tention than the structure and its surroundings which he calls his home. In building a modem home in the country, it being al-
ways understood that harmony of outline and proportion is sought in connection with more indispensable requirements, the follow-

680

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

ing excellencies must be constantly aimed at s Convenience of
arrangement; facility of construction and repair; protection
from heat in summer and cold in winter ; means of ventilat-
ing and warming; conformity with the surrounding scenery.
These are the leading ideas which should guide the builder,
and, as the question of convenient arrangement has an external
as well as an internal application, the first matter to receive con-
sideration will be

The Choice of a Site.

In making the selection the things to be avoided should re-
ceive attention. Among these are a location on the north or
west side of a hill, and proximity of sluggish streams, marshes,
bogs, swamps, the miasma from which will poison the at-
mosphere and certainly entail liability to disease upon those
breathing ft. The steep side of an evenly rising hill offers an
objectionable posi-
tion when other hills
of equal height and
like conformation
surround it, cutting
off the necessary
amount of sunlight
The principal rooms
of the house should
be so located as to
be well exposed to
the sun's rays. The
dining-room should
get the benefit of the
morning sun ; the
principal c h a m b e r
and the sitting-room
should be located so
as to invite the sun-
shine through both
the morning and the
afternoon. Either
the morning or the
afternoon sun should
be secured for the
other rooms, parlors,
etc., while the kitch-
en, bath-room, store-
rooms, etc., can be
given the locations which are least favored with solar rays.

An elevated site presents many great advantages. It in-
vites the sunlight to come early and stay late. It places at com-
mand a sweeping view of the surrounding country. It insures
the presence of pure and salubrious atmosphere, and gives the
best facilities for draining. With such a site, protected from
the western and northern winds by belts of timber or thatches
of higher ground, as near an approach as is possible to absolute
comfort and healthfulness, as far as location can govern them, will
be secured.

"Jonformity with the surrounding scenery is an object that
should not be overlooked. When possible place the house
so that the occupant, no matter which way he will direct his
glance, may be greeted by a pleasant landscape, whose natural

A KUKAL HUME.

advantages can be greatly improved by the planting here and
there of trees or shrubs. These, too, may be advantageously
employed in the ornamentation of the actual site of the build-
ing, care being taken that they should not be placed too near
the building so as to swell the volume of dampness to an un-
healthy extent

Building a Home.

After the farmer has made up his mind that he will build a
home, the next thing to be definitely settled is the kind of a
house he intends to erect Whatever changes in the main plan
are to be made are accomplished easily and at no expense be-
fore the actual building has been begun. Therefore let the
builder thoroughly embody in his plans what he wants in his
house, where he wants it and how he wants it, before he even
goes so far as to stake out the foundation. In this preliminary

work, which will be
found to be full of
pleasure, an inval-
uable adviser will be
found in the wife
who is to preside
over the home when
it is finished. Her
keen intuition and
ready inventive fac-
ulty will find a quick
solution for any of
the agreeable puz-
zles which arise from
time to time in plan-
ning a house. Con-
venience of arrange-
ment which is the
creator of home
comfort, must be
studied at every
point when the work
of building the home
on paper is in prog-
ress. These desid-
erata should in no
instance be made
subordinate to ap-
pearance. With the
exercise of a little ingenuity both comfort and beauty may be pre-
served in combination. In the question of facility of construc-
tion and repair many local issues will of course take part
Availability and cost have a good deal to say on this subject
Other things being equal, stone provides the handsomest and
most durable building material, as well as the most artistic,
its unembellished surface always harmonizing with the
scenery which surrounds and the foliage which enfolds it
Next comes brick, which, though lacking the lasting power and
beauty of stone, presents points of utility and permanence of
great value. Lastly, wood claims attention, and on its behalf
are urged its cheapness and dryness, its general healthfulness,
its facility of ventilation, the readiness with which it is worked,
and its pronounced capability of ready ornamentation. The

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

68l

only offset to all these advantages is supplied in its perishable
nature ; but with care this may be greatly modified. No home
presents a more cheerful exterior than that of wood painted in
the bright and cheerful tints now in vogue. A propos of paint-
> n g> a great mistake is occasionally made by the owners of
wooden buildings when they seek to have the surfaces con-
verted into a supposed imitation of stone or brick. At a dis-
tance the imposture may succeed, but a closer view dispels the
thin illusion, and the cheap effect creates anything but the im-
pression which has been aimed at so awkwardly.

As a general, a very general rule, the publishers of such
books as have hitherto attempted to handle the question of
modern architecture in a practical way have been content to
supply their readers with some good general advice on the sub-
ject o' the selection of the location and material of a house,
after which they bring the subject to a sudden and unsatisfactory
ending, by advising the intending builder, when he has got thus
far, to employ an architect and entrust to his judgment and dis-
cretion, paid for by a large percentage on the actual cost of the
house, the completion of the structure. Such is not the inten-
tion of this book. It has given the house-builder advice on the
subjects mentioned, and, having led him up to the point where
planning ends and construction begins, it will not there leave
him. In the plans and specifications to be found further on are
provided clear and comprehensive data, by following which
any farmer, with the assistance of one or more competent car-
penters, will be able to construct the house which he has
planned.

Before these are brought under consideration, an estimate,
aiiuwing just

How the Money is Applied

in the building of a $1,500 house, will provide an idea of the
cost of the various materials used in its construction, and will
form a reliable basis of calculation for houses of less or greater
cost :

Excavation, 45 yards at 15 cents $ 6.75

Brick-wo-k. 13,600 at ?S.oo, 10S.S0

J° ists . 63.00

Flooring, 2,000 feet 80.00

Raftcrs 57.00

Studding and framing 108.00

Sheathing, 4,500 feet ,03,50

Weather. boarding, 2,500 feet 125.00

Shingles and shingling, 1,900 at $5.00 05,00

Gutters and cornices, 196 feet feet at 30 cents 5S.S0

Doors, with hardware, 13 at $S.oo 104.00

Windows, complete, 14 at $7.50 105.00

Bases, 460 feet at 6 cents, 27.60

Porches and stairs 58.00

Painting and glazing, ,30.00

Galvanized iron and tin work, 63.00

Lathing and plastering, 868 yards at 20 cents '73.6o

Grates and mantels 3C.00

Sundries 33.00

Total, including labor, etc $1,539,05

Water.

A full supply of water is of essential importance, and the near-
er it can be brought to the house the better ; and best of all if it

can be introduced right into the house. In hilly localities a
spring may be found whose elevation will enable its waters to
flow through the whole house. Failing such a convenient ally
of domestic comfort, a hydraulic ram may be employed to force
the water through the system of pipes with which the house is
supplied. The ventilation of water is essential, and for this
purpose cisterns should be left exposed and uncovered. With-
out good drinking-water good health will be unattainable. Sev-
eral simple but reliable tests of its quality are given, among
which the following are worthy of attention : Good drinking
water cooks vegetables well, especially the dry kind, such as
peas and beans. To the eye it should be limpid ; V the nose,
scentless ; to the taste, insipid. After drinking in moderation
no sensation of weight should be felt in the stomach. If the
water fulfils all these conditions it may be relied upon as excel-
lent Avoid the use of rain-water caught on the roof and saved
in cisterns, as, being impregnated with dust, soot, and other
impurities, it is necessarily impure. By filtration it can be ren-
dered drinkable, and it is a good plan to build your cistern in
two compartments, separated one from the other by a water-
tight wall of brick, with a space left in the bottom for a box fill-
ed with alternate layers of gravel, sand and powdered charcoal.
The water will be filtered by passing through this box, and be
made safe and pleasant for use.
When it is decided to have a

Cellar

care should be taken to so construct it that the dangers arising
from foul air, through bad ventilation and lack of the purifying
sunlight, are reduced to a minimum. A cellar which is
intended for the storage of vegetables through the winter should
not be connected with, certainly never directly beneath the
dwelling. In any case it should be kept scrupulously clean, as
the foul gases given off by decomposing vegetables are highly
detrimental to health.
A few dollars expended on an

Ice-House

will be found to be one of the best investments the farmer ever
made. Up to within comparatively few years ice was invariably
stored underground, but recently it has been found that the
crystal coldness can be as well preserved in a house built above
ground, provided only that it is constructed on a plan which
secures non-conduction of heat into the interior. A very good
plan for an efficacious ice-house, to cost only $25, can be given :
It should be built of boards with double walls filled with saw-
dust, or chaff, or fine straw. A large ventilating window is
placed at each end at the top ; these windows should always be
open. Care should be taken that all the saw-dust is pressed
solid, so that no cavities are left. An ice-house with one apart-
ment, 8 by 10 feet, and 6 feet high, will keep ice enough for a
moderate family. To build such a house will be required 216
square feet of inch-thick weather-boarding, $3.60; 132 feet of
rafters, 10 feet long, 4 by 2 inches, $1.80; 103 feet of slats, 7
feet long, $2.10; two doors, $2.00; shingles, 1,150, $2.90.
Total, $25. The employment of materials which are non-
conductors of heat and the securing of proper drainage are the
great points to be looked after in building an ice-house.

}

682

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

BEAUTIFUL* HOMES.

THE LATEST DESIGNS FOR COTTAGES AND DWELLINGS.
-W~+ — »*« — »~H-

THE principal motive in this work is to give moderate-
priced dwellings, ranging from $1,000 to JS6,ooo, one
or two, however, touching figures considerably higher.
We realize that the architecture of the future will be more quiet
and less florid than it has been for several years past ; we have,
therefore, endeavored so to treat the designs that they will
always look well. Careful study has also been given to the
planning, the arrangement being comfortable and convenient.
We consider it better taste to avoid flimsy and trashy details in
the construction of our homes ; the study should be more for
repose and harmony and less for ostentatious display. The
picturesque roof is the principal feature in modem cottage archi-
tecture, and is coming to be treated more simply than formerly.
Many people raise the objection to the picturesque roof, that it
will get out of repair easily. But there is no reason why a steep
roof need get out of repair sooner than a flat one, providing ,it is
properly constructed.

The question naturally arises, hi looking over the designs,
" How much would such a house cost ? " This question we
anticipate, and in some cases estimates are given. But it is
possible to do so in a general way only, as the expense of a
building depends entirely upon the specifications and details,
and on the cost of materials and labor in the location where the
building is erected.

It does not pay to attempt to build too cheaply, although
economy should be carefully considered. Take, for instance,
plate A. This cottage might, by leaving out a good foundation
wall, the cellar, cistern, etc., be built for $600 or $800. This
would necessitate setting the house upon cedar posts, boarding up
the under-pinning, and otherwise " skinning " it, thus making a
trap for infectious diseases, not fit for a beast to inhabit, instead
of a comfortable home for a family to dwell in. On the other
hand, if the same cottage is built with a good foundation wall,
the cellar well drained, the frame warmly sheathed and other-
wise specified to be in good condition, comfortable and healthful,
it will cost from $1,200 to $ 1400.

The designs and plans immediately following, numbered A to
L, are by Mr. J. H. Kirby, of Syracuse, N. Y., and are selected
from a series of twenty-four designs published by him in 1885,
and constituting a " Portfolio of Cottages " which docs credit
even to an architect of Mr. Kirby's reputation. These designs
are in accordance with the best modern taste, and represent that
union of comfort and artistic beauty which is now demanded in
the better class of home architecture.

Design A shows a small frame cottage suitable for a family
of modest means, but possessed of culture and refinement. By
reference to the floor plans it will be seen that the arrangement
of rooms consists of a living-room, dining-room, a small bed-
room and a kitchen on the first floor. The stairs connect the
living-room with the second story, and are what are known as
box stairs. The cellar is reached by stairs immediately under
the main stairs. This general arrangement is usually quite
economical. The house is approached through a commodious
porch, which sweeps down from the main roof, and seems to
Invite you to come under its shelter. The balcony at the left is
entered through a window extending to the floor of the parlor.
The kitchen is reached through a side porch. The second floor
contains three chambers, with closets from each. This cottage
gave excellent satisfaction when built.

Design B. — This cottage seems to suggest to us a home — a
home where the little child basks in the sunshine of a mother's
love, and where the broad, sheltering roof seems a guarantee of
comfort within. This cottage is also arranged so that the cost
may be kept at the lowest limit. On entering the hall the stairs
mount to the second story. From the hall we enter the parlor,
or living-room, which contains in one corner a cheerful fireplace.
A kitchen and bed-room take up the remaining space allotted to
the first floor. The cellar is reached by a stairway under the
hall stairs. The second floor has a small hall and three chambers
with accompanying closets. The entire exterior surface is covered
with sheathing or matched boards, to make it warm in winter
and cool in summer. Upon this sheathing in the first story are
placed feather-edge clapboards showing about three inches to the
weather. The upper part or second story is shingled. The
general effect of this cottage when painted with warm, harmoni-
ous colors is very pleasing.

Design C. — This design has an individuality about it which at
once recommends it. While it is comparatively ornate, it is free
from any of the flimsy detail which many associate with tbe so-
called Queen Anne style. The broad veranda, extending across
the entire front of the house, leads us into the vestibule or small
hO, out of which ascend the stairs to the second floor. The
sides of the stairs are neatly wainscoted, and have a rail attached
to same. The dining-room and living-room are connected by
an archway. At the left of the dining-room is a small bed-room,
which the architect has not placed there to please himself, but
because most people building a country house seem to demand
something of the kind. " So nice in case of sickness," they say.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

68 3

It usually turns out, however, that they seldom use this little
room for a bed-room, but turn it into a sewing-room, or some-
thing of that sort.

Design D. — This design is somewhat more extensive than
any of the foregoing. The house itself is even more pleasing
than the perspective drawing of it. In this building we get the
soft, harmonious combination of colors, which, taken in con-
nection with the general outlines, makes an attractive appear-
ance. In this example, as well as imsome of the others, the
porch, or veranda, is a special feature. The hall staircase has
an ample landing, which is always desirable, and it will
be noticed that the principal rooms and hall can be easily thrown
together. The living-room contains a fireplace, and between the
kitchen and dining-room there are two doors, each double-hung,
to swing either way. This feature prevents steam and the smells
of cooking from passing to the dining-room. A bed-room is
arranged on the first floor. The kitchen is connected with
second story by a back stairway. In the second story we get
five chambers, with bath-room, having bath-tub, hand-basin and
water-closet. The balcony to the right, on second floor, is
reached through the chamber window. The staircase window
has cathedral glass laid in lead mullions.

Design E. — The exterior of this design is perhaps more re-
markable for oddity than anything else. The lower part is clap-
boarded, and the upper part is shingled. The interior, though
small, has the benefit of quite a spacious hallway, with a nice
landing staircase. A corner fireplace is also a feature of the
interior.

Design F. — This design embodies the usual arrangement
of rooms, the hall having a landing staircase. The hall, parlor
and living-rooms are connected by means of sliding doors. The
exterior is plentifully supplied with verandas, balconies, etc.
The rooms are nearly all of very fair size, and are all conven-
iently located.

Design G was arranged for a summer cottage, and was in-
tended to accommodate two or three families. The living-room

is made large enough to be used in common, out of which the
open staircase connects with the upper floor. Back of the living-
room is a kitchen. The house is well supplied with bed-rooms,
and has a wide veranda extending all around it. On either side
above the veranda are two large balconies. The interior is de-
signed to be left unfinished.

Design H. — This cottage is attractive on the exterior, and
desirable in the interior. The large reception hall forms a
prominent feature of the inner arrangement. Its connection
with all the other principal rooms is such that by means of slid-
ing doors all of the rooms can easily be thrown together. This
cottage would cost about $10,000, much depending, however,
upon the manner and style of finish.

Design I. — As a frame dwelling design I has given most
excellent satisfaction. A broad veranda spans the entire front,
from which we enter the large reception hall. This hall has a
fireplace, and is connected by archways with the landing stair-
case, hall and parlor. The staircase is a beautiful feature in this
house. A very desirable arrangement is the connection of
kitchen with front door by means of a second hall. The sec-
ond floor contains chambers of good size, with spacious closets,
and good bath-room and water-closet.

Design K is a brick dwelling, and adjoins design C. It will
be seen, by reference to floor plans, that the hall enters the cen-
ter of the house, and communicates with a cross or transept hall,
which is lighted by means of an elegant cathedral glass staircase
window. A back hall with an open staircase is a good feature.
The rooms are so arranged that all are pleasant and commodious.

Design L gives us a brick building of semi-detached dwellings.
This house is three full stories high, besides the attic and cellar.
The reception hall forms a desirable feature, and the staircase is
reversed from the usual order. The rear part of the house has
no stairs, but is furnished with an elevator, extending from cellar
to attic. On the second floor is a large bath-room, which takes
the place of one of the rooms marked as bed-room. The first
floor is finished in cherry, the second in oak, and the third in pine.

Design A. A SMALL COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $1,400.

Kitchen.
ll'xl£.'

Livinc/R. j
10x14."

Bal.

PRINCIPAL FLOOR.

SECOND FLOOR.

Design B. SMALL COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $1,500.

)k-

PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.

Roor.

Boor

BedR.
9x15.

HalL

Roor.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

686

Design C. A SMALL FRAME COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $2,000.

PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

■#•" — I 1 1 It

687

Design D. A SUMMER COTTAGE. To cost about $2,000.

BedH.
10x20!

Veranda.

PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

Design E. A SMALL FRAME COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $2,500.

PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

4h*

^ 9

Design F. A FRAME COTTAGE. To cost, complete, about $3,500.

Roof.

Store R.
12x 20!

PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

*fe

Design G. FRAME COTTAGE. Cost, complete, about $4,500.

BedR.

Il'xli

Pass. I Pantry.

Veranda.

Chamber.
11x12.'

Bath.

■

Chamber.

12x1+'.

Chamber.
15x15.'

g Hall. |ciov|ck».

Chamber.
13x15'. J! Clos -

Design H. A FRAME DWELLING.

stoop-

Balcony.

Principal Floor,

Second Floor.

691

693

Design I. A FRAME DWELLING. To cost about $6,000.

■Roof

PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

•3F

:«r

693

Design K. A BRICK DWELLING.

PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

694

w « — ^"

Design L. SEMI-DETACHED BRICK DWELLINGS.

PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.

SECOND FLOOR PLAN.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

695

< A $3,000 PRIZE COTTAGE. I>

A $3,000 PRIZE COTTAGE.— ELEVATION.

The American Architect, in 1883, offered a prize for the best
original plan of a cottage approximating in cost $3,000. A large
number of architects entered the competition, but the jury de-
cided that the accompanying designs, by W. E. Chamberlain,
of Cambridgeport, Mass., were incontestably worthy of the first
place. While there is nothing that can be called eccentric in
the architecture, it is a fresh and unexpected conception. There
is a certain distinction which removes the design from the or-
dinary type, suggesting that the occupant of this cottage has
more social prestige than his neighbors.

The plan provides a piazza which is partially roofed for sum-
mer, while a vestibule to the hall answers the requirements of a
winter dwelling. The parlor and dining-room communicate
with each other and with the hall. The kitchen has an ample
porch, which would, perhaps, better have been utilized for a
shed or wash-room. There is a cellar under the whole house.
A furnace is depended upon to heat the various rooms, except
the parlor and dining-room, which have open fireplaces. By
changing the positicn of the back stairs ifc the second-floor
plan to the left side of the kitchen, some valuable space might
be gained. The main stairs continue up in a tower to the attic,
where another room is obtained.

The house is supposed to be built in Allston, Mass., near
Boston. Labor is as cheap there as anywhere. The Boston
market is at hand, railroad accommodation easy, and stone-
work cheap.

The cellar walls are of 18-inch rough stone up to grade, and
then 1 8-inch brick wall up to sill.

Walls of first story covered with pine "siding," broad hori-
zontal sheathing 10 inches wide.

Above second-story floor-beams shingles everywhere, left
untouched by paint or stain, to become gray with time.

Rough boarding and lower floors of hemlock. Frame of
spruce. Plaster, two-coat work. No wainscoting or hard-wood
finish. Mill windows and doors.

Sizes : Sills, 4 inches by 6 inches ; plates, 4 inches by 6
inches ; wall-studs, 2 inches by 4 inches, 16 inches on centres ;
partition-studs, 2 inches by 3 inches, 16 inches on centres ; first-
floor beams, 2 inches by 9 inches ; second-floor beams, 2 inches
by 10 inches (the reason for this is that the second story pro-
jects in two places, and has many unsupported partitions to
carry) ; third-floor beams, 2 inches by 8 inches ; rafters, 2 inches
by 8 inches.

696

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

Estimate of Cost.

Except for stone and brick work, the prices quoted for material are cost prices, not counting labor or builder's profit, which
will be found added at the end. On the lower floor, without including piazzas, there are 817 sq. ft. At $3.50 per sq. ft., the
house would cost $2,859.50. This, with piazza-work and the architect's commission, would bring the figure very near $3,055.55,
as computed.

Excavation, 5,500 cu. ft. = 304 cu.
yds., 10 >i<t $ 44-88

Cellar Wall (stone) 40 perch, O
$3.50 (la'd) 140.00

Brick Foundation (8 in. thick) with
vault, piazza piers, and 3 cellar piers,
158 cu. ft. (34 bricks to a foot) ; 3,793
bricks, $30 per M. (laid) 75.84

Chimneys, 9,380 bricks, <a $jo(laid).. 187.60

Frame. sft rT

Sills, plates, outer walls and in*

ncr partitions 1 .7.. <

First floor 1 ,388

Second floor ..1,480

Third floor too

Second-floor ceiling -joists 648

Attic ceiling- joists 330

Roof .1,166

Total, 19 $16 7,893 136.37

Rough Outside Boardino. sq tt

First floor 1,311

Second floor 1,197

Third floor 384

Roof 1,405

Outs, Windows.
First floor, 14
Second " 13
Third " 4

30 » 33 sq. ft.
Total, (SJij

4,397

. 660

•3.637 47»8

Rough Lower Floors. g „ „_

Firstfloor .608

Second floor 700

Attic 350

Total, <S $13.

SQ.FT.

1,558 30.35

Outer Covering.

First floor, siding (9 $30 964 38.93

Second floor, shingles 810

Third and gables, shingles 434

Roof 1,405

Total 3/545

1 jo ft. to 1 ,000 shingles, 33 M., '<» $3.75. 83.50

WINDOWS, 34 large. Including sash,
glazing, weights, line, sash-fast,
frame architraves and blinds, fit $5.50 133.00

7 small ones, % $3.35 33.75

Doors, 38, Including hardware, thresh-
olds and architraves, <a $6.50 183.00

Stairs, all told 140.00

Nails 35°°

UrrER Floors, 1,611 ft.. <a $30 48.33

None in garret.

Plaster (including lathing).
Walls. gQ , T-

Kir^t Boot 3.473

Second floor 3,353

Third floor 713

Total 6.SJ7

O"™- so..rr.

Lower floor, 3 outer doors 85

" " 11 inside doors 484

" " 13 windows 195

Second " 10 doors 440

*' " 13 windows 100

Third " 3 doors 133

" " 3 windows 45

Total 1,561

6^37-1 ,S6> =4*76 sq. ft —553 sq. yds.
»>8# * 99-54

Ceilings

Plumbing (bath-room and sink only)

Gutters, 75 ft., % \if

Conductors, 60 ft., •) io#

Plaster Band on exterior (architect

to do the "scratch -work")

Furnace

Painting (on outside, the lower story

and all mouldings will be painted ;

shingles left as put on)

Labor

Two FiRErLACES (owner already ha*

tiles)

30JS

150.00

9.00

6.00

8.00
150.00

135.00

700.00

■a b

Total $3/541.14

Builder's Profit, 10 « 364.14

Architect's Commission, 5 * 150.00

Other ExrsNSES .... 15000

Total *3.°S5S$

»v

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

697

< A $2,500 HOUSE. >

This structure is in the Queen Anne style, now becoming so
popular, and presents a neat and attractive appearance. The
conventional main hall
and stairway are dis-
pensed with, and in-
stead there is provided
a vestibule entrance out-
side the house, from a
part of the veranda.
This makes the stairs
less conspicuous, with
approaches at the foot
from two directions, in
that way serving well
for general use from the
main house and as a
private stairway from
the rear extension.

The exterior presents
an angular and pictur-
esque appearance. Pro-
tection from storms is
afforded the windows
and entrances by the
extensive veranda and
other projections. De-
sirable shade is also fur-
nished by the same means. The roofs are of dark slate, and a
cresting of ornamental iron along the main ridges, properly
connected with ground
rods, serves as a protec-
tion against lightning.
The window openings,
having a single light of
plain glass in the lower
sash, contain in the upper
one several smaller tinted
lights, which, in a variety
of pleasing colors, pro-
duce a most cheerful ef-
fect.

In the first story the
height of ceilings is ten
feet. There are four good-
sized rooms, each with
outlooks at their sides and
ends. The main entrance
is from the front veranda,
through a good-sized ves-
tibule, which is lighted at
the side by a cluster win-
dow of tinted glass, and
has side and end doors
opening to the parlor and
sitting-room. The parlor has four windows, facing three direc-
tions, each protected from storms, and agreeably shaded by the

FRONT ELEVATION.

veranda. There is a large open fire-place, and doors commun-
icating with the sitting and dining-rooms. The sitting and din-
ing-rooms adjoin each
other through sliding
doors, which admit of
their being used togeth-
er, as occasion may re-
quire. The kitchen is
convenient, well-lighted,
has a large fire-place,
with range, and adjoins
a pantry. The rear en-
trance, or porch, is also
reached through a door
from the sitting-room.
The stairs to the cellar
and to the second story
are placed between the
dining-room and kit-
chen, and may be reach-
ed from each direct,

In the second story the
height of ceiling is nine
feet This story has a
central hall, three cham-
bers, three closets and
a trunk-room. The stairs
to the attic are placed above those of the first story.
The height of ceiling in the attic is three feet at the plates or

sides, and follows the raf-
ters to the full height of
seven feet A hall and
three chambers may be fin-
ished on this floor, with the
doors and windows placed
in the centre of the ends
of each.

The cellar equals the
first story in area. It has
an outside entrance, five
windows, and stairs lead-
ing to the first story.
Height of ceiling, 6j feet.
The foundations and
chimneys of this house
are of hard brick, laid in
good mortar. The frame
is of sawed spruce, with
siding, for the body, of
clapboards laid on thick-
nessed sheathing and
building felt The gables
and frieze courses are of
red-wood shingles, also
on sheathing. The main reef is of dark slate, laid on sheathing
and tarred felt The veranda roofs are also slate, laid on

SIDE ELEVATION.

-M

>-£.

6 9 8

MODERN ARCHITF.CTURE.

inverted pine flooring. The flooring outside is of I \ by 41-inch
T and G pine; inside, of il by 7-inch T and G spruce. The
windows have plank frames, with ii-inch sash, glazed with sec-
ond quality French glass. The doors are of seasoned pine,
panelled and molded. The inside finish is clear pine, reeded,

with blocks. The inside walls and ceilings are hard-finished
on two coats of brown mortar, and the principal rooms of the
first story have neat stucco cornices. The painting is two-coat
work, of selected colors. The designs for this structure are
from the American Agriculturist.

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MAIN FLOOR.

BBOONO hikj*.

Estimate of Cost.

160 yards excavation, at 25^ per yard .$ 40.00

15,000 brick, foundation and chimneys (complete) at $15 pcrM. 225.00

32 feet blue atone, steps ami .sills, at 30^ per foot 9.60

1,000 yards plastering, at 30^ yer yard ■•••«■• 300.00

aio stucco cornices, at 3o^ per foot ,. 43.00

5,000 feet timber, at $20 per M 100.00

: jo joists, nt 16^ each 16.00

350 wall strips, at n f» each 27 .50

4,500 feel slu alliing, at 3(P per foot 135.00

450 clapboard*, M i6j*~ each 73.00

31 bunches shingles, at $1.50 per hunch 31.00

34! squares slate, at $<> per square 220.50

950 feet outside flooring, at $f per foot 47-5o

2,050 feet inside flooring, at 4$ per feet 106.00

5 cellar windows, at I3 each 15.00

23 full-sized windows, at $S each $184.00

11 half- windows, at $5 each 55*°°

29 doors, at $7 each 303.00

3 stairs, at $10 each 30.00

Veranda and porch finish 50.00

5 kegs nails, at $4 each 30.00

4 closet finish ao.00

M.tnti Is 30.00

Tin gutters and leaders

Carting

Painting 180,00

Carpenters* labor (not included above) 240.00

Pump, sink and Incidentals 60.00

Total, complete $2,490*60

« — ^

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

699

DWELLING-HOUSE.— Design I.

F/lAUFA/tC/ICF/l- i

DESIGN I. — ELEVATION.

As long as the argument is indisputable that there is in a
square house, in proportion to the amount of outside covering,
more room
than in one
of almost any
other form, a
large major-
ity who are
about to
build seem to
have deter-
mined to a-
dopt that
shape. The
dwelling here

illustrated ground floor

was built on a slight elevation.

PLAN OF PRINCIPAL STORY.

A, veranda, 6 by 25; B, hall 10.6 by 15; C, parlor, 15 by
19.6 j D, sitting-room, 15 by 19.6; E, book-closet; F, bed-

room, 10.6 by 15 ; G, G, closets ; H, dining-room, 12 by 22 ; /,
/, china-closets ; J, back porch, 6 by 7.6 ; K, veranda, 5 by 22 ;

Z, kitchen, 11
by 12.6; M,
"sink; N, cis-
tern - pump ;
O , cup-
board; P,
pantry, 7.6
by 8; Q, stair-
way t o cel-
lar ; H, stair-
way to back
chambers ; S,
wood - room.

THE SECOND STORY.

The upper floor of this structure comprises a hall, three
chambers, four closets, stairway to attic, two bed-rooms, bath-
room, store-room and balcony.

- ' tt ^" 1

700

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

A RURAL GOTHIC FARM-HOUSE— Design 2.

In this plan for
antral home, with
the exception of
the cornice on the
gables and a few
cheap brackets,
there is no orna-
mentation to
cause an unneces-
sary outlay of
money, and noth-
ing likely to get
out of repair, as
is o.'.cn the case
with the flimsy
ornaments attach-
ed to so many
modern cottages.

This house is in
the Rural Gothic
style, a style
which, with its
broken outline, its
verandas and bay
windows, ex-
presses no small
amount of domestic and home feeling.

A RURAL GOTHIC FARM-HOUSI.

monotonous ap-
pearance of that
side of the build-
ing, and balancing
in a degree the
mass of the other
side.

The main roof
rises at an angle of
45°; the wood-
house part is one-
story ; root, one-
fourth pitch. The
inside is finished
appropriately,
plain and neat.
The lower story is
nine feet high in
the clear; the up-
per story, finished
to collar-beams, is
eight feet six
inches. The cellar
under kitchen and
dining-room is
well lighted, and

FIRST FLOOR.

P, Parlor; D, Dinlng-Room; K, Kitchen; B, B, Bed-Rooms; C,
Closet; £, Bath; /•, Pantry; V, V, Verandas; W, Wood -house.

The house was planned for a family who aim to do their own
work ; therefore utility, compactness and economy of labor were
first cons'dered. Yet the external appearance is quite picturesque
and truthful. The part containing the two bed-rooms, bathing
and clothes-room is quite economically obtained, it being a lean-
to addition, one story high, with a (lattish roof. Above this is a
gabled window, with its stool resting on this roof. This gable
rises to the height of the main roof, thus breaking the otherwise

SECOND FLOOR

B,B,B, Bed- Rooms; C, Chamber, c,c, Closcti; P, Pauafe.
the chimney, standing in the centre, is furnished with open-
ings for ventilation. With this arrangement the cellar can be
kept sweet and wholesome. The rooms are wanned by stoves.
Fire-places may be easily built in the dining-room and kitchen,
if desired. The bathing-room is easily accessible, it being con-
nected with the kitchen bed-room, which renders it a convenient
and useful apartment.

The cost of this house, with a light timber frame, clapboarded,
lined on the inside with inch lumber, then furred with strip lath,
lathed and plastered with two coats finish, is about $1,100.

""• •

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

701

~7[

A RURAL GOTHIC COTTAGE— Design 3.

RURAL GOTHIC COTTAGE.

This is an admirable de-
sign for internal conven-
ience. The plan of the
first floor shows the kit-
chen and one bed-room on
the same floor with the
living-rooms. The kitchen
is a wing added to the
rear, and is one story in
height The situation on
which this dwelling is
placed has a prospect in
one direction only, and
the front, shown in the
elevation, commands this
view, the rear being nearly
hidden by trees. On this
front are situated two
pleasant apartments, each
17 by 20 feet, opening from

GROLSD FLAM.

the vestibule or entrance
hall by large double doors,
which, when fully opened,
will throw these two rooms
and the vestibule into one
large apartment. Some ele-
gance is conferred on the
parlor by the bay-window,
which is balanced by a
double window opposite,
in the dining-room. The
living-room, or library,
commands a pantry of
convenient size, in the rear
of which is a closet open-
ing into the hall. This
hall is of ample size to
serve as a dining-room.
There is a glazed back
door opening to the rear

702

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

of the house, and a door opening into the kitchen passage, b, on
the right The hall also receives light from the window over
this door, in the second story. This passage is formed by run-
ning a solid partition across the kitchen building, so as to admit
of two doors, in order to prevent smells — one an ordinary door
opening into the hall, and the other a fly or spring door opening

into the kitchen. This partition also gives room for two closets,
one for the kitchen and another for the bed-room. The eleva-
tion of this cottage will admit of great irregularity and pictur-
esqueness of outline, and is productive of beautiful effects. A
very pleasing mode of covering the roof is shown in the eleva-
tion. This cottage should be built of brick.

RURAL COTTAGE —Design 4.

The accom-
panying plan of
a rural cottage
was awarded a
premium which
was offered some
few years ago.
The ouiside ap-
pearance is at-
tractive, light
and pleasant,
and is not over-
ornamental, a
great fault with
many modern
houses. The
rooms are large
and most con-
veniently arrang-
ed, every room of
the ground floor
being pleasant
enough for a
parlor or a liv-
ing-room.

GROUND PLAN.

D. R., dining-room, 1 8 feet 9 inches by 15 feet; Parlor,

inches by 14 feet
6 in. ; Library,
1 5 feet by 14 feet
6 inches ; Kitch-
en, 12 feet 6
inches by 1 3 feet
6 inches ; IVash-
Room, 1 2 feet by

8 feet; Hall, 6
feet 5 inches in
width.

SECOND STORY.

A, bed -room,
14 feet 5 inches
by II feet 9
inches ; B ,
chamber, 18 feet

9 inches by 15
feet; C, C,
halls; D, bed-
room, 9 feet 6
inches by 1 1 feet;
B, bed - room,
14 feet 6 inches

by 11 feet; F, servants' bed-room, 12 feet 6 inches by 14 feet
18 feet 9 I 6 inches ; G, passage, 3 feet 6 inches in width.

GROUND l-LAM.

src ORB .story.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

7°3

A SOUTHERN COTTAGE.-Design 5.

A SOUTHERN COTTAGE.

This design is intended to be built of frame, and the roof to be shingled. It should stand at such a distance from the road as
to afford sufficient space for ornamental shrubbery, walks, etc. The cost of the building should fall within the limits of $2,000.
Upon the principal floor the porch gives access to the hall, which opens into the parlor and dining-room ; the kitchen is well
placed, and ample in size. The second floor contains a hall and three liberal-sized chambers. First floor : /, porch ; 2, hall,
loj by 15 feet; 3, parlor, 124 by 20 feet; 4, dining-room, 15 by 18 feet; 3, kitchen, 12 by 12 feet; 6, back porch. Second floor—
7, hall, ioi by 15 feet; <?, chamber, 124 by 20 feet; 9, chamber, 15 by 18 feet; 10, chamber, 12 by 12 feet

3 ;

., 4 J

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linni: .

1 2 m
1

•
•

FIRST FLOOR.

SECOND FLOOR.

704

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

AN ORNAMENTAL COTTAGE -Design 6.

Iliis is 4 good design for a lodge or a seaside or summer cottage, and looks extremely well among the trees of a camp-ground.
The porch is terge and roomy; the living-room is of good size, well lighted by a square bay window. The kitchen is well supplied
with closets. The second floor contains three bed-rooms, very conveniently arranged, and each provided with a closet The two
down-stairs looms and the large front bed-room are supplied with open fire-places. The estimated cost is from $1,200 to $I,600i
according to locality and style of finish.

GROUND FLOOK.

^^r-

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

7°5

COTTAGE —Design 7.

COTTAGE.

The elevation and ground plan here given of this cottage fully explain it The upper story consists of four bed-rooms and a
bath-room. Cost, $1,800. Ground plan: 1, porch; 2, lobby; 3, drawing-room; 4, library or boudoir ; J, outside porch ; 6,
dining-room ; 7, kitchen ; 8, scullery. Note — No. J might be used as a conservatory.

l-M

«*-^i

k» i

GROUND FLOOR.

J-

706

"71

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

A CHEAP FARM COTTAGE- Design 8.

This plan is appropriate for a
hilly or mountainous region. It is
in the French style of roof, and al-
lied to the Italian in its brackets
and gables and half-terraced front.
The body of the cottage is 22 by
20 feet, with 12-foot posts , the roof
has a pitch of 50 from a horizon-
tal line, in its straight dimensions,
curving horizontally towards the
eaves, which, together with the
gables, project 3 feet over the
walls. The terrace in front is 5

■
x

INTERIOR AKKAMt.IMI.MT.

feet wide. On the rear is a wood-
house 18 by 16 feet in area, open
at the house end and in front, with
a roof in the same style as the main
'house, and posts 8 feet high,
standing on the ground, 2 feet be-
low the surface of the cellar-wall,
which supports the main building.
The plan of the interior arrange-
ment any builder can follow. The
construction of this cottage may be
of stone, brick or wood, either
producing a fine effect

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

707

A SUBURBAN COTTAGE— Design 9.

A SUBURBAN COTTAGE.

A, front veranda, 10 by 16 feet;

B, hall, 7 by 20 feet ; C, parlor,
12 by 18 feet, with bay window, 4
by 9 feet; D, dining-room, 15 by
20 feet; E, library, 12 by 15 feet,
with square bay window, 4 by 8
feet; F, kitchen, 11 by 12 feet; G,
pantry, 8 by 8 feet ; H, store-room,
10 by 12 feet; /, coal-room, 7i by

8 feet; K, wash-room, 71 by 8
feet; L, veranda, 8 by 16 feet; M,
veranda, 4 by 30 feet; N, cistern,

9 feet in diameter ; O, well ; c, c,
closets ; s, s, shelves; />, bath ; f,
back stairs; t, sink; p, pump.
Second floor — Hall, 7 feet wide ;

C, C, C, C, closets; D, linen
closet; E, attic stairs; F, ser-
vants' bed-room, 11 by 20 feet;
G, garret; B, bed-room, 15 by 15
feet; H, bed-room, 12 by 15 feet;
K, bed-room, 12 by 18 feet Cost
of this building, $2,500.

FIRST FLOOR.

SECOND FLOOR.

708

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

"71

HORSE AND CARRIAGE HOUSE— Design 10.

This is to be built of brick, with stone basement eight feet
deep. It is therefore designed for a side hill, unless the base-
ment is dispensed with, which would be poor economy,

S is the stable part, with double stalls for six horses. C is
carriage-room for three
or four light wagons or
carriages. D is a cir-
cular drive eight feet
wide. F is an octagonal
fountain eight feet in
diameter. H, H, are
harness-rooms. C L.
C L, closets. /. is lad-
der to loft.

The hay is cut and
fed from the second
story. A circular pine
cistern, surrounded by
sawdust, occupies one corner of the second story, and supplies
the fountain through a small iron pipe. The orifice of this
should be drawn down to a minute hole in order to save the
water and yet keep it changing continually. There should

FIRST FLOOR.

also be a stop-cock near the cistern to shut off the water in
cold weather.

The dimensions are: Main part, 24 by 26 feet; wings, 1 6 by 24
feet j height of basements, 8 feet; first story, 10 feet; second

story, 8 feet to plates. A
cupola with double win-
dows and flat roof, with
staff in the centre, will
be an elegant feature.
Eaves should project
two and a half feet.
Roof not more than
quarter pitch. Cost,
about $1,000.

This is designed more
especially for city resi-
dents, and those farmers
in villages and near
large towns who can af-
ford ample accommodations for man and beast Many would
object to the drive and fountain, and yet the small space on a
single floor that they occupy does not make them a costly luxury,
while the air of elegance that they convey could ill be dispensed
with by one who has a generous regard for taste.

^>*z

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

709

=7f

£-

A SUBSTANTIAL FARM BARN.— Design 1 1

A SUBSTANTIAL FARM BAKN.

This plan is a convenient as well as a substantial one. As seen
in the elevation, the barn is built upon a side hill which slopes

to the east. There are three
distinct floors. The main
building is 50 by 80 feet, and
one wing 40 by 40 feet. The
basement floor is divided in-
to several departments, each
well furnished for the pur-
pose for which it is designed.
B is the manure pit , C, a
small cistern ; D, a root cel-
lar ; E, a pen for calves ; F.
under the wing at the south
end of the main building, is
fitted up with a number of
roomy stalls for cows. Each
of the departments has a
door, g, g, g, g t opening to
the stock yard.

nr-*y

B
26X50

PLAN

This is used for horses,

■*|YT 1 B ►

12x12?

21X50

PLAN OF BASEMENT FLOOR.

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PLAN Or SECOND STORY.

OF SECOND FLOOR.

vehicles, etc Along the whole length of
the east side are stalls for
horses provided with hay-
racks, K, K, K, K, K. L,L,
are two finished rooms, which
are used as harness-rooms;
M, a large room for putting
away all the machinery and
tools used about the farm;
O, P, loose horse-boxes ; R,
a stairway leading to the
basement or ground floor;
S, a stairway leading up to
thiid story ; T, V, trap doors.
The structure is well sup-
plied with windows, and is
light and comfortable for
both man and beast.

710

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

GRAIN AND STOCK BARN— Design 12.

GRAIN AND SUKK BAKN.

This plan is a combined grain and stock barn. The grain bins are next north of the stables and form part of the partition
between the stables and main floor. They are four feet in width and have a capacity for 500 bushels. The bottom of the bins slopes
towards the main floor, and is ten inches above it. The bins have a free circulation of air on every side. The excavation for the
structure, including that in the yard, is, at the southwest corner, about three feet in depth, and graded to a slope of one foot
in forty feet, the natural slope being one in ten. A trench is dug three feet wide and one foot below the grade, and filled with
broken stone, that serves as a drain, upon which the foundation rests. The foundation walls are built of stone. The first floor is
divided into stables. A stairway leads to floor above, and there is also a place for harness. The forage for horses is put into
tubes above. The floor is double and is made tight. The manure is dropped through a trap-door to shed. The cost of the en-
tire structure is about $1,200.

7 r
t

DESIGN IJ-* CONVENIENT BAKN.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

A CONVENIENT BARN. -Design 13.

This is the plan of a very convenient barn. The stone wall is laid in mortar and painted. The frames are all made of square
timber and joists. The basement is dry, sills two feet from the ground. Grain bins so arranged that you can get to anyone of them,
capable of storing over 3,000 bushels, and four root bins, which will store 800 bushels, where they can be seen at any time. The
basement story is 8 feet; barn posts 18 feet long. The long shed is 25 feet wide and 64 feet long ; posts, 20 feet East shed posts
9 feet long. Enter the barn from the north, with team on upper floor.

The necessity of
furnishing shelter for
sheep in a northern
climate is, we sup-
pose, universally ac-
knowledged, but how
much is necessary for
the com fort and
health of the ani-
mals, and how this is
best obtained, is an
open question. The
accompanying en-
graving of a sheep
barn is taken from

A SHEEP BARN AND SHEDS.-Design (4.

Randall' s Sheep
Hugandry. With
those open ends
closed, it seems to be
a very convenient ar-
rangement. The
barn proper is used
mainly for storing
hay, and the wings
should be made of
sufficient size to af-
ford the necessary
room.

^NOTEWORTHY SUGGESTIONS.*-

Having introduced to the reader the specific plans, etc., which
will guide him in the erection of a home, a few general words
of advice and suggestion will be in order.

It will be well to remember that no architect allows himself, when
planning a house, to be guided by any cast-iron set of rules.

A house is a good deal like a suit of clothes, of which a fair fit may
be obtained at the ready-made store, while, if close-fitting and stylish
garments are wanted, the man's measure is taken and the articles
made to order. In the country care should be taken not to make the
house too high. Ground is cheap, and a home in the country which
spreads over a goodly extent of ground has a certain air of elbow-
room and capacity about it that the most magnificent four-story city
dwelling fails to possess.

When building projections, window sills, etc., take care to provide
a "deep molding" underneath, so that rain-waterwill drip off. Oth-
erwise it will gather up the dust upon them and run down the walls,
leaving mouldy streaks behind.

Where there is no plumbing in the house, the best place for the
bath-room is next to the kitchen. Have the range placed against the
bath-room partition and place a large tin boiler on the back of the
range. From the back of the boiler carry a faucet through the parti-
tion to open over a bath-tub. By this means the carrying of water to
and fro is dispensed with. To discharge the water from the bath, run
a small pipe to a distance of twenty feet from the house and let it end
there in a large hole filled in with loose stones and covered with earth.
The water when discharged into this hole will soak away into the
ground and do no harm, as it is not polluted.

To avoid rats or fire spreading through a house it is advisable to
put one course of bricks in mortar at each floor level in all the fur-
rings and partitions.

For the finest effect of foliage use trees and shrubbery as a back-
ground and flanking for the principal building Too many large trees
in the foreground cut off the view; besides, they keep out the sun-

shine, prevent free atmospheric circulation, and injure the house by
concentrating upon it dampness and shade.

When a low site for a dwelling cannot be avoided be careful to have
a thorough system of under-draining. See that the cellar-wall is
raised considerably above the ground and that enough soil is spread
around the house to make a yard which will shed the water readily.
In a case of this kind every sanitary advantage offered by sun, soil,
shelter and prospect should be carefully improved.

A square house includes more space within a given length of wall
than any rectangular shape.

Of the whole house the front, and of the front the main entrance,
should show the most pains in the direction of ornamentation.

Care in the disposition of rooms will save thousands of steps to
those who do the house-work. Kitchen and dining-room should al-
ways be adjoining apartments. The dining-room is the place for the
china closet. A wood-shed connecting with the kitchen by a covered
way is a great convenience in inclement weather.

A multiplicity of closets is an invaluable boon to the housewife.

Frame houses exclude the cold much better if the studding is
covered with tongued and grooved sheathing, and this in turn by
tarred paper, the weather-boarding being placed over the whole. The
sheathing and weather-boarding should be fitted closely around door
and window frames, and the tarred paper allowed to lap over a little
where a crack is likely to occur.

Where ingrain carpets, usually a yard wide, are to be used, the eco-
nomical cutting will be helped by having either the length or breadth
of each room some multiple of the width, as fifteen feet, eighteen fed ,
etc.

The difference between slate -roofing and shingles is about two cents
per square foot, and where the former is used the difference in outlay
purchases practically everlasting durability, a fire-proof roof, and
purer rain water in the cistern.

If free from sap, shingles will last from twenty to thirty years.

An attic, running the full length of the house, with windows at both
ends, will prove a fine drying-room in bad weather.

K-

712

THE LAWS OF ETIQUETTE.

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5*»-

" Gob ihou fotai-ufc Mti», tut atofvtuai&ness fia»
no fozoi'UC.'He-ss *w tte&vcn o-t cartfi. — Hawthorne.

On manners, refinement, good breeding, and even the forms
of Etiquette, we are forever talking. We judge our neighbors
severely by the breach of written or traditional laws, and choose
our society, and even our friends, by the touchstone of courtesy.
The importance, therefore, of a thoroughly systematized code of
manners, in this day of rapidly widening circles of society, can
scarcely be overestimated. Men are continually rising from the
workshop to that position of prominence which great wealth, in
this country particularly, invariably insures. A few words as to
the value of good manners may not be out of place, since it is
too often the habit of those who have most need of them to
undervalue their importance.

The true spirit of good manners is very closely allied to that
of good morals. No stronger proof of this assertion is required
than the fact that the Messiah himself, in His great moral
teachings, so frequently touches upon mere manners. He
leaches that modesty is the true spirit of decent behavior, and
openly rebukes the forward manner of His followers in taking
the upper scats at banquets and the highest scats in the syna-
gogues. In condemning the habits of the Pharisees, it was not
their scrupulous cleanliness that He objected to, but their attach-
ing too much importance to mere form. As to the philosopher.,
although they were seldom distinguished for fine manners them-
selves, they did not f.iil to teach the im|x>rtance of them to

others. Socrates and Aristotle have left behind them a series of
ethics that might easily be turned into a " Guide to the Com-
plete Gentleman;" and Lord Bacon has written an essay on
manners, in which he reminds us that a stone must be of very
high value to do without a setting. Johnson doubtless con-
sidered himself one of these unset gems when he made such a
speech as " Sir, you are a fool," and unfortunately Johnson has
too many imitators among those of greatly inferior value.

The motive in cultivating good manners has too often been
misrepresented by writers upon this subject. Chesterfield states
the motive for politeness to be a desire to shine or to raise one's
self into a society supposed to be better than one's own. It is
unnecessary to state that Lord Chesterfield's good manners, fine
as they appear, have not the ring of the true metal about them.
Another and very excellent definition of Etiquette is : "A shield
against the intrusion of the impertinent, the improper and the
vulgar." But a man's best and only right motUc in the culti-
vation of good manners should be to make himself better than
he is, to render himself agreeable to every one with whom he
has to do, and to improve, if necessary, the society in which he
is placed. With these objects in view, it is plainly as much a
moral duty to cultivate one's manners as one's mind, and no one
can deny that a man is a better citizen for being a gentleman in
the sense that true courtesy makes the gentleman.

THE ART OF CONVERSATION.

7»3

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* 1

••• of •> Con\/ e/s

» 'I i i| » « ' 'BOl > 1 ' I ' li ' Ii l) ' » 'I' 'T' ' » 'I ' 'I' ' I ' ' 1 'T ' '! ■ 'I ' 'ti ' » ■ ! ' ■» ■ !' ■ » m ' I ' ' » I ' ^> ' I ' ' * 'I 1 ' I * 'I i 1 I i » « ' I' 'I ' D » ' ji ' i ' ' t ' ' I' ' Ii ' I' » ' » » ^ < i | < ' » » i l l i»

^IpHS^HE art of expressing one's thoughts in clear, simple, elegant
English is one of the first to be attained by those who would
mix in good society. You must talk, and talk fairly well, if you
J jT would not altogether fail of producing some kind of impression
upon society. To have something good to say, and to say it in
<n $ J> the best possible manner, is to ensure success and admiration.

The first thing necessary for the attainment of this valuable accomplish-
ment is a good education. An acquaintance with the current literature of
the day is absolutely essential to a good talker. A perfect familiarity with
the English language, its grammar, pronunciation, etc., is indispensable.
Those who have to contend with a lack of early advantages in this respect can
supply the deficiency by private study, and close observance wherever good
English is spoken. Above all should the^ avoid associating with those who
express themselves incorrectly and vulgarly.

Nothing is so infectious as a bad accent or incorrect form of speech.

AH affectations of foreign accent, mannerisms, exaggerations and slang
are detestable.

Equally to be avoided are inaccuracies of expression, hesitation; and undue
use of French or other foreign words, and anything approaching to flip-
pancy, coarseness, triviality or prevarication.

The voice should never be loud, no gesticulation should accompany the
speech, and the features should be under strict control. Nothing is more
ill-bred than a hall-opened mouth, a vacant stare, a wandering eye or a
smile ready to break into a laugh at any moment. Absolute suppression of
emotion, whether of anger, laughter, mortification or disappointment, is one
of the most certain marks of good-breeding.

Next to unexceptionable grammar, correct elocution, and a frank, easy
bearing, it is necessary to be genial. If you cannot be animated, sympathetic
and cheerful, do not go into society. Dull and stupid people are but so
many clogs to the machinery of social life.

The matter of conversation is as important as the manner. Tact and
good feeling will, in people of sound sense, indicate the shoals and quick-
sands to be avoided in conversation, but for safety's sake it will be best to
enumerate a few of them.

Complimentary speeches should be avoided, unless, indeed, so delicately
put as to be scarcely discernible. Flattery is suggestive of snobbery, partic-
ularly if it be paid to people of great wealth and high position. It induces
disgust on the part of the receiver, and insincerity on that of the giver.

The habit of " fishing " for compliments is notably vulgar, and it is one
in which a certain class of vain young people are very apt to indulge, espe-
cially among themselves in private. It indicates vanity in the angler and
begets contempt on the part of the one who from interested motives nibbles
gently at the bait.

All "slang" is vulgar. This fact cannot be too forcibly impressed upon
the minds of the young people of this day, as the alarming prevalence of
slangy conversational phrases is enough to cause our decorous for«fathers
and mothers to rise in their graves.

Many of the daughters of our most wealthy and influential citizens have an
idea that their position will excuse or gloss the vulgarity of a " cant" phrase
now and then. Nothing was ever more erroneous. No position, however
high, can excuse the vulgarity of this practice, and it is a grand mistake also
to imagine slang to be a substitute for wit. I refer particularly to this habit
among young ladies, as it is more reprehensible in them than in the opposite
sex, although it indicates bad breeding on their part as well.

Scandal should be avoided above all things. It is a sin against morality
as well as good taste.

Punning is a most objectionable habit in society. An inveterate punster
is an intolerable bore, and unless a pun amounts to a positive witticism it
should never be propounded in company.

Long arguments should be avoided in general company. They become
tiresome to the hearers. Always endeavor to change the subject after it has
continued a reasonable length of time.

Religion and politics are two subjects to be avoided in general conversa-
tion. People usually have strong prejudices on both these points, and it is a
rule of good breeding to respect the prejudices of those about you.

Never interrupt the speech of another. This is an unpardonable sin
against g"od breeding.

A good listener is more to be desired than a good conversationalist. In
order to be a good listener you must appear to be interested, answer appro-
priately, briefly and to the point, and give your companion generally the
impression that you are in perfect sympathy with, and highly entertained
by, what he is saying.

Avoid pedantic displays of learning.

All topics specially interesting to gentlemen, such as the farm and business
matters generally, should be excluded in general society.

The expression of immature opinions is always in bad taste. Persons,
young or old, should not attempt to criticise books or art unless positively
certain that their knowledge of the subject is sufficient to justify the criticism.

Be very careful of introducing long-winded anecdote into the conversation.
Nothing is more awkward than to find an array of bored faces when one is
not more than half through a long story.

Repartee should be indulged in only moderately. Otherwise it may
degenerate into flippancy, a habit much to be condemned in a certain class
of young ladies who think themselves unusually clever, or, as our American
word goes, '* smart."

In using titles, such as "General," *' Doctor," etc., you must always
append the surname if you'are a stranger or any other than a most intimate
friend. For example, you should say, " What did you observe, Doctor
Gray ? " not, " What did you observe, Doctor?" Names should be used as
little as possible, and never familiarly. Few solecisms give greater offense
than a liberty taken with a name.

In addressing a person of title in England, " My Lord " and " My Lady "
are seldom used except by servants. The Prince of Wales may be addressed
as "Sir," and the Queen as " Madame." A Frenchman, however, what-
ever his rank, is addressed as "Monsieur," and a Frenchwoman, whether

duchess or dressmaker, as "Madame." It would be as ill-bred to omit to
say Monsieur, Mein Herr, and Signor, in France, Germany and Italy,
respectively, as it would to say, Sir, Ma'am and Miss, as the servants do in
this country.

The great secret of talking well is to adapt your conversation to your
company as skillfully as may be.

People take more interest in their own affairs than in anything else which
you can name. A wise' host or hostess will, then, lead a mother to talk of
her children, an author of his book, an artist of his picture, etc. Having
furnished the topic, you have but to listen, and acquire a reputation for being
amiable, agreeable, intelligent and well-bred.

If you would not be unpopular, do not always be witty, no matter what
your natural abilities may be in that line. People do not like to be always
outshone.

Do not too officiously supply a word or phrase if a speaker hesitate for a
moment; he will think of the one he wants or supply another in good time.

Never correct a fault in pronunciation or in facts, in company or in pri-
vate, if you wish to retain a friend.

Avoid such colloquialisms as " says I," "you know," and other senseless
repetitions that might be mentioned. Never speak of a person as "a party,"
nor refer to absent persons as " he " or " she." Give the name of the lady
or gentleman referred to.

In telling a joke, do not laugh yourself before the point is reached. If the
joke be original, do not laugh at all.

In tite-&-t$te conversation it is ill-bred to drop the voice to a whisper.

Egotism is always in bad taste. Allow others the privilege of proclaiming
your merits. %

Never speak of personal or private matters in general company.

Avoid as much as possible beginning a conversation with stale common-
places, such as, " It is a fine day," " The weather is charmin*:." etc.

Do not speak slightingly of the city or neighborhood in which you may be
visiting. By offending the prejudices of those about you, you reader your-
self extremely disagreeable.

Avoid all excitability and dogmatism in conversation. Nothing U more
annoying than to converse with an arrogant, loud-speaking person.

Always yield the point in conversation if you find the argument is likely
to become violent.

Avoid lavishing praise on the members of your own family. It is almost
as bad as praising yourself.

It is exceedingly bad taste to parade the fact that you have travelled in
foreign countries, or that you are acquainted with distinguished or wealthy
people, that you have been to college or that your family is distinguished for
gentility and blue blood.

In speaking of husband or wife, do not use the surname alone. ' To say
" I was telling Brown," is extremely vulgar. Always prefix the Mr.

Always endeavor to contribute your quota to the general conversation. It
is as much your duty to entertain as to be entertained. Bashfulness is as
much to be avoided as too much assurance.

Never ask questions of a personal nature, such as what a certain article cost,
or why so-and-so did not go to the opera. They are decidedly impertinent.

Look at the person with whom you are conversing, but do not stare.

Avoid loud laughter in society.

If you carry on the thread of a conversation after the entrance of a visitor,
you should always recapitulate what has been said before his or her arrival.

Remember that " an excellent thing in woman is a voice low but sweet,"
and cultivate a distinct but subdued tone.

Emerson says : " You cannot have one well-bred man without a whole
society of such." Elsewhere he says : " It makes no difference, in looking
back five years, how you have dieted or dressed ; but it counts much
whether we have had good companions in that time — almost as much as
what we have been doing."

-^Bi^

Rde^ •:• of •:• expectation

§Sl

AT THE

White House, at the English Court and the Papal Court.

HERE is very little ceremony about a presentation to the Chie

' Executive of the United States. On public occasions you will

simply be presented by the master of ceremonies, while at any

other time, by sending in your card, you will secure the desired

interview.

THE COURT OF ENGLAND.

The wives and daughters of the clergy, of military and naval officers, of
physicians and barristers, can be presented. The wives and daughters of
general practitioners, and of solicitors, of merchants, and of all business
ni' -n, with the exception of bankers, arc not entitled to be presented. No
divorced woman can be presented to the Queen.

A lady must be presented by another lady, and a gentleman by a gentle-
man. In seeking a lady for a sponsor, it should be remembered that, the
higher her rank and social standing, the better for the one presented.

Any lady who has once been presented at court can present others.

All wraps arc left in the carriage before entering the palace

Ax her name is called by the Lord Chamberlain the lady advances toward

the throne. If a peeress, the Queen kisses her forehead; if
the Queen's hand.

On leaving the royal presence, you must back out.

A stranger must have the credential of the American Ambassador in
to be presented at the English court.

THE PAPAL COURT.

Foreigners obtain access to the Pope through their Ambassador.

Ladles very seldom have private audience of the Pope.

The lady's toilette, be the audience public or private, must always consist
of Mack dress, long black veil and white gloves.

When the Pope enters the gallery where those to be presented arc collected,
ihey fall on their knees, and do not rise until bidden,

(lentlemtn RAMI on one knee, and do not rise until desired to do so.

The proper form uf address in English is " Your Holiness."

It is best to consult some local authority upon the etiquette of many petty
courts, as the rules arc frequently much complicated.

The lady must always be in full dress, and the gentleman in black clothes,
white cravat and gloves.

ETIQUETTE OF SALUTATION.

715

'"N a rude state of society every salutation was an act of worship. The
commonest acts, phrases and signs of courtesy with which we are now
familiar, date from those earlier times when the inferior demonstrated
his allegiance by acts of servility. Our modern bow is a modified
prostration. Rising and standing are acts of homage. Removing the
^y^ glove on shaking hands is a custom handed down from feudal times.

FORMS OF SALUTATION.

Theforms of salutation common in America are bowing, hand-shaking, kiss-
ing, and words of address.

Acquaintances of every
degree of intimacy, from
the closest to the slightest,
are entitled to a bow.
It is an act of discourtesy
to refuse any one, no mat-
ter how lowly his station,
the recognition of a bow.

When recognizing their
gentlemen acquaintances,
ladies should make a
graceful inclination. It is
the privilege of a lady to
recognize the gentleman
first.

To a casual acquaint-
ance it is not necessary
to do more than bow, but
an intimate friend should
be more cordially greeted.

Never fail to return a
bow. It is extremely rude
to refuse to recognize a
salutation of this kind.

A pleasant, cordial man-
ner, without undue fa-
miliarity, in recognizing
acquaintances, conduces
greatly toward a genial
and friendly feeling, and
is therefore worthy of cul-
tivation. The custom of
nodding to every one you meet, in thinly settled neighborhoods, is a very
pleasant one, as it evinces kindliness of feeling, and should be generally
followed out.

If a gentleman is smoking when he meets a lady, he should remove the

SALUTATION IN THE STREET.

cigar from his mouth in bowing. None but a boor will puff a cloud of

tobacco smoke in the face of a lady who is honoring him with a salutation.
Etiquette requires a gentleman to raise his hat from his head in bowing to

a lady. If passing on the street, the hand farthest from the lady should be

used in removing the hat.

If on horseback, the gentleman seizes whip and reins in the left hand

and uses the right for making the salute.

When a gentleman, accompanied by a friend, meets a lady acquaintance,

the friend should bow also, whether acquainted with the lady or not.
A gentleman should return a bow made him on the street, even if he does

not recognize the person
saluting him. It maybe
a mistake, but it is only
courteous to spare the per-
son saluting as much em-
barrassment as possible.

On meeting a number
of persons together, with
some of whom you are
slightly, with others inti-
mately, acquainted, you
should greet all alike. To
gush exuberantly over one
and bow stiffly to another,
would be making a dis-
tinction that could not fail
to be remarked, and might
wound the feelings.

A gentleman should not
bow from a window to a
lady, but if a lady recog-
nize him from a window,
he should return the salu-
tation. It is best, how-
ever, for a lady to avoid
such recognitions as much
as possible. It is not in
the best taste for a lady to
sit sufficiently near her
windows to recognize and
be recognized by those
passing on the street,
A gentleman, if brought

into close proximity with a lady in a hallway, on a stairway, or anywhere

of the kind, should recognize her presence by a bow. In going up stairs,

the gentleman should precede the lady. In coming down, the gentleman

should give the lady precedence with a bow.

•fe

"8 V

716

CARDS — WHEN, WHERE AND HOW TO USE TIII'.M.

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|0 a refined and cultivated person the visiting-card is indicative of
the personal characteristics of the person whose name it bears.
Its quality should be of the finest ; in color white (not cream'),
and in shape it should be long and narrow. Gilt bevel and col-
ored designs are never used by refined society.

The visiiing card of a married lady should be in size a little
larger than that of " Miss," and engraved in pure,rich script :

Or, with reception days:

For young ladies the cards should be engraved in a lighter script than that
of " Mrs." For the eldest daughter the last name only should be used ;

With or without the address.
For other than the eldest daughter, the full name; as :

XvlA Q^VWA/ ^A/iAfy.

Mother and daughters calling together, the engraving is on a card in size
between the "Mr. and Mrs." and "Mist":

Or:

The form " Mr. and Mrs." is used only a short time alter marriage.
The engraving should be in bold, rich script :

3tar. b &M>. ^cvqaU& ^>Maj| s

On all formal occasions, married ladies should leave their husbands* card*
with their own when calling.

The handsomest style of cards is that which is engraved, but H h p— ^**-
sible for persons to write their own cards if they can write prettily.

A gentleman's cards should be small, fine in texture, and of five or six ply,
and always white in color. The "Mr." should be prefixed in every
instance ; as :

Or, with club address:

vv§ ^W ty.

Xr. ^cvoaU^ <S(0\U|.

Or:

A physician may have his professional title; as :
Officers of the army and navy may have their titles :

ETIQUETTE OF THE TABLE.

717

"71

sl@3^S

***

If'HE etiquette of the dinner-table should be mastered by all who
aspire to the entrie of good society.

Ease, savoir-faire and good breeding are nowhere more
indispensable than at the dinner-table, and the absence of them
is nowhere more apparent. How to eat soup and what to do
with cherry-stones are weighty considerations when taken as the
Index of social status.

No greater test of the
culture, refinement and
good breeding of a person
can be found than the
dinner hour. In the fol-
lowing rules, therefore,
will be found a brief com-
pendium of the most ap-
proved etiquette of the
table, which those who
have not had the educa-
tional advantages of po-
lite society will do well
to read and ** inwardly
digest."

OF —

Conduct at TaMe.

EAT yourself in

an upright posi-

l tion— not too close

to nor yet too far

from the table.

Take your napkin, par-
tially unfold it and lay it

across your lap. It is not the correct thing to fasten it in your button-
hole or spread it over your breast.

Do not trifle with your knife or fork, or drum on the table, or fidget in
any way, while waiting to be served.

CORRECT DINNER TABLE

Keep your hands quietly In your lap, your mind composed and pleasantly
fixed upon the conversation. Let all your movements be easy and delib-
erate. Undue haste indicates a nervous lack of ease.

Should grace be said, you will give the most reverent attention in respect-
ful silence during the ceremony.

Exhibit no impatience to be served. During the intervals between the

courses is your opportu-
nity for displaying your
conversational abilities to
those sitting near you.
Pleasant chat and witty
remarks compose the best
possible sauce to a good
dinner.

Eat slowly ; it will con-
tribute to yourgood health
as well as your good man-
ners. Thorough mastica-
tion of your food is neces-
sary to digestion. An
ordinary meal should oc-
cupy from thirty minutes
to an hour.

You may not desire the
soup, which is usually
the first course, but you
should not refuse to take
it. You can eat as much
or as little as you please,
but you would look awk-
ward sitting with nothing
before you while the others
are eating.

When eating soup, take
it from the side of the
spoon, and avoid making
any noise in so doing.
Should you be asked by
the host what part of the fowl you prefer, always have a choice, and
mention promptly which you prefer. Nothing is more annoying than to
have to serve two or three people who have no preferences and will take
"anything."

yi8

ETIQUETTE OF THE TABLE.

Never place waste matter on the table-cloth. The side of your plate, or
hes that have contained sauces or vegetables, will answer as a recep-
tacle for bones, potato skins, etc.

Vou will use your fork to convey all your food to your mouth, except it
may be certain sauces that would be more conveniently eaten with a spoon.
For instance, you should not attempt to eat peas with a fork. If you are
not provided with a spoon, ask for one.

knife is used only for cutting meat and other articles of food, for
spreading butter upon the bread, etc.

-Hie HOW TO SET THE TABLE*-*-

OUR dining-table should be round or oblong.

Use only the whitest and finest of linen. Let your silver and
cutlery be highly polished, and your glass and china rubbed until
they fairly shine. Your table will then present a brilliant and ele-
gant appearance.

For ordinary home oc-
ifll you will put at
each person's place a
knife and fork, napkin,
salt-cup and goblet. The
order of arrangement is
according to one's taste.

The plates, if not
brought in afterward by
a servant, are piled up
at the right hand of the
host. The gentleman of
the house occupies the
seat at the side of the
table in the center; op-
posite him is seated his
wife or whatever lady
occupies the position as
head of hU household.
In front of paterfamilias
is placed the joint for
carving. In front of the
mistress of the house is
the tray containing the
tea and coffee cups. The
stde-dishes arc disposed
i. id the tabic accord-
ing to taste.

In the contra is usually
placed the carter, con-
taining bottles filled with
various condiments, such
as red and black pepper,
vinegar, oil, etc. A good

acquired only by practice. It would be well, therefore, if young ladies and
gentlemen were more frequently initiated into the art while at home, so that
they might find it less awkward when obliged to do it at their own tablet.

-#23+ DINNER-GIVING «==§*■

v.\ \ \ \

INCORRECT DINNER TABLE.

housekeeper will tee that these bottles are always kept well filled.

FsabJoii, however, who Ik at best but a fickle jade, has decreed of late
that the old-time caster be abolished, and in place thereof you shall stand
porton'l pi u:e a small ornamental pepper-bottle in addition to the
and other articles, while the oil and vinegar shall be placed in
handsome pitcher-shaped bottles of cut-glass and disposed at each end of
■ Me.
la arranging the table, too, whether for the family alone or for ceremonial
occasions, it must be remembered that the individual taste of the lady of
tM may be brought into play with excellent effect. General rides, of
course, will be followed ; but results of one who has naturally an anistic
eye for those things will be very different from the work of one wt>
has never been trained to harmonising Una and colors.

As it is customary at the mere family dinner to have the carving done
upon the table, it is very essential that the master of the house should thor-
oughly understand how to carve meat ; and expeditious carving may be

N invitation to dinner is the highest social compliment, and should
be so received and treated.

While nearly all other social invitations are given in the i
the hostess alone the invitation to dinner is given in the joint n
of host and hostess.

The host, in this case, occupies the position of chief entertainer. It is

his duty to go first to the dining-room, taking the principal lady guest on

his right arm and giving her the seat of honor on his right hand. He is

expected, too, to contribute much to the entertainment of the guests.

A good dinner does not consist alone of the meat and drinks, although

they must also be con-
sidered, but of the prop-
er seating of the guests
at table, of the etiquette
to be observed toward
them, and the perfection
of arrangement in gen-
eral.

Many ladies who give
dinners observe the habit
of keeping a book in
which they record the
name of every guest
whom they have dined,
the names of their neigh-
bors at other dinner par-
ties, and the names of
hosts to whom they owe
return dinners ; for this
is an attention which
must be returned by those
who pretend to go in
society. This record is
convenient for reference
in arranging for guests at
another dinner.

The hostess attends to
the writing and sending
out of invitations. The
form of invitation, which
should be printed from
engraved plates on square
cards with stamped or
illuminated crest on the
top centre, is as follows :

\ \ \ \ \

ETIQUETTE OP THE TABLE.

719

i5— 1

"7f

The spaces containing guest's name and date are left blank on the
engraved card and are filled out in writing. When the dinner is given in
honor of some distinguished guest, the fact, with the guest's name, is also
placed upon the card of invitation.

Invitations to dinner should be accepted or declined immediately. Never
let more than a day pass before writing a note of reply, in which you posi-
tively accept or decline the invitation. There is no greater rudeness than
neglecting to observe this rule. The form of acceptance ot an invitation to
dinner is :

>wJoX> ^^UyJ^-, XowW>| vav^vvi^.,

Or, declining, the form is :

K& Skwvwr., >)K/Oam1qav va-wwwo/., y^w-
-\wxAajjj <i>wyvv&-

These should be written on square cards, with monogram or crest stamped
on the top centre.

The hostess having selected the ladies whom the gentlemen are to escort
to dinner, their names are written on a small card, with crest or monogram
in the upper left-hand corner; the card is enclosed in envelope of appropri-
ate size, and superscribed with the gentleman's name who is to be the lady's
escort. These cards are placed on a table in the gentlemen's dressing-room.
* Dinner cards, with guest's name placed at each plate, designate the seats
at the table.

The dinner card is kept as a souvenir of the occasion, and each hostess
endeavors to procure the most unique and beautiful designs in decoration.
Hand-painted cards are very popular. There should be no two alike, and
each should, as near as possible, represent some personal characteristic of
the guest whose name it bears.

The invitations should be sent a fortnight in advance. Many ladies drive
to the houses of the guests and have the footman deliver the invitations, to
be certain that they reach their destination properly. The English transmit
theirs through the mail, but that plan is not usually adopted on this side
of the water.

It is not best to invite too many members of one family, but It is highly
improper to ask the husband without the wife, or the wife without the hus-
band.

Punctuality, always a necessary courtesy, is specially required at a dinner
party. One author goes so far as to say that if you do not reach the house
until dinner is served, it is better to retire and send an apology than to
interrupt the harmony of the courses by awkward excuses and cold accept-
ance.

Within five minutes of the dinner hour is a good time for arriving.

Husband and wife should not enter the reception-room arm-in-arm, as
that is considered vulgar. The wife should go first, and the husband follow
her into the room. A servant is stationed near the door to open it for the
lady and announce her to the host and hostess, who stand near each other
ready to receive their guests. If necessary the host introduces the guests to
his wife, as it often happens, particularly at official dinners at Washington,
that she is not acquainted with them.

The gentleman, having read on his card the name of the lady whom he is
to escort, if he does not know her, will request the hostess to introduce him,
and will begin a little conversation with her before dinner is announced.

"The hostess will shake hands with each guest upon his or her arrival.

As there is no question of rank to determine precedence in America, the
lady to be taken in first is the one to whom the dinner is given. In case
there is no guest of honor, the oldest lady in the room is the one chosen for
the honor.

If a dinner party be short of gentlemen, there should be no effort to go in
in order; but the host, offering his arm to some lady, will request the others
to follow, which they will do without regard to order, the hostess bringing
up the rear.

♦# The Duties of a Hostess at a Dinner*-*-

HE should use a woman's tact in placing her guests so that those
who may prove agreeable to each other shall be placed in the same
neighborhood. She shall also adroitly start the conversation for
them, and by well-directed remarks assist the diffident and remind
the selfish glouton that she is observant of him. The hostess' man-
ner should present a simple dignity and an equal interest in all her guests.
If she observe some one lingering over his plate, she shall appear to be
eating, so that he may not make the mortifying discovery that he is the last
to be eating.

A ready wit and a merry laugh are great aids to a hostess in entertaining
a party of this description.

Ceremonious dinners in the large cities are all served nowa la Russe; that
is, nothing is put on the table but the dessert, and all the other viands are
served in courses by waiters. This mode has a decided advantage over the
old method of putting the meats and vegetables on together, as it does away
with the awkwardness and confusion of carving and serving, and keeps the
table in a much neater condition.

The modern dinner table is made very attractive by an elaborate display
of cut-flowers, which, taken with the requisite cut-glass and beautifully
decorated china now in use, give an aesthetic aspect to what might be other-
wise merely the gratification of a sensual appetite.

^^ Habits to be Avoided at Table p^>,

O not eat fast.

Do not make noise with mouth or throat.
Do not fill the mouth too full.
Do not open the mouth in masticating.
Do not leave the table with food in your mouth.
Be careful to avoid soiling the cloth.
Never carry anything like food with you from the table.
Never apologize to the waiters for making them trouble ; it is their busi-
ness to serve you. It is proper, however, to treat them with courtesy, and
say " No, I thank you," or " If you please," tn answer to their inquiries.
Do not introduce disgusting or unpleasant topics of conversation.
Do not pick your teeth or put your finger in your mouth at the table.
Do not come to table in your shirt-sleeves, or with soiled hands or tousled
hair.

Do not cut your bread ; break it.

Do not refuse to take the last piece of bread or cake ; it looks as though
you imagined there might be no more.

Do not express a preference for any part of a dish unless asked to do so.

"rr

720

ETIQUETTE OF THE BALL AND PARTY.

[ ♦♦H l l l l l im il l l llMI I M t H I II I M II I I II II HH I IIM I IW *

!| Eti®jaette of t^e^all ^<^ai®ty.

£->;'

li it >i<

, *>«' 2 * 3 ' ] j [ ' t ' S M t ' >

N invitation to a ball signifies that the entertainment is exclusively
fl-j^ -° r dancing.

The invitations to a ball should be delivered by a footman at
B f£A X& least two weeks before the evening appointed, and should receive
I > t - i ,ni imnwdfata umrcr,
**p- These invitations are from engraved plates, on note sheets, and

white in color. They are worded thus :

The form of acceptance or declination is much the same as in the dinner
invitations, substituting " ball " for " dinner."

The first requisites for a pleasant ball are good rooms, good music and
plenty of good company. No one should attempt to give an entertainment
of this sort without being fully prepared for considerable expenditure of
time, money and patience. If you wish your friends to enjoy the dancing,
you must give them good music, a good floor, and plenty of good and suit*
able partners. The supper, to be enjoyable, must be well served and ,
abundant in quantity.

As you wish your ball to be the event of the season, you must have your
rooms handsomely decorated. An abundance of cut flowers should be
artistically scattered around, with here and there a tropical plant in hall and
ball-room, on the stairs, in recesses, and wherever they can conveniently be
pi. 1. td with good effect and not be in the way. The fire-places should be
screened by flowers In summer and by guards in winter, unless heaters are
in use, in which case the latter precaution is unnecessary. By the help of
screens and flowers it is easy to arrange a small gallery for the musicians, so
that they shall be heard and not seen.

A refreshment-room, a dressing-room for the ladies, and one for the gentle-
men, should be provided.

Ladies will attend a ball in elegant and elaborate evening dress. Gentle-
men will appear in full evening dress.

A prudent hostess will limit her invitations to the size of her ball-room, in
order not to overcrowd her rooms and spoil the pleasure of the dancers. It
Is safe to issue a few more invitations than you can accommodate, on the
chance of a number not appearing on the arrival of the evening.

The most favorable room for dancing is one which is near'.y square, but
rather longer than wide. Such a room will admit of two quadrille parties
at once.

The top of a ball-room is the part nearest the orchestra. It is well to
know this, as in dancing the top couples always lead off.

A good floor is highly important. In private houses nothing is better than
a good Holland floor-cloth well stretched over the carpet.

I .ct there be an abundance of light and good ventilation in your ball-room.

Good music is as essential at a ball as good wine at dinner, and no hottana
should tax her guests for this entertainment. Very few amateurs can play
dance music well. Besides that, no one wants to be tied to the piano all the
evening playing while others are dancing. For this reason, a hostess should
provide skilled musicians to play for her guests.

It is customary to provide three pieces for dancing: a piano and two
violins, or piano, cornet and violin. Sometimes the harp and violins only
arc used.

The ladies" toilet-room should be well supplied with mirrors, pins, needles
and thread for repairing rents, and plenty of attendants to assist the fair ones
at their toilets. It is well to check wraps and give a duplicate check to each
lady.

The supper hour is usually from 12 to 1 o'clock, and the hour of departing
from a to 3 a.m. The style of the supper is apt to be regulated by the
wealth of the host. If he have ample means it is customary to put the
whole thing in the hands of a caterer, and have it served up in good style,
with all the extra appliances of salads, oysters, fancy ices, coffees, wines
and fruits, and cakes of every description.

If the supper be home-made, coffee and sandwiches, with fniit. and two or
three kinds of ices and cake, are all-sufficient. There should always be an
abundance provided, however, as dancers are usually hungry people.

No one sits down to a ball supper. If seats are ranged around the room
for the ladies, the gentlemen stand.

Carpet should be laid from the edge of the pavement to the doorway, and
if the evening be wet, a temporary covering should be erected tor the protec-
tion of the ladies in passing from their carriages to the house.

A gentleman should not accept an invitation to a ball if he does not dance,
as it Is an act of positive neglect for gentlemen to hold themselves aloof when
ladies are waiting anxiously for an invitation to dance, and attempt to
dance without a knowledge of the art is not only to make yourself ridku-
lous, but your partner as well.

< « -*■

ETIQUETTE OF THE GERMAN, RECEPTIONS, ETC.

721

■He GENERAL SUGGESTIONS #<-

IT is folly to attempt to dance a figure with which you are unac-
quainted. In round dances, hold the lady's hand easily at the side,
but do not place it behind you, nor raise it high in the air. In quad-
rilles, a knowledge of the French terms employed is necessary in
only the very choicest circles. These are :
Balancez. — Swing partners.
Balancez aux coins. — Swing corners.
Balancez quatre en ligne. — Set four in a line.
Chaine Anglaise.— Head couples right and left.
Ckaine Anglaise double.— Double right and left.
Chaine Anglaise demi.— Half right and left.
Chaine des dames, — Ladies' chain.
• Chaine des dames double. — Ladies' chain beginning together.
Chaine la grande. — Grand right and left.

Chassez. — Move to right and left or to left and right.

Chassez croisaz, — Ladies and gentlemen chassez in opposite directions.

Cavalier seul. — Gentlemen advance alone.

Demi Promenade. — All half promenade.

Dos ados. — Back to back.

Glissade. — A gliding step.

La grande ronde. — All join hands and advance and retire twice.

La grande tour du rond. — Join hands and dance round figure.

La grande promenade . — All promenade round figure.

Le moulinet. — Hands across.

Demi-moulinet. — Ladies advance to center, give right hand and retire.

Traversez. — Opposite persons change places.

Re-traversez. — Cross back to place.

Vis-a-vis. — Face to face.

Be not, while dancing, confined to observations concerning the weather
or the number of people present ; but having asked a lady to dance, be at
agreeable to her as possible.

4^B&-

— s-

AND PARTIES IN GENERAL.

THE GERMAN

||USTOM decides that no lady's series ot entertainments are com-
plete without " the prime favorite."

Young ladies are now much accustomed to forming social clubs,
with pretty, suggestive names, which meet at the houses of the
different members.
The informalities of the German necessitate great care in the
inviting of the guests. It is necessary that all shall have been formally in-
troduced, as no lady can refuse to dance with a gentleman whom she may
have received as a partner so long as she remain in the circle.

Favors are given in most of the figures, some of them being very elegant
and expensive, while others are comparatively inexpensive, but unique in
design. The principal point is to have a set of favors differing in design
from those presented at any other entertainment.

Invitations to the German should be sent at least ten days in advance.
They should be from engraved plates, and in the following form :

3W ^w^jo^r <^s^ s^m. ty.

^RECEPTIONS or AT HOMES 4*-

HE full-dress reception is an event of considerable importance in
the social world.

Invitations should be issued at least two weeks beforehand, as
for balls or dinners. It prevents previous engagement. They should
be engraved on heavy white card of the finest texture. The form is :

The invitations should be delivered by the footman, as are wedding and
dinner invitations, etc.

A serving-man should be provided to open the carriage door, another to
receive the cards and show the guests to their dressing-room.

The gentlemen escort their ladies to the host and hostess. If there is to
be dancing it is mentioned on the card of invitation.

"71

722

ETIQUETTE OF THE GERMAN, RECEPTIONS, ETC.

In New York it is quite the custom to present each guest with some ele-
gant little souvenir of the occasion, something similar to the favors of the
"German."

When the daughter is receiving with her mother, her name is placed on the
card of invitation below her mother's, thus :

5/wio/jv 'WvwiW|, W*v*uoA/jy §$cv„

Young ladies are permitted to dance during the evening, the mother
remaining at her post of reception; but the daughter should return to her
place as soon as the dance is over.

A young lady should not dance more than once with the same gentleman
at her own reception.

You should attend receptions in full evening dress, and good breeding
demands that you do not present yourself at the beginning, nor remain until
the close of the evening.

When your name is announced, look for the lady of the house and pay
your respects first to her. She will usually be found stationed near the door,
particularly if the party be large. You are at liberty, however, to salute
such friends and acquaintances as you may meet in making your way
through the crowd.

It is well to throw open as many rooms as possible, and to have tables
scattered around here and there, covered with choice engravings, photo-
graphic views, valuable scrapbooks, etc., for the entertainment of the guests.

If some eminent person be among the company, it is not in good taste for
every one to follow him around, hanging on his words and striving for an
Introduction.

The hostess should see that her company does not break up into cliques of
twos or threes, as such a plan leaves a number out who do not possess any
great conversational powers.

Shoidd any guest be invited by the hostess to play the piano, she should
not wait to be urged, offering excuses, but rise quietly, proceed to the piano
and play something short and suitable to the gathering.

A natural tact will suggest what to play. In a company of musical con-
noisseurs a sonata of Beethoven would not be out of place, but in a general
company something lighter and shorter would be more appropriate.

Never play upon the invitation of any one but the hostess. Should any one
else make the request, turn it off as gracefully as you can , but do not comply.

-He PARTIES IN GENERAL *+

THE guests should be more intimate acquaintances than at a ball or
full-dress reception. The hours before supper are spent In social
conversation. After supper, which is served much earlier than at
a ball, dancing is usually the order of the evening.
The time for departure is not later than i o'clock.

A call, or leaving of the card, should always precede an Invitation to a
party.

A call tn person or by card is required by etiquette after the party, from all
those who have been the recipients of invitation.

The same general rules of etiquette apply in the case of parties as at full-
dress receptions and balls.

The laws of courtesy and good breeding will be observed by gentlemen
and ladies wherever they may be, whether on the croquet ground, at the
informal picnic, or at the formal dinner party. And the code is much the
same.

-•HfcJUYHNILH PARTIES:®^

IT is now quite fashionable to give entertainments for the younger
members of the family. These birthday and doll parties are fre-
quently the source of as much amusement to the elders as to the little
ones who attend them. A regularly engraved card is sent out after
this design :

<^vai^vr (^cvoaW' ^oaw/A^
3*M/i><ia\v vavvwvu*., £)vw/>Jsvr VO^cv.,

Another form is :

aaoaw^^ Khj(j \>Iao^W\A/ o^ wyw

3\*/ck<io/j|( vWft, £)uaajjA&W KwJJjh,^
Wyw* lovA/ WbK/X W*V*V.

:_-

ETIQUETTE OF THE GERMAN, RECEPTIONS, ETC.

723

-#eee*BAL MASQUE

Invitations to a bal masque should be elegant in design and read as
follows :

TWENTY-FIRST BIRTHDAY PARTIES.

A grand celebration is usually given in honor of a son's attainment to his
majority. The form of invitation, on engraved cards, is :

3\Vl^lo/Jv /i^OVWW^., Wv*UA*VJy S^CV.,

ol vcvwr /i>o-v^

-fe+ BREAKFASTS

Invitations to breakfasts and suppers should be informal and written
on correspondence cards, with crest or monogram on top left corner. The
form is :

% Is. ^>_ <^>5V 3^ fy.

^ AFTERNOON RECEPTIONS K=»

VERY popular entertainment for ladies exclusively is the tea or

afternoon reception. The hours are from 4 to 6 p.m., and if

continued later these affairs partake of the nature of more formal

entertainments. The refreshments are light, and all ostentatious

display is avoided.

The hostess receives her guests at the table, and dispenses tea and the
other delicacies to them, which they receive from the tray borne by domes-
tics, and eat or drink standing. On leaving they can dispense with the for-
mality of bidding the hostess adieu. The form of invitation, printed on
large-sized visiting cards from engraved plates, is :

•~*-4- YOUNG LADIES' DEBUT

TIQUETTE decides that in this country, as in England, young
ladies shall seldom be seen, except at family gatherings, until their
school life shall be terminated, and then they shall be formally in-
troduced into society.
Three weeks previous to their debut, cards are left for those acquaintances
who are to receive invitations. A week or ten days previous engraved invi- x
tations are sent.

During the reception the young lady's position is to the right of her
mother or chaperon, where she receives the congratulations of her friends.
The guests should make their congratulations brief, and pass on to make
room for others.

The first dance should be accorded only to some intimate friend of the
family, and the debutante should dance but once with the same gentleman
in the course of the evening.

For one year the young lady is allowed to make calls only with her
mother or other suitable chaperon. After that time she can receive or call
at her pleasure.

724

ETIQUETTE OF RIDING AND DRIVING.

®mtfmmm?mm®$m

-<i) J (h-

Etiquette • of • Ridinf • and • Driving

• ^-D*G-^

; m$mm

f IDING is an accomplishment in which all ladies and gentlemen
1 should be proficient. Riding, like swimming, cannot be taught
by precept ; it must be taught early and practiced constantly— as
little in the school and as much upon the road as possible.
A lady's riding-habit should be simple, close-fitting, and made
j by a first-rate tailor. The later habit is much shorter and nar-
rower than the old style,
and is always worn with
pantaloons of the same
material underneath.

A lady can indulge her
love of luxury only in her
riding-whip. This may
be jewelled, and as ele-
gant as she may wish.
Her gloves must always
be unexceptionable.

The art of mounting
must be properly acquired,
since in riding, as in other
things, tt is proficiency in
trifles that proclaims the
artist.

The lady, having mount-
ed the riding-steps, places |=
her left foot in the stirrup,
rises into her seat ami lifts
the right leg into h
taking care to let the habit
fall properly.

If no riding-steps are
at hand, her escort or
groom must assist her to
mount. Hence she must
learn to mount in both
ways. In the latter case
she places her left foot
in the right hand of the
gentleman e-r servant ; he
lifts it vigorously but gen-
tly, and she springs lightly into the saddle.

A lady who rides much and wishes to keep her figure straight should
have two saddles, and cnange from one to the other.

LADY AND CI Ml 1 M \N RIDING

The great point in riding is to sit straight in the middle of your saddle, to
know the temper of your horse, and to be able to enjoy a good galop in
moderation.

Ladies should not lean forward in riding.

They should not rise in the saddle in trotting. f

They should know how to hold the reins and the different uses of each,

A gentleman, in riding,
as in walking, gives the
lady the wall.

In assisting a lady to
mount, hold your hand
at a convenient distance
from the ground, that she
may place her foot in it.
As she springs, assist her
with the impetus of your
arm. Practice only will
enable you to do this
properly.

A gentleman should be
able to mount on either
side of his horse. He
places his left foot in the
stirrup, his left hand on
the saddle, and swings
himself up, throwing hit
right leg over the horse's
back. Nothing ts more
awkward than to see a
man climb into a saddle
with both hands.

The correct position Is
to sit upright and well
back in the saddle: to
keep the knees nreassd
well in against the sides
of the saddle, and the feet
parallel to the horse's
body ; to turn the toct

in rather than out. The foot should be about half-way in the stirrup.
The great desideratum in the art of riding is plenty of confidence, A

timid person can never be a good rider.

ETIQUETTE OF RIDING AND DRIVING.

725

When escorting a lady be sure that her horse is quite safe, every part of.
its harness in perfect condition, and keep on the alert to assist her on the
slightest sign of danger.

A gentleman riding with two ladies will keep to the right of both, unless it
be necessary for him to
ridebctwcenthcminorder
to render some assistance.

In dismounting, the gen-
tleman will take the lady's
left hand in his right, re-
move the stirrup and place
her foot in his left hand,
lowering her gently -to the
ground.

Keep on the right or off
side, and never presume
to touch her mount any
more than you would that
of a gentleman friend.

ETIQUETTE

OX"

\ HE art of driving
is simple enough,
but requires prac-
tice. No one
should pretend who does
not understand every part
of the harness and be able
to harness or unharness a
horse himself.

A good driver will use his horse well, whether it be his own or another's.
He will turn corners gently, and know when to drive fast and when to
ease him up.

In the carriage, a gentleman places himself with his hack to the horses,
leaving" the best seat for the ladies. Only very elderly gentlemen arc

LADY ALIGHTING.

privileged to take the backseat to the exclusion of young ladies. No gentle-
man driving alone with a lady should sit beside her, unless he is her hus-
band, father, son or brother. Even an affianced lover should remember this
rule of etiquette.

To get in and out of
a carriage gracefully is
quite an accomplishment.
If there is but one step,
and you are going to face
the horses, put your left
foot on the step and the
other in the carriage, so
that you can drop at once
into your seat. If you
are to sit the other way,
reverse the process. Be
careful to turn your back
the way you intend sitting,
so as to avoid turning
around.

A gentleman should be
careful to avoid stepping
on the lady's dress in get-
ting into the carriage. He
should be careful also not
to catch it in the door as
he closes it.

A gentleman should al-
ways get out of a carriage
first, in order to assist the
lady in alighting.

When a gentleman in-
tends taking a lady driv-
ing in aone-seated vehicle,
he should always be sure
his horse is a safe one be-
fore trusting himself with
it, as he is obliged to get
out to assist the lady in and out of the vehicle. When helping her in he
should be careful always to hold the reins so that he can check the animal
in case it should start suddenly.

The dress should never be lifted in alighting from a carriage, but left to
trail upon the ground.

""* V ^

726

ETIQUETTE OF THE STREET.

$ — -f-g.-* •+-«-

P^ * ' ' " * "^t^r^gr^

-^H*- >+-*.

*S*

— ' M> ■ <*n , ' t * ^ '

LADY will bow first if she meets a gentleman acquaintance on
the street.

A lady will not stop on the street to converse with a gentle-
man. If he wishes to chat with her he will turn and walk by
her side until he has finished his conversation, then raise his hat
and leave her.

It is not etiquette for a
lady to take the arm of a
gentleman on the street
in the day time, unless he
bea lover or husband, and
even then it is seldom
done in America.

In England it is per-
missible for a lady to ac-
cept the arm of even an
ordinary acquaintance on
the street. In foreign
cities it is not commt it
faut for ladies to appear
on the street at all with-
out a gentleman.

A gentleman escorting
two ladies may offer each
an arm, but a lady should
never under any circum-
stances walk between two
gentlemen holding an arm
of each.

On meeting friends or
acquaintances on the street
or in public places, you
should be careful not to
call their names so loudly
as to attract the attention
of those around.

Never call across the
street, and never carry on
a conversation in a public
vehicle unless you are seated side by side.

Gentlemen should never stare at ladies on the street.

In walking with a lady a gentleman should take charge of any small par-
cel, book, etc., with which she may be burdened.

STREET PROMENADE SCENE.

Never recognize a gentlemen unless you are perfectly sure of his Identity.
Nothing is more awkward than a mistake of this kind.

A well-bred man must entertain no respect for the brim of his hat. True
politeness demands that the hat be removed entirely from the head. Merely
to nod or to touch the brim of your hat is a lack of courtesy. The body

should not be bent at all'
in bowing. %

A gentleman will always
give a lady the inside of
the walk on the street.

Ladies should avoid
walking rapidly on the
street, as it is ungraceful.
. A gentleman walking
with a lady should ac-
commodate his step to
hers. It looks exceedingly
awkward to see a gentle-
man two or three paces
ahead of a lady with
whom he is supposed to
be walking.

Staring at people* ex-
pectorating, looking back
on the street, calling in a
loud voice, laughing, etc.,
are very bad manners on
the street.

A gentleman attending
a lady will hold the door
open for her to pass. He
will also perform the
same service for any lady
passing in or out unat-
tended.

A gentleman may assist

a lady from an omnibus,

or over a bad crossing,

vMsUUI the formality of

an introduction. Having performed the service, he will bow and retire.

No gentlem.cn will smoke when standing or walking with a lady on the street.

A quiet and unobtrusive demeanor upon the street is the sign of a true

lady, who goes about her own affairs in a business-like way and has always

a pleasant nod and smile for friends and acquaintances.

**$

! L.

ETIQUETTE OF TRAVELLING.

727

aO class of people carry with them so many distinguishing marks

1 as the experienced and the inexperienced traveller. The former

is always cool and collected, occupies the best seat in the middle

of the car on the shady side and next to the window, and is

especially remarkable for a total lack of flurry and anxiety.

All this is owing to the fact that he has had a long and varied

experience as a traveller, and in that way gained a knowledge of the minor

points in travelling which go far toward begetting that state of peaceful con-
fidence which is the source of much envy to the uninitiated.

The experienced traveller is always on time ; he keeps a time-table of the

trains at hand for refer- ,»-»,«-

ence and never fails to * • 2q_,

have his watch going cor-
rectly. His baggage is

always properly checked

and his ticket safely stowed

away in his inside pocket.

Being certain that he is

on the right train, with

everything in order, his

mind is serene and a smile

of benignant complacency

illumines his countenance

as he unfolds his evening

paper or reviews the faces

of his fellow passengers.
The inexperienced travel-
ler comes hurrying on the

train at the last moment,

all in a heat and flurry,

and is scarcely seated on

the last seat in the car,

where he'll catch all the

drafts from the opening

door, when he discovers

that he has lost his ticket

or forgotten to check his

baggage. Then ensues a

storm of anxious enquiries

and querulous complain-
ings, and before he has

reached his destination he

is voted a bore by all his

fellow passengers.

♦^SUGGESTIONS TO TRAVELLERS**

CONSIDER what route you intend taking when you are contemplat-
ing a journey, and decide definitely upon it. Go to the ticket-office
of the road and procure a time-table, where you will find the hour
for leaving, together with names of stations on the road, etc.
When you intend taking a sleeping-berth, secure your ticket for same a
day or two before you intend starting, so as to obtain a desirable location.

RAILWAY CAR SCENE, PROPER.

A lower berth in the centre of the car is always the most comfortable, as
you escape the jar of the wheels and drafts from the opening door.

Take as little baggage as possible, and see that your trunks are strong and
securely fastened. A good, stout leather strap is a safeguard against bursting
locks.

In checkiijg your baggage, look to the checks yourself, to make sure the
numbers correspond. Having once received your check, you need not con-
cern yourself further about your baggage. The company is responsible f«r
its safe delivery.
It is a wise precaution to have your name and address carefully written

upon any small article of
baggage, such as satchel,
umbrella, duster, etc., so
that in case you leave
them in the car the rail-
way employes may know
where to send them.

An overcoat or package
lying upon a seat is an
indication that the seat is
taken and the owner has
only left temporarily. It
would, therefore, be rude
in you to remove the
articles and occupy the
seat.

It is only courteous for
a gentleman, seeing a lady
looking for a seat, to offer
the one beside him, as
she scarcely likes to seat
herself beside him without
such invitation, although
she will, of course, if there
are no entirely vacant
seats, do so in preference
to standing.

A courteous gentleman
will also relinquish his
place to two ladies, or a
gentleman and lady who
are together, and seek
other accommodations.
Such a sacrifice always
receives its reward in grateful admiration of his character.

Ladies travelling alone, when addressed in a courteous manner by gentle-
men, should reply politely to the remark ; and in long journeys it is even
allowable to enter into conversation without the formality of an introduction.
But a true lady will always know how to keep the conversation from bor-
dering on familiarity, and by a quiet dignity and sudden hauteur will effect-
ually check any attempt at presumption on the part of her strange acquaint-
ance.

« »_

7*8

LADIKS TRAVELLING WITHOUT ESCORT.

"7(1

Always consult the comfort of others when travelling. You should not
open either door or window in a railway coach without first ascertaining if
it will be agreeable to those near enough to be affected by it. Ladies, in
particular, should remember that they have not chartered the whole coach,
but only paid for a small fraction of it, and be careful not to monopolize the
dre*sfng-room for two or three hours at a stretch, while half a dozen or
more are waiting outside to arrange their toilets.

Genteel travellers will always carry their own toilet articles, and not depend
on the public brush and comb.

A lady will avoid over-dressing in travelling. Silks and velvets, laces and
jewelry are terribly out of place on a railroad train. The appointments of
the traveller may be as elegant as you please, but they should be distinguished
by exceeding plainness and quietness of tone. Some ladies have an idea
that any old thing is good enough to travel in, and so look <
shabby on the train.

£*2$M=*%=

R N America the liberty of action accorded women is so much greater than
that allowed in any other country in the world that a special code of
etiquette on some points is necessary in order to inform them how to act
Under all circumstances.

In England, the land of greatest liberty after ours, no lady of much
gentility makes a journey without a male escort or at least the company
of her maid. Here it is quite common for ladies of the best families and
greatest refinement to" make journeys of length without the attendance of a
male relative. Very young ladies are not allowed to travel, however,
without the attendance of some older person, either male or female.
The directions for travel-
ling having been given
elsewhere, we will confine
our directions to the man-
ner in which an unattended
lady shall behave at

THE HOTEL

lk=

A LADY should en-

7m ter a hotel by

/ »-■ wayoftheladtes*
^Ba u ^LW cn trance. A ser-
vant is always in attend-
ance at the door to show
her to the parlor, where
she will be waited tipon
by the proprietor or clerk,
to whom she should pre-
sent her card and state
how long she intends re-
maining.

A simple request to the
waiter, particularly if it
!'■• backed by a slight re-
muneration, will ensure
his meeting her at the
dining-room entrance and
preceding her lo ba)
thus obviating the slight
awkwardness of crossing
a full dining-room with-
out an escort.

All conversation at a hotel table should lie conducted in a low tone of voice
so as not to attract attention, attd aapai idly should care be taken that no re-
marks ol a personal nature are overheard by others. A lady will, of course,
not enter into conversation with any but friends at a public table.

While waiting to he served it Is panplaslMfl to rend a paper at a hotel
table. All orders should be given in a low but clear and distinct tour of
voice. Never ask any one at the table to pass you anything. That is the
duty of the u

Never point to any aftlok wanted; a glance at the dish, with a quiet request
or a mere look at the waiter, is usually sufficient.

RAILWAY CAR SCENE, IMPROPER

All loud and ostentatious dressing is out of place in a hotel dining-i
quiet, unassuming dress of cloih or plain black silk is the most ladylike.

When a lady is without escort it would be best for her not to take her sup-
per in the dining-room late in the evening. She can have a meal sent to her
room at a trifling extra cost.

A lady should never loiter in the halls, nor stand alone at a hotel window.
She should never hum to herself while going through the halls, nor play on
the piano, nor sing in a hotel parlor unless invited to do so.

It is desirable when stopping at a hotel to secure a pleasant, comfortable
room, with plenty of air and sunshine and a good outlook.

Be sure to lock your
trunk and the door of your
room whenever leaving it.
If your have valuables,
such as diamonds and
much money, it is safer to
leave them with the pro-
prietor to be locked in the
safe. They can easily be
obtained whenever wanted
by ringing for them.

It is never the act of a
lady or gentleman to be
scolding at servants. If
their conduct gives yon
dissatisfaction, complain
to the proprietor. Always
tender your requests in a
pleasant and courteous
manner, and you will usu-
ally find them promptly
attended to.

As a lady without escort
Is apt to require more
service than one who has,
it is only right to tender
a little extra fee to the
servant who has been es-
pecially attentive. A re-
taining fee, that is, a small
sum given at the outset, is
very apt to secure all the at-
tention that can be desired.

A lady should always avoid all hurry and bustle in travelling by securing
her ticket beforehand and having her trunk packed and ready to express in
good time.

In order to secure herself positively against all impertinence and intrusion
when unattended, a lady has need of a great deal of dignity and quiet re-
I f she Ik: naturally of a lively and chatty disposition , she must beware
how she indulge these innocent propensities, lest they be misunderstood.
An intelligent and thoroughbred lady, however, can travel alone anywhere
in America without experiencing the slightest lack ol* respect or courteous
attention.

HOME ETIQUETTE.

729

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Home •> EtHaehte.

• /l\ •

"7K'

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++*>&«4+4-

HILDREN should speak respectfully to parents and obey the
slightest command immediately.

Parents should address a child in a mild, pleasant, but firm
manner. Issue no orders but those of a just and reasonable
nature, and then see that they are obeyed.

Govern with justice and kindness and home will be indeed a

little heaven on earth.

-•f

-8r>

pTHS LADY'S TOILET g|

4-3-

Cleanliness is the outward sign of inward purity. Cleanliness is health,
and health is beauty.

The first business of the dressing-room is the bath, and this should be a
complete bath, and not simply a hasty washing of the face. It is not to be
supposed that a lady washes to become clean, but simply to remain clean.
A bathing of the entire body at least once a day is essential to health. It is
not necessary to have a bath tub for this purpose, but merely an ordinary
basin of tepid water, with soap, sponge and clean towels.

The whole body may be quickly sponged off, or the sponge may be dis-
pensed with and the hands alone used to convey the water to the body,
after which dry the body thoroughly with a soft towel, and then use a coarse
Turkish towel vigorously until the skin is red from the friction. In lieu of
the coarse towel, a liberal use of the flesh-brush may be made, but either
one or both must be regularly used, as nothing tends to keep the complexion
in good condition so much as the daily use of the flesh-brush.

Persons living in cities where Turkish baths are established will find a
bath of this kind once a week very beneficial to their health. Oftener than
this the baths would be apt to have an enervating effect. But an' occasional
Turkish bath is the most effectual cleanser in the world.

Early rising contributes not only to the preservation of health, but the
proper condition of the mental faculties. Too much sleep induces minor
ailments both of the body and mind. Fresh air, moderate exercise and
good ventilation, together with the daily bath, are the great health-preservers.

THE TEETH.

Scrupulous care is necessary to the preservation of the teeth. The teeth
should be carefully brushed, not only every night and morning, but after
every meal.

The best and only needful tooth powder is a simple preparation of chalk.
The numerous dentifrices advertised are most of them worthless and many
of them positively injurious.

A ^good tooth-brush, not too stiff, is necessary. Very hot and very cold
things and a great deal of sweets are injurious to the teeth.

Upon the first indication of decay, a good dentist should be consulted j
cheap dentistry is bad economy.

THE BREATH.

It goes without saying that a sweet breath is one of the essentials of happi-
ness, and should therefore be carefully looked to. The principal causes of
a bad breath are»a disordered stomach, decaying teeth and catarrhal affec-
tions. In the latter case a good specialist should be consulted. When it
arises from digestive difficulty, the diet should be changed to one better
suited to the system.

The eating of anything that will give an unpleasant odor to the breath is
to be avoided.

THE NAILS.

Much care and attention is given to the nails by those who are particular
in matters of the toilet. Of late years the care of the nails has been elevated
to a profession, and persons calling themselves " manicures " make it their
business to dress the nails of ladies of fashion.

It is sufficient, however, if you keep the nails carefully and evenly trimmed
— great care, however, being required to preserve the correct shape, and
keep all superfluous skin entirely removed. Plenty of warm water, Windsor
soap and a nail-brush are all that is required to keep the hands in good
condition.

THE HAIR.

The hair should be regularly brushed, morning and evening, with a clean
hair-brush. It is important that the brushing be frequent; it is also im-
portant that the brush be quite clean.

The brush should be washed every day with hot water and soda, in order
to preserve a glossy appearance to the hair. Occasionally the hair may be
cleansed with a mixture of glycerine and lime juice. Pomades and oil
should be carefully avoided.

Never attempt to change the color of your hair by means of dyes and
fluids. Your own hair, as nature colored it, is apt to be the only shade that
will correspond with your eyes, eyebrows and complexion. Practices of
this kind are much to be condemned. They indicate a senseless desire for
fashion, and an equally unladylike desire to attract attention. The use of
hair dyes, false hair, etc., is almost as much to be condemned as painted
cheeks and pencilled brows.

THE COMPLEXION.

As to the art of obtaining a good complexion, all the recipes in the world
can have but little effect compared with the excellence of early rising,
regular habits, careful diet and absolute cleanliness. The various lotions
recommended by Madame Rachel, and others of her ilk, the milk bath, pearl
powders and washes of every kind, would never be needed if ladies were
always careful to take plenty of exercise in the open air, wear broad-brimmed
hats in the sun and veils in the wind.

The face should never be washed when heated from exercise. Wipe the
perspiration from the skin and wait until it is sufficiently cool before you
bathe even in warm water. Rain-\va?=r is the best for bathing purposes. If
an eruption break out on the skin, consult a physician.

-*• & v *

730

HOME ETIQUETTE.

DRESS

IN dress, as in other things, society has passed under that wave of new
impulse which has so much changed the appearance of our houses,
the arrangement of our interiors, and even the texture and fashion of
manufactures.

That which we wore placidly, and even with a little complaisance and sense
of superior good taste, twenty years ago, would fill us with alarm and horror
now. The change which has taken
place is more than a change of fash-
ion : it is a change of principle. The
differences of shape and form , which
vary from one three-months to an-
other, are but fluctuations of the
standard, but the alteration which
we have recently arrived at is fun-
damental. It has affected not only
the cut, but the color, the fabric, the
kind of our garments, and has re-
lieved the severity of rule and left
such a margin for individual fancy
as was not dreamed of twenty years
ago.

The change is chiefly visible In
feminine apparel Where are now
the fine full tones of blue and of
green, the bright pinks, the orange
yellow, in which we once flaunted in
happy ignorance, knowing no better
and believing, with some show of
. iliat we were imitating the
tints (.fnature, the color of the flowers
and of the birds? Where are now
our apple-green gowns and our silk
shawls "shot" with blue and yellow?

The world has paled since those
favored days ; even the vaporous
tarlatan of the ball-room has sunk
into softer tints,, and in daylight no color affronts the eye of heaven that is
not ncutr.il.

The result of the new impulse is to make Art the guide in matters of dress;
but with all due respect to that divine Priestess of the Beautiful, we cannot
but believe that she would prove a dangerous guide in a matter that involves
so many practical features and so many individual peculiarities.

Whatever painters may think, there are many costumes effective in a
picture which would not be at all beautiful upon a living woman, and indis-
criminate following of the fancies of Art would not be much less fatal than
111 criminate following of fashion.

Me dnaa can be good which is not useful and into which the elements of
i ility do not enter. The garments adapted for the slim and the tall
Md the graceful will never v however admirable in themselves, agree with the
dowdy, the dumpy or the ordinary.

Fashion, Indaad, tfuooghoul all its vagaries, has this one principle of
humanity in it, that it is almost always designed to help those who tud
in lp, to cover deficiencies of nature, to conceal the evils wrought by time,
ajtd to make those look their l>cst to whom no special charms have been

pv< II.

l'.< .nitifiil persons are free of all such bonds. Whatever they wear becomes
them — they confer grace, they do B ; therefore fashion is imma-

i<n..l to tin in Th* time has never been when they were not allowed to
limit it at their will. What saying fs more general than. "She can wear
anything:?" It is said In admiration, in enthusi asm, in envy, and in spile,
but still it (aaald of thou favorites of Nature. And youth, even

when not beautiful, has, to a certain extent, the same privilege,

A . > ; t,draattaby aoMui en aafanportajit item In human

well-being, and it nay i.mi\ i I.nm to be considered in the light of a fine art.

To dress well require* something more than a full purse and a pretty figure.
It ir.pircs taste, good sense and refinement.

A NKATLY DKBSSED LADY.

A woman of taste and good sense will neither make dress her first nor her
last object in life. She will remember that it is her duty to her husband and to
society to always appear well dressed.

Dress, to be in perfect taste, need not be costly, and no woman of right
feeling will adorn her person at the expense of her husband's comfort and
her children's education.

The toilet of a well-dressed woman will be as well-chosen at the breakfast-
table as at ball or reception.

If she loves bright colors and can wear them with impunity, she will com-
bine them as harmoniously as an artist does his colors. If she is young her
dress will be beautiful ; if she is old she will not affect simplicity.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS ON DRESS.

The golden rule in dress is to avoid extremes.
Always follow rather than lead the prevailing fashion in dress.
Do not be so original in dress as to be peculiar, and do nor affect fashions
that are radically unbecoming to you.

Ladles who are neither very young nor very striking should wear quiet
OoiOfa,

It is not necessary to be rich in order to dress well. A little care in the
choice and arrangement of materials is all that is necessary.

Be sure that your dressmaker is a woman of taste and perfectly mistress of
her art. Do not trust to any ordinary sewing-woman who may know nothing
about harmony of colors and grace of outUnes,

A faultless morning toilet in summer' should consist of the freshest of mus-
lins, white or of delicate tints, with a tasteful arrangement of fresh, new
ribbons, and plain linen collar spotlessly laundered. These, however, are
better suited to young unmarried or married ladies.

Ladies of more advanced years may wear dark silks in the morning, but

all jewelry, hair ornaments and
fine laces should be eschewed for
morning wear.

Street costumes should always
be quiet in tone. Fine woolen
materials, in some shade of brown,
gray, olive, dark green or dark
blue, make the most suitable and
natty street costumes. Any lady
of taste who has once seen herself
in some such costume, well-made
and fitting to perfection, with hat
and gloves to correspond, will
never sigh for anything richer or
more expensive for street wear.

A lady of refinement will never
wear a very expensive toilet of
velvet or of silk or brocade of any
light and conspicuous shade upon
the street. Such costumes are ex-
clusively for the carriage, for call-
ing or for receptions.

Much jewelry is out of place in
the daytime, whether on the street
or for indoor wear. It is particu-
larly out of place in church. A
handsome brooch and small, un-
pretending ear-rings arc the only
jewelry permissible inthe daytime.
Heavy bracelets, necklaces, a pro-
fusion of diamonds and fiiurer-rinfi
should be reserved for

an ovaa-DRRSsaD pasfALB. wear.

English ladies arc much snort
strict in this matter than American ladies. According to their code It is
never allowable to woar diamonds, pearls and other precious stones in the
daytime. Custom, however, supports the wearing of a pair of solitaires in
the ears at any time and in any place in America.
Young ladies should not wear much jewelry* at any time.

HOME ETIQUETTE.

731

Merc costliness in jewelry is not always the best test of value. A rare
intaglio or finely-wrought cameo, being a work of art, b a more desirable
possession than a targe diamond which any one might purchase.

A stone of exquisite loveliness and by no means common is the opal.

Hall dresses may be composed of any rich materials, either silk or satin,
cashmeres, velvets or diaphanous materials, but they are usually of some
light shade. It is not customary in America to go decoletti to balls. In
England court etiquette prescribes bare neck and arms for full-dress.

Dinner and reception dresses should be as rich and elegant as you can
afford. Natural flowers are appropriate for dinners ; artificial ones for balls.

In dressing the hair, be careful not to adhere too closely to the prevailing
fashion if it is not becoming to you.
Considerable latitude is always al-
lowed in this respect.

The dressing of the neck affords
much opportunity for the display of
taste. If the shoulders are broad,
care must be taken not to enlarge the
effect by too much trimming.

Short persons should be careful not
to diminish their height by numerous
flounces, horizontal stripes or much
trimming of any description. Stripes
(perpendicular) have a tendency to in-
crease the height and should therefore
be worn by short and avoided by tall
people.

Every lady will pay especial atten-
tion to her gloves and shoes. Nothing
more emphatically marks the lady
than to be well shod and immaculately
gloved. Both gloves and shoes should
fit closely, but not be too tight. For
evening wear the gloves cannot be too
light, nor for street wear too dark.
Slippers should never be worn upon
the street. Black boots of soft French
kid are the most genteel for all oc-
casions except parties and balls.

It is needless to say that a refined
lady will give as much attention to the
quality and finish of those garments
which are not visible as to those which are.

Dark shades are best adapted to stout people.

Light shades and delicate tints are suited to the thin blonde type.

The complexion, however, must always decide the question of color.

THE BRUNETTE'S COLORS.

Scarlet, orange and yellow are the brunette's colors par excellence, but
she also looks well in glossy black and white. The tasteful brune will always
manage to have a scarlet blossom deftly twisted in her dark hair, or an
orange knot looped at her throat. Dark green also sets off a dark com-
plexion.

Dark green and red will improve a sallow complexion, while those rich,
creamy complexions one sees occasionally are set off by a reflection of
yellow.

THE BLONDE'S COLORS.

The golden-haired blonde is charming in a setting of dark violet which may
shade off into lilac or blue. Either light or dark shades of green look well
with the ruddy face of the blonde, but the delicate, shell-pink complexion
and fair hair of the very light blonde are exquisite in a dress of pale Nile
green.

The blonde may also wear all the neutral colors, such as gray, drab, fawn,
and the russets and browns as well ; in fact, there is very little except bright
reds that blondes cannot wear.

NEATLY DRESSED GENTLEMAN.

CONTRAST AND HARMONY IN COLORS.

Ladies should be particularly careful in selecting contrasting colors for the
same costume that they will harmonize as well ; else the beauty of the gar-
ment is utterly destroyed. We iiave often heard it said, " The color of that
feather absolutely kills the rest of the dress." This is when the wearer
knows nothing of the rules which govern the harmony of colors, and for
the benefit of such we affix the following brief table of harmonizing colors :

Black and orange ; black and white ; black and maize; black and scarlet ;
black and lilac; black and pink; black and slate color; black and buff;
black, white, yellow and crimson ; black, orange, blue and yellow.

Green and gold ; green and yellow ; green and orange ; jjieen an d crimson ;
green, yellow and scarlet ; green, yellow and crimson.

Blue and gold ; blue and orange ; blue and salmon color ; blue and drab ;
blue and stone color ; blue and white ; blue and gray ; blue and straw color ;
blue and maize ; blue and chestnut ; blue and brown ; blue and black.

Crimson harmonizes with purple, with gold, with orange, with maize, with
black and with drab.

Lilac harmonizes with gold, with maize, with cherry, with scarlet, with
crimson.

Purple harmonizes with gold, with orange and with maize.

Yellow harmonizes with red, with brown, with chestnut, with violet, with
crimson and with black.

Red harmonizes with gold, with green and orange, with black and yellow,
with white or gray, and with yellow, black and white.

PERFUMERY

IN the use of perfumery ladies must be extremely moderate.
Perfumes should properly be used only in the evening, and then
they should be of the most recherchi kind.
Many ladies have a special perfumery, such as violet, or white
rose, which they use invariably in a very delicate manner, so that it becomes

individualized, and their friends
come to associate them, insensibly,
with the flower whose perfume,
they exhale.

THE GENTLEMAN'S

DRESSING-ROOM.

HE first requisite of the
male toilet is, of course,
the bath, and this should
be as bracing as the con-
stitution will allow.

The cold-water bath the year
round is the best where the con-
stitution will endure it, but there
are very few physiques, espe-
cially among Americans, that will
admit of it.

A sponge bath once a day, with
a liberal use of the flesh-brush and
a coarse huckaback towel, will
answer every purpose.

A sun and air bath after the
water bath is an excellent thing,
and is frequendy recommended by
physicians. A fresh-water bath
should always be taken after bathing in the sea.

The teeth should be cleaned at least twice a day, and smokers should rinse
the mouth well after smoking.

THE DUDE.

lKT

732

ETIQUETTE OF ENGAGEMENTS AND MARRIAGE.

Keep the nails clean and short. I-ong nails are vulgar.

The beard should be kept well-trimmed and well-combed, and plenty of
warm water and soap are necessary to keep them thoroughly clean.

Do not indulge in lung hair, thinking it gives you an artistic look. Painters
and poets of eminence may be excused for wearing flowing locks, but in men
of less degree it is a ridiculous affectation.

The mustache should be neat and not over-large. A mustache d V Em-
pertur is absurd and smacks of the fop.

The dress of a gentleman should be perfectly unobtrusive, In entire bar-
mony and becoming.

Above all things should he avoid the extremes of fashion, such as wearing
his coat extremely or absurdly short. When fashion dictates tight pantaloons
let him not have his so tight that he cannot bend in them ; nor, if broad
onri be the mode, shall he have them so wide as to resemble bis wife's gown.

Loud patterns in cloth and glittering trinkets on the watch-chain are indi-
cations rather of the gambler than the gentleman.

A gentleman will have his clothes made by a good tailor, easy of fit sod
excellent in quality, but subdued and quiet in tone, and neither too much ia
nor too far behind the prevailing style. Bulwer says, " A gentleman's coat
should not fit too well," and he is right, as no self-respecting nun wants to
be taken for a tailor's dummy.

The regulation dress for evening wear— but it should never be worn before
sundown, no matter how ceremonious the occasion — is black swallow-tail
coat, black trowsers, black vest, cut low to show the shirt-front, thin patent-
leather boots, a white cravat, and light kid gloves.

A gentleman should wear no jewelry but such as has a use, except it may
be a handsome ring. His sleeve-buttons and collar-studs should be of plain
gold, but genuine. False jewelry is vulgar, and elaborate ornamentation is
foppish. It is more genteel even to dispense with a gold watch-chain and
wear only a plain black guard.

If a ring is worn, good taste would suggest that it be a fine antique intaglio
rather than an expensive diamond.

En^ement^ * and * CQar^^ia^e.

P'O lay down a set ot rules for the regulation of courtship would
prove as hopeless a task as Mrs. Partington's attempt to mop up
the Atlantic Ocean. The best and only reliable counsellors at
this crisis of a young man's or young woman's life are feeling
and good sense.

No wise man will intrude himself upon the presence of a lady,
nor risk being regarded as a bore, neither will a modest woman receive the
attentions of a man too eagerly, however agreeably she may regard them.

A woman of tact can let a gentleman see that his attentions are not dis-
agreeable to her without actually encouraging him. It is equally possible for
a man to be quite drvott without becoming a lover.

Unless a woman is a downright coquette, a man of sense ought to be able
to judge whether his proposal will be favorably received or not. It is
exceedingly dishonorable for either a man or a woman to trifle with the affec-
tions of the other.

The manner of making the offer of marriage must always be regulated
by circumstances. If the case be a genuine love affair, the time and place
and language of the proposal arc apt to be the result of chance and impulse,
rather than of premeditation on the part of the lover.

If the gentleman 1m- ramify of speech and attractive in person, it is best for
him to plead his cause in pirspna propria % and receive his acceptance with
the added sweetness of smile and Mu-h fc&d Ive-lit glance, or his rejection,
If such it must be, with the tender, saving grace of sadly-murmured regrets.

If the suitor, however, be of a nervous temperament, or " fears his cause
too much'* to risk a personal interview, he should make his proposal in
writing.

In making his offer of marriage, however, a man should always bear In
.nind that he Is a petitioner, that he is begging of the woman to grant him

her liberty, her obedience, her very life, and he should comport himself with
suitable humility and accept her acquiescence with becoming gratitude.

DEPORTMENT OF THE ENGAGED.

CPON the conduct of both parties during the preparatory stage of
the engagement depends in a great measure the probability of its
being carried to the desired consummation of marriage. The
gentleman in particular should be careful to observe the following
directions:

He should be tender and devoted to his bride-elect.

He should treat her family with the greatest respect.

He should particularly guard against acting as though he were already a
member of the family by taking hlx-rties that he is not justified in taking.

He should be always on the alert to do any member of his fiancie t family
a service; in fact he should play the devoted friend to his betrothed and
all her relatives.

llr should conform to all the rules of the household, being punctual at
meals , never intruding at unseemly hours j kind to the children and courteous
toward the servants.

He should not compromise the reputation of his future wife by keeping her
up until a late hour. His visits may be as frequent as he pleases, but should
always be short. The custom of lovers staying until a late hour of the
night is no longer permitted in genteel WChfy.

He should be attentive and gallant toward other ladies, but not sufficiently
so to excite the jealousy of his betrothed.

He should not monopolize her company la general society, but should
always be accorded the first place as her escort by the lady, and should be
watchful of all her wants.

•.

ETIQUETTE OF ENGAGEMENTS AND MARRIAGE.

733

He may send her few or many presents, as she seems disposed to accept
them. If the lady or her family object to her receiving costly gifts he may
keep her supplied with flowers, with books, and with sweetmeats if she
have a taste for bon-bons.

An engagement is usually sealed by the wearing of a ring. If the accepted
lover be wealthy a brilliant of rare value is the correct thing for the engage-
ment ring, and should be worn upon the first finger of the left hand. If,
however, his means are limited, a less expensive ring will answer the
purpose.

In the matter of gifts, too, a sensible man will not give more than he can
afford, nor run into debt in order to procure them.

The lady must be careful not to excite the jealousy of her lover by flirting
with other men.

She must carefully avoid any undue familiarity and effectually check any
attempt toward such on his part.

She should remember that nothing so soon disgusts a man with a woman
as any indications of untidiness or uncleanliness on her part. She should
therefore be exceedingly neat and clean in his presence, and have her dress
always chosen with taste.

Let their conduct generally toward each other be such as to inspire con-
fidence, and in case of a misunderstanding let her not hesitate to make the
advance toward reconciliation.

g-^V-

-zB^e

*->^

IT is not usual for the lady to visit any but her intimate friends after
the announcement of the engagement. She should, however, leave
her visiting-card at the residence of her friends just previous to the
sending of the invitations, which should be sent at least two weeks
prior to the wedding.

The invitations should be engraved in a rich, heavy script, and should be
of such shape as to fold in a long, narrow envelope, not square, for the latter
shape is now somewhat out of date.

The quality and tint of the invitations, "At Home" and church cards
should be uniform with the envelopes, as the slightest difference would
spoil their beauty.

The invitations, the "At Home" cards and the church cards are all
placed in one envelope, bearing the name only of the parties to whom sent.
The full address is placed on the outside envelope.

Invitations should be delivered by the footman at the residence of the
parties for whom intended. The footman, too, should always be in full livery.
The invitation should be in this form :

&/r. b 3kv>. ^cvo^W ^wjjj
oX Ma uj/xWvacvv ov 'Vcvwr 3/JA^oAXvr .,

If a reception be given at the residence of the bride's parents, a card to
those whose presence is desired should be enclosed in the envelope with the
invitation: thus:

^r. b ^A/fc. (^cvoaW %&w^^
OX ^o-uxv.,

^S§Q ^Uam, ^X_

Or:

byyw ^cvoAX -oXWr Lyu/r a^vXw 'W

It is quite customary at large weddings to issue usher or church cards,
thus avoiding the crowd of curious sight-seers who cause much annoyance
by filling all the best seats. This card should be small and engraved in
script, with crest or monogram. In form :

^X. ^-tOV^Vty ^WaJcV.,
^WOMyw\V <oX fyyWV O-^W^R/-

In case of the reception being given on the return of the bridal party the
card should read :

OX jta^VJtf/.,

<^Q ^)W ^X.

Should the bride's parents decide to give her a reception on her return to
the city, the "At Home " card will contain the bride's name below her
mother's ; in all other respects the same as model given.

When the wedding is at the house, the form of invitation is same as at
church, except that the number of residence is substituted for name of
church.

For "At Home " weddings, combining ceremony and reception, the form is:

^a~. b ^bvty. ^WW §&w^

AA/^\M/iX V(W A^W^iAXA/v /ol Ajxyjvr
wu^>awu qX *vKv

1a-. b >}Ka^. ^Iomw \xyXiv,

<X AVO/X ^OviX loAJA,.,

734

GENERAL HINTS ON ETIQUETTE.

•VMawctx&YE" Qj,cfcQk'3>QktfcOka^kTai , 3fct»a>MitAT*aiktA»fa , Qka

■'V TV VYV VTV V V V V VUg —^

General • e Hint^- on- Etiquette.

THERE are a number of the minor points of etiquette which, not
coming directly under any nf the preceding heads, might othcr-
]>e omitted, and which, therefore, wc propose touching upon
in this chapter.
g'.Vi J t The art of giving and receiving presents is not always an in-

C1 &* tuition. A generous person may unwittingly wound where he
intends to please, while a really grateful person may, by want of tact,
appear to deprecate the liberality of his (Hands,

A gift should always be valuable for something besides its price. It may
have been brought by the giver from some famous place; it may have a
valuable association with genius, or it may be unique in its workmanship.
An author may offer his book or an artist his sketch, and any one may offer
flowers, which are always a delicate and unexceptionable gift.

A rich person should be careful how he gives ts the poor, lest he hurt their
pride, while a poor person can only give to those of greater wealth some-
thing that has cost only affection, time or talent.

Never allude to a present which you have given ; do not even appear to
see it if you are where it is.

Do not give a present in hopes of a return.

If you present a book to a friend, do not write the name in it unless it is
requested. By doing so you are taking for granted that your present will be
accepted, and also that a specimen of your penmanship will give additional
value to the gift.

It is in bad taste to undervalue a gift which you have yourself offered. If
it is valueless, it is not good enough to give to your friend ; and if you say
you do not want It yourself, or that you would only throw it away if they
did not take it, you are insulting the person whom you mean to benefit.

Married ladJasj may occasionally accept a present from a gentleman who
rquently at the house, and desires to express his gratitude in that
way.

An unmarried lady should not accept presents from any gentleman to
whom she is not engaged, or who is not a relative.

Never refuse a gift unless you have a very good reason for so doing. How-
ever poor the gift, you should show your appreciation of the kindness of
heart which prompted it. All such deprecatory phrases as "I fear I rob
you," or " I am really ashamed to take it," etc., arc in bad taste, as they
s.-.-ni n> imply that you think the giver cannot afford It.

Do not quickly follow up a present by a return. It looks too much like
payment. Never, however, fail to make an immediate acknowledgment of
the receipt of a gift.

Remember, when you arc prone to give in charity to the sick or the needy,
that " he who gives quickly gives double"

Never Indulge in egotism in the drawing-room. The person who makes
Uy, his wealth, his affairs or his hobby the topic of conversation is

not only a bore but a violator of good taste. We do not meet in society to
display ourselves, but to give and take as much rational entertainment a*
our own accomplishments and those of others will afford.

The man or woman who engrosses the conversation is unpardonably
selfish.

We should not neglect very young people in our drawing-rooms. If we
wish our children to have polished manners, and to express themselves well,
wc must lead them to enter into the conversation that is going on.

All irritability and gloom must be thrown off when we enter society.

It is ■ duty to always look pleased. It is likewise a duty to appear inter-
SStsd Ifl ■ story that you may have heard a dozen times before, to smile on
the most inveterate proscr ; in short, to make such minor sacrifices of sin-
cerity as one's good manners and good feelings may dictate.

In conversation the face must be pleasant, wearing something that almost
approaches to a smile.

Always look at the person who is conversing with you, and listen respect-
fully. In answering try to express your thoughts in the best manner. A
loose manner of expression injures ourselves much more than our hearers,
since it is a habit which, once acquired, is not easily thrown off, and when wc
wish to express ourselves well it is not easy to do so.

A good hit of .ulvi> c is the saying, " Think twice before you speak once,"
as thus only can you learn to always speak to the point.

The young of both sexes would find it an inestimable advantage through
life to cultivate from the outset a clear intonation, a well-chosen phraseology,
a logical habit of thought, and a correct accent.

A well educated person proclaims himself by his simple and terse lan-
guage. Good and clear Saxon is much to be prrlerred to high-sounding
phrases and long words; it is only the half-educated who imagine such a
style is elegant.

Never employ extravagance in conversation. Always employ the word
that will express your precise meaning and no more. It is absurd to say it
>s "immensely jolly," or "disgustingly mean." Such expressions show
neither wit nor wisdom, but merest flippancy.

Avoid awkwardness of attitude as well as awkwardness of speech.

No man or woman is well-bred who is continually lolling, gesticulating or
fidgeting in company.

No lady of good breeding will sit sideways on her chair, or with her legs
crossed or stretched apart, or hold her chin in her hands, or twirl her
watch chain, while she is talking ; nor does a well-bred gentleman sit astride
of his chair, or bite his nails, or nurse his leg. A man is always allowed
more freedom than a woman, but both should be graceful and decorous In
their deportment.

Never indicate an object by pointing at it. Move the head or wave the
whole hand.

Sneezing, coughing and clearing the throat must he done quietly when it
cannot possibly be avoided ; but sniffling and expectorating must never be
indulged in in decent society.

Physical training is necessary to both men and women who aspire to be of
the best society. Every gentleman should know how to fence, to box, to
shoot, to swim, to ride, to dance, and how to carry himself. Calisthenic
exercises and dancing should be taught every young woman. Even though
she may not intend to dance, the acquirement of the art tends to produce
that grace of movement which is so beautiful in woman. Swimming, rid-
ing, driving, archery and all suitable outdoor amusements strengthen the
muscles and give beauty and suppleness to the human form divine.

A good memory for names and faces, and a self-possessed manner, are
necessary to every one who would make a good impression in society.
Nothing is more delicately flattering to another than to find you can readily
call his or her name, after a very slight acquaintance. The most popular of
great men have gained their popularity principally through the possession of
this faculty.

Shyness is very ungraceful, and a positive injury fo any one afflicted with
it. It is only allowable in very young people. A person who blushes, stam-
mers and fidgets in the presence of strangers will not create a very good
impression upon their minds as to his personal worth and educational ad-
vantages. Shyness may be overcome by determined mixing in society.
Nothing else will have an effect upon it.

In conversing with a person, do not repeat the name frequently, as it im-
plies one of two extremes, that of familiarity or haughtiness.

If you are talking to a person of title, do not keep repeating the title.
You can express all the deference you desire in voice and manner ; it is un-
necessary and snobbish to put it in words.

A foreigner should always be addressed by his full name ; as, Monsieur de
Montmorcnci, never as Monsieur only. In speaking of him, give him his
title, if he have one. For example, in speaking to a nobleman you would
say, Monsieur le Marquis ; in speaking of him in his absence, you would
say, Monsieur le Marquis deMontmorenci. Converse with a foreigner in his
own language. If you are not sufficiently at home in the language to do so,
apologize to him, and beg permission to speak English.

Married people are sometimes guilty of the vulgar habit of speaking of
each other by the initial letter of their first name, or the wife of her husband
as "Jones," omitting the "Mr." This denotes very ill breeding, and
should be strenuously avoided.

Never speak of absent persons by their Christian names or their sur-
names ; always refer to them as Mr. or Mrs. ,

Gentlemen, when with ladies, are expected to defray all such expenses as
car fares, entrance fee to theatre, refreshments, etc.

In entering an exhibition or public room where ladies are present, gentle-
men should always lift their hats. In France a gentleman lifts his hat on
entering a public omnibus, but that is not necessary according to the English
code of etiquette.

To yawn in the presence of others, to put your feet on a chair, to stand
with your back to the fire, to take the most comfortable seat in the room, to
do anything in fact that displays selfishness and a lack of respect for those
about you, is unequivocally vulgar and ill-bred.

If a person of greater age than yourself desire you to step into a carriage
or through a door first, it is more polite to bow and obey than to decline.
Compliance with, and deference to, the wishes of others, is always the
finest breeding.

A compliment that is palpably insincere is no compliment at all.

Boasting is one of the most ill-bred habits a person can indulge in.
Travelling is so universal a custom now that to mention the fact that you
have been to Europe is to state nothing exceptional. Anybody with wealth,
health and leisure can travel ; but it is only those of real intelligence that
derive any benefit from the art treasures of the Old World.

When in general conversation you cannot agree with the proposition ad-
vanced, it is best to observe silence, unless particularly asked for your
opinion, in which case you will give it modestly, but decidedly. Never be
betrayed into too much warmth in argument ; if others remain uncon-
vinced, drop the subject.

Gentlemen precede a lady in going up stairs, but follow her in going down.

In walking with a lady through a crowd, precede her, in order to clear the
way.

In walking on a public promenade, if you meet the same friends and ac-
quaintances a number of times, it is only necessary to salute them once in
passing.

Never speak of your own children as " Master ** and " Miss " except to
servants.

Never correct any slight inaccuracy in statement or feet. It is better to
let it pass than to subject another to the mortification of being corrected in
company.

No one can be pulitt who does not cultivate a good memory. There is a
class of absent-minded people who are to be dreaded on account of the
mischief they are sure to create with their unlucky tongues. They always
recall unlucky topics, speak of the dead as though they were living, talk of
people in their hearing, and do a hundred and one things which, in slang
parlance, is " treading on somebody's toes." Carelessness can be carried to
such a pitch as to almost amount to a crime. Cultivate a good memory,
therefore, if you wish to say pleasant things and to avoid disagreeable ones.

People must remember that they must give as well as take in this life, and
that they must not hesitate to go to a little trouble in those small observ-
ances which it is so pleasant to accept.

When entrusted with a commission, do not fail to perform it. It is rude to
"forget."

On entering a room filled with people, do not fail to bow slightly to the
general company.

If you accept favors and hospitalities, do not fail to return the same when
the opportunity offers.

The most contemptible meanness in the world is that of opening a private
letter addressed to another. No one with the slightest self-respect would be
guilty of such an act.

Never betray a confidence.

Never question a child or a servant about the private affairs of the family

Do not borrow money and neglect to pay. If you do, you will soon find
that your credit is bad.

When offered a seat in the street car, accept the same with audible thanks.

It is very awkward for one lady to rise and give another lady a seat in a
streetcar, unless the lady standing be very old, or evidently ill and weak.

Never fail to answer an invitation, either personally or by letter, within a
week after its receipt.

Do not fail to return a friend's call in due time.

Never play practical jokes. The results are frequently so serious as to
entail life-long regret on the joker.

Avoid any familiarity with a new acquaintance. Vou never know when
you may give offence.

Always tell the truth. Veracity is the very foundation of character.
Without it a man is a useless and unstable structure.

When writing to ask a favor or to obtain information, do not fail to enclose
postage stamp for a reply.

When an apology is offered, accept it, and do so with a good grace, not in
a manner that implies you do not intend changing your opinion o. the
offence.

It is rude to examine the cards in a card-basket unless you have an invita-
tion to that effect.

Never look at the superscription on a letter that you may be requested to
mail.

Never seal a letter that is to be given to a friend for delivery. It looks as
though you doubted his or her honor in refraining from examining the con-
tents

When walking with a lady, it is etiquette to give her the wall, but tf she
have your arm it is quite unnecessary to be changing at every corner you
come to. After one or two changes the habit becomes ridiculous.

Always adopt a pleasant mode of address. Whether you are speaking to
inferiors or to your equals, it will alike give them a kindly and happy im-
pression of you.

Long hair and a scrawling signature do not constitute genius. Be careful,
then, how you draw upon yourself the ridicule of being a shallow pretender
by adopting either or both.

Never fail to extend every kindly courtesy to an elderly person or an
invalid.

Never ridicule the iame, the halt or the blind. You never know when
misfortune may be your own lot.

V-

^fr

736

"71

ETIQUETTE OF THE HOUSE.

Do not make promises that you have no intention of fulfilling. A person
who is ever ready with promises, which he fails to execute, is soon known
as a very unreliable party.

Punctuality is a most admirable quality. The man or woman who pos-
sesses it is a blessing to his or her friends. The one who lacks it is wanting
in one of the first requisites of good -breeding.

It is extremely rude to look over the shoulder of one who is reading or
writing. It is also rude to persist in reading aloud passages from your own
book or paper to one who is also reading.

Do not appear to notice any defect, scar or peculiarity of any one. It it
the height of rudeness to speak of them.

Never presume to attract the attention of an acquaintance by a touch,
unless you are extremely intimate. Recognition by a simple nod or spoken
word is all that can be allowed.

Do not be quick to answer questions, in general company, that arc put to
others.

You should not lend an article that you have borrowed without first ob-
taining permission from the owner.

Avoid all exhibition of excitement, anger or impatience when an accident
happens.

Neither a gentleman nor a lady will boast of the conquests he or she has
made. Such a course would have the effect of exciting the most profound
contempt for the boasters in the breasts of all who heard them.

If you cannot avoid passing between two persons who are talking, never
fail to apologize for doing so.

Never enter a room noisily. Never enter the private bed-room of a friend
without knocking. Never fail to close the door after you, and do not slam it.

Temper has much more to do with good-breeding than is generally sup-
posed. The French are allowed to be the most polite people in the world,
when they are really only the most amiable.

Learn to make small sacrifices with a good grace ; to accept small disap-
pointments in a patient spirit. A little more of self-control, a little more
allowance for the weaknesses of others, will oftentimes change the entire
spirit of a household.

We are not to be polite merely because we wish to please, but because we
wish to consider the feelings and spare the time of others — because we
wish to carry into daily practice the spirit of the precept, " D* unto others
as you would have others do unto you."

-e^fe

•:• Etiquette * of * t^e * Hcxi^e. *

l& 19*

MANAGEMENT OF SERVANTS.

-&$&*•

llVERY mistress of a house is a sovereign queen, whose court is
the home circle, which is dependent entirely upon her grace and
executive ability for happiness, comfort and refinement.

In a well-ordered household the machinery is always in order,
and always out of sight, and it Is the special care of the mis-
tress thereof to secure servants so reliable, so efficient and so
well trained that this machinery shall run quite noiselessly, and with the
most perfect satisfaction.

No well-bred woman talks of her servants, her dinner arrangements, or
of her housekeeping affairs generally, to her visitors in the drawing-room,
nor yet to her husband in the privacy of the domestic circle.

No lady, however gifted, can afford to neglect the management of her
household. If she be possessed of immense wealth, she may afford to hire
an efficient housekeeper, but even then the final responsibility rests upon
her. No tastes and no pleasures should be allowed to stand in the way of
this important duty.

The moment you enter a house, the personality of the mistress Is betrayed
by the atmosphere which seems to pervade it. If she be a good and
efficient ruler, the servants wear a cheerful air, the children are obedient and
courteous, the rooms are tastefully furnished and spotlessly clean and neat.
The unexpected guest receives a cordial welcome, and is conducted to a
well-appointed table. In such a home scandal and gossip are never heard,
and peace and contentment are the household gods.

The first and most important rule for the governing of the household Is
to regulate the expenditure so that It shall come easily within the Income.

Elegance adds greatly to the enjoyment of life, but if it is to be purchased
at the expense of all peace of mind, you had better do without it altogether.
If you cannot lie elegant, you can at least be clean, and the true gentle-
woman will Ik- discovered as soon in the cottage as in the palace by her sur-
roundings. Shabby gentility is one of the most objectionable forms of

snobbishness. To affect a better income than you have, to ape the manners
of your richer neighbors, proclaims you vulgar and ill-bred in the highest
degree. Shams of every description arc contemptible, and every young
housekeeper should build her house upon a superstructure of sincerity, and
then she will never have to blush at awkward discoveries.

Your house may have the appearance of refinement without any great
expense if good taste be exercised in its arrangement. The rooms must be
furnished with an artistic eye for colors, and a careful eye for co mfor t.
Whatever pictures or works of art there are should be good. One good en-
graving is better than half a dozen cheap chromos.

A house without books is a house without a soul. Be sure, therefore, to
have plenty of books around. You may not be able to have a whole library,
but you can at least collect a few shelves of well-chosen works..

Thorns and ferns are ornamental and tasteful, and may he obtained at a
very slight expenditure ; all that they require is a little care and thought in
their cultivation and arrangement.

Be careful not to overload your rooms with cheap knick-knacks and
gaudy tidies of crochet or knitted work. Any one having a taste for the
higher style of embroider)'. *uch as the Kensington and Arrasene work,
may produce very artistic effects, at but flight expense.

The walls of your rooms are a very important subject, and as you cannot
expect to change the papering thereof with every fluctuation of fashion, it
is essential th.tt J OH exercise good taste at the outset, paying but little atten-
tion tn the prevailing style.

The walls of a n>om should always be of some sober color. Your carpets

may be bright as you please, hut the pattern must be small, and the colors

well blended. Set figures are very wearisome to the eye, either in a carpat

or on wall-paper, and as both are likely to be worn a long time, it h best

k out for that at the beginning.

V 6 »"

ETIQUETTE OF THE HOUSE.

737

In this day of artistic furniture, art magazines, and art crazes generally,
there need be no excuse for bad taste in furnishing. The day of one stiff
sofa, six stiff chairs, and one straight table, all placed rigidly against the
wall, and forming right angles with it, is over, the gods be thanked ; and
a person, be he ever so uncultured, can form some conception of what is
suitable and beautiful in the house to make it a home.

Plenty of fresh air, cleanliness and quiet, are all indications of a well-
ordered home.

The servant question is the most difficult one that housekeepers have to
contend with in America. The independent spirit of our republic is inim-
ical to anything that looks like servitude ; hence our young women of the
poorer classes would much rather go into factories, or bend over sewing-
machines, than go into pleasant, cultivated families, where the varied labor,
better fare and purer atmosphere would contribute immeasurably to the
preservation of their health and happiness.

American ladies are largely dependent, therefore, upon the poor emigrant
population of Germany and Ireland for their servants, and this will account
for the main part of the difficulties in housekeeping here. It would be task
enough to instruct a native-born girl in the varied mysteries of dusting and
dish-washing, of waiting on the table and answering the door-bell ; but
when it comes to wrestling with the vernacular of the Fatherland as well,
it is discouraging in the highest degree.

The best way, however, is to offer good wages, take only such a girl as is
well recommended, and then, by firm, patient and just measures, endeavor
to have her do your work in your own way, and to your perfect satisfaction.

Here, as elsewhere, the mistress must ever be on the alert. She must be
quick to observe any neglect of orders and carelessness in the execution of
them. She must remind repeatedly, but always kindly and firmly. Let your
servant see that you will be obeyed, but never let her see you out of temper,
and you will soon acquire such an ascendancy over her that everything will
go as smoothly when you are absent as when you are present. If you will
keep a good servant, yoi: must treat her properly. A good mistress will give
as much attention to the comfort and happiness of her servants as she will
to that of her husband and her children.

If she have but one servant, she must be careful not to put too much work
upon her. No one is willing to drudge all the time, nor should any one ask
it. If there are several servants, their duties must be distinctly understood
and rigidly enforced. One must not be expected to help another out, as
that would be injustice to the industrious one.

The mistress must give personal supervision if she would have her work
well done. Only after a long and tried period of service can she afford to
relax her vigilance. A good house-mistress will never be afraid of a little
trouble. The constant care pays in the end.

Avcid a fault-finding and scolding manner. When a thing does not suit
you, say so quietly to your servant. A display of temper only loses you
the respect of your servant, and gains you nothing in the way of obedience.

Servants should be treated as though they were human beings, with
human weaknesses, and not as if they were mere working machines. You
should endeavor to correct their faults, not to aggravate them ; and you
should treat them, and have your children treat them, with invariable kind-
ness and civility.

You should interest yourself in the amusements of your servants. If they
have a taste for reading, provide them with good books. See that they
occasionally have an opportunity to attend a place of amusement. Do not
restrict their hours of amusement, or endeavor to curtail their personal
liberty. A good, devoted servant is, particularly in this country, where the
sense of equality is felt and tacitly admitted, as much a part of the family
as any member thereof. She is the trusted confidante in family troubles ;
she is the recipient of all the joyful secrets of the various members of the
family ; she is, in short, more friend than servant, without presumption on
the one hand or undignified condescension on the other.

Punctuality is one of the chief requirements of a well-ordered household.
The good temper and consequent comfort of the whole family depend upon
the regularity of the meals, to say nothing of the health, which is almost as
largely dependent upon the meal being served on time as upon the quality of
the food. The breakfast and dinner bell should be as punctual as the church bell.

The mistress must look well to the quality and preparation of the food.
Badly cooked food, monotonous food or insufficient food are all injurious
to the health, and no lady should let other and more agreeable occupations
engage her attention until she has attended to her marketing, ordered her
meals, and made sure of their being properly prepared and neatly served.

Unless she have a dining-room maid, upon whom she can thoroughly
depend, it is better for the lady of the house to go into her dining-room a few
moments before meals are served, to see that all is in order, the table properly
arranged, etc. There are very few servants in this country well trained
enough to be depended upon without close supervision.

A good housekeeper will also attend carefully to her daily accounts.
Entries of expenditures should be made every day, ard the amount cast up
at the end of the week. If a book is kept with the butcher and the grocer,
it is always best to have a weekly settlement. A monthly or a quarterly set-
tlement may of course be made, but the shorter time accounts are allowed to
run, the easier it is to untangle any little knot in the skein. It is best for the
mistress to do all her own ordering for the domestic commissariat than
to depute any part of the task to her cook. Where servants are allowed to
run and order this or that article, there is always trouble with the tradesmen
when the monthly bill comes in.

While every woman should do all in her power to enlarge her views, cul-
tivate her mind, and improve her social position, she should bear in mind
that " home " is first and forever her special heritage, and that to embellish
and beautify it, and to so order it that it shall be a haven of rest to her dear
ones, is her highest and noblest duty, to which everything else should be
subservient.

73»

—■

THE ART OF CARVING.

4^1^

^e-^pt-of-CarVir^.

•-i--

-*« t ll *&& % f i c »>

THE importance of the art of carving has been referred to under
the head of Dining, and we propose here to give a few rules
upon the practice which may be of benefit to the tyro, and help
him to acquire that ease and dexterity tn carving which is so
conducive to peace and comfort around the family board.

In carving a sirloin of beef, the upper cuts should be made
lengthwise of the beef, while the under cuts are crosswise — the under cuts
being also much thicker than the upper cuts. As there is much difference of
opinion as to which is the choice piece, it is best for the carver to ask his
guests which cut they prefer.

Rib roasts, rolled, and a round of beef are always cut in very thin hori-
zontal slices across the whole surface of the meat. It is essential, though,
that these slices be quite thin.

The leg, the loin, the shoulder and the saddle are the four pieces of mut-
ton usually brought to the table to be carved. First, as to the leg. This
must be placed on the table with the knuckle toward the left hand. Then
cut into the side farthest from you toward the bone, helping thin slices
from the right and thick slices toward the knuckle. Always divide
the little bunch of fat near the thick end among your guests, as it is a
great delicacy.

A saddle of mutton is often ordered for a small dinner party. It is cut in
very thin slices, close to the back-bone, and then downward.

Place a "shoulder " with the knuckle toward the right hand, the blade
bone toward the left. Place your fork firmly in the middle of the edge
farthest from you, and cut dexterously from the edge to the bone. This
causes the meat to fly open, when you can cut slices on each side of the
opening, until there is no more to cut, when the meat should be turned
over and slices cut from the under side. Another method of carving this
joint is to cut slices lengthwise from the end to the knuckle.

The loin of mutton, which is a piece intended specially for family use,
should be carved cither through the joints or may be cut lengthwise in a
parallel line with the joints.

A fillet of veal Is, in shape and appearance, very similar to a round of
beef, and is carved in the same way by cutting horizontal iUcm over the
whole surface of the meat. The slices, however, should not be nearly so
thin as beef. A fillet of veal is cut from the leg, the bone is removed by
the butcher, and the pocket thus made is filled with dressing, which is taken
out and helped with a spoon by the carver.

A breast of veal may be either roasted or stewed. If used as a roasting-
piece, you will have the butcher make an opening or hole in it forthe recep-
tion of the dressing. In carving it, the ribs may be separated from the
brisket, and sent round.

A fore -quarter of lamb consists of shoulder, breast and ribs. The knife
must be first placed upon the shoulder, drawn through horizontally, and

the joint removed, and placed upon another dish. The ribs can then be
separated, and the breast sliced and sent around.

A calf's head, which is by some considered a delicacy, must be cut down
the centre in thin slices on each side. A small piece of the palate, of the
sweet-bread, and of the meat around the eye, must be put on each plate and
sent round.

In carving a haunch of venison, make a cut across close to knuckle, afjer
which cut slices by making straight incisions lengthwise.

There are three methods allowed in carving a ham. The most common
one probably is to cut it like a leg of mutton, beginning in the middle, and
cutting either way. You may, however, begin at the knuckle, cutting slices
in a slanting direction, or you may begin at the thick end. The slices
must always be as thin and delicate as possible, and are the usual accom-
paniment to fowl or veal.

Tongue must always be cut in thin, regular slices. Make the first cut a
short distance from the tip, where a slice of some size may be attained.
1'he tip is considered quite a lid-bit by some people.

In carving a chicken, first cut off the wings. This is easily done by learn-
ing where to strike the joint. Then slice the breast, and cut off the merry-
thought and side bones. The breast should always be helped first, then the
wings— the liver wing being the better of the two. It is better to always
reserve a small slice of the white meat to be served with the dark.

Pigeon, snipe and quail arc cut in half, and a piece sent to each guest.
When the birds are small, you send a whole one.

Goose and turkey are helped by cutting slices off the breast, and then the
wings and legs are removed. The breast is considered the best meat, and
after that the wtngpb

Boiled rabbit is carved thus : First cut off the legs, then take out the shoul-
ders with a sharp-pointed knife, then break the back into three or four
pieces at the joint. The back is the choice help, especially the piece in the
centre. The shoulder is next in order after the back, and the leg cones
last. The kidney is a delicate bit.

It 'iitting fish a regular silver fish-slice is provided. Salmon and all fish
of that order are cut in slices down the middle of the upper side, and then
in slices across on the under side. A piece of each should be helped
to all.

Mackerel divides among four people. Pass fish-knife between the upper
and under half from head to tail, then halve each side, and help to a quarter.

Cut cod crosswise like salmon, then downward, and send a small piece of
round on each plate as well.

Large flat fish, as turbot, flounders, John Dorcy, etc., are first cut down
the middle from head to tail, then across to the fin, in slices. The fin, being
considered a delicacy by some, should be helped, too.

Small fish, like smelts, whiting, etc., are sent whole to each guest

JiJ

•», Q •_

_« S

HOW TO SELECT MEATS.

739

~7f

mti&£Etom£&

Hov/ •:• to •:• ^eleet * [Deat^. *

^THE*ART*OF*COOKING'

i itKl i t ili ' t » i ll X ' 8 ilil"li ft ' H ' • < C 'I 1 » I ' < ' >l

-i'M ■'•'■'■ ....-,

I CARCELY a young housekeeper, unless so fortunate as to have
had a thorough course of training by a sensible mother, but has
o-^S§Ko been mortified at her own extreme ignorance of what before
(iVcw) I) seemea " unimportant matters, but afterward proved themselves
•j\J^\jf( very essential points in the way of doing the household market-
ing. The difference in kind and quality, and the technical
names of the various parts of edible animals, probably never occurred to
her until brought face to face with the matter in the butcher shop, which she
has entered for the first time to purchase her meat for dinner.

For the benefit of such we give a few general rules upon how to select
meats, the names of the different parts, appearance of good and bad meats,
etc. First, as to the characteristics of good meats. Meat of a pale pink
color is likely to be diseased, while that of a deep purple tint has not been
slaughtered, but has died of acute fever. The proper color is a bright, rich
red.

It should be firm and elastic in appearance, and scarcely moisten the
fingers. Bad meat is wet and sodden, while the fat in it looks like jelly.

Good meat has little or no odor, and is not disagreeable. Bad meat has a
sickly odor that is extremely offensive.

Good meat should not shrink much in cooking.

It should not become very wet on standing. It should dry upon the
surface.

Meat should be dried with a clean cloth as soon as it comes from the
butcher's. Cut out fly-blows if there are any on it.

Never buy bruised joints.

Meat will keep a long time in cold weather, while if frozen it will keep
for months. Always thaw frozen meat before attempting to cook it, by
plunging it in cold water or setting it before the fire. It will not cook well
without this precaution.

In summer place your meat on ice, or in the coldest place you have, until
ready to cook it.

Always baste roast meat with its own drippings. You cannot baste it too
much.

In order to retain the juices, your meat must be cooked in a hot oven.

In boiling meat, if you wish to make soup as well, put your meat in cold
water, and bring it slowly up to the boiling point. The juices then flavor
the water and make soup. If you put the meat in boiling water, the juices
remain in the meat, and the liquor is worthless.

Stewing is slow boiling. Frying is cooking in a pan, in a small quantity
of fat. Broiling is cooking over a fire.

Beef is the flesh of the ox, and is the principal meat eaten in this country
and in England. Good beef should be welt streaked or marbled with fat,
and should have plenty of loose fat or suet around.

The joints of beef for roasting are ribs, sirloin, chump of rump, fillet of
sirloin, mouse buttock, top side and heart. The choice roasts are sirloin
and rib roasts. For a small family a nice roast is made of one rib, the bone
being taken out, and the meat neatly rolled and skewered by the butcher.

For frying or broiling the best steak is the " porterhouse." After that
"tenderloin" and "sirloin" steak, and the "rump" steak. The latter
should be well beaten, as it has a tendency to toughness. The choicest
thing for breakfast is a "porterhouse" steak, broiled quickly over a bright fire.

For beefsteak puddings and pies coarser pieces of the meat may be pur-
chased. For soup, a good shin-bone is best.

Beef is more nourishing roasted than boiled, and can be eaten more fre-
quently than any other meat without causing surfeit.

Veal has but little fat, and is of a pinkish white color. Good veal should
be closely grained and small ; if it is large and coarse-grained, it is too old
to be really nice. Do not buy it if it is moist and clammy, as it is then
nearing decomposition. The best pieces of veal for roasting are fillet and
best end of the breast. For frying, cutlets from the shoulder.

Spring lamb is one of the most delicate kinds of meat that can be eaten.
The whole animal is usually divided into quarters by the butcher, and sold
at so much a quarter. A hind quarter is usually rather more expensive than
a fore quarter, although the latter is considered by some the more delicate
eating. It is always rather an expensive meat, but a roast of lamb, with
mint sauce, is always a delicate dinner.

Mutton is the meat of sheep upward of four years of age. The darker
mutton is the better, as it is a sign of maturity. Good mutton should also
be f.u.

The parts for roasting are saddle, haunch, leg, best end of loin, chump
end of loin, shoulder, breast and others.

Fur frying and broiling, chops and cutlets from loin and neck ; also cut-
lets from leg.

For boiling the leg makes an excellent dinner. It should always be
accompanied by caper sauce.

Venison should be fa'.. A young deer may be distinguished by the cleft
of the haunch being smooth and close. Winter is the season for buck ven-
ison, while summer is the time for doe venison. The roasting parts are
haunch, neck and breast.

In choosing poultry, it is usual to try the breast bone in order to determine
whether the fowl be young or old. If the bone be pliable — that is, easily
bent with the finger — the chicken or turkey is young and tender enough for
roasting; but if hard and unyielding, the fowl had better be boiled, and
plenty of time allowed for the process.

The principal kinds of game eaten are grouse, partridge, snipes, quails,
woodcocks, ortolans, pheasants, wild duck, teal, land-rail, plovers and larks.

742

FAMILIAR POEMS.

William Cullbn Bryant.

VljO him who, in the love of nature, holds

*-*-* Communion with her visible forms, she speaks

A various language ; for his gayer hours

She has a voice of gladness, and a smile

And eloquence of l>eauty, and she glides

Into his darker musings, with a mild

And gentle sympathy, that steals away

Their sharpness, ere he is aware.

When thoughts
Of the last bitter hour come like a blight
Over thy spirit, and sad images
Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall.
And breathless darkness, and the narrow house.
Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart;
Go forth into the open sky, and list
To nature's teaching, while from all around
Comes a still voice :

" Yet a few days, and thee
The all-beholding sun shall sec no more,
In all his course; nor yet, in the cold ground,
Where thy pale form was laid with many tears.
Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist
Thy image. Earth, that nourishes thee, shall
Thy growth, to be resolved to earth again ;
And, lost each human trace, surrendering up
Thine individual being, shalt thou go
To mix forever with the elements,
To be a brother to th' insensible rock
And to the sluggish clod, which the rude swain
Turns with his share and treads upon.

The oak
Shall send its roots abroad, and pierce thy mold.
Yet not to thy eternal resting-place
Shalt thou retire alone, nor couldst thou wish
Couch more magnificent. Thou shalt lie down
With patriarchs of the Infant world, with kings.
The powerful of the earth, the wise, the good,

DM, and hoary seers of ages past,
All in one mighty sepulchre.

The hills.
Rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun ; the vales,
St r. t. liing in pensive quietness between ;
The venerable woods ; rivers that move

In majesty, and the complaining brooks

That make the meadows green ; and, poured round al

Old ocean's gray and melancholy waste.

Are but the solemn decorations all

Of the great tomb of man. The golden sun,

The planets, all the infinite host of heaven,

Are shining on the sad abodes of death,

Through the still lapse of ages.

All that thread
The globe are but a handful to the tribes
That slumber in its bosom. Take the wings
Of morning, and the Barcan desert pierce.
Or lose thyself in the continuous woods
Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound
Save its own dashings — yet — the dead are there;
And millions in those solitudes, since first
The flight of years began, have laid them down
In their last sleep : the dead reign there alone.

So shalt thou rest ; and what if thou shalt fall
Unnoticed by the living, and no friend
Take note of thy departure ? All that breathe
Will share thy destiny. The gay will laugh
When thou art gone ; the solemn brood of care
Plod on ; and each one, as before, will chase
His favorite phantom ; yet all these shall leave
Their mirth and their enjoyments, and shalt come
And make their bed with thee. As the long train
Of ages glide away, the sons of men,
The youth in life's green spring, and he who goes
In the full strength cT years matron and maid.
The bowed with age, the infant in the smiles
And beauty of its innocent age cut off —
Shall, one by one, be gathered to thy side.
By those who in their turn shall follow them.

So live, that when thy summons comes to join
The innumerable caravan iliat moves
To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take
His chamber in the silent halts of death,
Thou go not like the quarry-slave at night,
Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed.
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams.

FAMILIAR POEMS

_.*

743

I eKiaooaffta'A

(Sfy/ooi rtg*

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

"s^J

•• ^^ S unto the bow the cord is,

fA*^ So unto the man is woman :
Though she bends him, she obeys him ;
Though she draws him, yet she follows;
Useless each without the other."

Thus the youthful Hiawatha
Said within himself and pondered.
Much perplexed by various feelings.
Listless, longing, hoping, fearing,
Dreaming still of Minnehaha,
Of the lovely Laughing Water,
In the land of the Dacotahs.

" Wed a maiden of your people,"
Warning said the old Nokomis ;
" Go not eastward, go not westward.
For a stranger, whom ye know not I
Like a fire upon the hearthstone
Is a neighbor's homely daughter ;
Like the starlight or the moonlight
Is the handsomest of strangers !"

Thus dissuading spake Nokomis,
And my Hiawatha answered
Only this : " Dear old Nokomis,
Very pleasant is the firelight.
But I like the starlight better,
Better do I like the moonlight ! "

Gravely then said old Nokomis :
" Bring not here an idle maiden.
Bring not here a useless vromai,
Hands unskilful, feet unwilling;
Bring a wife with nimble fingers,
Heart and hand that move together,
Fnet that run on willing errands ! "

Smiling answered Hiawatha :
" In the land of the Dacotahs
Lives the Arrow-maker's daughter,
Minnehaha, Laughing Water,
Handsomest of all the women.
I will bring her to your wigwam.,
She shall run upon your errands,
Be your starlight, moonlight, firelight,
Be the sunlight of ray people ! ''

Stilt dissuading said Nokomis :
" Bring not to ray lodge a stranger
From the land of the Dacotahs !
Very fierce are the Dacotahs,
Often is there war between us.
There are feuds yet unforgotten,
Wounds that ache and still may open ! "

Laughing answered Hiawatha :
" For that reason, if no other,
Would I wed the fair Dacotah,
That our tribes might be united,
That old feuds might be forgotten,
And old wotntds be honied forever ! "

Thus departed Hiawatha
To the land of the Dacotahs,
To the land of handsome women ;
Striding over moor and meadow
Through interminable forests,
Through uninterrupted silence.

With his moccasins of magic,
At each stride a mile he measured ;
Yet the way seemed long before him,
And his heart outran his footsteps ;
And he journeyed without resting,
Till he heard the cataract's laughter,
Heard the Falls of Minnehaha
Calling to him through the silence.
" Pleasant is the sound ! " he murmured,
" Pleasant is the voice that calls me 1 "

On the outskirts of the forest,
'Twixt the shadow and the sunshine,
Herds of fallow deer were feeding,
But they saw not Hiawatha ;
To his bow he whispered, " Fail noj I *•
To his arrow whispered, " Swerve not I M
Sent it singing on its errand,
To the red heart of the roebuck ;
Threw the deer across his shoulder,
And sped forward without pausing.

At the; doorway of his wigwam
Sat the ancient Arrow-maker,
In the land of the Dacotahs,
Making arrow-heads of jasper,
Arrow-heads of chalcedony.
At his side, in all her beauty,
Sat the lovely Minnehaha,
Sat his daughter, Laughing Water,
Plaiting mats of flags and rushes ;
Of the past the old' man's thoughts were,
And the maiden's of the future.

He was thinking, as he sat there,
Of the days when with such arrows
He had struck the deer and bison.
On the Muskoday, the meadow ;
Shot the wild goose, flying southward,
On the wing, the clamorous Wawa;
Thinking of the great war-parties,
How they came to buy his arrows,
Could not fight without his arrows.
Ah, no more such noble warriors
Could be found on earth as they were I
Now the men were all like women,
Only used their tongues for weapons I

She was thinking of a hunter
From another tribe and country,
Young and tall and very handsome,
Who on« morning, in the spring-time,
Came to buy her father's arrows,
Sat and rested in the wigwam,
Lingered long about the doorway,

Looking back as he departed.
She had heard her father praise him,
Praise his courage and his wisdom ;
Would he come again for arrows
To the Falls of Minnehaha ?
On the mat her hands lay idle.
And her eyes were very dreamy.

Through their thoughts they heard a footstep.
Heard a rustling in the branches.
And with glowing check and forehead,
With the deer upon his shoulders.
Suddenly from out the woodlands
Hiawatha stood before them.

Straight the ancient arrow-maker
Looked up gravely from his labor.
Laid aside the unfinished arrow,
Bade him enter at the doorway.
Saying, as he rose to meet him,
" Hiawatha, you are welcome !"

At the feet of Laughing Water
Hiawatha laid his burden.
Threw the red deer from his shoulders ;
And the maiden looked up at him.
Looked up from her mat of rushes.
Said with gentle look and accent,
"You are welcome, Hiawatha ! "

Very spacious was the wigwam,
Made of deer-skin dressed and whitened.
With the gods of the Dacotahs
Drawn and painted on its curtains,
And so tall the doorway, hardly
Hiawatha stooped to enter.
Hardly touched his eagle-feathers
As he entered at the doorway.

Then uprose the Laughing Water,
From the ground fair Minnehaha,
Laid aside her mat unfinished,
Brought forth food and set before them,
Water brought them from the brooklet,
Gave them food in earthen vessels,
Gave them drink in bowls of bass wood.
Listened while the guest was speaking.
Listened while her father answered,
But not once her lips she opened.
Not a single word she uttered.

Yes, as in a dream she listened
To the words of Hiawatha.
As he talked of old Nokomis,
Who had nursed him in his childhood.
As he told of his companions,
Chibiabos, the musician,
And the very strong man, Kwasind,
And of happiness and plenty
In the land of the Ojibwars,
In the pleasant land and peaceful.

" After many years of warfare,
Many yearn of strife and bloodshed,
There is peace between the Ojibways
And the tribe of the Dacotafa ; "
Thus continued Hiawatha,
And then added, speaking slowly,
" That this peace may last forever,
And our hands be clasped more closely,
And our hearts be more united.
Give me as my wife this maiden,
Minnehaha, Laughing Water,
Loveliest of Dacotah women ! "

And the ancient Arrow-maker
Paused a moment ere he answered.
Smoked a little while in silence.
Looked at Hiawatha proudly.
Fondly looked at Laughing Water,
And made answer very gravely :
" Yes, if Minnehaha wishes ;
Let your heart speak, Minnehaha ! "

And the lovely Laughing Water
Seemed more lovely, as she stood there.
Neither willing nor reluctant.
As she went to Hiawatha,
Softly took the seat beside him,
While she said, and blushed to say it,
" I will follow you, my husband 1 "

This was Hiawatha's wooing !
Thus it was he won the daughter
Of the ancient Arrow-maker,
I n the land of the Dacotahs I
From the wigwam he departed,
leading with him Laughing Water;
Hand in hand they went together,
Through the woodland and the meadow.
Left the old man standing lonely
At the doorway of his wigwam,
Heard the Falls of Minnehaha
Calling to them from the distance.

Crying to them from afar off,

" Fare thee well, O Minnehaha ! *

And the ancient Arrow-maker
Turned again unto his labor.
Sat down by his sunny doorway.
Murmuring to himself, and saying:
" Thus it is our daughters leave us,
Those we love, and those who love us I
Just when they have learned to help us.
When we are old and lean upon them.
Comes a youth with flaunting feathers.
With his flute of reeds, a stranger,
Wanders piping through the village.
Beckons to the fairest maiden.
And she follows where he leads her.
Leaving all things for the stranger ! "

Pleasant was the journey homeward
Through interminable forests,
Over meadow, over mountain.
Over river, hill and hollow.
Short it seemed to Hiawatha, #

Though they journeyed very slowly.
Though his pace he checked and slackened
To the steps of Laughing Water.

Over wide and rushing rivers
In his arms he bore the maiden ;
Light he thought her as a feather,
As the plume upon his head-gear;
Cleared the tangled pathway for her.
Bent aside the swaying branches,
Made at night a lodge of branches.
And a bed with boughs of hemlock,
And a fire before the doorway
With the dry cones of the pine-tree.

All the travelling winds went with them
O'er the meadow, through the forest ;
All the stars of night looked at them.
Watched with sleepless eyes their slumber ;

From his ambush in the oak-tree
Peered the squirrt.1, Adjidaumo,
Watched with eager eyes the lovers;
And the rabbit, the Wabasso,
Scampered from the path before them.
Peeping, peeping from his burrow.
Sat erect upon his haunches.
Watched with curious eyes the lovers.

Pleasant was the journey homeward t
All the birds sang loud and sweetly
Song* of happiness and heurt's-east
San< the blue-bird, theOwaissa,
*' Happy are you, Hiawatha,
Having such a wife to love you 1 "
Sang the robin, the Opechee,
" Happy are you, Laughing Water,
Having such a noble husband ! "

From the sky the sun benignant
Looked upon them through the branches.
Saying to them, " O my children,
Love is sunshine, hate is shadow.
Life is checkered shade and sunshine.
Rule by love, O Hiawatha I "

From the sky the moon looked at them.
Filled the lodge with mystic splendors.
Whispered to them, " O my children.
Day is restless, night is quiet,
Man imperious, woman feeble;
Half is mine, although I follow;
Rule by patience, Laughing Water! "

Thus it was they journeyed homeward,
Thus it was that Hiawatha
To the lodge of old Nokomts
Brought the moonlight, starlight, firelight.
Brought the sunshine of his people,
Minnehaha, Laughing Water,
Handsomest of all the women
In the land of the Dacotahs,
In the land of handsome i

<& — ■■■ i,$jfa»^fcg=3)

~4" (Ufte 5i>are£oot &o^/<

V>LESSINOS on thee, little man,
4*~^ Barefoot boy, with cheeks of tan t
With thy turned-up pantaloons,
And thy merry whistled tunes ;
With thy red lip, redder still,
Kissed by strawberries on the hill ;
With the sunshine on thy face,
Through thy torn brim's jaunty grace,
From my heart I give thee joy —
I was once a barefoot boy I

I thou art — the grown-up man
Only is republii U.
Let the million-dollared ride I
Barefoot, trudging at his side,
Thou hast more than he can buy
In the reach of ear and eye-
Outward sunshine, inward joy,
Blessings on thee, barefoot boy 1

(R=*i

John Grbknlkap Whittikk.

Oh, for boyhood's painless play,
Sleep that wakes in laughing day.
Health that mocks the doctor's rules,
Knowledge never learned of schools,
Of the wild bee's morning chase.
Of the wild flower's time and place.
Flight of fowl, and habitude
Of the tenants of the wood;
How the tortoise bears his shell,
How the woodchuck digs his cell.
And the ground mole sinks his well:
How the robin feeds her young,
How the oriole's nest is hung ;
Where the whitest lilies blow.
Where the freshest berries grow.
Where the ground-nut trails its vine.
Where the wood-grape's clusters shine ;
Of the black wasp's cunning way,

Mason of his walls of clay.
And the architevtur.il plans
Of gray hornet artisans ' —
For, eschewing books and tasks.
Nature answers alt he asks ;
Hand in hand with her he walks.
Face to face with her he talks.
Part and parcel of her joy —
Blessings on the barefoot boy t

Oh, for boyhood's time of June,
Crowding years In one brief moon.
When all things I heard or saw.
Me, their master, waited for.
I was rich in flowers and trees.
Humming-birds and honey-bees;
For my sport the squirrel played.
Plied the snouted mole his spade;

FAMILIAR POEMS.

745

For my taste the blackberry cone
Purpled over hedge and stone ;
Laughed the brook for my delight
Through the day and through the night,
Whispering at the garden wall.
Talked with me from fall to fall ;
Mine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond,
Mine the walnut slopes beyond.
Mine on bending orchard trees.
Apples of Hesperides t
Still, as my horizon grew,
Larger grew my riches, too ;
All the world I saw or knew
Seemed a complex Chinese toy,
Fashioned for a barefoot boy !

Oh, for festal dainties spread.
Like my bowl of milk and bread/—

Pewter spoon and bowl of wood.
On the door-stone, gray and rude I
O'er me, like a regal tent.
Cloudy-ribbed the sunset bent,
Purple-curtained, fringed with gold,
Looped in many a wind-swung fold,
While for music came the play
Of the pied frogs' orchestra ;
And, to light the noisy choir,
Lit the fly his light of fire.
I was monarch ; — pomp and joy
Waited on the barefoot boy I

Cheerily, then, my little man,
Live and laugh, as boyhood can !
Though the flinty slopes be hard,
Stubble*speared the new-mown sward.

Every morn shall lead thee through
Fresh baptisms of the dew ;
Every evening from thy feet
Shall the cool wind kiss the heat ;
All too soon these feet must hide
In the prison cells of pride.
Lose the freedom of the sod,
Like a colt's for work be shod.
Made to tread the mills of toil
Up and down in ceaseless moil :
Happy if their track, be found
Never on forbidden ground ;
Happy if they sink not in
Quick and treacherous sands of sin.
Ah I that thou couldst know thy joy.
Ere it passes, barefoot boy I

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HEAR the sledges with the bells-
Silver bells —
What a world of merriment their melody foretells !
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,

In the icy air of night I
While the stars that oversprinkle
All the heavens seem to twinkle
With a crystalline delight —
Keeping time, time, time,
In a sort of Runic rhyme,
To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
From the bells, bells, bells, bells,
Bells, bells, bells,
From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.

II.

Hear the mellow wedding bells —
Golden bells 1
What a world of happiness their harmony foretells !
Through the balmy air of night
How they ring out their delight !
From the molten-golden notes,

And all in tune,
What a liquid ditty floats
To the turtle-dove that listens, while she gloats
On the moon !
Oh, from out the sounding cells.
What a gush of euphony voluminously wells !
How it swells I
How it dwells
On the Future ! how it tells
Of the rapture that impels
To the swinging and th-: ringing

Of the bells, bells, bells.
Of the bells, bells, bells, l>ells,
Bells, bells, bells—
To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells.

III.
Hear the loud alarum bells—
Brazen bells [

Edgar Allan Poh.

What a tale of terror, now, their turbulency tells 1
In the startled ear of night
How they scream out their affright !
Too much horrified to speak,
They can only shriek, shriek.
Out of tune,
In the clamorous appealing to the mercy of the

fire,
In a mad expostulation with the deaf and frantic
fire,

Leaping higher, higher, higher.
With a desperate desire,
And a resolute endeavor,

Now — now to sit or never.
By the side of the pale-faced moon.
Oh, the bells, bells, bells,
What a tale their terror tells
Of despair !
How they clang, and clash, and roar!
What a horror they outpour
On the bosom of the palpitating airl
Yet the ear it fully knows
By the twanging
And the clanging,
How the danger ebbs and flows ;
Yet the ear distinctly tells,
In the jangling,
And the wrangling,
How the danger sinks and swells,
By the sinking or the swelling in the anger of the
bells—

Of the bells—
Of the bells, bells, bells, bells,
Bells, bells, bells—
In the clamor and the clangor of the bells 1

IV.

Hear the tolling of the bells—
Iron bells !
What a world of solemn thought their monody
compels '

In the silence of the night.

How we shiver with affright
At the melancholy menace of their tonet
For every sound that floats
From the rust within their throats

Is a* groan.
And the people — ah, the people —
They that dwell up in the ^steeple,

Alt alone,
And who tolling, tolling, tolling,

In that muffled monotone.
Feel a glory in so rolling

On the human heart a stone—
They are neither man nor woman—
They are neither brute nor human—

They are ghouls ;
And their king it is who tolls;
And he rolls, rolls, rolls.
Rolls,

A paean from the bells !
And his merry bosom swelb

With the pxan of the bells !
And he dances and he yells ;
Keeping time, time, time,
In a sort of Runic rhyme,

To the pxan of the bells—
Of the bells:
Keeping time, time, time.
In a sort of Runic rhyme.

To the throbbing of the bells—
Of the bells, bells, bells—

To the sobbing of the bells ;
Keeping time, time, time.

As ne knells, knells, knells,
In a happy Runic rhyme,

To the tolling of the bells —
Of the bells, bells, bells,

To the tolling of the bells.
Of the bells, bells, bells, bells-
Bells, bells, bells—
To the moaning and the groaning of the bells.

S^fooa, S^foao, (Ufiou

Shaksperb.
From "At You Like It."— Act II, Sc. 7.

V> LOW, blow, thou winter wind,

£-) Thou art not so unkind

As man's ingratitude;

Thy tooth is not so keen

Because thou art not seen.

Although thy breath be rude.

Heigh-ho ! sing heigh-ho ! unto the green holly,

Most friendship is feigning, most loving mere folly.

Then heigh-ho the holly.

This life is most jolly.

Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky,

Thou dost not bite so nigh

As benefits forgot ;

Though thou the waters warp.

Thy sting U not so sharp

As friend remembered not.

Heigh-ho I sing heigh-ho ! unto the green holly.

Most friendship is feigning, most loving mere foHy;

Then heigh-ho the holly,

This life is most jolly.

Alpkkd Tennyson.

IIjHF. splendor falls on castle walls
fJL, And snowy summits old in story ;
The long light shakes across the lakes.

And the wild cataract leaps in glory.
Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying ;
Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying I

Oh, hark ! oh, hear ! how thin and cleat ,
And thinner, clearer, farther going,
Ob, sweet and far from cliff and scar.

The horns of Elfland faintly blowing !
Blow, let us hear the purple glens replying,
Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes, dying dying, dying 1

O love, they die in yon rich sky,

They faint on hill or field or river |
Our echoes roll from soul to soul.
And grow forever and forever.
Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying,
And answer echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying !

©Jfti

YjY HE sea ! the sea ! the open sea,
V-l^T The bhie, the fresh, the ever free I

Without a mark, without a bound.
It runneth the earth's wide regions round.
It plays wih the clouds ; it mocks she ahtos ;
Or like a cradled creature lies.

I'm on the sea 1 I'm on the son 1

1 am where I would ever be ;

With the blue above, and the blur bclew,

And sueooc whereooe'er 1 go ;

If a stoJtn shonid come and awake the nee?,

What ntufcser ? 1 shnH nde and steep.

ecu *

Barky Cornwall.

1 love (oh, hour I love!) to ride
On the fierce, foaming, bursting tide.
When every mad wave drowns the moon.
Or whistles aloft his tempest tune,
And tells how goeih the world below.
And why the southwest blasts do blow.

I never was oa the dull, tame shore
But I loved the great sea more and more,
And backward flew to her billowy breast.
Like a bird that seckcth its mother's net! ;
And a mother she awsr, and is to sne ;
For I was born on the open sea.

The waves were white and red the mom,
In the noisy hour when I was bom ;
And the whale it whistled and the porpoise roll'd.
And the dolphins bared their backs of gold;
And never was heard such an outcry wild
As wekomed to life the ocean child.

I've lived since then, in cairn and s»nt -

Full fifty summers a sailor's life.

With wraith to spend, and a poorer to range,

But never have sought nor sigh'd I

And Death, whenever he cosne to me,

*•.*■ come on she wild, anbouaded tea .

748

"7f

FAMILIAR POl M

An Extract from '
Q'weET was the sound, when oft, at evening's close,
Jl3 Up yonder hill the village murmur rose j
There, as I passed with careless steps and slow,
The mingling notes came softened from below ;
The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung.
The sober herd that lowed to meet their young ;
The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool,
The playful children just let loose from school ;
The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind,
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind,—
These all in sweet confusion sought the shade,
And filled each pause the nightingale had made.

* • • * *

Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled.
And still where many a garden flower grows wild.
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose.
The village preacher's modest mansion rose.
A man he was to all the country dear.
And passing rich, with forty pounds a year;
Remote from towns he ran his godly race.
Nor e'er had changed, or wished to change his place.
Unskilful he to fawn, or seek for power,
By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour;
Far other aims his heart had learned to prize.
More bent to raise the wretched than to rise.
His house was known to all the vagrant train.
He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain ;
The long- remembered beggar was his guest.
Whose beard, descending, swept his aged breast ;
The ruined spendthrift, now no longer proud,
Claimed kindred there, and had his claims allowed ;

lettl soldier, kindly bade to sr.iy.
Sat by his fin-, and talked the night away ;
Wept oVr iiis wounds, or, tales of sorrow done.

Oliver Goldsmith.

' The Deserted Villager

Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were woo
Pleased with his guests, the good man learned to glow.
And quite forgot their vices in their woe ;
Careless their merits or *hcir faults to scan.
His pity gave ere charity began.

Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride,
And e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side,
But in his duty prompt at every call,
He watched and wept, he prayed and felt for all :
And as a bird each fond endearment tries,
To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies,
He tried each art, seproved each dull delay.
Allured to brighter world*, and led the way.

Beside the bed where parting life was laid.
And sorrow, guilt and pain by turns dismayed.
The reverend champion stood. At his control
Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul :
Comfort came down, the trembling wretch to raise.
And his last faltering accents whispered praise.

At church, with meek and unaffected grace.
His looks adorned the venerable place :
Truth from bis lips prevailed with double sway.
And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray.
The service past, uround the pious mr.n.
With steady zeal, each honest rustic n
E'en children followed, with endearing wile,
And plucked his gown, to share the good man's smile.
His ready smile a parent's warmth expressed.
Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distressed*
To them his heart, his love, his griefs were given,
But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven :
As some tall cliff, tint lifts its awful form,
Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm ;
Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread .
Eternal sunshine settles on its head.

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Charles Dickens.

OH ! a dainty plant <<n,

1 h.ii i rcepeth o'er ruin-.
Of right choice food are his meals, I ween.
In In i rdl M b nc and cold.
The wall rati | . the stone* decayed,

To pleasure his dainty whim .
And the mouldering dust that years have made
Is a merry meal for him.

Creeping where no life is

A rare old plant is the Ivy green.

Fast he stealeth on, though he wears no wings,

And .1
How closely he twineth. bow ti^ht he clings.
To his friend, the hufje oak tree !

And slyly he traileth along the ground.

And his leaves he gently waves.
As he joyously hugs and crawleth round
The rich mould of dead men's graves.

Creeping where grim death has barm,
A rare old plant is the ivy green.

Whole ages have fled, and their works decayed.

And nations have scattered been ;
But v shall never fade

From its hale and hearty green,
The brave old plant la its lonely •':

Shall ' it)

ling man can raise

Is the ivy's food at last.

750

FAMILIAR POEMS.

John Milton,
»<w« "Parodist Lost," Book VL

VF*ICHAEL bid sound the archangel tnunpet ;
1**y\ Through the vast of heaven
It sounded, and the faithful armies rung
Hosanna to the Highest : nor stood at gaze
The adverse legions, nor less hideous joined
The horrid shock. Now storming fury rose.
And clamor, such as heard In heaven till now
Was never; arms on armor clashing brayed
Horrible discord, and the madding wheels*
Of brazen chariots raged ; dire was the noise
Of conflict ; overhead the dismal hiss
Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew.
And flying vaulted either host with fire.
So under Sery cope together rushed
Both battles main, with ruinous assault
Aii'l inextinguishable rage. AH heaven
Resounded ; and had earth been then, all earth
Had to her centre shook.

Deeds of eternal fame
Were done, but infinite : for wide was spread
That war, and various ; sometimes on firm ground
A standing fight, then, soaring on main wing,
Tormented all the air; all air seemed then
Conflicting fire

Forthwith (behold the excellence, the power
Which God hath in his mighty angels placed)
Their arms awav they threw, and to the hilK

(For earth hath this variety from heaven

Of pleasure situate in hill and dale).

Light as the lightning glimpse they ran, they flew

From their foundations loosening to and fro,

They plucked the seated hills, with all their load.

Rocks, waters, woods, and by their shaggy tops

Uplifting bore them in their hands ; amaze,

Be sure, us 1 terror, seized the rebel host.

When coming towards them so dread they saw

The bottom of the mountains upward turned,

• • • • and on their heads

Main promontories flung, which in the air

Came shadowing, and oppressed whole legions

armed ;
Their armor helped their harm, crushed in and

bruised
Into their substance pent, which wrought them pain
Implacable, and many a dolorous groan ;
Long struggling underneath, ere they could wind
Out of such prison, though spirits of purest light.
Purest at first, now gross by sinning grown.
The rest, in imitation, to like arras
Betook them, and the neighboring hills uptore:
So hills amid the air encountered hills.
Hurled to and fro with jaculation dire.
That underground they fought in dismal shade.
Infernal noise ! war seemed a civil game
To this uproar; horrid confusion heaped
Upon confusion rose.

i/»u*u**j '» .n*/!^ u» o » u nw\

■:- :

iA ®y/ife. |

{e>—?

TTARE thee well, and if forever,
1^* Still forever, fare thee well ;
E'en though unforgiving, never

'Gainst thee shall my heart rebel.

Would that breast were bared before thee
Where thy head to oft hath lain,

While that placid sleep came o'er thee
Win, b lilOU nc'ci i an-. l know Benin ;

Would that breast, by thee glanced over,

v inmost thought could show I
Then thou wouldst at last discover
' I was not well to spurn it so.

Though the wot Id for this commend thee—
Though it smile upon the blow.

E'en hi praises must offend thee,
Founded on another's woe.

Though my many faults defaced me.

Could M other arm he found
Than the one whii h 01101 embraced me

To inflict a cureless wound I

Lord Byron.
Vet, oh, yet thyself deceive not :

Love may sink by slow decay ;
But by sudden wrench, believe not

Hearts can thus be torn away :

Still thine own its life retaineth —

Still must mine, though bleeding, beat.

And tii' undying thought whirh puneth
Is— that we no more may meat.

These are words of deeper sorrow

lb t i the wait above the dead ;

Both shall live, but every morrow

Wakes us from a widowed bed.

And when thou wouldst solace gather
When our child's first accents flow.

Wilt thou teach her to say " Fath
Though his care she must forego?

Whta her little hands shall press thee,
When her lip to thine is pressed,

Think of him whose love shall bless thee,
Dunk of hitn thy love had blessed.

Should her lineament* resemble
Those thou nevermore raayst see.

Then thy heart will softly tremble
With a pulse yet true to me

All my faults perchance thou knowesi.
All my madness none can know ;

All my hopes where'er thou gocst.
Whither, yet with thee they go.

Every feeling hath been shaken ;

:. , which DM ■ world <-uuld bow,
Bows to thee — by thee forsaken,
Ken my soul forsakes me now

But 'tis done; all words are i.^le —
Words from me arc vainer still;

But the thoughts we cannot bridle
Force their way without the will

Fare thee well t thus disunited,
i from every nearer tie,
Seared in heart, and lone, and blighted,
More than this I scarce can die.

=^=r

FAMILIAR POEMS.

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751

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<Hour of 9eaf§. fjrjj"

^1^ —

Mrs. Felicia. Hemans.

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V.EAVES have their time to fall,

^A. And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath,

And stars to set — but all,

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death !

Day is for mortal care,

Eve for glad meetings round the joyous hearth,
Night for the dreams of sleep, the voice of prayer—

But all for thee, thou mightiest of the earth.

The banquet hath its hour,

Its feverish hour of mirth, and song, and wine ;
There comes a day for grief's o'erwhelming power,

A time for softer tears — but all are thine.

Youth and the opening rose

May look like things too glorious for decay,
And smile at thee — but thou art not of those

That wait the ripened bloom to seize their prey.

Leaves have their time to fall.

And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath.
And stars to set — but all,

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death !

We know when moons shall wane,

When summer-birds from far shall cross the sea,
When autumn's hue shall tinge the golden grain—

But who shall teach us when to look for thee ?

Is it when Spring's first gale

Comes forth to whisper where the violets lie?
Is it when roses in our paths grow pale? —

They have one season — att are ours to die-'

Thou art where billows foam,

Thou art where music melts upon the air;
Thou art around us in our peaceful home,

And the world calls us forth — and thou art there.

Thou art where friend meets friend.

Beneath the shadow of the elm to rest —

Thou art where foe meets foe, and trumpets rend
The skies, and swords beat down the princely crest.

Leaves have their time to fall,

And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath,
And stars to set — but all,

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death!

•H&— • — — — — — 0-«

Elizabeth Barrhtt Browning.

T \0 you know you have asked for the costliesf thing
^-J Ever made by the Hand above —
A woman's heart and a woman's life,
And a woman's wonderful love?

Do you know you have asked for this priceless thing

As a child might ask for a toy ?
Demanding what others have died to win,

With the reckless dash of a boy?

Vou have written my lesson of duty out,

M. m-like you have questioned me —
Now stand at the bar of my woman's soul.

Until I shall question thee.

You require your mutton shall always be hot,
Your socks and your shirts shall be whole ;

I require your heart to be true as God's stars,
And pure as heaven your soul.

You require a cook for your mutton and beef;

I require a far better thing:
A seamstress you're wanting for stockings and shirts —

I look for a man and a king

A king tor a beautiful realm called home.
And a man that the maker, God,

Shall look upon as He did the first,
And say, " It is very good."

I am fair and young, but the rose will fade
From my soft, young cheek one day —

Will you love me then, 'mid the falling leaves.
As you did 'mid the bloom of May ?

Is your heart an ocean so strong and deep

I may launch my all on its tide ?
A loving woman finds heaven or hell

On the day she is made a bride.

I require all things that are grand and true,
All things that a man should be ;

If you give this all, I would stake my life
To be all you demand of me.

If you cannot do this — a laundress and cook

You can hire, with little to pay ;
But a woman's heart and a woman's life

Are not to be won that way.

752

^i~

FAMILIAR i

Sara Jane Lippincott (Grace Greenwood).

VaJ'HEN troubled in spirit, when weary of life,
4**fc When 1 faint 'ncath its burdens, and shrink from its strife,
When its fruit, turned to ashes, are mocking my taste,
And its fairest scene seems but a desolate waste,
Then come ye not near me, my sad heart to cheer
With friendship's soft accents or sympathy's tear;
No pity I ask, and no counsel I need,
But bring me, oh, bring me, my gallant young steed !
With his high arched neck, and his nostril spread wide.
His eye full of fire, and his step full of pride !
As I spring to his back, as I seize the strong rein,
The strength to my spirit returneth again ;
The bonds are all broken that fettered my mind,
And my cares borne away on the wings of the wind;
My pride lifts its head, for a season bowed down.
And the queen in my nature now puts on her crown !
Now we're off— like the winds to the plains whence they cam*.
And the rapture of motion is thrilling my frame I
On, on speeds my courser, scarce printing the sod.
Scarce crushing a daisy to mark where he trod !
On, on like a deer, when the hound's early bay
Awakes the wild echoes, away and away 1
Still faster, still farther, he leaps at my cheer,
Till the rush <>f the startled air whirs in my ear 1

Now 'long a clear rivulet Ueth his track.

See his glancing hoofs tossing the white pebbles back;

Now a glen dark as midnight — what matter? — we'll down,

Though shadows are round us, and rocks o'er us frown ;

The thick branches shake as we're hurrying through,

And deck us with spangles of silvery dew.

What a wild thought of triumph that this girlish hand

Such a steed in the might of his strength may command I

What .1 glorious creature t Ah ! glance at him now.

As 1 cneck htm awhile on this green hillock's brow ;

How he tosses his mane, with a shrill, joyous neigh,

And paws the firm earth in his proud, stately play !

Hurrah 1 off again, dashing on as in ire.

Till a long, flinty pathway is flashing with fire !

Ho I a ditch ! Shall we pause? No ; the bold leap we dare,

Like a swift-winged arrow we rush through the airl

Oh, not all the pleasures that poets may praise.

Not the 'wildering waltz in the ball-room's blaze,

Nor the chivalrous joust, nor the daring race,

Nor the swift regatta, nor merry chase,

Nor the sail, high heaving waters o'er.

Nor the rural dance on the moonlight shore.

Can the wild and thrilling joy exceed

Of a fearless leap on a fiery steed !

©Y^afcKerA.

Rosa Vkrtner Jeffrey.

^J> NGEL faces watch my pillow, angel voices haunt my sleep,
^/tfV And upon the winds of midnight shining pinions round me sweep,

Floating downward on the *t,itlight two bright infant fern
They arc mine, my own bright darlings, come from heaven to visit me.

Barthh Ik upon DM, but these littler ones above

Were the first to stir the fountains <-f ;l mother' I daathlata love,
And as now they watch my stumbor, while their soft eyes on me shine,
God forgive a mortal yearning still to call His angels mine.

Earthly 1 bUdrtn fondly r.*l| no, but no mortal voice can seem
Sweet a* those that whisnrr " Mother ! " 'mid the gloria* of my dream;
Years will pass, and earthly pfMtWra coaaa perchnnce to lisp my name,
But my angel babies' accents will he evermore the same.

4ft

And the bright band now around me from their home perchance will rove,
In their strength no more depending on my constant care and love ;
But my first-born still shall winder from the sky, in dreams to rest
ft cheeks and shining trusses on an earthly mother's breast.

Time may steal away the freshness, or some whelming grief destroy
All the hope that erst had blossomed, in my summer time of joy ;
Earthly children may forsake me, earthly friends perhaps betray,
Kvery tic that now unites me to this life may pass away :

But, unchanged, those angel watchers, from their blessed, immortal home.
Pure and fair, to cheer the sadness of my darkened dreams shall c
And I cannot fee] fermaketl, for, though reft of earthly love,
Angel children call me " Mother ! " and my soul will look above.

-$* «J\ iJarecoeff. 4€-

Charles Kingslby.

^T* fairest child, I have no song to give you,
**Y-^k No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray,
Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave you
For every day.

Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever ;
Do noble things, not dream them all day long;
nd so make life, death, and that vast forever,
One grand, sweet song.

*T~\0 you ask what the birds say? The sparrow, the
JlJ dove,

The linnet and thrush say, " I love, and I love ! "
In the winter they're silent, the wind is so strong;
What it says I don't know, but it sings a loud song.

But green leaves, and blossoms, and sunny warm

weather.
And singing and loving— all come back together;
But the lark is so brimful of gladness and love.
The green fields below him, the blue sky above,
That he sings, and he sings, and forever sings he,
" I love my Love, and my Love loves me."

COLBKJ1X.H

-i!

754

FAMILIAR POEMS.

*m* <aK Georgia ^oFuafeer.

Mary A. Townsend.

VjAR up the lonely mountain side my wandering footsteps led;
4*?* The moss lay thick beneath my feet, the pine sighed overhead.
The trace of a dismantled fort lay in the forest nave.
And in the shadow near my path I saw a soldier's grave.

The bramble wrestled with the weed upon the lowly mound,
The simple headboard, rudely writ, had rotted to the ground;
I raised it with a reverent hand, from dust Its words to clear,
But time had blotted all but these—" A Georgia Volunteer."

I saw the toad and scaly snake from tangled covert start.
And hide themselves among the weeds above the dead man's heart;
But undisturbed, in sleep profound, unheeding there he lay ;
His coffin but the mountain soil, his shroud Confederate gray.

I heard the Shenandoah roll along the vale below,

I saw the Allcghenics rise towards the realms of snow.

The " Valley Campaign " rose to mind — its leader's name — and then

I knew the sleeper had been one of Stonewall Jackson's men.

Yet whence he came, what Up shall say— whose tongue will erer
What desolate hearths and hearts have been because he fell T
What sad-eyed maiden braids her hair, her hair which he held dear?
One lock of which, perchance, lies with the Georgia Volunteer I

What mother, with long watching eyes and white lips cold and dumb.
Waits with appalling patience for her darling boy to come?
Her boy I whose mountain grave swells up but one of many a scar
Cut on the face of our fair land by gory-handed war.

What fights he fought, what wounds he wore, are all unknown to fasne;
Remember, on his lonely grave there is not e'en a name 1
That he fought well and bravely, too, and held his country dear.
We know, else he had never been a Georgia Volunteer.

He sleeps — what need to question now if he were wrong or right?
He knows, ere this, whose cause was just in God the Father's sight.
He wields no warlike weapons now, returns no foeman's thrust—
Who but a coward would revile an honored soldier's dust?

Roll, Shenandoah, proudly roll, adown thy rocky glen;
Above thee lies the grave of one of Stonewall Jackson's men*
Beneath the cedar and the pine, in solitude austere,
Unknown, unnamed, forgotten, lies a Georgia Volunteer.

fte picket €\uarcj.

T Z2^=s~*

Ethel Lynn Boh

m H5? kL quiet along the Potomac," they say,

^sv^ " Kxcept now and then a stray picket
Is shot, M he walks on his beat, to and fro.

By a rifleman off in the thicket.
"Tis nothing — a private or two, now and then,

Will nut count in the news of the battle ;
Not an officer lost — only one of the men.

Moaning out, all alone, the death-rattle."

AH quiet along the Potomac to-night.

Where the soldiers lie peacefully dreaming;
Their tents In the rays of the clear autumn moon

Or the Itgjit of the watch fires arc gleaming.
A tremulous sigh, as the gentle night-wind

Through the forest-leaves softly is creeping.
While stars up above, with their glittering ey«,

Keep guard— for the army is sleeping.

There's only the sound of the lone sentry's tread.
As he tramps from the rock to the fountain,

And thinks of the two in the low trundle-bed
Far » way in the cot on the mountain.

His musket falls slack— his face, dark and grim.
Grows gentle with memories tender,

As he mutters a prayer for the children asleep—
For their mother— may Heaven defend her !

The moon seems to shine just as brightly as then,

That night, when the I va yet unspoken
Leaped up to his lips — when low-murmured vows

Were pledged to be ever unbroken.
Then , drawing his sleeve roughly over bis eyes.

He dashes oft* tears that are welling.
And gathers his gun closer up to its place

As if to keep down the heart -swelling.

He passes the fountain, the blasted pine-tree —

The footstep is lagging and weary ;
Yet onward he goes, through the broad belt of light

Toward the shades of the forest so dreary .
Hark 1 was it night-wind that rustled the leaves t

Was it moonlight so wondrously flashing?
It looked like a rifle—" Ah ! Mary, good-by f

And the life-blood is ebbing and plashing.

All quiet along the Potomac to-night.
No sound save the rush of the river :

ft falls thr dew on the face of the
The picket's off duty forever.

- »v

•t

FAMILIAR POEMS.

755

Thomas Campbell.

OUR bugles sang truce — for the night-cloud had lowered;
And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky ;
And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered,
The weary to sleep, the wounded to die.

When reposing that night on my pallet of straw,
By the wolf-scaring faggot that guarded the slain,

At the dead of the night a sweet vision I saw,
And thrice ere the morning I dreamt it again.

Methought from the battle-field's dreadful array,

Far, far I had roamed on a desolate track :
'Twas autumn — and sunshine arose on the way,

To the home of my fathers, that welcomed me back.

I flew to the pleasant field traversed so oft
In life's morning march when my bosom was young;

I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft,
And knew the sweet strain the corn-reapers sung.

Then pledged we the wine-cup, and fondly I swore

From my home and my weeping friends never to part ;

My little ones kissed me a thousand times o'er,
And my wife sobbed aloud in her fulness of heart.

" Stay, stay with us — rest, thou art weary and worn ;"
And fain was their war-broken soldier to stay ;

But sorrow returned with the dawning of morn.
And the voice in my dreaming melted away.

K^r^-i

'<Si2=5-*

-&- S^iff ansL 2oe,

-ts=cy^y f

{W OME, dear old comrade, you and I

\X Will steal an hour from days gone by-

The shining days when life was new.

And aM was bright as morning dew,

The lusty days of long ago,

When you were Bill and I was Joe.

Your name may flaunt a titled trail,
Proud as a cockerel's rainbow tail ;
And mine as brief appendix wear
As Tam O'Shanter's luckless mare ;
To-day, old friend, remember still
That I am Joe and you are Bill.

You've won the great world's envied prize.

And grand you look in people's eyes.

With HON. and LL.D.,

In big brave letters, fair to see —

Your fist, old fellow ! off they go !—

How are you, Bill ? How are you, Joe ?

Oliver Wendell Holmes.

You've worn the judge's ermine robe ;
You've taught your name to half the globe;
You've sung mankind a deathless strain ;
You've made the dead past live again ;
The world may call you what it will,
But you and I are Joe and Bill.

The chaffing young folks stare and «ay,
" See those old buffers, bent and gray ;
They talk like fellows in their teens 1
Mad, poor old boys ! That's what it raeams"
And shake their heads ; they little know
The throbbing hearts of Bill and Joe —

How Bill forgets his hour of pride.
While Joe sits smiling at his side ;
How Joe, in spite of time's disguise,
Finds the old schoolmate in his ey«s —
Those calm, stern eyes that melt and Ml
As Joe looks fondly up at Bill.

Ah, pensive scholar ! what is fame ?

A fitful tongue of leaping flame ;

A giddy whirlwind's fickle gust.

That lifts a pinch of mortal dust :

A few swift years, and who can show

Which dust was Bill, and which was Joe ?

The weary idol takes his stand.
Holds out his bruised and aching hand,
While gaping thousands come and go-
How vain it seems, this empty show 1—
Till all at once his pulses thrill :
'Tis poor old Joe's " God bless you, Bill 1"

And shall we breathe in happier spheres
The names that pleased our mortal ears —
In some sweet lull of harp and song.
For earth-born spirits none too long —
Just whispering of the world below.
Where this was Bill, and that was Joe?

t^= rf &£fract fro rr| Tsucife. f ' — =^ft

-t

Owen Meredith.

"T-^T^E »ay live without poetry, music a»d art;
^* A^ We may live without conscience and Kve without heart ;
We may live without friends ; we may live without )►•• Us ;
B»t «ivStzed man oannot Kve witboM coohc.

Iff" •"

■r

We may live without books, — what is knowledge but grieving?
We may live without hope,— what is hope but dooetviag?
We may live without love,— what is passion but pining?
Bat where is the man that can live without dining?

5p — „^

■te

75 6

FAMILIAR POEMS.

JpicfureA oj? Memory,

^7^ MONO the beautiful pictures
AV That hang on Memory's wall,

^ ^ Is one of a cltm old forest.

That seemeth best of ail-
Not for its gnarled oaks olden.

Dark with the mistletoe ;
Not for the violets golden

That sprinkle the vale below ;
Not for the milk-white lilies -

That lean from the fragrant hedge.
Coquetting all day with the sunbeams,

And stealing their golden edge j
Not for the vines on the upland

Where the bright red berries rest,
Nor the pinks, nor the pale, sweet cowslip

It seemeth to mc the best.

I once had a little brother

With eyes that were dark and deep-
In the lap of that dim old forest,

He licth in peace asleep.

Alice Caky.

Ught a. the down of the thistle,

Free as the winds that blow,
\Vc ruved there, the beautiful summers

The summers of long ago ;
But his feet on the hills grew weary,

And one of the autumn eves,
I made for my little brother

A bed of the yellow leaves.

Sweetly his pale arms folded

My neck in a meek embrace
As the light of immortal beauty

Silt.mly covered his face;
And when the arrows of sunset

Lodged in the tree-tops bright
He fell, in his saint-like beauty,

Asleep by the gates of light.

Therefore, of all the pictures

hang on Memory's wall.
The one of the dim old forest
Sccmeth the best of all.

Lydia Huntley Sigovrnby.

/^O to thy rest, fair child !
VX Go to thy dreamless bed,
While yet so gentle, undefined,
With blessings on thy head.

Fresh roses in thy hand,

Buds on thy pillow laid,
Haste from this dark and fearful land,

Where flowers so quickly fade.

Shall love with weak embrace
Thy upward wing detain?

No ! cherub angel, seek thy place
Amid the cherub train.

Ere sin hath seared the breast.

Or sorrow waked the tear.
Rise to thy throne of changeless rest.

In yon celestial sphere !

Because thy smile was fair.
Thy lip and eye so bright.

Because thy loving cradle-care
Was such a dear delight.

5o3. @ur Refuge. TIB*.

Clara Laukk Baldwin

TaT^HEN the last hope of life
t* *fc Has been crushed In the dust,
And the last of our loved ones are gone—

When we feel that there's none
Left, who love us and trust,

And we stand in the wide world alone

When the friends of the put
Have become all estranged
And forget " 'tis divint to forgivt**—

When cold words are said.
And cold looks exchanged —
And there's naught left to hope for or live,-

Then ' (is joy to the soul

To know that there's One
Whose mercy and love reaches all—

Who in tender-eft love
Clings till life's journey's done,

And pities us still when we fall

-• a

\K*

We parted in silence — our cheeks were wet

With the tears that were past controlling ;
We vowed we would never, no, never forget.

And those vows, at the time, were consoling ;
But those lips that echoed the sounds of mine

Are as cold as that lonely river ;
And that eye, that beautiful spirit's shrine.

Has shrouded its fires forever.

m m #t 0k

im ^fc ^i^ ^^

®y/e £)arfec| irj ^gifence.

^T*Tt parted in silence, we \. »rt by night,
/L*t On the banks of that lonely j,ver;
Where the fragrant limes their boughs unite

We met — and we parted forever !
The night-bird sung, and the stars above

Told many a touching story
Of friends long passed to the kingdom of love,

Where the soul wears its mantle of glory.

And now, on the midnight sky I look.

And my heart grows full of weeping ;
Each star is to me a sealed book,

Some tale of that loved one keeping.
We parted in silence, we parted in tears.

On the banks of that lonely river ;
But the odor and bloom of those bygone years

Shall hang o'er its waters forever.

75«

FAMILIAR POKMb

Ufte 3 on S °f ^- e ^ arn P'

"•y^IVE us a song ! " ihe soldierscried,
\JX The outer trenches guarding,
When the heated guns of the camps allied
Grew weary of bombarding.

The dark Redaji, in silent scoff,

Lay grim and threatening under ;

And the tawny mound of the Malakoff
No longer belched its thunder.

There was a pause. A guardsman said,

" We storm the forts to-morrow ;
Sing while we may, another day
Will bring enough of sorrow."

They lay along the battery's side.
Below the smoking cannon :

Brave hearts from Severn and from Clyde,
And from the banks of Shannon.

Bavakd Taylor.

They sang of love, and not of fame ;

Forgot was Britain's glory :
Each heart recalled a different name.

But all sang " Annie Laurie."

Voice after voice caught up the song.

Until its tender passion
Rose like an anthem, rich and strong.

Their battle-eve confession.

D#ar girl, her name he dared not speak.
But as the song grew louder,

Something upon the soldier's cheek
Washed off the stains of powder.

{ V

Beyond the darkening ocean burned
The bloody sunset's embers.

While the Crimean valleys learned
How English love remembers.

And once again a fire of hell

Rained on the Russian quarters.

With scream of shot, and burst of shell.
And bellowing of the mortars !

And Irish Nora's eyes are dim
For a singer dumb and gory ;

And English Mary mourns for him
Who sang of " Annie Laurie."

Sleep, soldiers ! still in honored rest
Your truth and valor wearing :

The bravest are the tenderest,—
The loving are the daring.

9 — !-

,c_

IF I had known in the morning
How wearily all the day
The words unkind
Would trouble my inino
I said when you went away,
I had been more careful, darling.
Nor given you needless pais;
But we vex ' ' our own "
With look and tone

Wc might never take back agaia.

Margaret E. Sangsthr.

For though in the quiet evening
You may give me the kiss of peace,
Yet it might be
That never for me
The pain of the heart should cease.
How many go forth in the morning

That never come home *t night I
And hearts have broken
Fsr harsh words spoken.

That sorrow can ne'er set right.

-t-SL

3S,

-i-&

d *

We have careful thoughts for the stranger.
And smiles for the sometime guest.
But oft for " our own "
The bitter tone,
Though we l*v* " our own " the best.
Ah, lips with the curve impatient !

Ah, brow with that look of scorn !
' Twere a cruel fate.
Were the night too late

To undo the work of morn.

-*~-**^| Where 4& fto 5£)eatf\.

VryHEREisnodeath! The stars go down
jJL, To rise upon some fairer shore :
Aad bright in Heaven's jewelled craws
They shine forevcrmore.

There is no death ! The dust we tread
Shall change beneath the summer shower*

To golden grain or mellow fruit,
Or rainbow-tinted flowers.

There is no death ! The forest leaves

Convert to life the view leu* air;
The rocks disorganize to Wed

The hungry moss they boar.

"i * r

J. L. McCrerrt.

There is no death I The leaves may fall,
And flowers may fade and pass away ;

They only wait through wintry hours
The coming of the May.

There is no death 1 An angel forss
Walks o'er the earth with silent tread ,

H? hears our best loved things away ;
Aad thes we call them " dead."

He leaves our hearts all desolate,

He plucks our fairest, sweetest flowers ;

Transplanted iatc Hiss, they a«w
Adora immortal bowers.

The bird-like voice, whose jr>y«uis toaes
Made glad these scenes of »m and strife,

Siags mow as everlasting song
Aroostd the tree of life.

Where'er he sees a smile too bright,
Or heart toe pure for taint and vice.

He bean it to that world of light,
To dwell in Paradise.

Bora uato that undying life,
They leave us but to come agaia ;

With joy we welcome them the
Except their sin and paia.

Aad ever aear us, though uaseesi.
The dear immortal spirits tread;

For all the boundless universe
Is We — tktrt mrt mm demJ.

* '^s •

FAMILIAR TOEMS

759

*-..-;<

-»1

i-»"

»>eA9«-

Will M. Carleton.

**y^OOD mornin', sir, Mr. Printer; how is your body to-day?

\9£ I'm glad you're to home, for you fellers is al'ays a runnin' away.
Your paper last week wa'n't so spicy nor sharp as th.e one week before ;
But I s'pose when the campaign is opened, you'll be whoopin' it upto 'em

more.
That feller that's printin' The Smasher is goin' for you pcrty smart ;
And our folks said this mornin* at breakfast, they thought he was gettin' the

start.
But I hushed 'em right up in a minute, and said a good word for you ;
I told 'em I b'lieved you was tryin' to do just as well as you knew;
And I told 'em that some one was sayin', and whoever 'twas it is so,
That you can't expect much of no one man, nor blame him for what he don't

know.
But, layin' aside pleasure for business, I've brought you my little boy Jim ;
And 1 thought I would see if you couldn't make an editor outen o' him.

*' My family stock is increasing while other folks seem to run short.

I've got a right smart of a family — it's one of the old-fashioned sort :

There's Ichabod, Isaac and Israel, a workin' away on the farm,

They do 'bout as much as one good boy, and make things go off like a

charm.
There's Moses and Aaron are sly ones, and slip like a couple of eels ;
But they're tol'able steady in one thing— they al'ays git round to their

meals.
There's Peter, is busy inventin' (though what he invents I can't see),
And Joseph is studyin* medicine — and both of 'em boardin' with mc.
There's Abram and Albert is married, each workin' my farm for himself,
And Sam smashed his iiose at a shootin', and so he is laid on the shelf.
The rest of the boys are all growin' 'cept this little runt, which is Jim,
And I thought that perhaps I'd be makin' an editor outen o' him.

*' He ain't no great shakes for to labor, though I've labored with him a good

deal,
And give him some strappin' good arguments I know he couldn't help but

to feel ;
But he's built out of second-growth timber, and nothin' about him is big,
Exceptin' his appetite only, and there he's as good as a pig.
I keep him carryin' luncheons, and fillin' and bringin' the jugs,
And take him among the pertatoes, and set him to pickin' the bugs ;
And then there's things to be doin' a helpin' the women in-doors :
There's churnhY and washin' of dishes, and other descriptions of chores ;

But he don't take to nothin' but victuals, and he'll never be much, I'm

afraid,
So I thought tt would be a good notion to larn him the editor's trade.
His body's too small for a farmer, his judgment is rather too slim,
But I thought we perhaps could be makin' an editor outen o' him.

" It ain't much to get up a paper, it wouldn't take him long for to learn;
He could feed the machine, I'm thinkin', with a good strappin' fellow to

turn.
And things that was once hard in doin' is easy enough now to do ;
Just keep your eye on your machinery i and*crack your arrangements right

through.
I used for to wonder at readin' , and where it was got up, and how ;
But 'tis most of it made by machinery — I can see it all plain enough now.
And poetry, too, is constructed by machines of different designs,
Each one with a gauge and a chopper, to see to the length of the lines;
And I hear a New York clairvoyant is runnin' one sleeker than grease,
And z.-rcntin' her heaven-born productions at a couple of dollars apiece ;
An' since the whole trade has growed easy, 'twould be easy enough, I've a

whim.
If you was agreed, to be makin' an editor outen o* Jim."

The editor sat in his sanctum and looked the old man in the eye.
Then glanced at the grinning young hopeful, and mournfully made his reply :
" Is your son a small unbound edition of Moses and Solomon both?
Can he compass his spirit with meek»ess, and strangle a natural oath ?
Can he leave all his wrongs to the future, and carry his heart in his cheek ?
Can he do an hour's work in a minute, and live on a sixpence a week?
Can he courteously talk to an equal, and browbeat an impudent dunce?
Can he keep things in apple-pie order, and do half-a-dozen at once ?

" Can he press all the springs of knowledge with quick and reliable touch.
And be sure that he knows how much to know, and knows how to not know

too much ?
Does he know how to spur up his virtue, and put a check-rein on his pride?
Can he carry a gentleman's manners within a rhinoceros' hide?
Can he know all, and do all, and be all, with cheerfulness, courage and vim ?
If so, we perhaps can be ' makin' an editor outen o* him.' "

The farmer stood curiously listening, while wonder his visage o'erspread,
And he said : "Jim, I guess we'll be goin'; he's probably out of his head."

>*~#-

Will M. Carleton.

^TaV'HICH this railway smash reminds me, in an underhanded way,
Ji\ Of a lightning-rod dispenser that came down on me one day ;
Oiled to order in his motions — sanctimonious in his mien —
Hands as white as any baby's an' a face unnat'ral clean ;
Not a wrinkle had his raiment, teeth and linen glittered white,
And his new-constructed neck-tie was an intcrestin' sight !
Which I almost wish a razor had made red that white-skinned throat,
And that new-constructed neck-tie had composed a hangman's knot.
Ere he brought his sleek-trimmed carcass for my women folks to see,
And his buzz-saw tongue a-runnin' for to gouge a gash in me.
Still I couldn't help but like him — as I fear I al'ays must,
The gold o' my own doctrine in a fellow heap o' dust ;
For I saw that my opinions, when I fired them round by round.
Brought back an answerin' volley of a mighty similar sound.

I touched him on religion, and the joys my heart had known ;
And I found that he had very similar notions of his own !
I told him of the doublings that made sad my boyhood years ;
Why, he'd laid awake till morning with that same old breed of fears I

I pointed up the pathway that I hoped to heaven to go :

He was on that very ladder, only just a round below !

Our pontics was different, and at first he galled and winc*d ;

But I arg*ed him so able, he was very soon convinced.

And 'twas gettin' tow'id the middle of a hungry summer day —

There was dinner on the table, and I asked him, would he stay?

And he sat him down among ns — everlastm' trim and neat —

And he asked a short crisp blessin' almost good enough to eat I

Then he fired up on the mercies of *ur Everlastin' Friend,

Till he gi'n the Lord Almighty a good, first-claw recommend :
And for full an hour wc listened to that sugar-coated scamp —
Talkin' like a blessed angel— eatin' like a blasted tramp I

My wife— she liked the stranger, smiling on him warm and sweet ;
(It al'ays flatters women when their guests are on the eat !)
And he hinted that some ladies never lose their youthful charms.
And caressed her yearlin' baby, and received it in his arms.
My sons and daughters liked him— for he had progressive views.
And he chewed the cud o' fancy, and gi'n down the latest news :
And / couldn't help but like him— as I fear I al'ays must.
The gold of my own doctrines in a fellow-heap o" dust.

He was chiselin' desolation through a piece of apple-pie.
When he paused and gazed upon us, with a tear in his off eye.
And said, "Oh, happy family !— your joys they make me sad I
They all the time remind me of the dear one* once / had I
A babe as sweet as this one ; a wife almost as fair ;
A little girl with ringlets, like that one over there.
Hut had I not neglected the means within my way.
Then they might still be living, and loving me to-day.

'* One night there came a tempest ; the thunder peals were dire ;

The clouds that marched above us were shooting bolts of fire ;

In my own house I lying, was thinking, to my shame,

How little I had guarded against those bolts of flame.

When crash I —through roof and ceiling the deadly lightning cleft,

And killed my wife and children, and only I was left !

" Since then afar I've wandered, and naught for life have cared,

Save to save others' loved ones whose lives have yet been spared ;

Since then it is my mission, where'er by sorrow tossed,

To sell to worthy people good lightning-rods at cost.

With sure and strong protection I'll clothe your buildings o'er;

'Twill cost you— twenty dollars (/trka/s a triflt more;
Whatever else it comes to, at lowest price I'll put ;
You simply sign a contract to pay so much per foot)."

I — signed it ! while my family, all approvin', stood about ;
The villain dropped a tear on't — but he didn't blot it out !
That self-same day, with wagons, came some rascals great a*
They hopped up on my buildin's just as if they owned 'em all ;
They hewed 'em and they hacked 'em— agin' my loud desires —
They trimmed 'em off with gewgaws, and they bound 'em down with
They hacked 'em and they hewed 'em and they hewed and hacked '<
And every precious minute kep' a runnin' up the bill.

To find my soft-spoke neighbor, did 1 rave and rush and run;
He was suppin' with a neighbor, just a few miles further on.
" Do you think," I loudly shouied, " that I need a mile o' wire
For to save each separate hay-cock out o' heaven's consumin' fire T
Did you think, to keep my buildin's out o' some uncertain harm,
I was goin' to deed you over all the balance of my farm t "

He silenced me with silence in a very little while,
And then trotted out the contract with a reassuring smile ;
And fur half an hour explained it, with exasperatin' skill.
While his myrmurdums kep* probably a runnin' up my bill.
He held me to that contract with a firmness queer to see;
'Twas the very first occasion he had disagreed with me !
And for that 'ere thunder story, ere the rascal finally went,
I paid two hundred dollars, if I paid a single cent

And if any lightnin'-rodist wants a dinner dialogue
With the restaurant department of an entcrprisin" dog,
Let htm set his mouth a-runnin' just inside my outside gate,
And I'll bet two hundred dollars that he won't have long to wait.

i still.

'Prm.

glg p JfanaaR ^aae. g ggg

■■ f — H X& — m »
Pbtrolkum V. Nasbv.

Cj'lIF. isn't half so handsome as when, twenty years agone,
Ji3 At her old home in Piketon, Parson Avery made us one ;
The great house crowded full of guests of every degree,
The girls all envying Hannah Jane, the boys all envying me.

Her fingers then were taper, and her skin as white as milk,
Her brown hair — what a mess it was 1 and soft and fine as silk ;
No wind-moved willow by a brook had ever such a grace,
The form of Aphrodite, with a pure Madonna face.

She had but meagre schooling; her little notes to me
Were full of crooked pot-hooks, and the worst orthography :
Her "dear" the spelled with double «, and "kiss" with but one s;
Hut when one's crazed with passion, what's a letter more or less ?

She blundered in her writing, and she blundered when she spoke,
And every rule of syntax, that old Murray made, she broke ;
But she was beautiful and fresh, and I— well, I was young ;
Her farm and face o'erbalanced all the blunders of her tongue.

I was but little better. True, I'd longer been at school ;
My tongue and pen were run, perhaps, B little more by rule ;
But that was all. The neighbors round, who both of us well knew,
Said — which I believe— she was the l>etter of the two.

All's changed : the light of seventecn's no longer in her eyes ;
Hrr wavy hair Is gone — that loss the coiffeur** art HBjftpl
Her form is thin and angular ; she slightly forward bends ;
Her fingers, once so shapely, now are stumpy at the ends.

She knows but very little, and in little arc we one;

The beauty rare, that more than hid that great defect, is grjoe.

My /arvtnm relations now deride my homely wife,

And pity me that I am tied to such a clod for life.

I know there is a difference ; at reception and levee.

The brightest, wittiest and most famed of women smile on me;

And everywhere I hold my place among the greatest men ;

And sometimes sigh, with Whittier's Judge, " Alas I it might have bean.*

When they all crowd around me, stately dames and brilliant belles.
And yield to me the homage that all great success compels,
Discussing art and state-craft, and literature as well,
From Homer down to Thackeray, and Swedenborg on " Hell,"

I can't forget that from these streams my wife has never quaffed.
Has never with Ophelia wept, nor with Jack FaNtaff laughed ;
Of authors, actors, artists— why, she hardly knows the names ;
She slept while I was speaking on the A/aimma claims.

I can't forget— just at this point another form appears—
The wife I wedded as she was Iwforc my prosperous years ;
I travel o'er the dreary road we travelled side by side,
And wonder what my share would be, if Justice should divide.

She had four hundred dollars left her from the old estate ;'
On tli.it wc married, and, thus poorly armored, faced our fate.
I wrestled with my books ; her task was harder far than mine—
'Twas how to make two hundred dollars do the work of nine.

FAMILIAR POEMS.

7 6l

At last I was admitted ; then I had my legal lore.
An office with a stove and desk, of books perhaps a score ;
She had her beauty and her yo;ith, and some housewifely skill,
And love for me and faith in me, and back of that a will.

I had no friends behind me— no influence to aid ;
I worked and fought for every little inch of ground I made.
And how she fought beside me ! never woman lived on less;
In two long years she never spent a single cent for dress.

Ah ! how she cried for joy when my first legal fight was won.
When our eclipse passed partly by, and we stood in the sun !
The fee was fifty dollars — 't was the work of half a year —
First captive, lean and scraggy, of my legal bow and spear.

I well remember when my coat (the only one I had)

Was seedy grown and threadbare, and, in fact, most shocking bad;

The tailor's stern remark when I a modest order made :

" Cash is the basis, sir, on which we tailors do our trade."

Her winter cloak was in his shop by noon that very day;
She wrought on hickory shirts at night that tailor's skill to pay ;
I got a coat, and wore it ; but alas ! poor Hannah Jane
Ne'er went to church or lecture till warm weather came again.

Our second season she refused a cloak of any sort.
That I might have a decent suit in which t' appear in court ;
She made her la^t year's bonnet do, that I might have a hat :
Talk of the old-time, flame-enveloped martyrs after that !

No negro ever worked so hard ; a servant's pay to save.
She made herself most willingly a household drudge and slave.
What wonder that she never read a magazine or book.
Combining as she did in one nurse, housemaid, seamstress, cook.

What wonder that the beauty fled, that I once so adored !
Her beautiful complexion my fierce kitchen fire devoured ;
Her plump, soft, rounded arm was once too fair to be concealed ;
Hard work for me that softness into sinewy strength congealed.

I was her altar, and her love the sacrificial flame :
Ah ! with what pure devotion she to that altar came.
And, tearful, flung thereon — alas 1 I did not know it then-
All that she was, and more than that, all that she might have been I

..o+o..

^=^

^ohq eKn^erAoa, M>/ ^o.

"2=*-

<g, — -* *"fl «* — rs)
Robert Burns.

VOHN ANDERSON, my jo, John,
)^p- When we were first acquent,
Vour locks were like the raven.

Your bonnie brow was brent ;
But now your brow is beld, John,

Your locks are like the snaw ;
But blessings on your frosty pow,

John Anderson, my jo.

John Anderson, my jo, John,

We clamb the hill thegither ;
And mony a canty day, John,

We've had wi' ane anither.
Now we maun totter down, John,

But hand in hand we'll go ;
And sleep thegither at the foot,

John Anderson, my jo.

•o+o-

(Home, ^>coeet Jfome.

John Howard Payne.
As published by Mr. Payne, in New York, in /8ji.

•X"

ID pleasures and palaces though we may roam,
Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home.
A charm from the skies seems to hallow us there,
Which seek through the world, is ne'er met with elsewhere.

Home ! home ! sweet, sweet home 1
There's no place like home ! there's no place like home 1

An exile from home, splendor dazzles in vain j
Oh, give me my lowly thatched cottage again.
The birds singing gaily that come to my call —
Give me them, with the peace of mind dearer than all.

Home ! home ! sweet, sweet home !
There's no place like home ! there's no place like home

How sweet 'tis to sit 'neath a fond father's smile.
And the cares of a mother to soothe and beguile !
Let others delight 'mid new pleasures to roam,
But give, oh ! give me the pleasures of home.
Home ! home ! sweet, sweet home !
There's no place like home ! there's no place like home (

To thee I'll return, overburdened with care;
The heart's dearest solace will smile on me there.
No more from that cottage again will I roam ;
Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home.

Home ! home ! sweet, sweet home !
There's no place like home ! there's no place like home (

762

FAMILIAR POEMS.

• (Ufte Sl>i^ouac of tfie 52)eac|.
'a =

Theodore O'Hara.

The Legislature of Kentucky caused the dead of that State who fell at Buena Vista to be brought home and interred at Frankfort,
splendid monument. Theodore O'Hara, a gifted Irish-Ken tuckian soldier and scholar, was selected the orator and
poet of the occasion, whence this beautiful eulogy, which has the same application to-day.

Vt/HE muffled drum's sad roll has beat
V-H 1 The soldier's last tattoo ;
No more on life's parade shall meet

That brave and fallen few.
On fame's eternal cam ping -ground

Their silent tents are spread,
And glory guards, with solemn round,

The bivouac of the dead.

No rumor of the foe's advance

Now swells upon the wind ;
No troubled thought at midnight haunts

Of loved ones left behind ;
No vision of the morrow's strife

The warrior's dream alarms ;
No braying horn nor screaming file

At dawn shall call to arms.

Their shivered swords are red with rust.

Their plumed heads are bowed ;
Their haughty banner, trailed in dust.

Is now their martial shroud.
And plenteous funeral tears have washed

The red stains from each brow,
And the proud forms, by battle gashed.

Are free from anguish now.

The neighing troop, the flashing blade,

The buglc*3 stirring blast.
The charge, the dreadful cannonade,

The din and shout are past ;
Nor war's wild note nor glory's peal

Shall thrill with fierce delight
Those breasts that never more may feel

The rapture of the fight.

Like the fierce northern hurricane

That sweeps his great plateau,
* Flushed with the triumph yet to gain

Came down the serried foe.
Who heard the thunder of the fray

Break o'er the field beneath
Knew well the watchword of that day

Was " Victory or death."

Long had the doubtful conflict raged

O'er all that stricken plain —
For never fiercer fight had waged

The vengeful blood of Spain —
And still the storm of battle blew,

Still swelled the gory tide ;
Not long, our stout old chieftain knew.

Such odds his strength could bide.

'Twas in that hour his stern command

Called to a martyr's grave
The flower of his beloved land.

The nation's flag to save.
By rivers of their fathers' gore

His first-'jorn laurels grew,
And well he deemed the sons would pour

Their lives for glory, too.

Full many a mother's breath had swept

O'er Angostura's plain —
And long the pitying sky has wept

Above the moldering slain.
The raven's scream, or eagle's flight.

Or shepherd's pensive lay,
Alone awakes each sullen height

That frowned o'er that dread fray.

Sons of the Dark and Bloody Ground,

Ye muht not slumber there.
Where stranger steps and tongues resound

Along the heedless air ;
Your own proud land's heroic soil

Shall be your fitter grave-
She claims from war his richest spoil —

The ashes of her brave.
So, 'neath their parent turf they rest.

Far from the gory field,
Borne to a Spartan mother's breast.

On many a bloody shield ;
The sunshine of their native sky

Smiles sadly on them here,
And kindest eyes and hearts watch by

The heroes' sepulchre.

Rest on, embalmed and sainted dead.

Dear as the blood ye gave ;
No impious footstep here shall tread

The herbage of your grave ;
Nor shall your glory be forgot

While fame her record keeps
Or honor points the hallowed spot

V/hcrc valor proudly sleeps.

Yon marble minstrel's voiceless stone

In deathless song shall tell.
When many a vanished age hath flown.

The story how ye fell ;
Nor wreck, nor change, nor winter's blight.

Nor Time's remorseless doom,
Shall dim one ray of glory's light

That gilds your deathless tomb.

Oliver Wendell Holmes.

^Af^HEN Eve had led her lord away,
W And Cain had killed his brother,
The stars and flowers, the poets say
Agreed with one another

To chest the cunning tempter's art*

And teach the race Its duty,
By keeping on its wicked heart

Their eyes of light and licauty,

A million sleepless lids, they say.

Will lie at [cost a warning ;
And to the flowers would watch by day.

The stars from eve to morning.

They try to shut their saddening eyes,

And in the vain ei
We see them twinkling in the skies,

And so they wink forever.

On hill and prairie, field and lawn,

Thctr dewy eyes upturning.
The flowers still watch from reddening dawn

Till western skies are burning.

Alas I each hour of daylight tells

A talc of shame so crushing,
That some turn white as sea-bleached shells.

And 'Some are always blushing.

But when the patient stars took down

On all their light discovers,
The traitor's smile, the murderer's frown,

The lips of lying lovers,

764

FAMILIAR POEMS.

-s^lfe-

— ^^

«!►

F. Bret Haktb.

I SAY there I P'r'apt
Some on you chaps
Might know Jim Wild?
Well— no offence :
Thar aint no sense
In gettin' riled *

Jim was my chum
Up on the Bar :

That's why I come

Down from up thar.

Look in' for Jim.

Thank ye, sir I you

Ain't of that crew-
Blest if you are 1

Money? — Not much :
That ain't my kind ;

1 ain't no such.

Rum?— I don't mind,
Seein' it's you.

Well, this yer Jim,
Did you know him?—
Jess 'bout your size ;
Same kind of eyes ? —
Well, that is strange :
Why, it's two year
Since he come here.
Sick, for a change.

Well, here's to us?

Eh?
The tieuce you say !

Dead?
That little cuss ?

What makes you I
You, over thar?
Can't a man drop
*s glass in yer shop
But you must rar* ?
It wouldn't take
Derned much to break
You and your bar

Dead!
Poor— little— Jim 1 \
— Why there was me,
Jones, and Bob Lee
Harry and Beo —
No-account men :
Then to take him I

Well, thar— Good-by—
No more, sir, — I—

Eh?
What's that you say? —
Why, dern it ! — sho I —
No ? Ye* I By Jo I

Sold?
Sold 1 Why, you limb.
You ornery

Derned old
Long-legged Jim 1

e £7"<"'^ as

arne

Anonymous.

-|U

OUR beautiful Maggie was married to-day—
Beautiful Maggie, with soft brown hair.
Whose shadows fall o'er a face as fair
As the snowy blooms of the early May ;
We have kissed her lips and sent her away.

With many a blessing and many a prayer,
The pet of our house who was married to-day.

The sunshine is gone from the old south room.

Where she sat through the long, bright summer hours.
And the odor has gone from the window flowers,

And something Is lost of their delicate bloom,

And a shadow creeps over the house with its gloom %
A shadow that over our paradise lowers,

For we see her no more in the old south room.

I thought that the song of the robin this eve,

As he sang to his male on the sycamore tree.
1 1 l-I minors of sadness to temper his glee,

As if he for the loss of our Marling did grieve.

And uktsl, " Where Is Maggie? " and " Why did she leav
The maiden who . MTOthd IwSftM duets with me? "

For she mocked not the song of the robin this eve.

The pictures seem dim where they hang on the waU :

Though they cost but a trifle, they always looked ftJr,
Whether lamplight or sunlight illumined them there—

I think 'twas her presence that brightens them all.

Since Maggie no longer can come to our call,

With her eyes full of laughter, unshadowed by care.

The pictures seem dim where they hang on the walL

I lounge through the garden, I stand by the gate-
She stood there to greet me last eve at this hour,
Every eve, through the summer, in sunshine or s!

Just stood by the postern, my coming to wait —

Dear Maggie, her heart with Its welcome elate.
To give me a smile, and a kiss, and a flo<

Oh t when will she meet me again by the gate ?

She loved us and left us — she loves, and is gone

With the one she loves best, as his beautiful bride.
How fondly he called her his joy and his pride,

Our joy and our pride, whom he claims as his own I

But can he, like us, prire the heart he has won —

The heart that now trustingly throbs by Mi side?

God knows ! and we know that she loves and [■ gone.

766

KA.MIUAK POEMS

•f^ 3

oJ2EF*^+o*^&£>

T. Buchanan Read.
The following is pronounced by the Westminster Review to be unquestionably the finest American poem ever

XITHIN this sober realm of leafless trees.
The russet year inhaled the dreamy air.
Like some tanned reaper in his hour of case,
When alt the fields are lying brown and bare.

The gray barns looking from their hazy hills
< >Vr the dim waters widening in the vales.

Sent down the air a greeting to the mills.
On the dull thunder of alternate flails.

All sights were mellowed and all sounds subdued,
The hills seemed further and the streams sang low;

As in a dream the distant woodman hewed
His winter log with many a muffled blow.

The embattled forests, erewhile armed in gold.
Their banners bright with every martial hue.

Now stood, like some sad beaten host of old.
Withdrawn afar in Time's remotest blue.

On slumberous wings the vulture tried his flight :
The dove scarce heard his sighing mate's complaint;

And, like a star slow drowning in the light,
The village church-vane seemed to pale and faint.

The sentinel cock upon the hill-side crew-
Crew thrice, and all was stiller than before —

Silent till some replying wanderer blew

His alien horn, and then was heard no more.

Where erst the jay within the elm's tall crest

Made garrulous trouble round the unfledged you»g :

And where the oriole hung her swaying nest
By every light wind like a censer swung ;

Where sang the noisy masons of the eaves.

The busy swallows circling ever near.
Foreboding, as the rustic mind believes.

An early harvest and a plenteous year;

Where every bird which charmed the vernal feast
Shook the sweet slumber from its wings at morn.

To w.im the reapers of the rosy east —
All now was songless, empty, and forlorn

Alone, from out the stubble piped the quail,
And croaked the crow through all the dreamy

Alone the pheasant, drumming in the vale.
Made echo to the distant cottage loom.

There was no bud, no bloom upon the bowers ;

The spiders wove their thin shrouds night by night;
The thistle-down, the only ghost of flowers.

Sailed slowly by— passed noiseless out of sight.

Amid all this, in this most cheerless air,,

And where the woodbine sheds upon the porch

Its crimson leaves, as if the year stood there
Firing the floo' with his inverted torch—

Amid all this, the centre of the scene,

Th: white-haired matron, with monotonous tread,
Plied her swift wheel, and with her joyless mien

Sat like a Fate, and watched the flying thread.

She had known sorrow. He had walked with her.
Oft supped, and broke with her the ashen crust ;

And in. the dead leaves still she heard the stir
Of his black mantlet railing in the dust.

While- yet her cheek was bright with summer bloom,
Hei COUatrjr summoned, and she gave her all;

And twice War bowed to her his sable plume —
Re-gave the swords to rust upon her wall.

Re-gave the swords — but not the hand that drew.
And struck for liberty the dying blow ;

in\ who, to his sire and country true,
Fell, 'mid the ranks of the invading foe.

Long, but not loud, the droning wheel went on.
Like the low murmur of a hive at noon ;
but not loud, the memory of the gone
-tlied through her lips a sad and tremulous ruse.

At lut the thread was snapped — her head was bowed.
Life dropped the distaff through his hands serene ;

And loving neighbors smoothed her careful shroud-
While Death and Winter closed the autumn i

JiJ

\\J HE melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year,
*^1> Ofwailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows
" * brown and sear.

Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the autumn leaves lie dead ;
They rustle to the eddying gust, and to the rabbit's tread.
The robin and the wren are flown, and from the shrubs thejay.
And from the wood-top calls the crow through all the gloomy
day.

And then I think of one who in her youthful beauty died.

The fair meek blossom that grew up and faded by my side.

In the cold moist earth we laid her, when the forests cast the leaf.

And we wept that one so lovely should have a life so brief;

Yet not unmeet it was that one, like that young friend of ours,

So gentle and so beautiful, should perish with the flowers.

•

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£~

•

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768 DICTIONARY OF PROSK AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

•.•11 • — -n <?wp

-L<5 1 >• ■» • » ■ , M J . ( .

bs^s '»■ '*% + ^r

^diCtio^Y of pi(o$E f d

POETICAL pmpfcft p

«r ♦ v *•*• " ' < *^ ^ij^

Arranged both Topically

and Alphabetically.

Absence.

With devotion's visage.
And pious action, we do sugar o'er

Conspicuous by his absence.

The Devil himself.

Scd prafulgebant Casslus atque Brutus, eo Ipso

Skakspere.

quod effigies corum non videbantur.

Tacitus.

Adversity.

Absence makes the heart grow fonder;
Isle of Beauty, fare thee well I

A wretched soul, bruised with adversity.

Skakspere.

Thomas Jlaynes Bay ley.

I dote on his very absence.

Shakspere.

A man I am, cross M with adversity.

Skakspere.

Your absence of mind w«? have borne, till your presence of body
came to be called in question by It.

If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength Is small.

Old Testament.

Lamb.

the day of prosperity be joyful, but in thed ly of adversity consider

Old Testament.

Accident.

Sweet are the uses of adversity,

Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous.

A happy accident.

Mm,, de Stael.

Wears yet a precious jewel in his 1 cad ;

And this our life, exempt from public haunt,

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,

The accident of an accident.

Lord Thurlovf,

Sermons in stones, and good in everything.

Acquaintance.

Skakspere.
The aromatic plants bestow

Should auld acquaintance be forgot,

No spicy fragrance while they grow ;

And never brought to*min'?

But crush'd, or trodden to the ground,

Should auld acquaintanccbe forgot.

Diffuse their balmy sweets around.

And days 0' lang sync?

7*he wretch condemn*d with life to part,

Bursts,

Still, still on hope relies;

If there be no great love in the beginning, yet Heaven may decrease

And every pang that rends the heart

it upon better acquaintance, when we are* married, and have more

Bids expectation rise.

occasion to know one another: f hope upon familiarity will grow

Goldsmitk.

more contempt.

SkaksJ>ere.

Age.

Action.

My way of life
Is fall'n Into the scar, the yellow leaf;

Statesman, yet friend to truth I of soul sincere,

And that which should accompany old age.

In action faithful, and in honor clear;

As honor, love, obedience, troops of friends.

Who broke no promise, serv'd no private end,

I must not look to have.

Who gain'd no title, and who lost no friend.

Poft.

Skakspere.

Me, let the tender office long engage

What a piece of work Is a man 1 How noble In reason ' how infinite

To rock the cradle of reposing age,

In faculties 1 in form and moving, how express and admirable 1 Ir

With lenient arts extend a mother's breath.

action, how like an angel I in apprehension, how like a god 1

Make languor Mnilr, and smooth the bed of death:

Sltaksyere.

Explore the thought, explain the asking c\ 1 .

For since these arms of mine had seven years' pith,

And keep awhile one parent from the sk\

Till now some nine moons wasted, they have us'd

Pope,

Their dearest action in the tented field.

The stars shall fade away, the sun himself

Skakspere.

Grow dim with age, and nature sink In years.

In peace there's nothing so becomes a man

Addison.

As modest stillness and humility ;

In a good old age.

Old Testament.

But when the blast of war blows In our ears.

Then imitate the action of the tiger:

His hair just grixxlcd
As in a green old age.

Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood.

■^/laks/fre.

Ihyden.

V -

* -

■

-> Q — -

--ft 9

£•

G \

DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 769

, .^ ■ ■ -— - .. ■

The Pyramids themselves, doting with age, have forgotten the names

Oh ! when a Mother meets on high

of their founders. _ _

The babe she lost in infancy,

Fuller.

Hath she not then, for pains and fears,

Alone.

The day of woe, the watchful night,

For all her sorrow, all her tears,

So lonely 'twas, that God himself

An over-payment of delight?

Southey.

Scarce seemed there to be.

Coleridge.

Battle.

Like one that on a lonesome road

Doth walk in fear and dread,

And leaving in battle no blot on his name,

And, having once turned round, walks on

Look proudly to heaven from the death -bed of fame.

And turns no more his head,

Campbell.

Because he knows a frightful fiend

Ye mariners of England 1
That guard our native seas,

Doth close behind him tread.

Coleridge.

Whose flag has braved a thousand years

Alone! — that worn-out word,

The battle and the breeze 1

So idly, and so coldly heard ;

Campbell.

Yet all that poets sing, and grief hath known,

When the battle rages loud and long,

Of hopes laid waste, knells in that word — Alone 1

And the stormy winds do blow.

Bulwer Lytton.

Campbell.
And little of this great world can I speak,

Ambition.

More than pertains to feats of broil and battle.

Shakspere.

When that the poor have cried, Cxsar hath wept:

But to the hero, when his sword

Ambition should be made of sterner stuff.

Shakspere.

Has won the battle for the free,
Thy voice sounds like a prophet's word.

I have no spur

Halleck.

To prick the sides of my intent; but only

Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself,

Wut's words to them whose faith and truth

And falls on the other.

On War's red techstone rang true metal,

Shakspere.

Who ventured life an' love an' youth

Here we may reign secure, and in my choice

For the gret prize o* death in battle ?

Lowe IS.

To reign is worth ambition, though in hell:

Better to reign in hell, than serve in heaven.

Milton.

Beauty.

Angels.

So stands the statue that enchants the world,

So bending tries to veil the matchless boast,

The mingled beauties of exulting Greece.

O woman ! lovely woman 1 nature made thee

Thomson,

To temper man ; we had been brutes without you.

Angels are painted fair, to look like you :

In naked beauty, more adorn'd.

There's in you all that we believe in heaven r

More lovely, than Pandora.

Milton,

Amazing brightness, purity, and truth,

Eternal joy, and everlasting love.

She walks in beauty, like the night

Otway.

Of cloudless climes and starry skies ;

He pass'd the flaming bounds of place and time:

And all that's best of dark and bright

The living throne, the sapphire blaze,

Meet in her aspect and her eyes ;

"Where angels tremble while they gaze,

Thus mellow' d to that tender light

He saw; but, blasted with excess of light,
Closed his eyes in endless night.

Which Heaven to gaudy day denies.

Byron,

Gray.

Blessing.

Argument.

Blessings be with them, and eternal praise,

I have found you an argument; I am not obliged to find you an

Who gave us nobler loves, and nobler cares,

understanding.

yoknson.

The Poets, who on earth have made us heirs

Of truth and pure delight by heavenly lays 1

It would be argument for a week, laughter for a month, and a good

Wordsworth.

jest forever.

Shakspere.

Blessings on him who invented sleep, the mantle that covers all
human thoughts, the food that appeases hunger, the drink that

He draweth out the thread of his verbosity finer than the staple of

quenches thirst, the fire that warms cold, the cold that moderates heat,

his argument.

and lastly, the general coin that purchases all things, the balance and

Shakspere.

weight that equals the shepherd with the king, and the simple with the

Babe.

wise.

Cervantes.

Hush, my dear, lie still and slumber!

A babe in a house is a well-spring of pleasure.

Holy angels guard thy bed !

Tapper.

Heavenly blessings without number

t And pity, like a naked, new-born babe.

Gently falling on thy head.

Shakspere.

Watt*.

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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Blush.

But 'ncath ypn crimson tree,

Lover to listening maid might breathe his flame,

Nor mark, within its roseate canopy.

Her blush of maiden shame.

Bryant.

"Wo grieved, we sighed, we wept: we never blushed before.

Cowley.

This I* the state of man : to-day he puts forth

The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms,

And bears his blushing honors thick upon him:

The third day, comes a frost, a killing frost;

And — when he thinks, good easy man, full surely

His greatness is a ripening— nips his root.

And then he falls.

Shakspere.

To the nuptial bower I led her, blushing like the morn.

Milton.

Burden.

Every man shall bear his own burden.

New Testament.
For other things mild Heav'n a time ordains,
And disapproves that care, though wise in show.

That with superfluous burden loads the day,
And, when God sends a cheerful hour, refrains.

Milton.
And the gay grandslrc, skill'd In gestlc lore.
Has frlsk'd beneath the burden of threescore.

Goldsmith.
Out from the heart of Nature rolled
The burdens of the Bible old.

Emerson.

Business.

A dinner lubricates business.

Lord Stowell.
Seest thou a man diligent In his business? he shall stand before
kings ; ho shall not stand before mean men.

Old Testament.

Of seeming arms to make a short essay.

Then hasten to be drunk, the business of the day.

Dryden.
Despatch Is the soul of business.

Chesterfield.
How doth the little busy bee
Improve each shining hour?

Watts.

The armorers, accomplishing the knights,
With busy hammers closing rivets up,
Give dreadful note of preparation.

Shakspere.

Calm.

Rest here, distrest by poverty no more,
Here find that calm thou gav'st so oft before;
Sleep, undlsturh'd, within this peaceful shrine,
Till angels wake thee with a note like thine I

Johnson.

No'er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep I
The river glldcth at his own sweet will ;
Door God I the very houses seem asleep ;
And all that mighty heart is lying stilt I

Wordsworth.

4£

And, through the heat of conflict, keeps the law
In calmness made, and see* what he. foresaw.

Wordsworth.

Care.

Care to our coffin adds a nail, no doubt.
And every grin, so merry, draws one out.

Wolctt.

Let the world glide, let the world go:

A fig for care, and a fig for woe 1

If I can't pay, why, I can owe,

And death makes equal the high and low.

I Ifjrwood.
Shall I, wasting In despair,

Die because a woman's fair?
Or make pale my cheeks with care,

'Cause another's rosy are?
Be she faker than the day,
Or the flow'ry meads in May,
If she be not so to me,
What care I how fair she be?

Wither.

Hang sorrow ! care will kill a cat,
And threescore let's be merry.

If the heart of a man is depress'd with cares.
The mist is dispell'd when a woman appears.

Wither.

Gay.

Charity.

An old man, broken with the storms of state.
Is come to lay his weary bones among ye ;
Give him a little earth for charitv 1

Shakspere.

In Faith and Hope the world will disagree.
But all mankind's concern is Charitv.

Pope.

Charity shall cover the multitude of sins.

New Testament.
Careless their merits or their faults to scan.
His pity gave ere charity began.

Goldsmith.

Chastity.

Early, bright, transient, chaste, as the morning,
She sparkled, was exhaled, and went to heaven.

Toung.

As chaste a* unsunned snow.

Shakspere.

That chastity of honor which felt a (tain like a wound.

Bnrke.
So dear to Heaven Is saintly chastity,
That, when a soul is found sincerely so,
A thousand liveried angels lackey her.
Driving far off each thing of sin and guilt.

Milton,

Childhood.

Ah, happy hills! ah, pleasing shad* I

Ah, fields bclov'd in vain!
Where once my careless childhood stray'd,

A stranger yet to pain 1

Gray.

I have had playmate*, I have had companions,
In my days of childhood, In my Joyful school-days:
AU are gone, the old familiar faces.

Lamb.

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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 771

1 1—1 „ .. . ■ . _ . .

The childhood shows the man

Ease.

As morning shows the day.

Milton,

How blest is he who crowns, in shades like these,

The children like olive plants round about thy tabic.

A youth of labor with an age of ease 1

Old Testament.

Goldsmith,

By sports like these are all their cares beguil'd ;

Shall I not take mine ease in mine inn?

Skakspere.

The sports of children satisfy the child.

Goldsmith.

Nor peace nor ease the heart can know,
'Which, like the needle true,

Dancing.

Turns at the touch of j oy or woe,

But, turning, trembles too.

Midnight shout and revelry,

Mrs. Greville.

Tipsy dance and jollity.

Milton.

Error.

On with the dance ! let joy be unconfined.

Byron.

To err is human, to torgive divine.

Pope.

And bear about the mockery of woe

Truth crushed to earth shall rise again;
The eternal years of God are hers ;

To midnight dances and the public show.

Pope.

But Error, wounded, writhes with pain,

Doubt.

And dies among his worshippers.

Bryont.

No hinge, nor loop
To hang a doubt on.

Eternity.

Skakspere.

Doubt thou the stars are fire,
Doubt that the sun doth move;

*Tis the divinity that stirs within us;

'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter,

Doubt truth to be a liar,

And intimates eternity to man.

But never doubt I love.

Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought!

Skakspere.

Addison.

And better had they ne'er been born,

But there are wanderers o'er Eternity

Who read to doubt, or read to scorn.

Whose bark drives on and on, and anchor'd ne'er shall be.

Scott.

Byron.

Dreams.

Faith.

Hunt half a day for a forgotten dream.

Happy he

Wordsworth,

With such a mother 1 faith in womanhood

Who has not felt how sadly sweet

Beats with his blood, and trust in all things high

The dream of home, the dream of home,

Comes easy to him, and, though he trip and fall,

Steals o'er the heart, too soon to fleet,

He shall not blind his soul with clay.

When far o'er sea or land we roam ?

Tennyson.

Moore.

One in whom persuasion and belief

True, I talk of dreams,

Had ripened into faith, and faith become

Which are the children of an idle brain,

A passionate intuition.

Begot of nothing but vain fantasy.

Wordsworth.

Skakspere.

Faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things
not seen.

Dust.

New Testament.

How lov'd, how honor'd once, avails thee not,

Farewell.

To whom related, or by whom begot:

A heap of dust alone remains of thee ;

I only know we loved in vain —

'Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be !

Pope;

I only feel — Farewell ! — Farewell !

Byr$n.

The knight's bones are dust,

Oh, now, forever,

And his good sword rust;

Farewell the tranquil mind I farewell content!

His soul is with the saints, I trust.

Farewell the ploomed troop, and the big wars,

Coleridge.

That make ambition virtue ! Oh, farewell I
Farewell the neighing steed, and the shrill trump,

Earth.

The spirit-stirring drum, th' ear-piercing fife,
The royal banner, and all quality,

Earth felt the wound ; and Nature from her seat,

Pride, pomp and circumstance of glorious war!

Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe,

And, O you mortal engines, whose rude throats

That all was lost.

Milton.

The immortal Jove's dread clamors counterfeit,

Farewell ! Othello's occupation's gone!

The common growth of Mother Earth

Shakspere.

Suffices me — her tears, her mirth,

Her humblest mirth and tears.

Wordsworth.

Folly.

Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God.

A fool must now and then be right by chance.

Coleridge.

Ctw/ir.

Q J ■ 1 1 1 ~

<* « " »'

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772 DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

For fooU rush in where angels fear to tread.

Pope.

Happiness.

Of all causes which conspire to blind

Domestic Happiness, thou only bliss

Man's erring judgment, and misguide the mind,

Of Paradise that has surviv'd the fail !

What the weak head with strongest bias rules.

Camper,

It pride, the never-failing vice of fools.

O happiness ! our being's end and aim !

Pope.

Good, pleasure, ease, content! whate'er thy name*

Forgetfulness.

That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh.
For which we bear to live, or dare to die.

Go, forget me — why should sorrow

Pope.

O'er that brow a shadow fling?

How bitter a thing it is to look into happiness through another

Go, forget me — and to-morrow

man's eyes I

Brightly smile and sweetly sing.

Shahspere.

Smile— though I shall not be near thee ;

All who joy would win

Sing— though I shall never hear thee.

Musts ha re it;

Wolfe.

Happiness was bora a twin.

Byron.

Freedom.

Heaven.

We must be free or die, who speak the tongue

That Shakspcre spake; the faith and morals hold

'Tis heaven alone that is given away;

Which Milton held.

*Tis only God may be had for the asking.

Wordsworth.

Lowell.

I am as free as nature first made man.

Thus, when the lamp that lighted

Ere the base laws of servitude began,

The traveller at first goes out,

When wild In the woods the noble savage ran.

He feels awhile benighted,

Dry den.

And looks around in fear and doubt.

No, Freedom has a thousand charms to show,

But soon, the prospect clearing.

That slaves, howe'er contented, never know.

By cloudless starlight on he treads.

Cov/per.

And thinks no lamp so cheering

That this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and

As that light which heaven sheds.

Moore.

that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not

perish from the earth.

Sit, Jessica; look, how the floor of heaven

Abraham Lincoln.

Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold ;
There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st

Glory.

But in his motion like an angel sings.
Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubins:

'Tis beauty calls, and glory leads the way.

Lee.

Such harmony is in immortal souls;

But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay

Avoid shame, but do not seek glory — nothing so expensive as glory.

Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it.

Sydney Smith.

Shakspere.

I have touch'd the highest point of all my greatness,

Heaven open'd wide

And from that full meridian of my glory

Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound

I haste now to my setting: I shall fall

On golden hinges moving.

Like a bright exhalation in the evening.

Milton.

And no man see me more.

To heirs unknown descends th' unguarded store.

Byron.

Or wanders, heaven-directed, to the poor.

Pope.

God.

Hell.

Had I but scrv'd my God with half the zeal

I serv'd my king, he would not in mine age

Hell Is paved with good intentions.

Jotnsen.

Have left me naked to mine enemies.

Shakspere.

Which way shall I fly.

Just are the ways of God,

Infinite wrath, and infinite despair'

And justifiable to men ;

Which way I By is hell ; myself am hell ;

Unless there be who think not God at all.

And, In the lowest deep, a lower deep,

Milton.

Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide.

God helps them that help themselves.

Franklin.

To which the hell I suffer seems a heaven.

.Villon.

Lo, the poor Indian 1 whose untutored mind

Full little knowest thou that hast not tried.

Sees God In clouds, or hears him in the wind;

What hell it is in suing long to bide ;

Hit soul proud Science never taught to stray

To loose good dayes that might be better spent.

Far as the solar walk or milky way.

To wast long nights In pensive discontent ;

Pope.

To speed to-day, to be put back to*morrow;

God sendeth, and givcth, both mouth and the meat.

To feed on hope, to pine with fcarc and sorrow.

Thomas Josser.

Spenstr.

Grief.

Honesty.

I very one c»n matter a grief but he that liu It.

Every honest miller has a golden thumb.

tHiatsftrt.

OH Sty inf.

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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

773

Hope.

Thus heavenly hope is all serene,

But earthly hope, how bright soe'er,

Still fluctuates o'er this changing scene,

As false and fleeting as 'tis fair.

Heber.

Cease, every joy, to glimmer on my mind,
But leave— oh ! leave the light of Hope behind !
What though my winged hours of bliss have been,
Like angel -visits, few and far between.

Campbell.

Hope! thou nurse of young desire.

Bickerstaff.

Hope springs eternal in the human breast:
Man never is, but always to be blest.
The soul, uneasy, and confin'd from home,
Rests and expatiates in a life to come.

Pope.

Sail on, O Ship of State!
Sail on, O Union, strong and great!
Humanity with all its fears,
With all the hopes of future years.
Is hanging breathless on thy fate!

Longfellow.

Idleness.

How various his employments, whom the world
Calls idle ; and who justly in return
Esteems that busy world an idler tool

Cowper.

In idle wishes fools supinely stay;

Be there a will, and wisdom finds a way.

Crabbe.

Immortality.

There is no death ! an angel form
Walks o'er the earth with silent tread,

He bears our best-loved things away,
And then we call them " dead."

Harvey.

There is no death ! What seems so is transition,

This life of mortal breath

Is but a suburb of the life elysian.

Whose portal we call death.

Longfellow.

Though inland far we be,

Our souls have sight of that immortal sea

Which brought us hither.

Wordsworth.

Our dissatisfaction with any other solution is the blazing evidence of
immortality.

Emerson.

Innocence.

An age that melts in unperceiv'd decay,
And glides in modest innocence away.

He's armed without that's innocent within.

yohnson.
Pope.

Jealousy.

Trifles, light as air,
Are to the jealous confirmations strong
As proofs of Holy Writ.

Shakspere.

Love is strong as death ; jealousy is cruel as the grave.

Old Testament.

First, then, a woman will, or won't, depend on*t;
If she will do't, she will ; and there's an end on't.
But if she won't, since safe and sound your trust is,
Fear is affront, and jealousy injustice.

Hill.

Jesting.

Ot all the griefs that harass the distrest,
Sure the most bitter is a scornful jest.

yohnson.
A jest's prosperity lies in the ear
Of him that hears it, never in the tongue
Of him that makes it.

Shakspere.

Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee
Jest, and youthful Jollity,
Quips, and Cranks, and wanton Wiles,
Nods, and Becks, and wreathed Smiles.

Milton.

Joy.

And e'en while fashion's brightest arts decoy.
The heart, distrusting, asks if this be joy.

Goldsmith.
Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
Life in three words — health, peace and competence.

Pope.
Silence is the perfectest herald of joy: I were but little happy, if I
could say how much.

Shakspere.

Bliss in possession will not last;
Remember'd joys are never past;
At once the fountain, stream and sea,
They were, they are, they yet shall be

Montgomery.
There's not a joy the world can give like that it takes away.

Byron.
From our own selves our joys must flow,
And that dear hut— our home.

Co Hon.

Oh, the Joys that came down shower-like,
Of Friendship, Love and Liberty,
Ere I was old !

Coleridge.

Justice.

Fiat Justitia ruat coelum.

Terence.

We but teach
Bloody instructions, which, being taught, return
To plague the inventor. This even-handed justice
Commends the ingredients of our poison'd chalice
To our own lips.

Shakspere.

What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted?
Thrice is he arm'd that hath his quarrel just;
And he but naked, though lock'd up in steel,
Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.

Shakspere.

Between two hawks, which flies the higher pitch;
Between two dogs, which hath the deeper mouth;
Between two horses, which doth bear him best;
Between two girls, which hath the merriest eye—
I have, perhaps, some shallow spirit of judgment;
But in these nice sharp quillets of the law,
Good faith, I am no wiser than a daw.

Shakspere.

*2s

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774 DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Kindness.

Labor.

Assume a virtue, if you have it not.

Man goeth forth unto his work and to his labor until the evening.

I must be cruel, only to be kind:

Old Ttslamtnt. ■

Thus bad begins, and worse remains behind.

Honest labor bears a lovely face.

Skaksptrt.

Dtkktr.

Howe'er it be, it seems to me,

So he with difficulty and labor hard

'Tis only noble to be good.

Mov'd on, with difficulty and labor he.

Kind hearts are more than coronets,

Milton.

And simple faith than Norman blood.

The laborer is worthy of his hire.

Tennyson,

New Ttslamtnt.

And kind as kings upon their coronation day.

Drydtn.

The Ladies.

Yet do I fear thy nature :

A lion among ladies is a most dreadful thing.

It is too full o' the milk of human kindness.

Skaksptrt.

If ladies be but young and fair.

The King.

They have the gift to know it.

Skaksptrt.

Not all the waters in the rough, rude sea

Ladies, whose bright eyes

Can wash the balm from an anointed king.

Raia influence, and judge the prize.

Skaksptrt.

Milton.

A man may fish with the worm that hath cat of a king; and eat of

And when a lady's in the case.

the fish that hath fed of that worm.

You know all other things give place.

Skaksptrt.

Gay.

Ay, every inch a king.

Skaksptrt.

The Land.

The king's name is a tower of strength.

Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey,

Skaksptrt.

When wealth accumulates and men decay;

The right divine of kings to govern wrong.

Psinces and lords may flourish and may fade,

Skaksptrt.

A breath can make them as a breath has made.

Kissing.

But an honest peasantry, a country's pride,

When once destroyed, can never be supplied.

Be plain in dress, and sober in your diet;

Goldsmilk.

In short, my deary: kiss me and be quiet.

Breathes there the man, with soul so dead,

Montagut.

Who never to himself hath said.

Then come kiss me, swcet-and-twenty.

This is my own, my native land!

Skaksptrt.

Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned,

O Love, O fire ! once he drew

As home his footsteps he hath turned

With one long kiss my whole soul through

From wandering on a foreign strand?

My lips, as sunlight drinketh dew.

Scott.

Ttnnyson.

There's nae sorrow there, John,

The kiss, snatched hasty from the sidelong maid.

There's neither cauld nor care, John,

Tkomson.

The day is aye fair,

A long, long kiss, a kiss of youth and love.

Byron.

In the land o' the leal.

Lady Maims.

Knavery.

Laughter.

New will I show myself to have more of the serpent than the dove;

They laugh that win.

that Is, more knave than fool.

Skaksptrt.

Marlowt.

There was a laughing Devil in his sneer.

Whip me such honest knaves.

Byron.

Skaksptrt.

You hear that boy laughing?— you think he's all fun;

Knowledge.

But the angels laugh, too, at the good he has done;

The children laugh loud as they troop to his call,

Knowledge Is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves, or we

And the poor man that knows him laughs loudest of mill

kaow where we can find information upon it.

Jfolmts.

yoknson.

And Laughter holding both his sides.

Half our knowledge we must snatch, not take.

MOtmm.

Popt.
Knowledge is power.

Bacon.
A wise man is strong ; yea, a man of knowledge increaseth strength.

The Law.

■ Clo. Argal, he that Is not guilty of his own death shortens not his
own life.

Old Ttslamtul.

2 Clo. But is this law?

Histories make men wise ; poets, witty ; the mathematics, subtle ;

I Clo. Ay, marry, is't ; crowner's- quest law.

natural philosophy, deep ; morals, grave ; logic and rhetoric, able to

Skaksper,.

contend.

Bacon.

When law ends, tyranny begins.

Pill.

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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

775

No man e'er fe! cr draw,

With good opinion of the law.

Trumbull.

Of Law there can be no less acknowledged, than that her seat is the
bosom of God, her voice the harmony of the world : all things in heaven
and earth do her homage, the very least as feeling her care, and the
greatest as not exempted from her power.

Hooker.

The law is a sort of hocus-pocus science, that smiles in yor face
while it picks yer pocket ; and the glorious uncertainty of it is of mair
use to the professors than the justice of it.

Macklin.

Learning.

Some for renown on scraps of learning dote,
And think they grow immortal as they quote.

With just enough of learning to misquote.

Young.
Byron.

Liberty.

Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of
chains and slavery? Forbid it Almighty God! I know not what
course others may take ; but, as for me, give me liberty, or give me
death.

Patrick Henry.
Liberty's in every blow!
Let us do or die.

Burns.

O liberty ! liberty ! how many crimes are committed in thy name !

Mme. Roland.
Behold ! in liberty's unclouded blaze
We lift our heads, a race of other days.

Spragtte.

Life,

I do not set my life at a pin's fee.

The world's a bubble, and the life of man
Less than a span.

Shokspe,

Bacon.

We arc such stuff
As dreams are made on : and our little life
Is rounded with a sleep.

Shakspere.

A sacred burden is this life ye bear,
Look on it, lift it, bear it solemnly,
Stand up and walk beneath it steadfastly.
Fail not for sorrow, falter not for sin,
But onward, upward, till the goal ye win.

Kemble.

life's but a means unto a* end ; that end
Beginning, tne<ut and end to all things— God.

Bailey.
That life is long wtiick an-wcrs life's great end.

Young.
Our life is but a winter day
Some only breakfast and away
others to dinner stay
and are full fed
the oldest man but sups
and goes to bed
large is his debt
that lingers out the day
he that goes soonest
has the least to pay.

Epitaph.

Love.

A mighty pain to love it is,
And 'tis a pain that pain to mi
But of all pain, the greatest pain
It is to love, but love in vain.

Cowley.

Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind,
And therefore is wing'd Cupid painted blind.

Shakspere.
Mightier far
Than strength of nerve or sinew, or the sway
Of magic potent over sun and star,
Is Love, though oft to agony distrest,
And though his favorite seat be feeble woman's breast.

Wordszvorth.

But to see her was to love her,
Love but her and love forever.

Burns.

Had we never loved sae kindly,
Had we never loved sae blindly,
Never met or never parted,
We had ne'er been broken-hearted.

Burns.

Men have died from time to time and worms have eaten them, but
not from love.

Shakspere.

Oh, my luve's like a red, red rose,
That's newly sprung in June,

Oh, my luve's like a melodie
That's sweetly played in tune.

Alas ! the love of woman ! it is known
To be a lovely and a fearful thing.

Man's love is of man's life a thing apart,
'Tis woman's whole existence.

Burns.

Byron.

For stony limits cannot hold love out.

Madness.

Shakspere.

Great wit is sure to madness near allied,
And thin partitions do their bounds divide.

Dry den.

This Is very midsummer madness.

Shakspere.

Though this be madness, yet there's method in't.

Shakspere.
To be wroth with one we love
Doth work like madness on the brain.

Coleridge.
And moody madness laughing wild,
Amid severest woe.

Gray.

Cure her of that:
Canst thou not minister to a mind diseas'd,
Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow,
Raze out the written troubles of the brain?

Shakspere.

Maidenhood.

Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare,
And Mammon wins his way where Seraphs might despair.

Byron.

776

DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

The maid who modestly conceals
Her beauties, while she hides, reveals;
Give but a glimpse, and fancy draws
Whate'er the Grecian Venus was.

Edward Moore.

She dwelt among the untrodden ways

Beside the spring 1 of Love,
A maid whom there were none to praise

And very few to love.

Wordsworth.

And when once the young heart of a maiden Is stolen,
The maiden herself will steal after it soon.

Moore.

Longfellow.
Johnson.

Standing with reluctant feet
Where the brook and river meet,
Womanhood and childhood fleet!

Wretched un-idea'd girls.

Man.

An honest man's the noblest work of God.
A very unclubable man.

Pope.

Johnson.

Before man made us citizens, great Nature made us men.

Lowell*
I dare do all that may become a man ;
Who dares do more is none.

Shakspere.

Adam the goodliest man of men since born
His sons ; the fairest of her daughters Eve.

MUton.

For contemplation he and valor form'd,
For softness she and sweet attractive grace;
He for God only, she for God in him.
His fair large front and eyes sublime declar'd
Absolute rule.

Milton.
Like leaves on trees the race of man is found,
Now green in youth, now withering on the ground:
Another race the following spring supplies;
They fall successive, and successive rise.

Pope.

All the world's a stage
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts—
His acts being seven ages. At first, the Infant,
Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms.
Then the whining School-boy, with his satchel
And shining morning face, creeping like snail
Unwillingly to school. And then the Lover,
Sighing like furnace, with a woful ballad
Made to his mistress' eyebrow. Then a Soldier,
Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard;
Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel,
Seeking the bubble reputation

Evw to the cannon's mouth. And then the Justice,
In f;iir round belly with good capon lin'd,
With eyes severe and beard of formal cut,
Full of wise saws and nodcrn instances—
And so he plays his part. The sixth age shift!
Into the lean and slippcr'd Pant;ilr>.m,
1 1 l youthful hose will sav'd, a world too wide
For his shrunk shank ; and his big manly voice.
Turning again toward childish treble, pipes
And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all,

That ends this strange, eventful history,

Is second childishness and mere oblivion ;

Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans— everything.

Shakspere.

Marriage.

Choose not alone a proper mate.
But proper time to marry.

Cooper.

Let me not to the marriage of true minds
Admit impediments: love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds.

Shakspere.
How much the wife is dearer than the bride.

Lytielton.
Such duty as the subject owes the prince,
Even such a woman oweth to her husband.

Shakspere.
You arc my true and honorable wife ;
As dear to me as are the ruddy drops
That visit my sad heart.

Shakspere.
With secret course, which no loud storms annoy,
Glides the smooth current of domestic joy.

'Johnson.
Is not marriage an open question when it is alleged from the be-
ginning of the world that such as are m the institution wish to get
out, and such as are out wish to get in?

R. \V. Emerson.

She what was honor knew,
And with obsequious majesty approv'd
My pleaded reason. To the nuptial bower
I led her, blushing like the morn: all heaven.
And happy constellations on that hour
Shed their sclcctest influence ; the earth
Gave sign of gratulation, and each hill;
Joyous the birds; fresh gales and gentle airs
Whispcr'd it to the woods, and from their wings
Flung rose, flung odors from the spicy shrub.

Milton.

Melancholy.

Sweet bird, that shunn'st the noise of folly,
Most musical, most melancholy!

Milton.

And, with a green and yellow melancholy,
She sat, like Patience on a monument,
Smiling at grief.

Shakspere.

Go— you may call it madness, folly;

You shall not chase my gloom away I
There's such a charm in melancholy

I would not, if I could, be gay.

There's naught in this life
If man were wise to see't,

But only melancholy ;

Oh, sweetest Melancholy!

Asjsjr*

Fletcher.

The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year,
Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sear.

Bryant,

Memory.

Time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary.

Blacks/one.

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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 777

And, when the stream

Be ye all of one mind.

Which overflowed the soul was passed away,

Old Testament.

A consciousness remained that it had left,

Vain, very vain, my weary search to find

Deposited upon the silent shore

That bliss which only centres in the mind.

Of memory, images and precious thoughts

Goldsmith.

That shall not die, and cannot be destroyed.

Wordsworth,

Misery.

Music, when soft voices die,

Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows.

Vibrates in the memory;

Shakspere.

Odors, when sweet violets sicken,

Our sympathy is cold to the relation of distant misery.

Live within the sense they quicken.

Gibbon.

Shelley.

He gave to misery (all he had) a tear,

This is the truth the poet sings,

He gain'd from Heaven ('twas all he wished) a friend.

That a sorrow's crown of sorrow is remembering happier things.

Gray.
In misery's darkest cavern known,

Tennyson.

While memory holds a seat

His useful care was ever nigh

In this distracted globe. Remember thee?

Where hopeless anguish pour'd his groan,

Yea, from the table of my memory

And lonely want retired to die.

I'll wipe away all trivial fond records.

yohnson.

Shakspere.

Modesty.

The memory of the just is blessed.

Old Testament,

He saw her charming, but he saw not rialf
The charms her downcast modesty conceal'd.

Mercy.

Thomson.
The chariest maid is prodigal enough

The quality of mercy is not strain'd ;

If she unmask her beauty to the moon.

It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven

Shakspere.

Upon the place beneath: it is twice bless'd;

And on their own merits modest men are dumb.

It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes:

Colman.

*Tis mightiest in the mightiest: it becomes

Not stepping o'er the bounds of modesty.

The throned monarch better than his crown:

Shakspere.

His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,

The attribute to awe and majesty,

Thy modesty's a candle to thy merit.

Fielding.

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings ;
But mercy is above this sceptred sway.

Suit the action to the word, the word to the action, with this special

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings.

observance, that you o'erstep not the modesty of nature.

It is an attribute to God himself,

Shakspere.

And earthly power doth then show Hkest God's,

Money.

When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew,

Though justice be thy plea, consider this : —

Put money in thy purse.

Shakspere.

That in the course of justice none of us

Should see salvation: we do pray for mercy.

Get money; still get money, boy;

And that same prayer doth teach us all to render

No matter by what means.

The deeds of mercy.

yonson.

Shakspere,

The love of money is the root of all evil.

That mercy I to others show,

New Testament.

That mercy show to me.

This bank-note world.

Pope.

Halleck.

Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge.

For what is worth in anything

Shakspere.

But so much money as 'twill bring?

Butler.

Mind.

Hath a dog money? Is it possible
A cur can lend three thousand ducats?

My mind to me a kingdom is ;

Shakspere.

Such present joys therein I find

Motherhood.

That it excels all other bliss

That earth affords or grows by kind:

A mother is a mother still,

Though much I want which most would have,

The holiest thing alive.

Yet still my mind forbids to crave.

Coleridge.

Dyer.

Where yet was ever found a mother

My mind to me an empire is

Who'd give her booby for another?

While grace affordeth health.

Gay.

Southwell.

Music.

'Tis strange the mind, that very fiery particle,

Should let itself be snuff 'd out by an article.

As sweit and musical

Byron,

As bright Apollo's lute, strung with his hair;

I, thus neglecting worldly ends, all dedicated

And when Love speaks, the voice of all the gods

To closeness, and the bettering of my mind.

Makes heaven drowsy with the harmony.

Shakspere.

— v' ■ -

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778 DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Bright gem instinct with music, vocal (park.

Here in the body pent,

H .rds-jjorth.

Absent from Him I roam;

He makes sweet mualc with th' cnamel'd stones,

Yet nightly pitch my moving tent

Giving a gentle kiss to every sedge

A day's march nearer home.

Montgomery.

He ovcrtaketh in his pilgrimage.

Shakspere.

O night.

His very foot hath music in 't

And storm, and darkness! ye are wondrous strong.

A* he comes up the stairs.

Yet lovely in your strength, as is the light

Mickle.

Of a dark eye in woman !

Sundays observe : think when the bells do chime

Byron.

'Tis angels' music.

Where eldest Night

Herbert.

And Chaos, ancestors of Nature, hold

That strain again ; it had a dying fall :

Eternal anarchy amidst the noise

Oh, it came o'er my ear like the sweet south,

Of endless wars, and by confusion stand.

That breathes upon a bank of violets.

Milton.

Stealing and giving odor.

Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night

Shakspere.

Milton.

It will discourse most eloquent music.

You meaner beauties of the night,

Shakspere.

That poorly satisfy our eyes

The man that hath no music in himself,

More by your number than your light.

Nor is not mov'd with concord of sweet sounds,

You common people of the skies —

Is fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils:

What are you when the moon shall rise?

The motions of his spirit are dull as night,

Wcltrn.

And his affections dark as Erebus.

Good night, good night : parting is such sweet sorrow,

Let no such man be trusted.

Shakspere.

That I shall say good night till it be morrow.

Shakspere.

Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast,

To soften rocks, or bend a knotted oak.

Pain.

Congreve.

When Music, heavenly maid, was young,

Rich the treasure.

While yet in early Greece she sung.

Sweet the pleasure,

Collins.

Sweet is pleasure after pain.

The music in my heart I bore

Dryitn.

Long after it was heard no more.

So when a raging fever burns.

Wordsworth.

We shift from side to side by turns,
And 'tis a poor relief we gain

Nature.

To change the place, but keep the pain.

Watts.

Come forth into the light of things;

The labor we delight in physics pain.

Let nature be your teacher.

Shakspere.

Wordsworth.

To frown at pleasure, and to smile In pain.

The course of nature is the art of God.

Tamng.

Toung.

1 Pains of love be sweeter far

One touch of nature makes the whole world kin.

Than all other pleasures are.

Shakspere.

Ihydrn.

Diseased nature sometimes breaks forth

In strange eruptions.

Patience.

Shakspere.

Accuse not nature ; she hath done her part:

This flower of wifely patience.

Do thou but thine.

Chanter.

Milton.

The worst speak something good : if all want sense,
God takes a text and preacheth patience.

Night

Iter km.
Like patience on a monument.

Night is the time to weep ;

Shakspere.

To wet with unseen tears

Patier-e and sorrow strove.

Those graves of memory where sleep

Who should express her goodliest.

The joys of other years.

Shakspere.

Montgomery.

'Tis all men's office to speak patience

How beautiful is nightl

To those that wring under the load of sorrow.

A dewy freshness fills the silent ajr;

Rut no man's virtue, nor sufficiency.

No mist obscures, nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain,

To be so moral when he shall end ire

Rrcaka the serene of heaven :

The like himself.

In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine

Shakspere.

Rolls through the dark blue depths.

For there was never yet philosopher

!■< m.ith her steady ray

That could endure the toothache patiently.

The desert-circle spreads,

Shahipere.

Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky.

Arm the obdured breast

How beautiful Is nie,ht!

With stubborn patience as with triple steel.

}

Sonthty.

Miham.

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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

779

The best of men
That e'er wore earth about him was a sufferer;
A soft, meek, patient, humble, tranquil spirit.
The first true gentleman that ever breathed.

Patriotism.

Dekker.

That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain

force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow

warmer among the ruins of lona.

yohnson.

Such is the patriot's boast, where'er we roam,

His first, best country ever is his home.

Goldsmith.

Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel.

yohnson.

Who dared to love their country and be poor.

J Pope.

True patriots all ; for be it understood

We left our country for our country's good.

Barrington.

Oh, Heaven T he cried, my bleeding country save.

Campbell.

My country, 'tis of thee,
Sweet land of liberty—
Of thee I sing.

Samuel F.Smith.

I was born an American ; I live an American , I shall die an American.

Webster.
Our country — whether bounded by the St. John's and the Sabine, or
however otherwise bounded or described, and be the measurements
more or less — still our country, to be cherished in all our hearts, to be
defended by all our hands.

Winthrop.

Peace.

Peace be within thy walls and prosperity within thy palaces.

Old Testament.
Peace hath her victories
No less renown'd than war.

Milton.

Still In thy right hand carry gentle peace,
To silence envious tongues.

Shakspere.

There never was a good war or a bad peace.

Franklin.

Peace, peace: when there is no peace.

Old Testament.
Where peace
And rest can never dwell, hope never comes,
That comes to all.

Milton.

The inglorious arts of peace.

Marvell.

Pity.

She loved me for the dangers I had passed,
And I loved her that she did pity them.

Shakspere.

He that hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord.

Old Testament.

For pity melts the mind to love.

Dry den.

Of all the paths lead to a woman's love
Pity 's the straightest

Beaumont and Fletcher.

And pity, like a naked new-born babe,
Striding the blast.

Shakspere.

Pity the sorrows of a poor old man,

Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door,
Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span ;

Oh! give relief, and Heaven will bless your store.

Moss.

Pleasure.

Rich the treasure,
Sweet the pleasure.
Sweet is pleasure after pain.

But pleasures are like poppies spread,
You seize the flower, its bloom is shed,*
Or, like the .snow-fall In the river,
A moment white, then melts forever.

Bum*.

The Puritans hated bearbaiting, not because it gave pain to th«
bear, but because It gave pleasure to the spectators.

Dryden.

A man of pleasure is a man of pains.
The soul's calm sunshine and the heartfelt joy.

Macaulay.
Toung.
Pope.

Come live with me, and be my love,
And we will all the pleasures prove
That hills and valleys, dales and fields,
Woods or steepy mountains, yields.

Marlowe.

All human race, from China to Peru,
Pleasure, howe'er disguis'd by art, pursue?

Warton,

Here Skugg
Lies snug,
As a bug
In a rug.

There *s little pleasure in the house
When our gudeman 's awa*.

Franklin.

Mickle.

No profit grows where is no pleasure ta'en ;
In brief, sir, study what you most affect.

Shakspere.

Poverty.

Blessed is he that considereth the poor.

Old Testament.

Steep'd me In poverty to the very lips.

Shakspere.

He left a paper sealed up, wherein were found three articles as his
last will: "I owe much, I have nothing, I give the rest to the poor."

Rabelais.

With one hand he put
A penny in the Tim of poverty
And with the other took a shilling out.

PoUok,

Poor naked wretches, wheresoe'er you are,

That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm,

How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides,

Your loop'd and window'd raggedness, defend you

From seasons such as these.

Shakspere.

Thou source of all my bliss, and all my woe,
That found'st me poor at first, and keep'st me so.

Goldsmith.

Too poor for a bribe, and too proud to importune.
He hath not the method of making a fortune.

Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful smile
The short and simple annals of the poor.

Gray.

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780

DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

A poor, Infirm, weak »nd deapis'd old man.

Skakifi

Praise.

The love of praise, howe'er concealed by art.
Reigns more or lew, and glows in ev'ry heart.

Praise God, from whom ail blessing* flow;
Praise Him, all creatures here below I
Prsisc Him abovc k ye heavenly hostl

Tonng

Kn.

Poetic Justice, with her lifted scale,

Where, in nice balance, truth with gold she weighs,

And solid pudding against empty praise.

Popt.

Of whom to be disprais'd were no small praise.

Green be the turf above thee,
Friend of my better days ;

None knew thee but to love thee,
Nor named thee but to praise.

Milton.

HalUtk.

Poets lose half the praise they should have got
Could it be known what they discreetly blot.

Waller.

The sweeter sounds of woman's praise.

Macaulay.

Praise undeserved Is scandal in disguise.

The rose that all arc praising
Is not the rose for me.

Pope.

Baylty.

Pride.

He passed a cottage with a double coach-house,

A cottage of gentility ;

And he owned with a grin

That his favorite sin

Is pride that apes humility.

Sontmey.

My pride fell with my fortunes.

Shaksfer*.

Pride in their port, defiance in their eye.

Goldsmith*

Pride goeth before destruction, and an haughty spirit before a fall.

Old Testament,
A falcon, tOWVftng in her pride of place,
'Was by a mousing owl hawk'd at and killed.

Shaksfere.
In pride, in reasoning pride, our error lies ;
All quit their sphere, ami rush into the skies.
Pride still is aiming at the blessed abodes;
Men would be angels, angels would be gods.

And the Devil did grin, for his darling sin
Is pride th.it apes humility.

Purity.

Pop*.

C.f.r.d^.

Unto the pure all things arc pure.

New Testament.
She was good as she was fair;
None— none on earth above her I
As pure in thought M angels are,
To know her was to love her.

Like the stained web that whitens In the sun,
Grow pure by being purely shone upon.

Rogers.

Moore.

tfo his life has flowed

From its mysterious urn a sacred stream,

In whose calm depth the beautiful and pure

Alone are mirror'd.

Talfouri,

We understood
Her by her sight ; her pure and eloquent blood
Spoke in her cheeks, and so distinctly wrought.
That one might almost say her body thought

The real simon pure.

Dount.

Crntltvrt.

They say that a lion will turn and flee
From a maid in the pride of her purity.
But the maiden, if she be a wise little thing,
Will keep out of the path of the beastly king.

Anon.

Chaste as the icicle,
That 's curded by the frost from purest snow.
And hangs on Dian's temple. .

Skakspen.

Quiet.

All that are lovers of virtue, ... be quiet, and go a- Angling.

Walton.

Use three Physicians,

Still-first Dr. Quiet,

Next Dr. Mery-man

And Dr. Dyet.

Old wort on Jftaltk.

Bat quiet to quick bosoms Is a hell.

Byron.

And join with thee calm Peace and Quiet,
Spare Fast, that oft with gsds doth diet.

Study to be quiet.

MMon.
Nra Ttstamint.

Rain.

Violets plucked, the sweetest rain
Makes not fresh or grow again.

The thirsty earth soaks up the rain,
And drinks and gapes for drink again;
The plants suck in the earth, and are
With constant drinking fresh and fair.

FleUktr.

Ccneley.

For the rain it ralneth every day.

Skakipert.

He shall come down like rain upon the mown grass.

Old Ttstamint.

Ah, do not, whan my heart hath scap'd this sorrow.

Come in the rearward of a conquered woe ;

Give not a windy night a rainy morrow.

To linger out a purpos'd overthrow.

Skaktpm.

Reading.

Learn to read slow; all other grace*

WBI follow in their proper places.

H alker.

Read, mark, learn and Inwardly digest.

Book of Common Prayer.

You write with ease to show your breeding,
But easy writing's cursed hard reading.

' ' Skeridan.

Reading makcth a full man, confeience a ready man, and writing

Boron.

an exact man.

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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

7 8l

3fr

What is twice read is commonly better remembered than what is

transcribed.

Johnson.

And better had they ne'er been born,
Who read to doubt, or read to scorn.

Scott.

Reading* what they never wrote,

Just fifteen minutes, huddle up their work,

And with a well-bred whisper close the scene.

Cowper.

Reason.

Reason is the life of the law; nay, the common law itself is nothing*
else but reason. . . . The law, which '. 1 perfection of reason.

Coke.
Sure, He that made us with such large discourse,
Looking before and after, gave us not
That capability an-1 godlike reason
To rust in us unus'd.

Shakspere.

Now see that noble and most sovereign reason,
Like sweet bells jangled, out of tune and harsh.

Shakspere.
Give unto me, made lowly wise,
The spirit of self-sacrifice ;
The confidence of reason give;
And in the light of truth thy bondman let me live.

Wordsworth.
Error of opinion may be tolerated where reason Is left free to com-
bat it.

Jefferson.

The ruling passion, be it what it will,
The ruling passion conquers reason still.

Pope.

The intelligible forms of ancient poets,

The fair humanities of old religion,

The power, the beauty and the majesty,

That had their haunts in dale, or piny mountain,

Or forest, by slow stream, or pebbly spring,

Or chasms and watery depths : all these have vanished ;

They live no longer in the faith of reason.

Coleridge.

Religion.

To be of no church is dangerous. Religion, of which the rewards
are distant and which is animated only by Faith and Hope, will glide
by degrees out of the mind, unless it be invigorated and reimpresscd
by external ordinances, by stated calls to worship and the salutary
influence of example.

Johnson.

The writers against religion, whilst they oppose every system, are
wisely careful never to set up any of their own.

Burke.

A little philosophy inclineth a man's mind to atheism, but depth of
philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion.

Lord Bacon.

Revenge.

Which, if not victory, is yet revenge.

Revenge, at first though sweet,
Bitter ere long back on itself recoils.

Milton.

That practie'd falsehood under saintly shew,
Deep malice to conceal, couch'd with revenge.

Milton.

If it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge.

Shakspere.

Revenge is profitable ; gratitude Is expensive.

Gibbon.

Sadness.

Of all tales 'tis the saddest— and more sad
Because it makes us smile.

Byron.

I had rather have a fool make me merry, than experience make
me sad.

Shakspere.

Earth has no sorrow that Heaven cannot heal.

Moore.

But hushed be every thought that springs
From out the bitterness of things.

Wordsworth.

But, sad as angels for the good man's sin,
Weep to record, and blush to give it in.

Campbell.

For seldom shall she hear a tale
So sad, so tender, and so true.

Shenstone.

A sadder and a wiser man,
He rose the morrow morn.

Coleridge.

And Mecca saddens at the long delay.

Thomson.

The Sea.

They that go down to the sea in ships, that do business In great

waters.

Old Testament.

I'll example you with thievery:

The sun's a thief, and with his great attraction

Robs the vast sea: the moon's an arrant thief,

And her pale fire she snatches from the sun:

The sea's a thief, whose liquid surge resolves

The moon into salt tears.

Shakspere.

'Twas when the sea was roaring

With hollow blasts of wind,

A damsel lay deploring,

All on a rock reclin'd.

Gay. '

This narrow isthmus 'twixt two boundless seas,
The past, the future, two eternities!

Moore.

On life's vast ocean diversely we sail,
Reason the card, but passion is the gale.

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean — roll!
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain;
Man marks the earth with ruin — his control
Stops with the shore.

Shame.

Pope.

Byron.

And lovelier things have mercy shown

To every failing but their own ;

And every woe a tear can claim,

Except an erring sister's shame.

Byron.

Oh, shame to men! devil with devil damn'd

Firm concord holds ; mm only disagree

Of creatures rational.

Milton.

O shame ! where is thy blush !

Shakspere.

Avoid shame, but do not seek glory — nothing so expensive as glory.

Sydney Smith.

Honor and shame from no condition rise ;
Act well your part, there all the honor lies.

Pope.

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782 DICTIONARY OK PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

Men the most infamous are fond of fame,

Thou hast been called, O Sleep 1 the friend of woe ;

And those who fear not guilt, yet start at shame.

But 'tis the happy that have called thee so.

Cknrckill.

Souikey.

I have mark'd

He giveth his beloved sleep.

Old Testament.

A thousand blushing apparitions

To start into her face ; a thousand innocent shames,

Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep.

In angel whiteness, bear away those blushes.

Old Testament.

Skakspere.

Tired Nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep 1

Tonng.

Sighing.

Not poppy, nor mandragora,

A plague of sighing and grief ! it blows a man up like a bladder.

Nor all the drowsy syrups of the East,
Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep

Shaksptrt.

Which t.ou ow'd^t vesterday.

Sigh'd and look'd, and sigh'd again.

Dryden.

Skakspere.

On parent knees, a naked new-born child

Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul,

Weeping thou sat'st while all around thee smiled;

And waft a sigh from Indus to the Pole.

Pope.

So live, that, sinking in thy last long sleep.

Calm thou may'st smile, while all around thee weep.

Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more,

'Jones.

Men were deceivers ever.

Skakspere.

Now blessings light on him who first invented sleep : it covers a m an

Had sighed to many, though he loved but one.

Byron.

I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs ;

all over, thoughts and all, like a cloak ; it is meat for the hungry,
drink for the thirsty, heat for the cold, and cold for the hot.

Cervantes.

A palace and a prison on each hand.

Byron.

Solitude;

She gave me for my pains a world of sighs.

Skakspere.

In the desert a fountain is springing,
In the wide waste there still is a tree,

The sigh that rends thy constant heart

And a bird in the solitude singing,
Which speaks to my spirit of thee.

Byron.

Shall break thy Edwin's too.

Goldsmith.

Silence.

I praise the Frenchman, his remark was shrewd.
How sweet, how passing sweet is solitude !

There was a silence deep as death ;

But grant me still a friend in my retreat.

And the boldest held his breath

Whom I may whisper, solitude is sweet.

For a turn-.

Campbell.

Camper.

He makes a solitude, and calls it peace.

Byron.

The silent organ loudest chants

The master's requiem.

Emerson.

For solitude sometimes is best society,

Come then, expressive silence, muse his praise.

And short retirement urges sweet return.

Milton.

Thomson.

That inward eye

Silence in love bewrays more woe

Which is the bliss of solitude.

Than words though ne'er so witty ;

H'ordswortk.

A beggar that is dumb, you know,

In solitude, where we are least alone.

May challenge double pity.

Byrtrn.

Raleigk.

O Solitude ! where are the charms

No hammers fell, no ponderous axes rung;

That sages have seen in thy face?

Like some till palm the mystic fabric sprung.

Cowper.

Majestic silence!

There Is a pleasure In the pathless woods.

Heber.

There Is a rapture on the lonely shore,

Now came still evening on, and twilight gray

There Is society, where none intrudes,

Had in her sober livery all things clad ;

By the deep sea, and music in its roar:

Silcnco accompany'J ; for beast and bird,

I love not Man the less, but Nature more.

They to their grassy couch, these to their nests,

Byron.

Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale.

Milton.

Strength.

Silence that dreadful bell 1 It f rights the isle

He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens our

From her prosperity.

skill ; our antagonist is our helper.

Skakspere.

Bnrke.

Silence b the perfectest herald of Joy; I wcrc but little happy If I
could say how much.

Spring.

Skakspere.

Come, gentle Spring I ethereal mildness 1 come.

Sleep.

Thomson.

Mcthought I heard a voice err, " Sleep no more !

When Spring unlocks the flowers to paint the laughing soil. 1

Heber.

*••'■ •■iirdor sleep"— the Innocent sleep;
Sleep, that knits up the ravell'd «lrrvr ..f care.

Sweet Spring, full of sweet days and roses,

Skakspere.

A box where sweets compacted lie.

Herbert.

«-i

£__

DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

7«3

"711

But when shall spring 1 visit the mouldering urn ?
Oh, when shall it dawn on the night of the grave?

Beattit.

Primrose, first-born child of Ver,
Merry spring-time's harbinger.

Beaumont and Fletcher.
In those vernal seasons of the year, when the air is calm and pleas-
ant, it were an injury and sullenness against Nature not to go out and
see her riches, and partake in her rejoicing with heaven and earth.

Milton.

The State.

But in the gross and scope of mine opinion,
This bodes some strange eruption to our stable.

Shakspere.

What constitutes a state?

******

Men who their duties know,
But know their rights, and, knowing, dare maintain.

******
And sovereign law, that state's collected will,

O'er thrones and globes elate,
Sits empress, crowning- good, repressing ill.

yones.

A thousand years scarce serve to form a state ;
An hour may lay it in the dust.

Byron.

Here shall the Press the People's right maintain,
Unawed by influence and unbribed by gain ;
Here patriot Truth her glorious precepts draw,
Pledged to Religion, Liberty and Law.

Story.

States, as great engines, move slowly.

Bacon.

Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing her-
self like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks;
methinks I see her as an eagle mewing her mighty youth, and kind-
ling her undazzled eyes at the full mid-day beam.

Milton.

Talking.

Then he will talk— good gods ! how he will talk !

Lee.

Who think too little, and who talk too nuch.

Dry den.

Let your speech be always with grace, seasoned with salt.

New Testament.

The poetry of speech.

Byron.

Just at the age 'twixt boy and youth,

When thought is speech, and speech is truth.

Scott.

Thought.

But evil is wrought by want of thought
As well as want of heart.

Hood.

They are never alone that are accompanied with noble thoughts.

Sidney.
And Thought leapt out to wed with Thought
Ere Thought could wed itself with Speech.

Tennyson.

Like thoughts whose very sweetness yieldeth proof
That they were born for immortality.

Wordsworth.

He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man.

Thought is deeper than all speech.

Beattie.

Cranck.

With curious art tne brain too finely wrought
Preys on herself, and is destroyed by thought.

Churchill.

The dome of thought, the palace of the soul.

Byron .

Thought is the property of him who can entertain it, and of htn

who can adequately place it.

Emerson.

But words are things, and a small drop of ink,
Falling, like dew, upon a thought, produces
That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think.

Byron.
When to the sessions of sweet silent thought
I summon up remembrance of things past.

Shakspere.

Delightful task! to rear the tender thought,
To teach the young idea how to shoot.

Thomson.

Thoughts, that voluntary move
Harmonious numbers.

Milton.

Time.

Even such is Time, that takes on trust
Our youth, our joys, our all we have,
And pays us but with age and dust;
Who in the dark and silent grave,
When we have wandered all our ways,
Shuts up the story of our days ;
But from this earth, this grave, this dust.
My God shall raise me up, I trust.

Raleigh.

And panting Time toiled after him in vain.

"johnson.

The signs of the times.

New Testament.

Thus the whirligig of Time brings in his revenges.

Shakspere.

Live to be the show and gaze o' the time.

Shakspere.

The hell strikes one. We take no note of time,

But from its loss.

Toung.

Gather ye rose buds while ye may,

Old Time is still a-flying.
And this same flower, that smiles to-day t

To-morrow will be dying.

Merrick.

Time has laid his hand
Upon my heart, gently, not smiting it,
But as a harper lays his open palm
Upon his harp, to deaden its vibrations.

Longfellow.
His golden locks time hath to silver turned ;

O time too swift! O swiftness never ceasing!
His youth 'gainst time and age hath ever spurned,
But spurn'd in vain ; youth waneth by increasing.

PeeU.

Truth.

Beauty is truth, truth beauty, that Is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.

Keats.

Truth from his lips prevail'd with double sway,
And fools, who came to scoff, remain*d to pray.

Goldsmith.

No pleasure is comparable to standing on the vantage-ground of truth.

Lord Bacon.

7»4

DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

For truth ha* such a face and such a mien,
As to be lov'd needs only to he seen.

Dtydtn.

Truth Is as imposible to sot) by any outward touch as is the sunbeam.

Lord Bacon,
Truth Is the highest thing that man may keep.

Chaucer.
Great is truth, and mighty above ali things.

Old Testament.
Truth U as Impossible to be soiled by any outward touch as the
sunbeam.

Milton.

Tyranny.

Necessity is the argument of tyrants, it is the creed of slaves.

Pitt.
Kings will be tyrants from policy, when subjects are rebels from
principle.

Burke.

Where law ends, tyranny begins.

Pitt.

The tree of liberty only grows when watered by the blood of tyrants.

Barere.
This hand, to tyrants ever sworn the foe,
For freedom only deals the deadly blow;
Then sheathes in calm repose the vengeful blade,
For gentle peace in freedom's hallowed shade.

J. J?. Adams.

Virtue.

Know then this truth (enough for man to know),
"Virtue alone is happiness below."

Pope.
Well may your hearts believe the truths I tell ;
'Tls virtue makes the bliss, where'er we dwell.

Collins.
Virtue could sec to do what virtue would
By her own radiant light, though sun and moon
Were in the flat sea sunk.

Milton.
Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful.

Skakspere.
I cannot praise a fugitive and cloistered virtue, unexercised and
unbrealhcd, that never sallies out and sees her adversary, but slinks
out of the race, where that immortal garland is to be run for not with-
out dust and heat.

Milton.
Virtue is like precious odors, most fragrant when they arc Incensed
or crushed.

Bacon.

War.

War, wai , is still the cry— war even to the knife t

Byron.
There never was a good war or a bad peace.

Franklin.
But war's a game which, were their subjects wise.
Kings would not play at.

Cowpcr.
Oh, for a lodge in some vast wilderness,

illllglllll 01 shade,
Whrn- RUBOI "t 1'i'pr, v.ion and deceit,

^successful or successful war,
Might nevet reach me more.

Covper.
To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of pre-

serving peace.

\<L

Wixki'mgtan.

One to destroy is murder by the law;
And gibbets keep the lifted hand in awe ;
To murder thousands takes a specious name,
War's glorious art, and gives immortal fame.

Young.

He is come to ope
The purple testament of bleeding war.

Skaktftrt,
Oh, withcr'd is the garland of war.
The soldier's pole is fallen.

Skaktftrg.

The hum of cither army stilly sounds,
That the fix'd sentinels almost receive
The secret whispers of each other's watch.
Fire answers fire ; and through their paly flames
Each battle sees the other's umbered face.
Steed threatens steed, in high and boastful neighs
Piercing the night's dull ear ; and from the tents.
The armorers accomplishing the knights,
With busy hammers closing rivets up.
Give dreadful note of preparation.

Skoksftrt.

Welcome.

*Tis sweet to hear the watch-dog's honest bark
Bay deep-mouthed welcome as we draw near home.

Byron.
Whoe'er has travel'd life's dull round.
Where'er his stages may have been,
May sigh to think he still has found
The warmest welcome at an inn.

Shtnstou*,

For I, who hold sage Homer's rule the best.
Welcome the coming, speed the going guest.

Pmfm.
Welcome ever smiles,
And farewell goes out sighing.

Ska is ft re.

Wisdom.

Wisdom is the principal thing: therefore get wisdom ; and with all
thy getting get understanding.

Old Ttstamtnt.
The man of wisdom is the man of years.

Toung.
In idle wishes fools supinely stay ;
Be there a will, and wisdom finds a way.

Cratbe.
Knowledge is proud that he has Icarn'd so much ;
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more.

Cos*/, r.

To know
That which before us lies in daily life,
Is the prime wisdom.

Milton.

Be wisely worldly, be not worldly wise.

Qua r Us.
Thus we play the fools with the time, and the spirits of the wise
sit on the clouds and ...ock us.

Shakff, re.
Type of the wise who soar, but never roam;
True to the kindred points of Heaven and Home.

Wordsworth.

Woman.

The reason firm, the temperate will ,
Endur.uu. . Fwlglit, strength and skill;
A perfr< t Wmn.in, noMv planned.
To warn, to comfort and command.

UWdswortk.

DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS.

785

Her air, her manners, all who saw admired ;
Courteous though coy, and gentle though retired;
The joy of youth and health her eyes display'd,
And ease of heart her every look convey'd.

Crabbe.

Earth's noblest thing, a woman perfected.

Lowell.

A creature not too bright or good

For human nature's daily food ;

For transient sorrows, simple wiles,

Praise, blame, love, kisses, tears and smiles.

Wordsworth,
O woman ! in our hours of ease,
Uncertain, coy, and hard to please,
And variable as the shade
By the light, quivering aspen made;
When pain and anguish wring the brow,
A ministering angel thou !

Scott.

Where is the man who has the power and skill

To stem the torrent of a woman's will ;

For if she will, she will, you may depend on't;

And if she won't, she won't ; and there 's an end on 't.

Old Epigram.

Women, like princes, find few real friends.

Lyttelton.

Her voice was ever soft,
Gentle and low — an excellent thing in woman.

Shakspere.
Sir, a woman preaching is like a dog's walking on his hind legs. It
is not done well ; but you are surprised to find it done at all.

yohnson.
The world was sad — the garden was a wild,
And Man, the hermit, sighed — till woman smil'd.

Campbell.

The woman that deliberates is lost.

Addison.

He is a fool who thinks by force or skill
To turn the current of a woman's will.

Tuke.

Her children arise up and call her blessed.

Old Testament.

So well to know
Her own, that what she wills to do or say
Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best.

Milton.

My latest found,
Heaven's last, best gift, my ever new delight.

Milton.

Not she with trait'rous kiss her Savior stung,
Not she denied him with unholy tongue ;
She, while apostles shrank, could danger brave,
Last at his cross and earliest at his grave.

Youth.

Crabbed age and youth
Cannot live together.

Barrett.

Shakspere.

Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth.

Old Testament.

The canker galls the infants of the spring,
Too oft before their buttons be disclosed ;
And in the morn and liquid dew of youth
Contagious blastments are most imminent.

Shakspere.
He wears the rose
Of youth upon him.

Shakspere.

*Tis now the summer of your youth : time has not cropt the rosct.
from your cheek, though sorrow long has washed them.

Edward Moore.

Fair laughs the mom, and soft the zephyr blows,
While proudly riding o'er the azure realm

In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes ;
Youth on the prow, and Pleasure at the helm ;

Regardless of the sweeping whirlwind's sway,

That, hush'd in grim repose, expects his ev'ning prey.

Gray.

A worm is in the bud of youth.
And at the root of age.

Cowper.

And life is thorny, and youth is vain;
And to be wroth with one we love
Doth work like madness in the brain.

Coleridge.

In the lexicon of youth, which fate reserves

For a bright manhood, there is no such word

As—fail.

Bulwer Lytton.

Ah ! happy years ! once more, who would not be a boy?

Byron.

-5p

>iS

736

HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY.

"71

-4-V

*X-

Heroes end Heroines of Prose end Poetry.

^p"

A Compendium of the Celebrated Characters in the Literature of the Wond.

The name of the character li given In black letter; the name of the author and of the work from which the character U taken, In Italic

Ahdlel. Paradise Lost, Milton. The
faithful angel who opposed Satan in his re*
volt.

Abigail. The Bible. A waiting-maid.
Lblewhlte, Godfrey. Moonstone, Wilkie
Collins. A disreputable spy.

Abou Hunan. Arabian Nights. An
Arab who was made to believe himself Caliph.

Absalom, i. The Bible. The son of Da-
vid, King of Israel, a. Absalom and Achito-
phel, Dryden. A pseudonym for the Duke of
Monmouth, an illegitimate son of King
Charles II. *

Absolute, Captain. The Rivals, Sheri-
dan. The hero of the comedy, the gallant
and fortunate lover.

Absolut,., sir Anthony. The Rivals,
Sheridan. Father of Captain Absolute, a
very irascible and absolute old gentleman.

Aohltophel. Absalom and Achitophel,
Dry den. The pseudonym for the Earl of
Shaftesbury.

Acres, Bob. The Rivals, Sheridan. A
cowardly boaster, the butt of the comedy.

Aorasla. The Faery Queen, Spenser. An
old witch, the personification of Intemper-
ance. r

Adam, Bell. Retiaues, Percy. A cele-
brated archer.

Adams, Parson, Joseph Andrews, Field-
tng. An eccentric, good-natured clergyman.

Adrlana. Comedy of Errors, Shakspere.
The wife of Antipholus.

Agnecheck, Sir Andrew. Twelfth
Night, Shakspere. A coward and a fool.

A In. I, lin. Arabian Nights. The owner of
a magic lamp and ring, which gave the pos-
sessor every wish he made.

Aliworthy. Squire. Tom Tones, Field-
'"g- A good-natured old country gentleman.

Alp. Th, Siege of Corinth, Byron. A
brave and d, -v..t, ,1 man.

Amndta de Oaul. Amadis de Gaul. The
boo of a Portuguese chlvalric romance,
the authorship ol which is unknown. It was
translated into every language in Europe.

Amelia. Amelia, Fielding. A lovelv
woman, supposed to be drawn from Field-
lng'a own wife.

Amine. Arabian Nights. A wicked aor.
ho'unds e"»»ged her three sisters into

Amlet, III. -hard. The Confederacy, Van-
burgh. A gambler.

Amri. Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden.
Pseudonym for 11. Finch, ssryasn.

fielding. A hero ridiculously upright and

Anerley. Mary. Mary Anerley. Black-
more. A lovely and beautiful girl.

Apetnantn*. Ttmon of Athens, Shaks-
pere. A cynic.

Arden, Enoch. Enoch Arden, Tennyson.
A sailor, supposed drowned, who returns
home to find his wife married again.

Argante. The Faery Queen, Spenser. A
giantess.

Ariel. The Tempest, Shakspere. A spirit
of the air, perhaps the daintiest creation of
the myriad -minded poet.

Artful Dodger. Oliver Twist, Dickens.
A young thief who understands his business.

Arthur, King. Idyls of the King, Tenny-
son. A legendary British King, who estab-
lished an order of chivalry known as the
Round Table, and about whom many popu-
lar legends are afloat in Wales and Western
France.

Ashton.Lucy. The Bride of Lammermoor ,
Scott. A beautiful character, loved and lost
by Kavenswood.

Atalanta. Atalanta in Calydon, Swin-
burne. One of Diana's maidens.

Autolycns. Winter's Tate, Shakspere.
An intellectual sneak-thief.

Baba, All. Arabian Nights. The hero
of the talc of the forty thieves, who breaks
into the robbers* cave by means of the magical
pass-word " Sesame."

Baba, Casslm. Arabian Nights. Brother
of the above, who forgets the pass -word, and
is captured by the robbers.

Backbite, Sir Benjamin. School for
Scandal, Sheridan. A scandal-monger.

Bagstock, Joe. Dombey and Son, Dick-
ens. A pompous fellow.

Bailey, Young. Martin Chuislewit, Dich-
ens. A precocious youth,

Balderston*, Caleb. Bride of Lammer-
moor, Scott. The butler of Kavenswood.

Balthazar, i. Comedy of Errors, Shaks-
pere. A merchant, i. Much Ado about Noth-
ing, Shakspere- A servant.

Bitiiquo. Macbeth, Shakspere. A chieftain
murdered by Macbcthjlalcr in the same play,
a ghost.

Bnrdell, Mrs. Pickwick Papers. Dick-
ens. Mr. Pickwick's landlady, who sues him
for breach of promise of marriage.

Bardolph. Henry /»-., Skakspere. A
follower of Sir John Falstaff.

Barkis. David Copper/eld, Dickens. A
marrying man who eventually mat

Bath, Major. Amelia, Fielding. A pom-
pous officer.

Bayes. The Rehearsal, Duke of Bucking-
ham. A pseudonym for Dryden.

Baylies, Charlotte. Adventures of
Pkilip, Tkackeray. The hero's sweetheart.

Hede, Adam. Adam Beds, George Eliot.
An ideal workingman.

Belch. Sir Toby. Twelfth Night, Shaks-
pere. Olivia's hard-drinking uncle.

Belford. Clarissa Harlawe, Richardson.
The friend of Lovelace.

Belinda. Rape of the Lock, Pope. The
heroine, whose hair is cut.

Bell, Laura. Pendennis, Thackeray. One
of the sweetest heroines in English literature.

Bell, Peter. Peter Bell, Wordsworth.
An extremely prosaic man.

Bellaston, Lady. Tom "Jones, Fielding.
One of Tom Jones* sweethearts.

Bellenden, Lady. Old Mortality, Scott.
A Tory gentlewoman.

Belphoebe. The Faery Queen, Spenser.
A pseudonym for Queen Elizabeth.

Belvldera. Venice Preserved, Otway.
The heroine of the poem.

Benedict. Love's Labor Lost, Shakspere.
A confirmed bachelor who was converted to
matrimony by the lovely Beatrice. From this
gentleman comes the name Benedict applied
to married men who were not going to marry.

Bennet, Mrs. Amelia, Fielding. An im-
proper character.

Benvollo. Romeo and Juliet, Skakspere.
One of Romeo's friends.

Bertram. Airs Well That Ends Well,
Shakspere. The hero of the plsy, who mar-
ries Helen.

Iti-nca. Othello, Shakspere. Cassio's
sweetheart.

Birch, Harvey. The Spy, Cooper. The
chief character of the novel.

Bilfll. Tow Jones, Fielding. AUworthy's
nephew, a tale-bearer.

Blember, Miss Cornelia. Dombey tend
Son, Dickens. A blue-stocking governess.

Boabdil, Captain. Every Man in His
Humor, Johnson. A boasting coward.

Boeuf, Front de. Ivanhoe, Scott. One
of King John's followers. A ferocious scoun-
drel.

Boffin, Noddy. Our Mutual Friend
Dichens. The good-natured occupant of
Boffin's Bower.

Bola Gnltbert, Brian de. Ivanhoe,
Scott. The master of the Knights Templars.

Boniface. The Beaux' Stratagem, Far-
auhar. A landlord. Hence applied to land-
lords generally.

Booby, Lady. Joseph Andrews, Fielding.
One of the minor characters.

Booth. Amelia, Fielding. The hero of
the story.

Bottom. Nick. A Midsummer NighCs
Dream, Shakspere. A ridiculous weaver
with whom Titanla, the queen of the fairies,
is forced to fall in love by a charm.

Bonnderby, Josiah. HardTimes, Dick-
ens. A prosaic, matter-of-fact manufacturer.

Bowles. Tom. Kentlm Chillingly, Bui-
wer. A blacksmith.

Bowline, Tom. Roderick Random, Smol-
lett. A sailor whose name hss been applied
to mariners ever since.

HEROES AND HEROINES O" PROSE AND POETRY.

787

Box and Cox. Box and Cox, Morion,
The heroes of the farce.

Bradwardine, Baron. Waverly, Scoii.
The father of Hose Bradwardine.

Bramble, Matthew. Humphrey Clinker,
Smollett. A walking epitome of dyspepsia.

Brangtons. Evelina, Miss Bur ney. Very
vulgar people.

Brass, Sally and Sampson. Old Curi-
osity Shop, Dickens, A shystering lawyer and
his sister.

Brick, Jefferson. Martin Chuzzlewit,
Dickens. A ridiculous American editor.

Bridgenorth, Major Ralph. Peveril
of the Peak, Scott. A prominent officer in the
Puritan Army.

Bridget, Mrs. Tristram Shandy, Sterne.
Tristram's nurse.

Brown, Tom. Tom Brown's School Days
and Tom Brown at Oxford, Thos. Hughes.
The hero of one of the best boys' books ever
written in English.

Bucket, Inspector. Bleak House, Dick'
ens. A detective.

Bumble* Oliver Twist, Dickens. A bea-
dle.

Cains, Doctor, Merry Wives of Windsor,
Shakspere. Anne Page's Welsh lover.

Caliban. The Tempest, Shakspere.
Prospero's monstrous servant.

Candor, Mrs. The Rivals, Sheridan.
A scandal-monger.

Carker. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A
scoundrelly clerk.

Cassio. Othello, Shakspere. Othello's
lieutenant.

Caudle, Mrs. Curtain Lectures, Douglas
ferrold. An artistic scold.

Caustic, Col. The Lounger, Mackenzie.
A satirical gentleman.

Celia. As Ton Like It, Shakspere.
Rosalind's cousin.

Chadband.- Bleak House, Dickens. A
hypocrite.

Chamont. The Orphans, Otway. The
hero of the play.

Chillingly, Kenelm . Kenelm Chillingly,
Bulwer. The hero of the novel.

Christabel. Christabel, Coleridge. The
heroine of the poem.

Christiana. Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan.
The wife of the hero Christian.

Chuzzlewit, Jonas and Martin. Mar-
tin Chuzzlewit, Dickens. The first a miser and
murderer, the second the hero of Dickens'
story.

Clare, Ada. Bleak House, Dickens. The
wife of Carstone, and one of the most impor-
tant characters in the story.

Clifford, Paul. Paul Clifford, Bulwer.
A beatified highwayman hero.

Clinker, Humphrey. Humphrey Clin-
ker, Smollett. A philosophical young man
who meets very singular adventures.

Coalebs. Calebs in Search of a Wife,
Hannah More. A gentleman who has very
precise ideas on the subjects of matrimony
ana woman.

Coldstream, Sir Charles.

Matthews. A fatigued and weary man
world.

Used Up,
1 of the

Consuelo. Consuelo, George Sand. The
heroine of the novel, a rather inflammable
young lady.

Copper Captain, The. Rule a Wife,
and Have a Wife, Beaumont and Fletcher.
A nickname applied to Peres, the boastful
coward of the play.

Copperfield, David . David Copperfield,
Dickens. The hero of the novel, supposed to
be a picture of Dickens' own life and char-
acter.

Cordelia. King Lear, Shakspere. The
faithful daughter of the King in the play.

Corinne. Corinne, Mme. de Stael. The
heroine of de Stael's greatest work.

Costigan, Captain. Pendennis, Thack-
eray. The father of Pendennis* first sweet-
heart, a hard-drinking but amusing old man.

Coverly, Sir Roger de. Spectator, Ad-
dison. A model country gentleman of the
olden time.

Crane, Ichabod. Sleepy Hollow, Irving.
The schoolmaster in the sketch.

Crawley, Kawdon. Vanity Fair, Thack-
eray. The hero of "the novel without a hero."
The husband of Becky Sharp.

Cressida. Troilus and Cressida, Shaks

4 ere. The heroine of the play, in love with
roilus.

Crummies, Vincent. Nicholas Nick4e-
by, Dickens. A theatrical head of a theatrical
family.

Crusoe, Robinson. Robinson Crusoe,
DeFoe. The hero of the most remarkable
novel ever written. It has been translated
into every civilized language on the globe.
The story relates Crusoe's adventures on a
desert isle upon which he was cast by the sea,
and is one of intense interest.

Cuttle, Captain. Dombey and Son,
Dickens. A nautical character who indulges
in a number of queer mannerisms.

Cymbeline. Cymbeline, Shakspere. A
heroic King of Britain.

Dalgamo, I-ord. The Fortunes of Nigel,
Scott. A Scottish nobleman of bad char-
acter.

Dalgetty, Dugald. Waverly, Scott. A
famous and well drawn soldier of fortune,
whose name has become proverbial.

Deans, Davie, Effle and Jeanie*
Heart of Midlothian, Scott. Famous
characters in the story, jeanie is the heroine.

Dedlock, Lady, and Sir Ijeicester.
Bleak House, Dickens. Husband and wife,
proud and unfortunate, but noble people.

Delamaine, Geoffrey. Man and Wife,
Collins. A man of muscle.

Delphine. Delphine, Mme. de Stael. The
heroine of the novel.

Deronda, Dahiel. Daniel Deronda.
George Eliot. The hero of the novel, one of
the best character sketches which George
Eliot has made.

Desdemona. Othello, Shakspere. The
unfortunate heroine of the play, wife of tne
Moor Othello.

Diddler, Jeremy. Raising the Wind,
Kinny. The prototype of all modern de^d-
beats.

Dimsdale, Rev. Arthur. The Scarlet
Letter, Hawthorne. The seducer of Hester
Prynne.

Dods, Meg. St. Roman's Well, Scott. A
lanuiady.

Dodson and Fogg. Pickwick Papers,
Dickens. Mrs. Bardell's attorneys in her
suit against Mr. Pickwick.

Dogberry. Much Ado about Nothing,
Shakspere. An absurd character who
travesties justice.

Dombey, Florence, Mr. and Paul.
Dombey and Son, Dickens. Characters in the
novel.

Dominie, Sampson. Guy Mannering,
Scott. An eccentric clergyman.

Don Quixote. Von Quixote, Cervantes.
The hero of the novel. This has been de-
scribed by eminent critics as the best work of
fiction which the world has yet produced. It
was written in Spanish by Miguel de Cer-
vantes, as a protest against the ridiculous
extravagances of what are known as Chivalric
Romances. Don Quixote is the type- upon
which thousands of later novels Have been
founded. Crazed by the reading of knightly

The Man of Mode, Etherege.

tales, he arms himself and goes out in search
of adventures, on his steed Rozinante, and
accompanied by his squire Sancho Panzo.
These adventures are told so wittily, that the
world has been laughing at them for cen-
turies, and the book has never lost it
boyish interest. The best English trau
is Smollett's. Gustave Dore, the famcu*
French artist, some years since completed a
set of illustrations for Don Quixote, wLich
have added greatly to its interest.

Dora. David Copperfield, Dickens. Cop-
perfield's child-wife.

Dorimant.
A dandy.

Dorothea. Mt'ddlemarch, George Eliot.
The heroine of the tale.

Dorrit, Edward and « Little." Little
Dorrit, Dickens. The Father of the Marshal-
sea prison and his interesting daughter.

Drawcansir. The Rehearsal, The Duke
of Buckingham. A bully.

Duleinea del Toboso. Don Quixote,
Cervantes. A country girl whom Don Quix-
ote selects as his ladylove.

Dundreary, Lord. Our American Cousin,
Taylor. A typical and absurd English lord.
The character was really created by the actor
Sothern.

Edgar. King Lear, Shakspere. The
son of Gloucester.

Emilia. Othello, Shakspere. Wife of
Iago, the villain of the play.

Esmond, Beatrix and Henry. Henry
Esmond, Thackeray. Heroine and hero of
the novel, which is of the time of the English
Revolution.

Eugenia. The Return of the Native,
Hardy. A beautiful and unfortunate girl.

Evangeline. Evangeline, Longfellow.
Heroine of the poem ; her wanderings are told
in verse that will never die.

Evans, Sir Hugh. The Merry Wives of
Windsor, Shakspere. A Welsh clergyman.

Evelina. Evelina, Miss Burney. Heroine
of the novel.

Eyre, Jane.

ine of the novel.

Jane Eyre, Bronte. Hero-

Fag. The Rivals, Sheridan. A servant.

Fagin. Oliver Twist, Dickens. The pre-
ceptor in the thieves' academy, where Oliver
Twist is held a prisoner.

Faithful, Jacob. Jacob Faithful, Mar-
ryatt. The hero of the novel.

Falkland. The Rivals. Sheridan. A
jealous lover of J ulia's, and friend to Captain
Absolute.

Falstaff, Sir John. Henry IV. and The
Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakspere. This
is Shakspere's most comic character;
Queen Elizabeth was so pleased with Sir
John in Henry IV. that, at her request,
Shakspere composed The Merry Wives ox
Windsor, in order to give the fat knight a
wider field for fun.

Fanny* I 'nder the Greenwood Tree,
Hardy. A pretty school -mistress.

Fat Boy, The* Pickwick Papers .Dickens.
One of the minor characters in the novel,
given to sleep and pie.

Faust. Faust, Goethe. The hero of the
great German tragedy, who sells his soul to
the Devil, and gets in return youth, wealth
and an attendant devil, Mephistophclcs.
Goethe was to Germany what Shakspere
was to England.

Felton, Septijnius. Septimius Felton,
Hawthorne. The mystical hero of the novel.

Ferdinand. The Tempest, Shakspere.
Son of the King, falls in love with Prospero's
daughter Miranda.

Ferrers, Endymion. Endymion, Ben-
jamin Disraeli. Hero of the novel.

**?

788

HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY.

1 Frir

with

Figaro. The Marring* of Figaro Beam*
mar chain. An exceedingly comical and sharp-
wittcd barber.

Flrniln, Philip. The Adventures* of
Philip, Thackeray. The hero of the novel.

Florlzel. A Winter's Tale, Shakspere.
The prince of Bohemia.

Fluellen. Henry V., Shakspere. A
pedantic hut bflTI Welsh officer.

Foker, Harry. Pendennis, Tliackeray.
One of the minor characters.

Fopp
Brugh. An idiotic dandy.

Foiro, Count. Woman in While, Collins.
A complicated scoundrel.

Frankenstein. Frankenstein, Mrs.Southey.
The dreadful result of tlie labors of a (J« nn.m
student, who makes I man in the dissecting
room out of corpses and brings him to life by

f;tlv.im .m. The hideous hero of the novel
as a series of most blood-curdling adven-
tures.

Friar Turk. Reliques , Percy . The jolly
companion of Rubin Hood, the outlaw of
Sherwood Forest.

Friday. Robinson Crusoe, DeFoe. Cru-
soe's savage servant.

Gadgrlud, Jeremiah. Hard Times,
Dichens. A tyrannical "practical" man.

Gamp, Salry. Martin Chuxxlewit,
Dickens. A comical and hard-drinking
monthly nurse.

Gargantua. Gargantua, Rabelais. Hero
of the tale.

Gaunt, Griffith. Griffith Gaunt, Reade.
Hern. <>f tlie novel.

Gay, Walter. Dombey and Son, Dickens.
Marries Florence Dombey.

Glbble, Goose. Old Mortality, Scott. A
half-witted boy.

Git Bias. Gil Blas f Le Sage. The hero
of a very famous novel. His adventures are
of the most surprising character, and are told
in a most interesting manner.

Gilpin, John. John Gilpin's Ride, Cow-
per. lhe absurd hero of the poem.

Glnevra. Ginevra, Rogers. The heroine
of the poem, accidentally locked in a trunk
on her wedding day, and not found for years
and years.

Gnhbo, l.niinrelot. The Merchant of
Venice, Shakspere. A merry servant.

Oonerll. King Lear, Shakspere. The
eldest daughter ot the King, a traitor and an
ingratc.

Gonxalo. The Tempest, Shakspere. An
old councillor.

Gosling, Giles. Kenilworth, Scott. A
landlurd.

Grandlson, Rlr Charles. Sir Charles
GranJison, Richardson. Hero of the novel.

Gray, Vivian. Vivian Gray, Disraeli.
Hero of the novel.

Grundy, Mm. Speed the Plough, Morton.
An old lady who represents worldly propriety
and tale -bearing.

Gulliver, Lemuel. Gulliver's Travels,
Swijt. Hero of the romance.

Hamlet. Hamlet, Shakspere. The
melancholy Dane, hero of the play.

Harley. The Man of Peeking, Mackensie.
H I DM novel.

II .rlnwe, Clarissa. Clarissa Harlowe,

Richardson. lUroinc of the novel.

If arris, Mrs. Martin Chusxlrrvit, Dickens,
A fictl invented by s.hiv Gamp,

for Um purpo ■ ■ \ • nl ><■ ins h< I I t frr a aa a
by quoting the opinion* of Mrs, Harris upon
the subject usder discussion.

Headstone, Bradley. Our Mutual
Friend. Dickon*, A schoolmaster in love
with Llxxle Hexam.

Heep, Uriah. David Ccpperjteld, Dickens.
A hypocrite and sneak.

Helena. A^s Well that Ends Well,
Shakspere. Heroine of the play.

Hero. Much Ado about Nothing, Shaks-
kere. Daughter of Leonato.

Hexam, Lizzie. Our Mutual Friend,
Dickens. Heroine of the novel.

Hoi of ernes. As Ton Like Lt, Shakspere.
A schoolmaster and pedant.

Holt, Felix. Felix Holt, George Eliot.
Hero of the novel.

Honeyman, Charles. The Newcomes,
Tliackeray. A fashionable preacher.

Honor, Mrs. Tom Jones, Fielding. Sophia
Western's waiting-woman.

Hopeful. Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan.
A pilgrim.

Horatio. Hamlet, Shakspere. The
friend of Hamlet.

Howe, Miss. Clarissa Harlowe, Richard-
son. Clarissa's friend.

Hudibras. Hudibras, Butler. Hero of

the poem.
Hunter, Mr. and Mrs. Leo. Pickwick

Papers, Dickens. Minor characters in the
novel.

Iago. Othello, Shakspere. The villain
Of the tragedy.

Imogen. Cymbeline, Shakspere. Hero-
ine of the play.

Isabella. Measure for Measure, Shahs-
Pere. Heroine of the play.

Ivanhoe. Lvanhoe, Scott. Hero of the
novel.

Jack, Col. Col. Jack, DeFoe. The

criminal hero of the tale.

Jafller. Venice Preserved, Otway. Hero
of the poem.

Jaqucs. As Tou Like It, Shakspere.

The melancholy philosopher.

Jarndyce, John. Bleak House, Dickens.
A benevolent old gentleman.

Javert. Les Miserables, Hugo. A de-
tective.

Jessica. Merchant of Venice, Shakspere.
Shylock's daughter.

Jingle, Alfred. Pickwick Papers,
Dickens. An amusing adventurer.

Kilmansegg, Miss. The Golden Legend,
Hood.- The golden -legged heroine ot the
poem.

Kitely. Every Man in his Humor, John-
son. A jealous husband.

Lady Bountiful. The Beam's Stratagem,
Farqukar. A generous lady.

Laertes. Hamlet, Shakspere. The son
of Tolonius, killed by his own sword.

Lalla Rookh. Lalla Rookh, Moore.
Heroine of the poem, to whom Keramorz re-
lates tlie stories told in the romance.

Languish, Lydla. The Rivals, Sheridan.
Heroine of the play.

Lear, King.
Hero of the play.

Leatherstorklng, Natty. Pathfinder,
Deerslayer, and other novels, Cooper. A
huntsman and Indian fighter.

Legree. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stowe. Slave
master.

Leigh, Aurora. Aurora Leigh, Brown-
ing. Heroine of the romance.

Leila. Giaour, Byron. Heroine of the
poem.

Llghtwood, Mortimer. Our Mutual
Friend, Dichens. Minor character in |

Llsmahago, Capt. Humphrey Clinker,
Smollett. A retired officer.

Little, Henry. Put Tourself in His
Plate, Reade. Hero of the novel.

Little Nell. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens.
Heroine of novel.

Loeksley. Ivanhoe, Scott. One of Robin
Hood's pseudonyms.

Long Tom Coffin. Pilot, Cooper. A
boatman.

Lothalr. Lothair, Disraeli. Hero of
novel, supposed pseudonym for the Marquis
of Bute.

Lothario. The Fair Penpent, Rows.
A rake.

Lovelace. Clarissa Harlowe, Richardson.
A rake.

Lumpkin, Tony. She Stoops to Conquer,
Goldsmith. A country squire.

Macbeth. Macbeth, Shakspere. Hero
of the play.

Macduff. Macbeth, Shakspere. Rival
of Macbeth.

Maclvor, Flora. Rob Roy t Scott. Hero*
ine of novel.

Mackenzie, Mrs. Newcotnes, Thackeray.
A termagant widow.

Malagrother, Sir Mingo. The Fortunes
of Nigel, Scott. An ill-natured courtier.

Malaprop, Mrs. The Rivals, Sheridan.
A character famed for verbal blunders.

Mai vol i«. Twelfth Night, Shakspere.
Olivia's conceited steward.

Manfred. Manfred, Byron, Hero of the
tragedy.

Mantalinl. Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens.
The absurd husband of the milliner in the
story.

Marchioness, The. Old Curiosity Shop,
Dickens. Mr. Dick Swiveller's remarkable
little nurse.

Margaret. Famsl, Goethe. The heroine
of the tragedy.

Marlow, Young. She Stoops to Conquer,
Goldsmith. Hero of the play.

Medora. The Corsair, Byron. Heroine
of 1 1 ie poem.

Merdle, Mr. Little Dorrit, Dickens. A
speculator.

Melster, Wilhelm. Wilhelm M titter,
Goethe. Hero of the novel.

Mephlstopheles. Faust, Goethe. The
Devil.

Mercutlo. Romeo and Juliet, Shaks-
pere. A wonderfully witty friend of
Romeo's.

Micawber, Wilkin*. David Cofperkeld,
Dickens. A remarkable character, always
waiting for something to turn up.

Miller, Daisy. Daisy Milter, Henry
James. An alleged representative American
girl.

Minna. The Pirate, Scott. One of, the
heroines of the noveL

Monimia. The Orphan, Otway. Heroine
of the poem.

Mouldy. Henry IV., Shakspere. Oo«
of Falsi all's recruits.

Mucklewrath, Hnbbaknk. Old Mor-
tality, Scott. A fanatical preacher.

Neuchatel, Adrians. Endymion, Dis-
raeli. A wealthy young lady.

Newcome, Cllve, Colonel, Kthel. The
jVewcamtt, Thackeray. Character* in the
best novel Thackcrayhas written.

Nirkleby, Mrs. Nicholas Nickleky.
Dickens. The exasperating mother of lh«
hero, Nicholas.

Noma. The Pirate, Scott. An insane
soothsayer.

Nydla. laM Days of Pompeii, Buiwer.
A blind flower girl.

HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY.

789

Obadlah. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A

servant.

Oberon. Midsummer Night's Dream,
Shakspere. The King of Fairyland.

Ochiltree, Edie. The Antiquary, Scott.
A beggar of prominence.

Oldbuck, Jonathan. The Antiquary,
Scott. Hero of the novel.

Old Mortality. Old Mortality, Scott, A
gravestone cleaner.

Olifaunt, Nigel. The Fortunes of Nigel,
Scott. Hero of the novel.

Ophelia. Hamlet, Shakspere. Heroine
of the tragedy.

Orville, Lord. Evelina, Miss Burney.
Evelina's lover.

Othello. Othello, Shakspere. Hero of
the play, a Moor, husband of Desdemona.

O'Trigger, Sir Lucius. The Rivals,
Sheridan. A fire-eating Irishman.

Overreach, Sir Giles. A New Way to
Pay Old Debts, Massimger. A usurer.

Page, Anna and Mrs. The Merry Wives
of Windsor, Shakspere. Characters in the
play.

Pamela. Pamela, Richardson. An in-
tensely good young lady.

Pangloss. The Heir-al-Law, Colman. A
pedantic teacher.

Pantagruel. Pantagruel, Rabelais. Hero
of the sketch.

Partridge. Tom Jones, Fielding. The
hero's trusty follower.

Pecksniff, Charity, Mercy, Mr. Martin
Chuzzlezvit, Dickens. Characters in the story.
Pendennis, Arthur, Helen, Major.
Pendennis, Thackeray. Well drawn and for-
cible characters in the novel.

Perdita. Winter's Tale, Shakspere,
Florizet's sweetheart.

Petruchio. The Taming of the Shrew,
Shakspere. The hero, and husband of
Katherine.

Pickle, Peregrine. Peregrine Pickle,
Smollett. The wandering and immoral hero
of the novel.

Pickwick, Samuel. Pickwick Papers,
Dickers. Hero of the novel.

Pierre. Venice Preserved, Olway. A '
Conspirator.

Pistol, Ancient. Merry Wives of Wind*
sor and Henry IV., Shakspere, Falstaff's
most characteristic follower.

Pleydell, Paul us. Guy Manner ing, Scott.
A lawyer.

Poins, Ned. Henry IV., Shakspere, A
friend of Prince Hal.

Portia. The Merchant of Venice. Heroine
of the play.

Pound i int, Peter. Old Mortality, Scott.
A preacher.

Primrose, Dr. Vicar of Wakefield, Gold-
smith. The Vicar of Wakefield.
Primrose, Moses. His son.
Prolius. Two Gentlemen of Verona,
Shakspere. One of the two Gentlemen.

Proud fute. Fair Maid of Perth, Scott.
A bonnet-maker.

Prynne, Hester. Scarlet Letter, Haw*
thorne. Heroine of novel.

Pumblechook, Uncle. Great Expecta-
tions, Dickens, A bully and fraud.

Pynchon, Phoebe. House of the Seven
Gables, Hawtkorne. Heroine of the novel.

Quasimodo. Our Lady of Notre Dame,
Hugo. A monster.

Quickly, Mrs. Henry IV., Shakspere.
The famed hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern,
in Kastcheap.

Qnilp. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A
vicious dwarf.

Quince, Peter. Midsummer Night's
Dream, Shakspere. Character in the inter-
lude.

Random, Roderick. Roderick Random,
Smollett. Hero of the novel.

Rashlelgh. Rob Roy, Scott. The villain
of the novel.

Rasselas. Rasselas,Dr. Johnson. Prince
of Abyssinia, hero of the tale.

Rattler, Jack. Roderick Random, Smol-
lett. A nautical character.

Ravenswood. The Bride of Lammer moor,
Scott. Hero of the novel, lover of Lucy Ash-
ton.

Rebecca. Ivanhoe, Scott. A lovely
Jewess.

Redgauntlet. Redgauntlet, Scott. Hero
of the novel.

Rob Roy. Rob Roy, Scott. A Scottish
chief, hero of the novel.

Roderigo. Othello, Shakspere, Iago's
dupe.

Romeo. Romeo and Juliet, Shakspere.
The hero of the play, lover of J uliet.
Sabrina. Comus, Milton. River nymph.
Sacripant. Orlando Furioso, Ariosto.
King of Circassia, in love with Angelica.

Saddletree, Bartoline. Heart of Mid'
lothian, Scott. A learned peddler.

Sancho Panza. Don Quixote, Cervantes.
Worthy squire of a worthy master; the right
man in the right place.

Sandford, Harry. Sandford and Merton,
Day. Hero of the story.

Sangrado, Doctor. Gil Bias, Le Sage.
A confirmed phlebotomist.

Scheherezade, Queen. Arabian Nigfils.
The Sultaness who tells the tales.

Scrub. The Beau's Stratagem, Farquhar.
A facetious valet.

Sedley, Amelia. Vanity Fair, Thackeray.
An amiable woman, but of no great decis.o'n.
Sedley, Joseph. Vanity Fair, Thackeray.
A fat, bashful East Indian.

Selim. Bride of Abydos, Byron, The
hero.

Shafton, Sir Piercle. The Monastery,
Scott, A pedantic courtier.

Shandy, Tristram. Tnstram Shandy,
Sterne. Hero of the story.

Sharp, Rebecca. Vanity Fair, Thack-
eray. The designing heroine.

Shylock. Merchant of Venice, Shaks-
pere. A vindictive Jew.

Silvia. Troo Gentleman of Verona, Shaks-
pere. In love with Valentine.

Skimpole, Harold. Bleak House,
Dickens, Always out of money.

Slipslop, Mrs. Joseph Andrews, Fielding.
A waiting woman of doubtful character.

Slop, Doctor. Tristram Shandy, Sterne.
An irascible physician.

Sly, Christopher. Tamingof the Shrew,
Shakspere. A drunken tinker.

SI vine, Chevy. Martin Chuzzlewit,
Dickens. A *' gent short of funds."

Smyke. Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. An
ill-used, poor, half-witted pupil of Squeers.

Sneerwell, Lady. School for Scandal,
Sheridan. A gossip and back -biter.

Snod grass, Augustas. Pickwick Papers,
Dickens, A poetical character.

Snow, Lucy. Villette, Charlotte Bronte.
The heroine.

Sparkler, Edmond. Little Dorrit,
Dickens, Man of fashion.

Squeers, Wackford. Nicholas Nukleby,
Dickens, The brutal master of Dotheboy's
Hall.

Squeers, Master Wackford. In same.
A spoiled child, th« image of his father.

St. Leon. St. Leon, William Goodwin.
Hero of the tale, has the secret of perpetual
youth and the transmutation of metals.

Steerforth, James. David Copperfield,
Dickens, Talented and profligate.

Steggs, Miss Carolina Willie] mi na
Amelia. Vicar of Wakefield, Goldsmith. A
pretender to gentility.

Stiggins, Elder. Pickwick Papers,
Dickens, Affects pineapple rum and Airs.
W slier.

Strap, Hugh. Roderick Random, Smollett.
Roderick's follower.

Surface, Sir Charles and Joseph.
School for Scandal \ Sheridan. The first a
good-natured rake, the second a hypocrite.

Swi Teller, Dick. Old Curiosity Shop.
Dickens, A gay rattlepate and a good fellow.
Tamora. Titus Andronicus, Shakspere.
A Gothic Queen.

Tapley, Mark. Martin Chuzzlewit,
Dickens, Happiest when most miserable ;
jolly when he ought to cry.

Tappertit, Simon. Barnaby Rudge,
Dickens. A ferocious little apprentice.

Tartuffe. Tartuffe, Moliere. A hypocriti-
cal character.

Teazle, Lady. School for Scandal, Sher-
idan. The Iieroine.

. Teazle, Sir Peter. School for Scandal,
Sheridan. The old husband of Lady Teazle.
Thersites. Iliad, Homer, and Troilus
and Cressida, Shakspere. A foul-mouthed
Greek.

Thwackum. Tom Jones, Fielding. A
philosophical pedagogue.

Tillemina. The Critic, Sheridan. A
maiden very much crossed in love.

Timon. Timon of Athens, Shakspere.
A misanthrope, hero of the play.

Tint o, Dick. Bride of Lammermoor, and
St. Romans Well, Scott. An artist.

Titania. Midsummer Night's Dream,
Shakspere. The queen of faines.

Titmouse, Tittlebat. Ten Thousand a
Tear, Dr. Warren. Astonished Parliament
by an imitation ot Chanticleer.

Tito. Romola, George Bitot. The hand'
some, but weak hero.

Todgers, Mrs. Martin Chuzzlewit,
Dickens. The keeper of a commercial board-
ing-house.

Toots. Dombey and Son, Dickens, A
simple, eccentric fellow.

Topsey. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Mrs. Stowe.
An ignorant young slave girl.

Touchstone. As Tou Like It, Shakspere.
A clown.

T»uehwood, Peregrine. St. Romans
Well, Scott, An irascible East Indian.

Tox, Miss. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A
spinster, slightly curious.

Traddles, Tom. David CopperJtelH,
Dickens. A barrister and friend of Copper-
field.

Trapbois. The Fortunes of Nigel, Scott.
A usurer.

Trim, Corporal. Tn'stam Shandy,
Sterne. The follower of Uncle Toby.
Trinculo. Tempest, Shakspere. A jester.
Triol, Marquis. The Pirate, Scott. A
wealthy 2ealander.

Trotwood, Betsy. David Copperfield,
Dickens. The kindest of women, but with an
aversion to trespassing donkeys.

Trulliber, Parson. Joseph Andrews,
Fielding. An ignorant clergyman.

Trunnion. Commodore Hawser, Pere-
grine Pickle, Smollett, An odd nautical
character.

Tulkinghorn, Mr. Bleak House, Dickens.
A wily solicitor.

Tnlliver, Maggie. Mill on the Floss,
George Eliot, i'

Tnlliver, Tom. Mill on thr Floss, George
Eliot. II' r ted brother.

Tupman, Tracy. Pkkoick Papers,
Dickens. Ail otMM admirer ol lovely wumt-n.

Tnrveydrop. Weak House. Dickens.
Dancing master and professor of deportment.

Tusher, Thomas. Henry Esmond,
Thackeray. A sycophantic clergyman.

Twemlow, Mr. Our Mutual Friend,
Dickens. A diner out and friend of the Ven*
ccrings.

Twlut, Oliver. Oliver Twist, Dickens.
Hero of the novel.

Twysden, Talbott. Fhilip, Thackeray.
A public officer.

Tybalt. Romeo and "Juliet, Shaksfere.
Nephew of I.ady Capulet, slain by Romeo.

Ulrica. Ivanhoe, Scott. An old witch.

Una. The Faery Queen, Spenser. The
personification of Truth.

Uncns. The Last of the Mohicans, Cooper.
A Mohican chief.

Uncle Toby. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A
noble veteran, the real hero of the story.

Uncle Tom. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stowe.
A pious and unfortunate slave, the hero of
the novel. This book added more converts to
the abolition party than any other tailor. It
is the most remarkable and effective American
work printed.

Varden, Dolly. Barnaby Rudge, Dickens.
The heroine of the story.

Vathck. Vathek, Beckford. The hero of
Dcckfortl's remarkable novel.

Vernon, Dl. Rob Roy, Scott. The
heroine of the novel.

Vholes. Bleak House, Dickens. A crafty
lawyer.

Viola. Twelfth Night, Shaksptrt. A
tweet little lady in love with Orsino.

Virgilin. Coriolanus, Shakspere. Wife
of Corioi

Virginia. Foul and Virginia, St. Pierre.
Hero: ,,el.

Vivian. Idyl* of the King, Tennyson. The
Hill ll Ml of Merliu, the hnchanter.

Wadmnn, Widow. Tristram Skondy,
Sterne. The lady who seeks to decoy Uncle
Toby into matrimony.

Wamba. Ivanhoe, Scott. A clown.

Wardle, Mr. Pickwick Papers. Dickens.
A jolly country gentleman, friend of Mr.
Pickwick.

Wegg, Silas.. Our Mutual Friend,
Dickens. The villain of the novel.

Weller, Tony and Samivel. Pickwick
Papers, Dickens. Father and son ; the latter,
Mr. Pickwick's serving man, is undoubtedly
the most original and mosthumorous creation
of Dickens' exuberant fancy.

Werther. Sorrows of Werther, Goethe.
Hero of the tale.

Western, Squire and Sophia. Tom
Jones, Fielding. Father and daughter, the
fatter the heroine of the novel.

Whiskerandos, Don Forolo. The Critic,
Sheridan. The lover of Tilburina.

Wlckfleld, Agnes. David Copperficld,
Dickens. Heroine of the novel.

Wild, Jonathan. Jonathan Wild, Field-
ing. A famous highwayman, and afterwards
a noted thieftakcr of London.

Wildair, Sir Harry. The Constant Cou-
ple, and Sir Harry Wildair, Farauhar. The
hero of both plays.

Wilier, Bella, I.avinia, Reginald and
Mrs. Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. One of
the most entertaining family groups in Eng-
lish fiction. The first is the charming heroine
of the novel. Lavinia is her abominable m-,-
ter; Reginald, her angelic papa; while the
somber background is made by the gloomy
mamma, whose other name in the family is
The Tragic Muse.

Wilfrid. Rokeby, Scott. Hero of the

poem.

Williams, Caleb. Caleb Williams, God.
win. 'I he hero of a very remarkable novel.

Wimble, WlH. Spectator, Addison.
Pseudonym for Thomas Morecrait.

Winkle, Ilip Van. Sketch Book, Irving.
The immortal sleeper of the Gat&kills.

Wlshfort, I.ady. The Way of the World,
Congreve. Heroine of the play.

Worldly Wiseman, Mr. Pilgrim's
Promts, Bunyan. One of Christian's dim-

Wray, Enoch. The Village, Crabbe. A
noble old man.

Wren, Jenny. Our Mutual Friend,
Dickens. The dolls' dressmaker.

Wronghead, Sir Francis. The Provoked
Husband, Vanburgh. Hero of the play.

Vorick. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A jester
descended from the Yorick whose history is
told by Hamlet.

Tsenlt. Tristram and Tseult, Matthem
Arnold. A Cornish heroine of the olden time.

Zarlor. Absolom and Achitophet, Dryden.
Pseudonym for Sancroft, Archbishop of Can*
tcrbury.

Zanoni. Zanoni, Bulwer. The mystical
hero of the novel.

Zeluco. Zeluco, Dr. J. Moore. The
prodigal hero of the novel.

Zobeide. Arabian Nights. The wife of
the great Haroun al Raschid.

Zodig. Zodig, Voltaire. The Babylonian
hero of the novel.

Zophiel. Paradise Lost, Milton. A swift-
winged cherub.

Znleika. The Bride of Abydos, Byron.
Heroine of the poem.

v 5l»S<»S^I«I«mS^

A DICTIONARY OF

NOMS DE PLUME.

flfc (& ^ dfa <^ <# #L_^_*fe _^_

SSgigSSSSiSiSlSSSSSSSSSli

*^ -/KJ«

ms^s^s^s^sss^s^^^ms^s^s^s^^^

A A 4b #- : _dfc A .'^ A rife f j' & db A

tHE following list of assumed names in English and
American literature will be found to be the most com-
N — x prehensive ever published :

ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK.

A Country Parson. ...Archhish. Whately.. ..Divinity and Logic.

A Gaol Chaplain Rev. Erskine Neale. . .Bentley' 's Miscellany.

t> a v tt t» a t Recreations of a
...Rev. A. K. II. Boyd... J

A. K. H. B..

Country Parson.

dv )
. ' ( Charlotte Tucker. City of No Cross.

of England) > J

A Lady Mrs. Rundell Domestic Cookery.

A Lady Mrs. Anna Jamieson.. Art Criticism.

J F. W. Fairholt Costume in England.

quary. > °

A Lover of )

_ _ ( Thomas Green Diary.

Literature ' J

A Lincolnshire ) ^, „ ,, „ __ .,

_, . | T. Hartwell Home. ..Bibliography.

A Manchester > „, , , _ , , „ ,. .

,, , t { Richard Cobden Political tracts.

Manufacturer '

A Northern Man....Chas. J. Ingersoll Political History.

A Student at Law..F. K. Hunt The Fourth Estate.

A Travelling' )«,-,. ,-, «.

« , « > J. Femmore Cooper. ..Travels.
Bachelor \ r

A Trinity Man Thomas Wright Alma Mater, 1827.

A. N. Farmer Rev. Isaac Wilkins.. .Political tracts.

A Young American .A. Slidel Mackenzie.. Year in Spain.

Ablmelech Coody.. .Julian C. Verplanck... Political tracts.

Acheta Domestica..Miss L. M. Budgen. ..Episodes of Insect Life.

Acton Bell Anne Bronte Agnes Gray.

a j li aj t Rev * James Cook 1 _.

Admonish Crime.. \ _. . .1 Poems.

( Richmond J

Adolph Myer M. A. Goldschmidt.... Novelist.

Agate Whitelaw Reid Journalist.

Agricola William Elliott Carolina Sports.

Alfred Croquis Daniel Maclise Fraserian Portraits.

Alfred CrowquiII A. H. Forrester Eccentric Tales.

AVlan Grant. William Wilson Dundee Review.

Alice G. Lee j Mice Bradley (I ^^ en \ Godt/s Lad/, B M k.

Ally Sloper Charles H.Ross Adventures in Judy.

Almaviva Clement Scott Figaro's dramatic critic.

Alpin William Wilson Dundee Review*

Alter Rev. J. B. Owen Chess Studies.

Alton Clyde.. Sarah Anne Jeffries.. .Maggie Lynn.

Amateur Casual James Greenwood ....Night in the Workhouse.

Amelia Mrs. Welby Poems.

Amicus Thomas Fairbairn.... Social Progress.

Amy Lothrop Anna B. Warner Dollars and Cents.

An Amateur .....Charles K. Sharpe. ...Portraits.

An American Gen. Lewis Cass Sketches in France.

An Angler Sir Humphry Davy.. .Salmonia.

An English 1 . . „ , m _.

™ J John Oxenford The Times.

Playgoer )

ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK.

An Epicure F. Saunders Salad for the Solitary.

An Irish Woman. ...Miss Anna Perricr The Irishman.

An Octogenarian ... .J ames Rc:he Essays.

An Old Bushman. ...W. Wheelwright Naturalist.

-...-. t Sir Francis Bond ( Bubbles from the

An Old Man I „ , \ _,

\ Head \ Brunner.

An Old Sailor M. H. Baker Sea Tales.

Anthony Pasquin....John Williams... Morn irg Herald,

Arachnophilus Adam White Essays.

Archaeus Rev. John Sterling.... The Onyx Ring.

Ariel Stephen R. Fiske New York Leader,

Artemus Ward Charles F. Browne...." His Book."

Arthur Griffenhoff... George Colman, Jr.... Dramatist.

Arthur Sketchley. ... Rev. George Ross Mrs. Brown.

Asa Trenchard Henry Watterson Magazine sketches.

Ascott R. Hope... j ° er °?*! ♦ • « J Book About Boys.

Aug. Dunshunner....Wm. E. Aytoun Tales, Blackwood.

Augur H. M. Feist The Racing Prophet.

Aunt Fanny Mrs. T. D. Gage Juvenile Tales.

Aunt Judy Mrs. Alfred Catty Aunt Judy's Magazine.

Azamat Batuk N. L. Thicblin Spain and Spaniards.

Bab W. S. Gilbert Bab Ballads.

Bailey Fred. Douglass Journalist.

Barclays, One of the. .Mrs. H. G. Otis Barclays of Boston.

Barnacle A. C. Barnes Litterateur,

Barrabas >_ , . ,, «...„.

_,.. , ., [ Douglas Jerrold Articles in Punch.

Whitefeather J & "

Barry Cornwall B. W. Proctor The Sea and other Songs.

Barry Gray Robert Barry Coffin... My Married Life.

Belle Brittan Hiram Fuller New York Mirror,

Belle Smith Louise Kirby Piatt... .Home Journal,

. Benjamin V. Austin v
Benauly < and Lyman Abbott, > Conecut Corners.

' Ben. Au. Ly., jointly *
Benedict Cruiser George Aug. Sala Howl Tamed Mrs. C.

_ . . _ _ , „. < The John Brown

Berwick James Redpath 1 T

f Invasion.

Besieged Resident. ..H. Labouchere In Paris.

Bibliophile J acob. . ..Paul Lacroix Novels.

Bideford Postman... Ed ward Capern Poems.

Bill Arp Charles H. Smith.

BIythe White, J un... Solon Robinson New York Tribune.

Bob Short A. B. Longstreet Political articles.

Bon Gaultier. Wm. E. Aytoun Ballads.

Boston Bard Robert S. Coffin Poems.

Boston Rebel John Lowell Political articles.

Boz Charles Dickens Sketches by Boz.

Bret Harte Francis B. Hart The Heathen Chinee.

Brother Peregrine... Octavian Blewitt Fraser*s Magazine.

Burleigh. Matthew Hale Smith. .Boston Journal,

Bullerof Brasenose.John Hughes Blackwood* s Magazine.

Cadwalader^^ j y Q ^^ ^ q{ r m Sunley>

!»

• V

79 2

A DICTIONARY OF

NOMS DE PLUME.

ASSUMED NAME.

REAL NAME.

( Rev. James W.

' Alcxandc

REPRESENTATIVE WORK.

J Literary World.
ri

Tales, Family Herald,

The Way to Win.
.Journalist.

The Billiard Book.

.Tales of Irish Life.

. Belgravia.

.SI. Louie Spectator.

.Upper Ten Thousands.

{ Journalist.
^ 1

.Search of a Home.

.Sea Novels.

,On Whist.

.The Stud Farm.

.Caricatures.

■ Miscellanies.

K Southern Literary
' ' Messenger.

J Tale..

.Poems.

.Sunday Mercury.

.Novelist.

.Citircnof the World.

.Magazine articles.

.Could Aught Atone ?

.Novelist.

.Xoctcs Ambrosianae.

.Come Back to Erin.

.Sweet Singer.

.Dramatic Criticism.

J Sketches.

n j Goac?s Lady** Btok,

■ Hope Campbell.
.Jane Eyre.
.Verdant Green.

j Letters on Church

' Matters.

.Dramatic critic.

.Life in Danbury.

.The Mildmays.

.Knifhfs Quarterly.

. Poems.

..Novels and plays.

.Travels.

.Court of Napoleon.

.History of New York.

.Merry Companions.
.Friend's Delight.

j Letters from Spain.

..Patent Sermons.

t American Advocate
" 1 «^ Peace.

■Whitington and Hia Cat.

.Peter's Letters.
.Tour of Dr. S.

| The Life and

\ Adventures of U. U.

ASSUMED NAME.

REAL NAME.

.H. M. Flint

representative WORE.
.Nrut York World.
.Springfield B -publican.
.Letters on Currency.
. .Spring and Holiday.
.Travels.
.Notes on Noses.
.Visit to Paris.
.Poetry.
..Dramatist.
. .Travels.
.Juvenile works.
.Knight' i Quarterly.
.Poetry.

.College Romance.

.The Partisan Leader.
'.Essays of Elia.

.Journalist.

.Wide, Wide World.

.Wuthering Heights.

.Confessions.

.Book of the Salmon.

.Sunday School Tales.
.. Letters from England.
..Air at y'orh Mirror.

. Contemporary Review.

.Tales and Poems.

.The Drama in Pokerville.

. The Press.

.Humor.

j Fern Leaves.

1 Trippings in

n i Authorland*

. . Poetry.

..Humor.

1 Reliques of Father
j Prout.

..London Journal.
.Journalist.

..Novels.

. . Ladies' Magazine.

..Poetry.

. .George G»ith.

.Charles C. Converse.

Captain Rawdon

Crawley

Capt. Rock in

London

Captain Shandon...

E. H. T

Edgeworth Benson

Edmund Falconer.

Edward Baldwin..
Edward Hazlefoot.

Edward Stevenson
O'Brien

.Edmund O'Rourke..

.W. Sidney Walker...
.J. Hamilton Reynold*

.C. Smith Cheltnam...

Charles Carleton

Com
.Sir George Stephen..

Elizabeth Wetherel
Ellis Bell

English Opium-
Eater

Ephraim Holding..
Espriella Alvarez. .

Chas. Summerfield.
Charlotte Elizabeth

Chcvalter

Cheviot Tichburn..
Chinese Philosophei

Christine Sevcrne..

Christopher North.

.Albert W. Arrington

I Charlotte Elizabeth
1 Tonn
.Rev. Chas. Kingsley.

. .Matthew F. Whittier
.Wm. E. Gladstone...

.Mrs. Anna Boulton...

Ettrick Shepherd..

, .Jonathan F. Kellv..
t Mrs. (Sarah Willis)
} James Parto
.Mary J. S. Upsher.
< Emily (ChubbuckJ
} Judsc

..A. Miner Griswold..

i Viscomtesse
1 de St. Mai
| Alice Bradley (\e:i!)
1 Have

Fanny Forrester

D.C.L

D G

Danhury Newsman

..Kate W.Hamilton.

.Daniel Owen Madden
.Dcrwcnt Coleridge..

..Ann F.Wilbur

..Mrs. J. H. Riddcll...

..Henry W.Herbert...
..Mary Abigail Dodge
..Geo. Alf. Townsend.
..G. E. M. Crawford..

. .Washington Irving..

..Louis Arundel.

. .Field Sports of the V. S.

..Gala Days.

. .Journalist.

..Cricket Notts.
1 Met* York Courier
i and Inquirer.

.Sketch Book.

Dennis Jasper

Murphy
Dcrwcnt Conway..

Diedrlch

Knickerbocker

..Frank B. Goodrich..
J Washington Irving..

Gemsee

Genesee Traveller.

Don Leucadio

Doblado

Dr. Oldham at

Grays tones
Dr. Vicc;;lmus

Rlcnkinaop
Dr. Peter Morris...

1 Rev. Joseph Blanco
1 Whi

..Madame Dudcvant..

..Nathaniel I. Bowditc
1 Mrs. Sarah Jane
I (Clark) Lippinco

.Naturalist.
..Novels.
. .Knights Quarterly,

.Fiction.
1. Boston Transcript.

\ History of My Prta.
tt )

..Queens of Society.

.Modern Painters.

.Lay Sermons.

.The Microcosm.

Girard Montgomery
Glance Gaylord ....

j Rev. Caleb S. Henry

Grace Greenwood..

Graduate of Ox fort
Gregory Griffin.... .

Dr. Updike

Underbill

..John F. Graff

„<»

r—

-» ■»

- C)

■

A DICTIONARY OF

NOMS DE PLUME. 793

e
t

ASSUMED NAME.

Hamilton Murray-

REAL NAME.

REPRESENTATIVE WORK.

..Knight's Quarterly.
..Ballads.
.Ballads.

. .Sporting Notes.
..Juvenile tales.
..Adventures of Harry F.

| Captain Brand.

.Practical Horsemanship.
( Adventures of Harry
i Lorrequer.

.Caricaturist.

Tales in Good Words.

\ Evelyn.

.Shoemakers' Village.
.Passionate Pilgrim.

t Hester Morley's

X Primrose.
.Political Letters.
.London Times.
..Novelist.

.Flotsam and Jetsam.
.Independent Chronicle.
.Family Herald.
.Collegiate Experience.
.Signs before Death.
.Tales of the Genii.
.Journalist.
.Biglow Papers.

t Telegraph and

6 Sporting Life.
.Nile Notes.
.Idyls of Battle.
.Field.

j Tell -Tale.

s )

.Guide and other Poems.
( Sketches of Public
\ Characters.

.Reveries of a Bachelor.
t Lispings from Low

n \ Latitudes.

.Baltimore Sun.

.On the Aristocracy.

.Novelist.

ning.

.Humor.

.Poetry.

.London Parks.

. The Times.

. Gypsies of Dane's Dyke.

.Religious controversy.

.London Magazine.

.Medical Times.

.Figaro.

..Tales of My Landlord.

.Humor.

-Children's tales.
.Velvet Cushion.
.Religious controversy.
r. Poems.

.Sunday Despatch.
.Essays.
.Legal Peers.

ASSUMED NAME.

John Hampden....

REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK.

( Lord (G. N. Green- 1 „.

J ville) Nugent [ HlSt0r y-

( Rev. Leonard i __ __ .

wufcj I The Puritan.
( Withington )

.Charles H. Webb Liffith Lank.

..Capt. Geo. H. Derby.. Phcenixiana.

( Lieut. Harry Aug.
i Wi

Harry Gringo

John Sur-re-butter

Jonathan Freke

Slingsby
Jonathan Oldstyle..

Journeyman Printe

t Anna Cora (Mowatt)
j Ritch
.Mrs. D. M. F. Walke

..Washington Irving.. ..Morning Chronicle.
..Henry N. Coleridge... KnighVs Quarterly.

. .H. W. Longfellow . . . .History of Newbury.
r..C. Manby Smith Autobiography of J. P.

i Joseph Lemuel j _

1 Chester P ouraahst -

Henry J. Thurston.

.Archbishop McHale.
.Sir L. V. Harcourt..

Hookanit Bee, Esq
Horace Fitz Jersey

.S. R. Wigram

Kirwan

..Charles C. Converse... Church Singer.

j Rev. Nicholas Murray. Religious Controversy.

..John S. Du Solle Sunday Despatch.

■

.Theo. W. A. Buckley
.Rev. James Ridley..

( Mrs. Elizabeth Stuart
f Phelp

.Donald G. Mitchell..

1 Lady Harriet G.

1 (Hamilton) Dufferi

..Stephen Higginson.,.. Political controversy.

Hotspur....

Howard Glyndon..

Launcelot

Wagstaffe, Jr.

..Lizzie B. Comins,

. .Rev. Jesse Appleton . . \ v *™^»- f «~ .

( geltcal Mttgattnt.

.L. Virginia French Poems.

.Fred. G. Tomlins London Wttkly Timts.

Lawrence Slingsby

Ignatius Loyola

Robinson

Lewis Carroll

London Antiquaria
Louise Muhlbach..
Louis de Montalte.

Impulsia

Gushington

.Clara (Muller) Mundt.. Historical Novels.

.W. Gilmore Simms...
.See Major Jack Dow
..Jonathan F. Kelly...

.M. J. Higgins

.Charles G. Leland Ballads.

Jacob Omnium

Major Jack Downin
Malakoff

..Joseph A. Scoville....Z«»i<r<»> Herald.

1 Maria (Gowen) 1 _

1 Brooks ( Poems -

..Harriet M. Bradley... Minnie's Birthday.

j Mary Virginia >

j (Hawes) Terhune I Wovels '

[ Mrs. Harriet M. 1 „

c. u 1 Novels.
' Stephens \

..John P. Kennedy Swallow Barn.

..W. C. M. Kent The Derby Ministry.

.Samuel L. Clemens.... Innocents Abroad.

.Rev. William Hickey.. Irish Agriculture.

.Mrs. CM. Kirkland...A New Home.

; Mrs. Marv Sargent 1 _ . _ ..

~ ,vr i\ \t- u 1 [ Lectures to Ladies.
1 Gove (Neal) Nichols )

Maria del Occidente

Marion Harland...

Marion Ward
Markham Howard.

Mark Rochester. . . .

Janus Weatherboun

j Stephen C. Massett..
.Mrs. Jennie C. Croly.

Jedediah

Cteishbotham
Jeemes Pipes of

Pipesville

Jeremiah Bingletub
J. K. L

.Cincinnatus H. Mille
.George A. Foxcroft.
.Thompson Westcott. .

John Darby

i
J

ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WOKE.

Mary Powell MUs M. A. Manning.. Fiction.

Massachusettensis... Daniel Leonard Political controversy.

_ . „ „ ,. i Master Timothv's

Master Timothy G. W. M. Reynolds. ... J Bookcase.

Matthew Browne William B. Rands Poems.

M.ittlicw Stradling...M. M. F. Mahoney..... Gilbert Masslnger.

Maurice Sand Maurice Dudevant... .Travels.

M i x Adeler Chas. Heber Clark . . . .Comic.

Mcrcutio Will Winter. New York Tribuiu.

Michael Angclo I w M Thackeray Paris Sketches.

Titinarsh t

Miles O'Reilly See Private Miles O'Reilly.

i Anna L.Johnson j Poenw.

[ (Mrs. Joaquin Miller) (

Minnie Myrtle..
Modern

! Robert McNish Blackwood's Magazine.

Pythagorean )

Mofussilite Thomas Lang Too Clever by Half.

Morgan O'Dohcrty.. William Maginn Blackwood's Magazint.

Morgan Rattler Pcrcival Banks Fraser's Magazine.

Mr. Pips Percival Leigh Punch.

Mrs. Markham.,

[ Mrs. Elizabeth

Penrose

School histories.

Mrs. Manner. j C °™"» H - (B £^*L \ M H ° me "* ^""^

Mrs. Partington Benj. P. Shillabcr Boston Post.

Ned Buntlinc E. Z. C. Judson King of the Sea.

Nclsle Brook Mrs. Ellen Ross Little Mother Mattie.

Nicias Foxcar Francis Jacox Journalist.

Nilla Miss AbbyAUIn Home Ballads.

Nlmrod Charles J. Appcrly.... Chase, Turf and Road.

Novanglus John Adams Political controversy.

O. F. Q. ( a T> f ( Natural history In

Philander Smith ) ° U y f Figaro.

Occasional John W, Forney The Press, Philadelphia.

Old Humphrey George Mogridge Every-day Lessons.

Old Merry Edwin Hoddcr Old Merry's Annual.

Old Sailor Henry M. Barker Tough Yarns.

Old Shekarry Major Leveson Forest and Field.

Old South Benjamin Austin Independent Chronicle.

Oliver Oldschool Joseph Dennle The Portfolio.

Oliver Optic William F. Adams. ...Juvenile tales.

Olivia. Emily Edson Grigg . . .Journalist.

Ollapod Willis G. Clark Knickerbocker Magazint.

~. . . _ . . _ ( Handbook of

Olphar Hamst, Esq.. Ralph Thomas 1 _. , ,

( Fictitious Names.

One from the Plough. G.Mitchell The Times.

Onu;>hrioMuralto...See William Marshall, Gent.

Onyx Titian Sarah Woodward Apple Blossom.

Orpheus C. Kerr Robert H. Newell Humor.

Ouida Louise dc la It ame Under Two Flags.

, Lord (Robert E.

Bulwcrj Lytton

P. Fisher W. E. Chatto. Angler's Souvenir.

Parson Frank Francis Jacox Journalist.

Patty Lee Alice Cary Poems.

(J.A.S. Coliin |

I (Danton) de Pl.ncy ( In,crnal D"*»o»«T.

Paul Creyton John F. Trowbridge.. Fiction.

Paul Pindar J. Yonge Akerman... .Legends of Old London,

Paul Prigglns Rev. J, Hewlett Novelist.

Paulus Sileritlarius... George P. Phlles The Philoblbllon.

Peasant Bard Josiah D. Canning.... Poems.

[John Dickinson Political controversy.

Pcquot Charles W.March Boston Courier.

Peregrine Persic James Morler Hajji Baba.

Perley Bcnj. lYrl. v P otn m ,, m ,MmmmM Journal.

Peter Palette Thomas Onwhyn Artist.

Owen Meredith.

Paul Bcranger.

Lucille.

ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORE.

Peter Parley Samuel G. Goodrich . .Cabinet Library.

Peter Pennot Rev. W. F. Round.

Peter Peppercorn.... Thomas L. Peacock. ..Poems.

Peter Pindar Dr. John Wolcot. Satirist.

Peter Plymley Rev. Sydney Smith.. ..Letters.

Peter Porcupine William Cobbett P. P.'s Gazette.

Peter Prlggins Rev. H. Hewlett. College Scout.

Peter Quince Isaac Story The Parnassian Shop.

Peter Schlemihl George Wood P. S. in America.

Peter Scriber Charles Aug. Davis. ..Commercial Advertistr.

Peter Wilkins Robert Pattock Fiction.

Petroleum V.Nasby. David R. Locke Toledo Blade.

Phllanthropos William Lad Friend of Peace.

Philip Quilibet George E. Pond.

Philip Wharton John C. Thomson Wits and Beaux.

PhilopatrisVarvi- . j^, pajr character, of Fox.

censis j

Phiz H. K. Browne Illustrator of Dickeas.

Poor Richard Benjamin Franklin.,.. P. R.'s Almanac.

Porte Crayon David H. Strother Harper's Magazine.

Priam C. J. Collins...... Dick Diminy.

Private Miles . Chajlcs G Halpine....AVw York Herald.

O'Reilly J r

Prizeman Newdigate.W. H. Mallock Every Man HisOwn Poet

Publicola John Quincy Adams... Political controversy.

Publicola . W. J . Fox Westminster Review,

Publicola David E. Williams London Weekly Despatch.

Puck John Proctor Caricature cartoons,

Q Chas. G. Rosenberg... You've Heard of 'Era,

Q Edmund H. Yates Evening Star.

Q. Q Miss Jane Taylor Youth's Magazine.

Q. K. Philander ),-.»—, n .

D t* ks I Thompson. Pluri-bus-tah.

Quallon S. H. Bradbury... Poems.

Quiz Rev. Ed. Caswell Sketches.

Radical Leslie Grove J ones ....London Times.

Rawdon Crawley. ...See Capt. Rawdon Crawley.

Red Spinner W. Senior Waterside Sketches.

Reuben Percy See Sholto and R. Percy.

Richard Brisk. J. Duncan Railway Book.

Richard Hayward...Fred. S. Cozzcns Knickerbocker Magazine.

Robinson Crusoe ....Daniel Defoe... Adventures of R. C.

Rob Roy John Macgregor Canoe Voyages.

Roving Englishman. Grenville Murray Sketches.

Ruhama Miss Skidmore St. Louis G lobe • Democrat.

Runnymede Benjamin Disraeli Letters of Runnymede.

Rustic Bard Robert Dinsrnoor Poems.

Rutledge. Mrs. Miriam (Coles) Harris.

S. G. O S. G. Osborne The Times.

Samuel A. Bard Ephraim G. Squier....Waikna.

Sam Slick Thos. C. Haliburton...The Clockraaker.

Sarah Tyler. Miss Keddie } ***** ior Thw *£™

Saville Rome Clement Scott London Telegraph,

Scrutator J. Horlock Country Gentleman.

See De Kay Charles D. Kirk.

Seeley Regester Mrs. O. J. Victor.

Sexton of the Old- ). . ., . > Dealings with the

. . I Lucius M. Sargent _ .

school ( • ) Dead.

Shamrock R. D. Williams Poems.

Shclsley Boauchamp.T. W. Bradley Grantley Grange.

Shirley Dare Mrs. (Susan Dunning) Waters.

Sholto and i Thomas Byerley and

Reuben Percy ( Joseph C. Robertson I

Sholto R. S. Mackenzie Philadelphia Press.

Sigma Lucius M. Sargent. .. .Boston Transcript.

Silvcrpcn Eliza Meteyard Lilian's Golden Hours.

Sir Cosmo Gordon. ..Sir S. E. Brvdges Letters on Byron.

Sir Galahad Henry W. Moore Kansas City Times.

.(Percy

Anecdotes.

A DICTIONARY OF NOMS DE PLUME.

795

ASSUMED NAME.

REAL NAME.

REPRESENTATIVE WORK.

Solitaire John S. Robb Humor.

Sophie May Miss R. S. Clark Swamp Dr. *s Adventures.

Sparrowgrass F. S. Cozzens Sparrowgrass Papers.

Speranza Lady Wilde Poems.

Spy in Washington.. Matthew L. Davis. ...N. Y. Courier.

Squibob George H. Derby Squibob Papers.

Stampede Jonathan F. Kelly Humor.

Stella Mrs. E. A. B. Lewis... Records of the Heart.

Stonehenge J. Henry Walsh The Dog.

Straws J oseph M. Field New Orleans Picayune,

Straws, Jr. M iss Kate Field Springfield Republican.

Sut Lovengood George W. Harris Humor.

Sydney Yendys Syd ney Dobe II Poetry.

Tabor Mrs. Robinson Novelist.

Tag, Rag and Bobtail. Isaac D'Israeli ..Flim-Flams.

Talvi Mrs. Ed. Robinson Tales.

Tamoc Caspipini Jacob Duche Letters of T. C.

Teufelsdroeckh Thomas Carlyle Sartor Resartus.

Teutha William Jerdan Literary Gazette.

The Black Dwarf.... Thomas J. Wooler.... Politics.

The Celt .Thomas Davis Poems.

The Druid Henry H. Dixon Silk and Scarlet.

The Governor Henry Morf ord New York Atlas.

The O'Hara Family..John and M. Banim... Novels.

The Traveller. Isaac Stary Columbian Sentinel,

Theodore de la i

G , j Nathaniel Ward Simple Cobbler.

Theodore Taylor.....J. C. Hotten Life of Thackeray.

Thinks I to Myself.. .Rev. Dr. Ed. Nares.... Novels.

Thomas Little Thomas Moore..*.. ...Little's Poems.

Thomas Ingoldsby...Rev. R. H. Barham....Ingoldsby Legends.

Thomas Rowley Thomas Chatterton... .Poems.

Timon Fieldmouse.. .William B, Rands Essays.

Timothy Tickler Robert Syme, In Noctes Ambrosianae.

ASSUMED NAME.

REAL NAME.

REPRESENTATIVE WORK.

Timothy Titcomb.. . .J. G. Holland Letters to the Young.

Tom Brown Thomas Hughes Tom Brown at Rugby.

Tom Folio Joseph E. Babson.

Tom Hawkins Theo. W. A. Buckley.. Gentleman*s Magazine.

Trinculo John A. Cockerill Journalist.

Tristram Mcrton Thomas B. Macaulay..A*»i^A/'j Quarterly.

Two Brothers A. and C. Tennyson... Poems.

Ubique Parker Gilmore Afloat and Ashore.

Un a M ary A. Ford Poems.

Uncle Hardy William Senior Notable Shipwrecks.

Uncle John Elisha Noyce Marvels of Nature.

Uncle Philip Rev. Dr. F. L. Hawks. American Histories.

Uncle Toby Rev. Tobias H . Miller.

V Mrs. Archer Clive Poems.

Vandyke Brown William Penn Brennan \ L. . „ ,

) Thousand Strings.

Veteran Observer.... Ed. D. Mansfield Chronicle and Atlas.

Village SchoolmasterC. M. Dickinson Tales.

Vigilant John Corlett The Times.

Vivian George H. Lewes The Leader.

Vivian Joyeux W. M. Praed KnigkV sQuarterly.

Walter Barrett, clerk. Joseph A. Scoville Old Merchants of N. Y.

Walking Gentleman. Thos. C. Grattan Highways and By-ways.

Walter Maynard W. Bealc Enterprising Impresario.

Warrington William S. "Robinson, .Spring/ield Republican.

Waters William H. Russell.. .Diary of a Detective,

Werdna Retnyw Andrew Wynter Odds and Ends.

What's His Name... .E. C. Massey Green-eyed Monster.

Wm. Marshall, Gent.. Horace Walpole Castle of Otranto.

William and Robert ) , „ ,, _ „. . .

___. , , J John Hookham ^rercKinsr Arthur.
Whistlecraft ) &

Wilibald, Alexis William Hxring Walladmor.

Wizard John Corlett 751* Times.

Zadkiel the Seer R. J. Morrison Prophetic Almanac.

■Si

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£!

796

A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY.

^MYTHOIOGY*

£Z£S

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I 1

GREEK AND ROMAN

^ BBOTfA. A goddess of voyages, etc.

A*** Aeha'tes. The trusty friend of ./Eneas.

Acheron. The' son of Sol and Terra, changed
by Jupiter into a river of hell. Used also for
hell itself.

Achilles. A Greek who signalized himself in
the war against Troy. Having been dipped by
his mother in the river Styx, he was invulner-
able in every part except his right heel, but was
at length killed by Paris with an arrow.

A'cis. A Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphe-
mus because he rivaled the latter in the affec-
tions of Galatea.

Ac tee 'oil. A famous hunter, who, having sur-
prised Diana as she was bathing, was turned by
ner into a stag, and killed by his ow.i Jogs.

Ado'nls. A beautiful youth beloved by Venus
an 1 Proserpine. He was killed by a wdd boar.
When wounded, Venus sprinkled nectar into his
blood, from which flowers sprang up.

JEife'us. A king of Athens, giving name to the
M$ I in sea by drowning himself in it.

JR'giB, A shield given by Jupiter to Minerva.
Also the name of a Gorgon whom Pallas slew.

2Ene'oS. A Trojan prince, son of Anchises and
Venus ; the hero of Virgil's poem the /Eruid.

JE'oluS. Tnc god of the winds.

JSSo'uS. One of the four horses of the sun.

JE^cula'pius. The god of medicine, and the
son of A poll » Killed by Jupiter w : th % tb'in-
derbolt for having restored rlippolytus tc lite.

JE thon. One of the four horses of the sun.

Aff&mem'non. King of My cento and Argos,
brotli r to Menelaus, and chosen captain-gen -
f the Greeks at the siege of Troy.

Atfanip'pe. A fountain at the foot of Mount
H In on, daughter of the river Permessui.

Affla'ia. One of the tin cc Graces.

A'.|ax. Next to Achilles, the bravest of all the
I in the Trojan war.

ATblon. The son nf Neptune; went into Britain
and established a kingdom.

Alces'te, or Aloestis. The daughter of Mm

tight back from hell by
Hercules.

Alci'dss. A title of Harcule*.

Alec to. One of the three Furies..

Alo'a. A festival of Bacchus and Ceres.

A mm on. A title of Jupiter.

Atnphi'on. A famous musician, the son of Tu-
mi Antlope. who built the city of Thebes
jy the muslr of tils harp. He ami his brother
Zethu* arc said to have invented music

Amphitri'U. Goddess of the sea, and wife of

Neptiiin ,

Androm'ache. Wife of Hector.

Andromeda. The daughter of Cepheus and
Cassiopeia, who, contesting with Juno and the
Nereides for the prize of beauty, was bound to a
rock by them ana exposed to a sea monster, but
was rescued and married by Perseus.

Angre'rona. The goddess of silence.

An tee 'us. The giant son of Neptune and Terra ;
/ed to death by Hercules.

Antever'ta. Goddess of women bl labor.

Antifc'one. The daughter of CEJipus and Jo-
casta, famous for her filial piety.

An'ubis. An Egyptian god with a dog's head.

A 'pis. Son of Jupiter and Niobe ; called also
Serapis and Osiris. Taught the Egyptians to
sow corn and plant vines, and worshipped by
them in the form of an ox.

Apollo. The son of Jupiter and Latona, and
tnc god of music, poetry, eloquence, medicine
and the fine arts.

Arach'ne. A Lydian princess, turned into a
spider for contending with Minerva at spinning.

Arethu'sa. One of Diana's nymphs, who was
changed into a fountain.

Ar'jrus. The son of Aristor ; said to have had a
hundred eyes; but being killed by Mercury
when appointed by Juno to guard Io.she put his
eyes on the tail of a peacock. Also an archi-
t < t , who built the ship Argo.

Ariad'ne. The daughter of Minos, who, from
love to Theseus, gave him a clew of thread, to
guide him out ofthe Cretan labyrinth ; being
afterward deserted by him, she was married
to Bacchus, and made his priestess.

Ari'on. A lyric poet of Mcthymna, who, in
his voyage to Italy, saved his life from the
cruelty of the mariners by means of dolphins,
which the sweetness of his music brought
together.

Aristae 'us. A son of Apollo and Cyrene.

Aatrse'a. The goddess of justice ; charged into
the constellation Virgo.

Atalan'ta. A princess of Seyros, who consented
to marry that one of her suitors who should out-
run her, Hippomcucs being the successful com
pet i tor.

Atlas. One ofthe Titans, and king of Maurr.
< una ; said to have supported the world on his
ihouMsn; he was turned into a mountain by
Perseus.

Auro'ra. The goddess of morning.

Autum'nus. The god of fruits.

Baochan'te*. Priests of Bacchus.

Bacchus. The son of Jupiter and Semelc, and
the god of wine.

Bap ta. The goddess of shame.

BeUer'ophon. The son of Giaueus, king of
Ephyra. He underwent numerous hardships for
refusing an intimacy with Sthenobcea, wife of
Praetus, the king of Argos. With the aid of the
horse Pegasus he destroyed the Chimera.

Bellona. Goddess of war; sister of Mars.

Hereni'ca. A Grecian lady ; the only person of
her sex permitted to see the Olympic games.

Boli'na. A nymph rendered immortal for her
modesty and resistance to Apollo .

Bo're^js. The son of Astrzus and Aurora ;
the i.ame of the north wind.

Bria'reus. A giant who warred against heaven,
and was feigned to have had fifty heads and one
hundred arms.

Busi'ris. The sc of Neptune ; a tyrant of
Egypt, and a monstaous giant, who fed his horses
with human flesh ; was killed by Hercules.

Byblis. The daughter of Miletus ; she wept
herself into a fountain through love of her brother
Caunus.

Ca'cus. A son of Vulcan and a most notorious
robber ; slain by Hercules for stealing bis oxen.

Cadmus. The son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia ;
founder of Thebes, and the reputed inventor of
sixteen letters ofthe Greek alphabet.

Cadu'ceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand.

C alii ope. One of the Muses, presiding over
eloquence and epic poetry.

Calyp'so. One of the Oceanides, who reigned

in the island Ogygia, and entertained and became

enamored of Ulysses.
Camfie'na, or Cam a. Goddess of infants.
Oassan'dra. A daughter of Priam and Hecuba,

endowed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo.
Castalldes. The Muses, so called from the

.m Castalius, at the foot of Parnassus.
Castor. A sou of Jupiter and Leda. He and

his twin brother Pollux shared immortality alter-
and were formed into the constellation

Gemini.
Ce crops. The first king of Athens, who insti-
tuted marriage, altars and sacrifices.
Cem'taurS. Children of Ixion, half men and
tea, inhabiting Thessaly, and vanquished

by Theseus.
Cerl>erus. TV three-headed dog of Pluto,

guarding the gates of hell.
Ce'res. The daughter of Saturn and Cybele, and

goddess of agriculture.
Charon. The son of Erebus and Nox, and fer»
f hell, who conducted the souls of the

dead over the rivers Styx and Acheron.
Charyb'dis. A ravenous woman, turned by

Jupiter into a very dangerous gulf or whirlpool

on the coast of Sicily.

<.ki

^4±

s »_

A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY.

797

Chi'mera. A strange monster of Lycia, killed
by Bellerophon.

Ohi'ron. A Centaur, who was preceptor to
Achilles, taught yEscutapius physic, and Her-
cules astronomy, and who became the constella-
tion Sagittarius.

Chry'seis. The daughter of Chryses, priest of
Apollo, famed for beauty and (or her skill in
embroidery.

Cir'ce. A noted enchantress.

Cli'o. One of the Muses, presiding over history.

Clo'tho. One of the three Fates.
Clytemnes'tra. The faithless wife of Agamem-
non, killed by her son Orestes.
Co'mus. The god of merriment.
Cro'cus. A young man enamored of the nymph

Smilax, and. changed into a flower.
Croe'sus. King of Lydia; the richest man of

his time.
Cu'pid. Son of Mars and Venus ; the god of

love.
Cyb'ele. The daughter of Ccelus and Terra ;

wife of Saturn, and mother of the gods.
Cy'clops. Vulcan's workmen, giants who had

only one eye, in the middle of their foreheads ;

slain by Apollo in a pique against Jupiter.

Deed'aluS. A most i ngenious artificer of Athens ,
who formed the Cretan labyrinth, and invented
the auger, axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts
and sails for ships.

Damon. The friend of Pythias.

Dana'ides, or Belides. The fifty daughters
of Danaus, king of Argos, all of whom, except
Hypermnestra, killed their husbands on the first
night of their marriage, and were therefore-
doomed to draw water out of a deep well, and
eternally pour it into acask full of holes.

Daphne. A nymph beloved by Apollo ; the
daughter of the river Pcneus; changed into a
laurel tree.

Daph'nis. A shepherd of Sicily and son of Mer-
cury ; educated by the nymphs, and inspired by
the Muses with the love of poetry.

Dar'danus. A son of Jupiter and founder of
Troy.

Deida'mia. The daughter of Lycomedes, king
of Scyros ; wife of Achilles, and mother of
Pyrrhus.

Deiph'obus. A son of Priam and "Hecuba;
married Helena after the death of Paris, but be-
trayed by her to the Greeks. •

Dejani'ra. Wife of Hercules, who killed herself
in despair, because her husband burnt himself
to avoid the torment occasioned by the poisoned
shirt she had given him to regain his love,

Delphi. A city of Phocis, famous for a temple
and an oracle of Apollo.

Deucalion. The son of Prometheus, and king
of Thessaly, who, with his wife Pyrrha, was pre-
served from the general deluge, and repeopled the
world by throwing stones behind them, as
directed by the oracle.

Dian'a. Daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and
goddess of hunting, chastity and marriage.

Di'do. Founder and queen of Carthage ; daugh-
ter of Belus, and wife of Sichseus. According to
Virgil, she entertained yEneas on his voyage to
Italy, and burnt herself through despair, because
he left her.

Diome'des. Son of Tydeus, and kingof iEtolia ;
gained great reputation at Troy, and, with
Ulysses, carried off the Palladium.

Dir'ce. Wife of Lycus , king of Thebes ; dragged
to death by a mad bull.

Dry'ades. Nymphs of the woods.

Ech'o. The daughter of Aer, or Air, and Tellus,

who pined away for love of Narcissus.
Elec'tra. Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytem-

nestra ; instigated her brother Orestes to revenge

their father's death upon their mother and iEgis-

thus.

Ely slum. The happy residence of the virtuous
after death.

EnceVadus. Son of Titan and Terra, and the
ttruugvSI ot'thc giants ; conspired against Jupiter,
and attempted to scale heaven.

Endym'ion. A shepherd and astronomer of
Curia, condemned to a sleep of thirty years.

Epe'uS. The artist who made the Trojan horse,
inventor of the sword and buckler.

Er'atO. The Muse of lyric and amorous poetry.

Er/eane. A river whose waters inebriated.

Er'ebus. The son of Chaos and Nox ; an infer-
nal deity. A river of hell, and often used by the
poets for hell itself.

Erin'nys. The Greek name for the Furies, or
Eumenides.

E'ros. A name of Cupid.

Eumen'ides. A name of the Furies.

Euphor'bus. The son of Panthous; slain by
Menelaus in the Trojan war.

Euphros'yne. One of the three Graces.

Euro 'pa. The daughter of Agenor, carried by
Jupiter, in the form of a white bull, into Crete.

Eury ''ale. A queen of the Amazons. Also one
of the three Gorgons

Eury'alus. A Peloponnesian chief in the Tro-
jan war. Also, a Trojan and a friend of Nisus,
for whose loss iEneas was inconsolable.

Euryd'ice. Wife of Orpheus ; killed by a ser-
pent on her marriage day.

Euryl'ochus. One of the companions of
Ulysses; the only one who was not changed by
Circe into a hog

Euter/pe. One of the Muses, presiding over
music.

Evad'ne. Daughter of Mars and Thebe ; threw
herself on the funeral pyre of her husband, Cata-
lans.

Fab'ula. Goddess of lies.

Fa'ma. Goddess of report, etc.

Fates. Powerful goddesses, who presided over
the birth and the life of mankind, were the three
daughters of Nox and Erebus, named Clotho,
Lachesis and Atropos. Clotho was supposed to
hold the distaff, Lachesis to draw the thread of
human life, and Atropos to cut it off.

Fau'na, and Fatu'a. Names of Cybele,

Fau'ni. Rural gods, described as having the
legs, feet and cars of goats.

Fau'nus. Son of Mercury and Nox, and father
of the Fauni.

Flo'ra. The goddess of flowers.

Fortu'na. The goddess of fortune ; said to be
blind.

Fur/iOS. The three daughters of Nox and Ache-
ron, named Alecto, Tisiphoneand Megaera, with
hair composed of snakes, and armed with whips,
chains, etc.

Galate'a. A sea-nymph, daughter of Nereus
and Doris, passionately loved by Polyphemus.

Gan'ymede. The son of Tros, King of Troy,
whom Jupiter, in the form of an eagle, snatched
up and made his cup-bearer.

Gre'ryon, A monster, having three bodies and
three heads, and who fed his oxen with human
flesh, and was therefore killed by Hercules.

Gor'dius. A husbandman, but afterward king
of Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords,
on which the empire of Asia depended, in so in-
tricate a manner, that Alexander, unable to un-
ravel it, cut it asunder.

Gordons. The three daughters of Phorcus and
Ceta, named Stheno, Euryale and Medusa.
Their bodies were covered with impenetrable
scales, their hair entwined with serpents ; they
had only one eye betwixt them, and they could
change into stones those whom they looked on.

Gra'ces. Three goddesses, Aglaia, Thalia and
Euphrosyne, represented as beautiful, modest
virgins, and constant attendants on Venus.

Ha'des. A title of Pluto.

Har'pies. Winged monsters, daughters of Nep-
tune and Terra, named Aello, Celaeno and Ocy-

pete, with the faces of virgins, the bodies of vul-
tures, and hands armed with claws.

HeT>6. The daughter of Juno ; goddess of youth,
and Jupiter's cup-bearer ; banished from heaven
on account of an unlucky fall.

Hec'tor. The son of Priam and Hecuba ; the
most valiant of the Trojans, and slain by
Achilles.

Hec'uba. The wife of Priam, who tore her eyes
out for the loss of her children.

Hfel'ena, or Hel'en. The wife of Menelaus,
and the most beautiful woman of her age, who,
running away with Paris, occasion^ the Trojan
war.

Hel'enuS. A son of Priam and Hecuba, spared
by the Greeks for his skill in divination.

Helle. The daughter of Athamas, who, flying
from her stepmother Ino, was drowned in the
Pontic Sea, and gave it the name of Hellespont.

Her'cules. The son of Jupiter and Alcmena ;
the most famous hero of antiquity, remarkable for
his great strength and numerous exploits.

Her'mes. A name of Mercury.

Hermi'one. The daughter of Mars and Venus,
and wife of Cadmus ; was changed into a serpent.
Also, a daughter of Menelaus and Helena, mar-
ried to Pyrrhus.

He'ro. A beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace,
and priestess of Venus, whom Leander of Abydos
loved so tenderly that he swam over the Helles-
pont every night to see her ; but he, at length,
being unfortunately drowned, she threw herself,
in despair, into the sea.

Hesper'ides. Three nymphs, ^Egle, Arethusa
and Hesperethusa, daughters of Hesperus. They
had a garden bearing golden apples, watched by
a dragoq, which Hercules slew, and bore away
the fruit.

BCes'perus. The son of Japetus, and brother to
Atlas ; changed into the evening star.

Hippol'ytuB. The son of Theseus and Antiope,
or Hippolyte, who was restored to life by ^tscula-
pius, at the request of Diana.

Hippom'enes. A Grecian prince, who, beating
Atalanta in ;he race by throwing golden apples
before her, married her. They were changed by
Cybele into lions.

Hyacin'thttS. A beautiful boy, beloved by
Apollo and Zephyrus. The latter killed him ;
but Apollo changed the blood that was spilt into
a flower called hyacinth.

Hy'adeS. Seven daughters of Atlas and jEthra,
changed by Jupiter into seven stars.

Uy'dra. A celebrated monster, or serpent, with
seven, or, according to some, fifty heads, which
infested the Lake Lerna. It was killed by
Hercules.

Hy/men. Son of Bacchus and Venus, and god
of marriage.

Hyp'erion. Son of Ccelus and Terra.

Ica'rius. Son of GSbalus ; having received from
Bacchus a bottle of wine, he went into Attica to
show men the use of it, but was thrown into a
well by some shepherds whom he had made
drunk and who thought he had given them poison.

Ic'arus. The son of Dscdr.lus, who, flying with
his father out cf Crete in'.o Sicily, and soaring too
high, melted the wax of his wings, end fell into
the sea, thence called the lcarian sea.

I'O. The daughter of Tnachus, turned by Jupiter
into a white heifer, but afterward resumed her
former shape ; was worshipped cficr her death
by the Egyptians, under the name of I sis.

Iphigreni'a. The dnughter of Agamemnon and
Clytcmnestra, who, standing ready as a victim to
be sacrificed to appease the Ire cf Diana, was
by that goddess transformed into a white hart
and made a priestess.

I'ris. The daughter of Thaumas and Electra ;
one of the Ocear.ides, and messenger and com-
panion of Juno, who turned her into a rainbow.

Ixi'on. A king of Thessaly, and father of the
Centaurs. He killed his own sister, and was
punished by being fastened in hell to a wheel per-
petually turning.

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79 8

A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY.

Ja'nus. The ion of Apollo and Creusa, and first
king of Italy, who, receiving the banished
Saturn, was rewarded by him with the knowledge
of husbandry, and of things past and future.

Ja'son. The leader of the Argonauts, who, with
Media's help, obtained the golden fleece from
I

J ocas' to. The dfqgJMBf of Ocon. She unwit-
tingly married her own son, (-Edipus.

Ju'no. The daughter of Saturn and Ops; sister
MM wltb f Jupiter, the great queen of heaven,
and of all the gods, and goddess of marriages
and birth*.

Ju'pitor. The son of Saturn and Ops ; the su-
preme deity of the heathen world, the most pow-
erful of the gods, and governor of all things.

Lach'esis. One of the throe Fates.

Laoc'oi n. A son of Priam and Hecuba, and

high priest of Apollo, who opposed the reception
of the wooden horse into Troy, for which he and
his two sons were killed by serpents.

Laom'edon. A kingofTroy.kilhxlby Hercules
for denying him his daughter Hesione after he
had delivered her from the sea* monster.

La'res. Inferior gods at R->me, who presided
over houses and famili s ; son* of Mercury and
Lara.

Laver'na. A goddess of thieve*.

Lean'der. See II ro.

Lethe. A river of h.lt whose waters caused a
total forg.-t fulness of th;n;s p.isi.

IiUben'tia. Goddess of pleasure.

Lu'oifsr. The name of t*ie planet Venus, or

morning star ; said to bj the son of Jupiter and

Aurora,

Luoi'na. A daughter of Jupiter an J Juno, and a
goddess who presided over childbirth.

Luna. The moon; the daughter of Hyperion
and Terr.i.

Luper'calia. Feasu in honor of Pan.

Kart). The god of w.ir.

XCede'a. The daughter of Mitt, and a wonder-
ful sorceress or magician j sh*.' assisted Jason to
oht.iin the golden fGcce.

Medusa. The chief of the thrceGorgons; killed
by Perseus.

Mntree'ra. One of the Furies.

MeK'ara. Wife of Hercules.

Melpom'ene. One of the Mutes, presiding over
tragedy.

Mem 'noil. The son of Tithonus and Aurora, and
king ot Abydon; killed by Achilles for assisting
Priam, and changed into a bird at the request of

his ntn th. r

slenela'us. The son of Atreus king of Sparta;

rot Agamemnon, and husband of Helen.
Mentor, foe faithful friend of Ulysses, the

governor of Tclemachus, and the wisest man of

his time.

Mer'oury. Tho son of Jupiter and Maia; mes-
senger ot ihe gods, inventor of letters, and god of
eloquence, commerce and robbers.

Mi'da*. A kin^ of Phrygia, who had the power
given him ol turning whatever he touched into
gold.

MinerVa. The goddess of wisdom, the arts, and
wit ; produced from Jupiter's brain.

Mln'otaur. A celebrated monster, half man and
BshTdmL

Mnemos'yn^. The goddess of memory, and
t ufihe nine Muses

Mo'mus. The son of Nox, and god of folly ami
pleasantry.

Mor'phsus. The minister of Noa and Somnus,
I M I god of sleep and dreams.

Mors. Goddess of death.

Mn'set. Nino <* uighter* of Jupiter and Mnrmo-
ivno, named Calliope, Clio, Erato, 1
Mtjp Reno, P hhymnia, Terpsichore,
and Urania. They were mistresses of all the
sc icnces , and governesses of the feasts of the gods .

Mu'ta, Goddess of silence.

Na'iades Nymphs of streams and fountains.

Narcissus. A beautiful youth, who, falling in
love with his own reflection in the water, pined
away into a daffodil.

Nem'esis. One of the infernal deities, and god-
dess of revenge.

Nep'tune, The son of Saturn and Ops ; god of
tnc sea, and, next to Jupiter, the most powerful
deity.

No'reid*. Sea-nymphs.

Nestor. The son of Ncleus and Chloris, and
king of Pylos and M esse nia. He fought against
the Centaurs, was distinguished in the Trojan
war, and lived to a great age.

Ni'obeX Daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am-
pbioa, who, preferring herself to Latona, had her
fourteen children killed by Diana and Apollo,
and wept herself into a stone.

Nox. The most ancient of all the deities, and
goddess of night.

Ocean'idea. Sea-nymphs, daughters of Oceanus;
three thousand in number.

Oce'anuS* An ancient sea-god

(Ed'ipus. King of Thebes, who solved ihe rid-
dle of the Sphinx, unwittingly killed his father,
married his mother, and at last ran mad and
tore out his eyes.

Om'phald. A queen of Lydia, with whom Hcr-
cuLs wr.s so enamored that h-- submitted to
spinning and other unbecoming offices.

Ops. A name of Cybcle.

Oroa'te*. The son of Agamemnon.

Or'phouS. A celebrated Argonaut, whose skill
In music ii sol I to have been so great that he
coul I make racks, trees, etc.. follow him. He
was the son of Jupiter and Calliope.

Osiris. B«« Apis.

Palla'dium. A statue of Minerva, which the

i Imagined ftiS Eras heaven, and with

which their city was deemed unconquerable.

Pallas and PyTotis. Names of Minerv: t .

Pan. The son of Mercury, and the god of vhep-
h rat, huntsmen, and the inhabitants of the
country.

Panda 'r a. The first woman, made by Vulcan,
and endowed with gifts by all ihe deities. Jupi-
ter gave her a box which contained all the evils
and miseries of life, but with hope at the bottom.

Paris, or Alexander. Son of Priam and
H.:cuba; a most beautiful youth, who ran away
with Helen, and thus occasioned the Trojan war.

Parnas'sus. A mountain of Phocis, famous for
a temple oi Apollo ; the favorite residence of the
Muses.

Pogr'asus. A winged horse belonging to Apollo
and Ihe Muses, which sprung from the blood of
Medusa when Perseus cut off her fa

Pena'tm. Small statues, or household gods.

Pen ol 'one. A celebrated prince** of Greece,
daugmcr of I cams f and wife of Ulysses; cele-
brated for her cSasiity and constancy in the long
absence of her husband.

Per'seus. Son of Jupiter and Panae; per-
form c I many extraordinary exploits by means
of Medusa's head.

Pha'etotU Son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene.

ed the guidance of his father's chariot for

<y as a proof of his divine descent; but,

unable to mature the horses, set the world on

fire, and was therefore struck by Jupiter with a

thunderbolt into the river Po.

Philomela. The daughter of Pandion, king of
Athens; changed Into a nightingale.

Phin'eaa, Ragofl Paphhtgonia; had his m
torn out by Porea^.hut was recompensed with
the knowledge of ftimriiy. A'so, a king of
Thrace turned into a stone by Perseus.

Phostrus. A title of Apollo.

Pleiades. Seven daughters of Adas and Plei-
one, changed into stars.

Plu'to. The son of Saturn and Ops, brother of
Juonsraad Neptune, and the god of the infernal
iSPSBSi

Plu'tuS. The god of riches.
Pomona. The goddess of fruits and ?utomn.
Polyhym'nia. The Muse of rhetoric.
Priam. The last king of Troy, the son of La-
i, under whose reign Troy was taken by
the Greeks.

Prometheus. The son of Japetus; said to
have stolen fire from heaven to animate two
bodies which he had formed of clay, and was
therefore chained by Jupiter to Mourn Caucasus,
with a vulture perpetually gnawing his liver.

Pros'erpine. Wife of Pluto.

Pro'teus. The son of Oceanus and Tethys ; a
sea-goJ and prophet, who possessed the power
of changing himself into any shape.

Pey'che. A nymph beloved by Cupid, and
made immoral by Jupiter.

Pys/znies. A nation of dwarfs only a span
long, carried away by Hercules.

Pyl'ades. The constant friend of Orestes.

Pyr'amua and Thisbe. Two lovers of Baby..
Ion, who killed themselves with tlic same sword,
and thus caused the berries of the mulberry tree,
under which they died, to change from white to
red.

Py'thon. A huge serpent, produced from the
mud of the deluge ; killed by Apollo, who, in
memory thereof, institmcd the PyUMSS games.

Re'mua. The elder brother of Romulus, killed
by him for ridiculing the city walls.

Rhadr; man thus. One of the three infernal

judges.

Romulus. The son of Mars Ilia ; thrown into
the Tiber by his uncle, but saved, with his twin
brother, Remus, by a shepherd; became the
founder and first king of Rome.

Salii. The twelve frantic priests of Mars.
Sal US. Goddess of health.
Saturnalia. Feasts of Saturn.

Sat'urn. A son of Qrlus and Terra; god of time.
Satyrs. Attendants cf Bacchus ; horned mon-
sters, half goats, hdf men.

Sem'ele. The daughter of Cadmus and Thebe,
and mother of Bacchus.

SenuVamis. . A celebrated queen of Assyria,
who built ihe walls of Babylon; was slain by
her own son, Ninyas, and turned into a pigeon.

Sera'pis. See A/is.

Sile'nus. The foster-father, master and com-
panion of Bacchus. He lived in Arcadia, rode
on an ass, and was drunk every day.

Si'rens. Sea - nymphs, or sea - monsters, the
daughters of Oceanus and Amphitrite.

Sisyphus. The son of iEolus ; a most crafty
. killed by Theseus, and condemned by
Pluto to roll up hill a large stone, which con-
stantly fell back again.

3oL A name of Apollo.

Somnus. The son of Erebus and Nox, and the
god of sleep.

Sphinx. A monster, who destroyed herself be.
1 Kdipus solved the enigma she proposed.

Sten'tOr. A Grecian whose voice is
to have been as strong and as loud as the l
of fifty men together.

S the no. One of the three Gorgon*.

Styx. A river of hell.

Sy lvanus. A god of woods and forests.

Ta'cita, A goddess of silence.

Tantalus. The son of Jupiter, and king of
Lydia, who served up tnc limbs of his son,
Pelops, to try the disunity * f the gods, for which
he was plunged to the chin in a lake if hell, and
doomed to everlasting thirst and hunger.

Tar'tarus. The part of the infernal regions \
which the wicked were punished.

Tau'rus. The bull under whose form Jupiter
arried away Europe.

Telexn'achus. The only son of Ulysses.

Terpsichore. The Muse presiding over danc-
ing.

A DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS

799

"71

The'mis. The daughter of Coelus and Terra,
and goddess of justice.

Ti'phys. Pilot of the ship Argo.

Tisiph'one. One of the three Furies.

Ti'tan. The son of Ccelus and Terra, elder

brother of Saturn, and one of the giants who

warred against heaven.
Titho'nus. The son of Laomedon, loved by

Aurora, and turned by her, in his old age, Into a

grasshopper.
Tri'ton. The son of Neptune and Amphitrite, a

powerful sea-god, and Neptune's trumpeter.

Tro'ilus. A son of Priam and Hecuba.
Troy. A city of Phrygia, famous for holding out

a siege of ten years against the Greeks, but

filially captured and destroyed.
"Dlys'ses. King of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety

and eloquence, was eminently serviceable to the

Greeks in the Trojan war.
TXra'nia. The Muse of astronomy.
Ve'nus. One of the most celebrated deities of

the ancients, the wife of Vulcan, the goddess of

beauty, the mother of love, and the mistress of

the graces and of pleasures.
Vertum'nus. A deity of the Romans, who pre-

sided over spring and orchards, and who was the
lover of Pomona.

Ves'ta. The sister of Ceres and Juno, the god-
dess of fire, and patroness of vestal virgins.

Viri'placa. An inferior nuptial goddess, who
reconciled husbands and wives. A temple at
Rome was dedicated to her, whither the married
couple repaired after a quarrel.

Vul'cail. The god who presided over subterra-
neous fire, patron of workers in metal.

Zeph'yrtUi- The west wind, son of &olus and
Aurora, and lover of the goddess Flora,

Zeus. A title of Jupiter.

-*~«-H3K£H-«~i--

- >1 4

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» i< -

A DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS.

■ M 4

^1^

* — *-H-

Accellerando, or AoceL Quicken the time
gradually.

.Adagio. Very slow.
Ad Libitum, or Ad Lib. At will.
Affettuoso. Affecting, with pathos.
Agitato. Agitated.
Al Fine. To the end.

Allegretto. Somewhat cheerful, but not so
quick as Allegro.

AUegTO. Quick.

Al Segno- To the sign, signifying that the per-
former must go back to the sign ;S; t and play
from that mark to the word Fin*.

Amoroso. Lovingly.

Andante. Somewhat slow.

Andantino. Not quite so slow as Andante.

Animato. In an animated style.

A poco a POCO. Little by little.

Aria. An air or song.

Assai. Very, extremely.

A tempo. In the regular time.

Bis. Twice (repeat).

Brillante. Brilliant.

Calando. Diminishing gradually in tone and
speed.

Cantabile. In a graceful, singing style.

Con JKoto. In agitated style. With spirit.

Con Spirito. With quickness and spirit.

Coda. A few bars added to terminate a compo-
sition.

Colla Voce. With the voice or melody.

Con Brio. With brilliancy.

Con Expressions With expression.

Crescendo, or Cres. Gradually increase the

volume ot tone.

Da Capo, or D. C. Repeat from the beginning
to the word Fine.

Decrescendo, or Decree. Gradually dimin-
ish the volume of tone.

Delicato. Delicately.

Del Segno. See Segno.

Diminuendo, or Dim. Same as Decrescendo.

Dolce, or DoL In a sweet, smooth style.

Dolor o so. In a mournful, pathetic style.

E. And

Expressivo. } — -^

■a . r Withexpi

Expressione. )

Fine. The end.
Forte, or f. Loud.
Fortissimo, or ft Very loud.
Forzando, or Fz. Signifies that the note is to
be given peculiar emphasis or force.

Forza. Force.

FuOCO. With fire.

Grave. Extremely slow.

Grazioso. In a graceful, elegant style.

Impromptu. An extemporaneous production.

L. H. Left hand.

Larghetto. Slow and solemn, but less so than

Largo.
Largo. Very slow and solemn.
Legeremente. Lightly, gayly.
Lentando. Slower by degrees.
Legato. In a smooth and connected manner.
Lento. In a slow time.
Loco. Place, play as written.
Maestoso. Majestic and dignified.
Martellato. Struck with force.
Mono. Less.

Mezzo, or M, Neither loud nor soft — medium.
T&czzo Fort©, or mf. Rather loud.
Mezzo Piano, or mp. Rather soft.
Moderato. Moderate.
Molto. Very.
JXEosso. Movement.
Moto, or Con Moto. With agitation and

earnestness.
Morendo. Dying away.
Non Troppo. Not too much.
Obligate Cannot be omitted.
Ottava, or 8va. An octave higher.
Patetico. Pathetically.
Pastorale. A soft and rural movement.
Piano, or p. Soft.
Pianissimo, or pp. Very soft.
Piu. Very.
Poco. A Uttle, somewhat.

Pomposo. Pompous, grand.
Presto. Very quick.
Prestissimo. As quick as possible.
Quasi. As if.

Rallentando, or Rail. A gradual diminu-
tion of tone and retarding of movement.

Religiose En a solemn style.

Ritardando, or Ritard, or Rit, Gradually

sluwer.

Rinforzando, or Rf. With additional force,

Ritenuto. Hold back the time at once.

Scherzando. Playfully.

Segue. Continue as before.

Seria. Seriously.

Sempre. Throughout — always,

Semplice. In a simple, unaffected style.

Segno, or :S:. Sign ; as, Al segno, to the sign ;
Dal Segno, repeat from the sign to the word
Fine.

Senza. Without.

Sf o r z ando. E mphasi zed .

Sincopato. Forced out of time.

Smorzando. Smoothed, decreased.

Soave- Soft and delicate.

Sotto Voce. In an undertone.

So^tenutO. Tn a smooth, connected style,

Spirito, or Con Spirito. With spirit.

Staccato. Detached, short.

Tempo. In time.

lempo di Marcia. In marching time.

Tempo di Valse. In waltz time.

Tempo PrimO. In the original time.

Trillando. Shaking on a succession of notes.

Tranquillo. Tranquilly.

Tutto Forza. As loud as possible.

Veloce. With Velocity,

VigoroSO. Boldly, vigorously.

Vivace. With extreme briskness and anima-
tion.
Vivo. Animated, lively.
Volti Subito. Turn over the pages quickly.
ZelosO* With zeal.

8oo

A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS.

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A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS.

feacgfeg

Ifflil Vfltji fftll

.sagaa

Words and Phrases, Persons, Places, Pictures, Buildings, Streets and Monuments frequently alluded to in

Literature and in Conversation.

ff-UO has not met, either in reading or conversation, with allusions to matters with which he was previously unacquainted?
ft Facts and fancies of history and romance are continually encountered, to which only a liberal education or a wide course
of study will give the key. We have gathered below a glossary of the most frequent of these allusions, and we flatter
* ourselves that the succeeding pages will throw a flood of light upon many interesting topics which to the majority of
people have heretofore been dark and inex-:' .able.

Abderlte. Democritus, the original laugh-
ing philosopher, was born in Abdera, a Thra-
cian city. From him a scoffer or person

Sven to continual laughing is called an
bderite.

Abraham'* Bosom. The rest of the
blessed dead.

Ahyla and Calne, the Pillars of Hercules,
the exit from the Mediterranean.

Academic*. Plato's disciples were so
called from the Academy.

Academy. (Academe.) Plato founded
his school in a gymnasium of this name near
Athens. 36S B. C.

Academy, The French. A French sci-
entific body limited to forty members.

Acadia. Formerly the name of Nova
Scotia.

Ailiim's Apple. A part of the throat
where, it is said, a piece of the forbidden fruit
lodged.

Admirable Crlchton, The. James
Crichton, an accomplished Scotchman of the
sixteenth century.

Admiral. The highest rank In the Navy.

.Tlnriil. An epic poem by Virgil.

Ages. The five ages of the world accord-
ing to Hesiod, are the Golden, the Silver, the
Brazen, the Heroic and the Iron.

Alabama. A Confederate privateer .milt
in F.ugland. Sunk by the Kcarsarge J une

10th, fte*.

Aladdin's Window, To Finish. Trying
to complete another's work. Aladdin's palace
was perfect except one window left for the
Sultan to finish, but his treasure failed liiin.

Albany Regency. Name applied sixty
years ago to some Democrats at Albany, V V.

Albino. A person with white skin and
hair and red eyes. The Portuguese so
the white negroes.

Albion. England, so called from the
chalky white cliffs.

Aldlne Press. Founded by Aldus Manu-
tlus at Venice In l«/i. Editions of the class-
lea issued from this press were called the
Aldlne editions. This term Is now applied to
•omo elegant editions of English works.

A 1. van, Irian Library. Was found. .1 by
PtoUmy I'hiladclphus. It contained 700,000
volumes, and was burnt 47 B. C.

Alexandrine Age. 323-640, when Alex-
andria was the seat of the highest culture.

\ Ihanibra. A magnificent palace and a
fortress built by the Moors at Granada, in
Spain.

All-Hallows. All Saints' day, Nov. 1st

Allah. Arabic name of God.

Almack*. Assembly room in London
where the most exclusively aristocratic balls
were given.

Almighty Dollar. A phrase first used
by Irving in. his Creole Village, and which has
become quite common. The title of a play.

Alsatla. A quarter in London where
criminals take refuge.

Alto-Relievo. Figures in marble or cast-
ings projecting one-half or more from the
tablet.

Ambrosia. Food of the Gods.

Anachronism. An error In computing
time.

Anacreontics. Poems composed in the
manner of Anacreon, a great poet noted for
his exact imitation of nature.

Anclen Regime. The French Govern-
ment previous to the revolution of 1798.

Angling, The Father of. Izaak Walton.

Annua Mlrabilia. (Wonderful year.)
A. D. 1666. Noted for the great fire in Lon-
don, the Plague, and an English victory over
the butch. '

Antoninus, The Wall of. Was built by
the Unmans in A. D. 140 across Scotland be-
tween the Clyde and the Frith of Forth; an
embankment of earth.

Apollo Belvedere. One of the most beau-
tiful and perfect representations of the human
ituc of Apollo In the Belvedere
iy of the Vatican Palace at Rome.

Applan Way. The road from Rome to
Capua. The oldest Roman road.

Apples of Sodom. Beautiful fruit, hut
full el alhet, Applied figuratively BO the dis-
appointment of sin.

Apple, Golden. Prize for bcautv disput-
ed before l*;nis, between Juno, Pallas and
; awarded by htm to Venus.

Arabesque. Decoration in Moorish stvle.

Arcadian. A shepherd; a Greek grazing
country named Arcadia has furnished this
word to the poets.

Argo. The ship in which Jason and his
fifty-four compani ns sailed when going to
Colches for the Golden Fleece.

Argonauts. The adventurers on the Argo.

Argus-eyed. Crafty, watchful. Argus
had a hundred eyes; the jealous Juno put him
on detective duty over Io.

Armada, The Spanish. A fleet of 130
ships gathered by Philip of Spain for the in-
vasion of England in 1500. Queen Elizabeth
was busy preparing for resistance when the
news came that a storm had completely
wrecked the Armada.

Artesian Well. Boring in the earth un-
til water is reached that will flow spontane-
ously. Their first use was in Artois, France.

Aryans. The stem of the Indo-European
peoples.

Astor Library. Founded by John Jacob
Astor in New York City.

Athens, The Modern. Boston.

Augustan Age. As the most flourishing
period of the Roman literature was during
the time of Augustus, that name is given
to any age wherein literature is pre-eminent.

A nlil Reekie. Scotland.

Avalon. King Arthur's burial-place,
Glastonbury.

A> re-hire Poet, The. Bums. His birth-
place was near Ayr in Scotland.

Barnburner*. A name given some years
ago to radical Democrats, a leading man
amongst whom was John Van Buren.

Babylonish Captivity. The seventy years'
captivity of the Jews at Babylon, oot -J3S B.C.

Itaeonian Philosophy. The inductive
philosophy of Lord Bacon.

Ilnlmoral Castle. A Scotch castle own-
ed by Queen Victoria, where she spend* meet
OX her time in the summer.

Rank of England. Founded 1694.

Rnrd of Avon. Shakspere, so called
from his home being Stratford-on-Avon.

Barmecide'. Feast. A mockery, * de-
lusion and a sham. Barmecide asked a starv-
ing beggar to dinner, and seated him at a
table of empty dishes.

Basilisk. A mythical srrprnt vrtta power
to kill by merely looking at its victim.

A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS.

80 1

Basso RelieTO. Figures in marble and
castings thatprojectbut a little from the plane.

Bastile. French prison and fortress.
People were incarcerated here by lettre de
cachet, without notice or trial. Destroyed
by a mob, 170S.

Battle of the Books. Satire by Dean Swift
comparing ancient and modern literature.

Battle of the Kegs. A practical joke on
the British General Loring. Detailed in a
ballad of the Revolutionary war.

Battery, The. A park in New York City
adjoining the river.

Beacon St. The aristocratic residence
street of Boston.

Beauty and the Beast. A fairy tale.
Beauty lives with the Beast to save her fath-
er's life. By her love she disenchants the
Beast, who proves to be a great Prince.

Bedlam. A mad-house.

Bee, The Attic. Plato; so called from
his honeyed style.

Bee, The Busy. An example of com-
munal industry.

Beelzebub. A Philistine deity.

Begging the Question. Assuming as
true what you are to prove.

Belle France, La. Beautiful France.

Belgravia. Fashionable quarter of Lon-
don.

Bell the Cat. In a convention of mice
it was proposed to hang a bell on the cat's
neck, to give warning of her coming. No
one would serve on the committee.

Bell, The Passing. Rung formerly when
persons were dying.

Beloved Disciple, The. St. John.

Bess, Good Queen. Queen Elizabeth.

Bibliotheque National. (National Li-
brary.) At Paris; contains over 1,000,000 books,
150,000 MSS.

Billingsgate. Coarse language. Such
as is used at the fish market of Billingsgate in
London ; a fishwife's tongue being said to be
remarkably expressive.

Black Death. A plague which desolated
Europe, Asia and Africa in the fourteenth
century.

Black Friday. Gold panic Sept. 26th,
1869. Immense fortunes lost and won same
day. Investigation could never discover the
true inwardness of it.

Black Hole of Calcutta. Dark prison
cell wherein Surajah Dowlah shut up 146
British soldiers; only 23 lived till morning.

Black Prince, The. Edward, Prince of
Wales, son of Edward III.

Black Republicans. The Republican
party of U. S. so called when opposing the
extension of slavery.

Blarney Stone. Its supposed virtue when
kissed is to impart a smooth and oily tongue.
Profusion of compliments is called Blarney.
This stone is in Blarney Castle, near Cork,
Ireland.

Bluebeard. A wife-killing tyrant, in a
nursery story.

Blue Laws. Some severe New England

statutes were so called.
Blue Stocking. A literary society at

Venice in 1400, whose members wore blue
stockings, is the origin of this name for a
female pedant.

Bohemian. As opposed to Philistine, an
artist or literary man living loosely by his wits.

Bois de Boulogne. A Parisian prome-
nade.

Border, The. Frontier of England and
Scotland.

Border Minstrel, The. Sir Walter Scott

Border States. Maryland, Delaware, Vir-
ginia, Kentucky, Missouri.

Bourgeoisie. A class of the people of
France mostly composed of traders and

manufacturers.

Boulevard. A wide street in Paris, in the
place of the ancient ramparts.

Bourse. Parisian stock exchange.

Bow Bells. A set of bells in the Church
of St. Mary-le-Bow, London. One "born
within sound of Bow Bells" is a Cockney.

Bowery, The. A New York thoroughfare.

Boycott. To refuse to have anything to
do with a person. To let him severely alone.
A trying ordeal passed through by Captain
Boycott in Ireland in 1881. No one would
sell to him, buy from him, work for him or
speak to him.

Brandy Nose. Queen Anne of England.

Breeches Bible, The. An edition in
which "aprons" in Gen. iii. 7 is rendered
"breeches."

Bride of the Sea. Venice.

Bridge of Sighs. In Venice. Connects
Doge's Palace and State Prison. Over this
bridge the condemned passed when on their
way to be executed.

British Museum. Library and museum
in London.

Broadway. The principal business street
of New York.

Brook Farm. A Socialistic community
to carry out the idea of Fourierism; was
founded at West Roxbury, Mass., 1S41.

Brother Jonathan. America ; an Amer-
ican. Some doubt as to its origin, but it is
said to come from Gov. Jonathan Trumbull,
of Connncticut, in speaking of whom Wash-
ington would say, "We must consult Brother
Jonathan."

Buncombe. Clap -trap speeches, to cajole
constituents, more than for immediate effect.
Buncombe is in North Carolina. A North
Carolina member said a fiery speech was not
delivered to the House, but to Buncombe.

Bunker Hill Monument. An obelisk
of granite marking the site of the battle of
Bunker Hill, fought between the British and
Americans, June 17, 1775.

Cachet, Lettres de. (Sealed letters.)
Blank warrants with the seal of the French
King already affixed for imprisoning or re-
leasing any person in the Bastilc.

Caledonia. Scotland.

Calumet. An Indian pipe. In old times
a treaty of peace with the red men would be
ratified by smoking the calumet.

Campagna. The plains around the city
of Rome.

Carbonari. A secretpolitical society or-
ganized in Italy, 1820.

Carmagnole. Song and dance in the
French Revolution.

Cartesian Philosophy. From Descartes,
" I think, therefore I exist."

Castle Garden. At New York City, the
landing-place of emigrants.

Catacombs. Subterranean sepulchres.
.About three miles from Rome in the Appian
Way a vast number of long underground pas-
sages about three feet wide and ten feet high.
On each side in niches were deposited the
bodies of the martyrs and early Christians.
These niches were closed with tiles or slabs
of marble having proper inscriptions on
them. During the persecutions the Christians
concealed themselves in these caves.

Cavalier Servente. The escort of a
married woman.

Cecilia, St. A martyr; patroness of
music.

Celestial Empire. China, whose first
Emperors were all divinities.

Central Park. The great park of New
York City; contains 863 acres.

Champs de Mars. A field in Paris for
military manoeuvres.

Champs Elysees. A promenade in Paris.

Charter Oak. A tree in Hartford, Conn.,
in which the Colonial Charter was secreted
in 1688. It was blown down in 1S56.

Chauvinism. Patriotism of the blatant
kind, from Chauvin, one of Scribe's charac-
ters.

Cheapside. A thoroughfare in London.
Chiltern Hundreds, To Accept the. A

member of the English Parliament cannot
resign, and cannot hold office during mem-
bership. If he wishes to leave, he can vacate
his seat by accepting the office of Steward of
the Chiltern Hundreds.

Chiltern Hundreds. A tract in Buck-
inghamshire and Oxfordshire, England, to
which is attached the nominal office of
steward under the crown.

Christ Church. The name of the largest
college in the University of Oxford.

Cid, The. The Spanish hero, Don Rod-
erigo Laynez, Count of Bivar.

Cincinnati, The. Society of American
Revolutionary officers.

Citizen King, The. Louis Philippe of
France.

Cockaine, Land of. An imaginary
country of ease and pleasure; usually applied
to London.

Colossus of Rhodes. A brass statue,
one of the wonders of the world, which stood
astride the entrance to the port of Rhodes.

Columbia. Poetical name of the United
States.

Column of Vendome. A stone pillar in
Paris erected by Napoleon, commemorating
the successes of the French armies. It was
thrown down by the Communists in 1871.

Confederate States. The eleven States
which seceded in 1861, Alabama, Arkansas,
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee,
Texas and Virginia.

Congressional Library. At Washing-
ton ; it is the largest in the United States.

Consols. English public securities.

Copperheads. Northern sympathizers
with the South in the Civil war.

Corncrackers, The. Kentuckians.

Corn Law Rhymer, The. Ebenezer

Elliott.

Corso. The chief thoroughfare of Rome.

Crapand, Johnny. A Frenchman.

Credit Mobilier. An authorized stock
company. The American Credit Mobilier
formed for raising money for the Pacific
Railroad raised a foul odor in 1873.

Crocodile Tears. Counterfeit sorrow.
A fable says the crocodile weeps as it eats its
victim.

Cumberland. A United States vessel
sunk by the Confederate ram Merrimac in
Hampton Roads, March 8, 1862.

Curfew Bell. At 8 o'clock, the ringing of
the curfew bell in old times in England, all
lights were extinguished, the fires raked up
and covered, and the people of the Kingdom
retired to bed. This rule, made by William
the Conqueror, lasted for a long time, and
even yet there is some sign of its observance
in the nine o'clock bell rung in many parts of
New England.

Damocles' Sword. Damocles, having
commented upon the happiness which the
tvrant Dionysius must enjoy, was invited by
him to a feast where, whilst discussing the
good things, he looked up and discovered a
sword hanging by a single hair immediately
over his head.

802

A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS.

, It ar

U HI

Darby and Joan. The loving; couple.

Darwinian Theory. An explanation of
the origin of species in animals, that they
come from one or a few original forms, the
at differences resulting from develop-
ment and natural selection.

Da Profundi*. The 130th Psalm; part of
tlur iMjriul service.

Debatable Ground. Land on the west-
ern border of Scotland, disputed between
England and Scotland.

Defender of the Faith. Henry VIII.
received this title from Tope Leo. X., and
his successors have borne it ever since.

Directory, The French. By the Con-
stitution ot 1705, the executive power was
vested In five Directors ; It lasted only four
years.

Dixie, The Land of. The Southern States.

Dlxsy. The nickname of Benjamin Dis-
raeli, Karl of Bcaconsfield.

Doctors' Commons. The place where
the Ecclesiastical Court sat in London.

Doctrinaire. A cant term in French

Solitics, given to the proposer of an imprac-
cable compromise measure.
Doe, John. The fictitious plaintiff In
ejectment suits, the defendant being Richard

Doomsday Book. Compiled by order of
William the Conqueror. It contained a sur-
vey and an estimate of value of all the lands
in England.

Donnybrook Fair. A once celebrated
annual fair near Dublin.

Donny Bible, The. The English Bible
authorized by the Roman Catholic Church;
first published at Douay, France.

Downing Street. The official residence of
the English Prime Minister since the time of
Sir Robert Walpole is in Downing Street,
London.

Drnry Lane Theater. In London; was
opened in 1688.

Dying Gladiator. An ancient statue in
the Capitol at Rome.

Eastern States, The. Maine, New
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island and Connecticut.

Ecce Homo. A painting by Correggio
representing the Savior crowned with
thorns.

Ecole Polytechnlque. A Parisian school,
the graduates of which are given places in
the public service.

F.l Dorado. A fabulous region In South
America, surpassing all other countries in
the production of gems and precious metals.
A name, for any wealthy country.

Elephant, Seeing the. Seeing the

world. v

Elgin Marbles. A collection of Greek
sculptures made by Lord Elgin. Now in the
British Museum.

Escurlal, The. A royal residence built
hv Philip II.; It Is the largest structure In
Spain, and one of the most splendid buildings
in Europe. It Is 11 miles from Madrid and
Contains a palace, a church, a monastery,
free schools and a mausoleum.

I.l.rnul City, The. Rome.

Eureka. (I have found It.) Exclamation
of Archimedes when he discovered the method
of proving that the sum of the squares of the
sides of a right-angled triangle equaled the
square of the hypothenuse.

Evangelists, Symbols of the. Matthew
has a rcroll before him and holds a pen;
Mark Its writing, with a winged lion by Ml
side; Luke has a pen and a scroll, near him
Is an ox ; John Is a young man behind whom
la an eagle.

Exclusion, Bill of. A bill which passed
the English House of Commons in 1070, pro -
posing to exclude the Duke of York from the
throne because he was a Koman Catholic.

Expounder of the Constitution, The.

Daniel Webster.

Fabian Policy. Delaying; dilatory.
From Quintus Fabius Maximus, the Human
General who successfully opposed Hannibal,
the Carthaginian, by avoiding a battle ana
continually harassing him.

Fabius, The American. George Wash-

lngton.

Fairmount Park. In Philadelphia,
where the Centennial Exhibition of 1S76 was
held ; contains nearly 3,000 acres.

Faineants, I. is Bols. (Do-nothing
Kings.) The last twelve Kings of the Merov
lagtaa Dynasty were so called. For about
100 years previous to 7J0, when Pepin de-
throned Childeric III., they were mere pup-
pets, and the supreme authority was exercised
by the mayors of the palace.

Falerninn. A celebrated ancient Italian
wine grown at Falernum.

Faneuil Hall. In Boston, built 174a ; called
the "cradle of Liberty," for there the Rcvolu
tionary patriots were wont to assemble.

Farmer George. George III. of Eng-
land ; so called from his love of agriculture.

Fata Morgana. A mirage in the Straits
of Messina.

Father of his Country. George Wash

ington.

Fathers of the Latin Church. St

Ambrose of Milan, St. Augustine, St. Ber-
nard, St. Hilary, St Jerome, Lactantius.

Faubourg St. Antolne. The part of
Paris where the workingmen live.

Faubourg St. Germain. Aristocratic
part of Paris.

Fenians. A society of Irishmen formed
in the United States in'1865 to free Ireland.

shield of the Cloth of Gold. Plain in
France where Francis I. and Henry VIII.
met on a mutual visit It is historical on
account of the gorgeous display, both parties
being most extravagant in their outfit

Fifth Avenue. A celebrated residence
street in New York.

Fighting Joe. The American General
Joseph Hooker.

First Gentleman In Europe. George
IV. of England.

Five Points. A once notorious locality
In New York,

Flagellants. Religious fanatics of the
thirteenth century who went about naked and
scourging themselves.

Fleet, The. A London prison taken
down in 1S45.

Flowery Kingdom, The. China.

Flying Dutchman. A spectre ship
cruising about the Cape of Good Hope. Fore-
bodes trouble to whoever sees it

Forte. Strong point

Fort Sumter. In the harbor of Charles-
ton. S. C. Here were heard the first sounds
of the cannons' thunder in the late Civil war.

Fnurierism. Charles F'ouricr, a French
visionary, proposed a system of communism
In which the world should be divided Into
" phalansteries " of four hundred families
who were to live and work in common.

Freshman. A student in his first year at
college.

Funk, Peter. A mock auction; a person
employed to act as an apparent purchaser
and bid up articles for sale.

Gadshlll. Near Rochester, in Kent,
England. Place where Palatal! met so many
men in buckram. Charles Dickens' residence

was at Gadshlll.

Genre Painting. Represents ordinary
domestic and rural scenes.

George, St., and the Dragon. St
George, the patron saint of England, is said
to have slain in Libya a hideous dragon
whose daily food was a virgin.

Gerrymander. The geographical appor-
tionment of districts to give preponderance
to one political partv. Started in Massa-
chusetts, and named from Its Govern
bridge Gerry. Example, a shoestring district
in Missouri.

Ghetto. The quarter In Rome to which
the Jews were formerly restricted.

Ghibelline. One of a faction in Italv in
the thirteenth century, which favored the
German Emperors, in opposition to the
Guelphs, adherents of the Pope.

Girondists; The Gironde. Moderate
"Constitutional" Republican party in the
French Revolution in 179S.

Glencoe. A pass in Argyleshire, Scot'
land. Here, February 13, 1691, were massacred
thirty-eight of the McDonalds by one hun-
dred and twenty soldiers under Capt Camp,
bell.

Gobelins. A tapestry and carpet manu-
factory at Paris, founded by Gobelin, a dyer,
about 370 years ago.

Godlva, Lady. Wife of Leofric, Earl of
Mercia.who offered to remit certain exactions
to his tenants if she would ride naked through
the streets of Coventry. She did so, all the
people closingtheir doors and keeping within
except one, "Peeping Tom," who was struck
blind for peeping at Her.

Golconda. The neighborhood of some
rich diamond mines in India.

Gold Fever. 1849; peopled California.

Golden Age. A period of innocence and
prosperity. Nearly always refers to some
past age.

Golden Gate. The entrance to the harbor
of San I-'rancisco.

Golden Horn. The estuary of the Bos-
phorus, upon whose banks Constantinople is
built

Gordian Knot. A difficulty ; an obstacle.
Gordius, King of Phrvgia, consecrated to
Jupiter a wagon, the beam and yoke of which
were tied together by such an intricate knot
that no one could unravel it. An oracle hav-
ing foretold that he who could untie this
knot would be master of Asia, Alexander
cut it asunder with his sword.

Gordon Riots, The. In 17S0 in London,
the hill passed by the House of Commons for
the relief of the Roman Catholics caused so
much ill feeling that Lord George Gordon, a
fanatic, incited the mob to try and force its
repeal. Dickens in his Bamaby Kudge gives
a visid description of these riots.

Gotham. A name sometimes applied to
New York City.

Gotham, The Wise Men of. Noted for
their folly. Gotham was sn English village.

Great Commoner, The. William Pitt.

Great Duke, The. Wellington.

Great Eastern. The largest vessel ever
launched. She was built to carry 1,000 pas-
sengers and 5,000 tons of cargo.' Her chief
work has been in the laying of ocean tele-
graph cables.

Great Pyramid, The. Is at Gheezeh,
Egypt It is 4S4 feet high.

Greenbacks. United Ststrs Treasury
notes. So named from their color.

Green Isle, The. Ireland. Sometimes
also called the Emerald Isle.

Greenwood. A ccmctcnr in Brooklyn,
N. Y.

A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS.

-4

Gregorian Year. 1582 ; it being proved
that the years were eleven minutes shorter
than what they were counted at, Gregory
XIII. took ten days of October out of that
year and advanced the dates so as to correct
the calendar. The reform lias been accepted
throughout Christendom, except in Russia.
Example : George Washington, born Febru-
ary n, O. S.

Gretna Green. A Scotch village famous
for runaway matches.

Grub Street. In London; used to be
noted fur its literary denizens.

Guelphs. The adherents in the thirteenth
century of the Papacy against the German
Emperors. They were the constant oppo-
nents of the Ghibcllines, and between them
Italy was kept in turmoil.

Guildhall. The London town hall.

Gunpowder Plot, The. A plot to blow
up the English Parliament in its House,
November 5, 1605. A cellar underneath was

stored with gunpowder intended to be touch-
off during tne session by Guy Fawkes.

The discovery was made in time to prevent
mischief. To use a modern but inelegant
phrase, the plot was considered by some
people to be * a put-up job."

Gyges* Ring. A ring which made the
wearer invisible. Gyges, having found a
man's corpse in a brazen horse that he dis-
covered in a cave, took a ring from the finger
of the dead that rendered him invisible. By
using this ring he entered unseen the chamber
of the King 01 Lydia and murdered him. He
became King.

Habeas Corpus Act, The. Was passed
in the time of Charles II. and provides that
the body of any person restrained of liis lib-
erty must on proper application be brought
before a Judge and the reason of hisc onfine-
ment stated. The Judge will then determine
the amount of bail he snail furnish, or he will
remand him to prison or allow him his free-
dom, as the case may require.

Halcyon Days. A period of happiness;
days of peace and tranquility. The halcyon,
as the kingfisher was anciently called, was
said to lay her eggs in nests on rocks near the
sea during the calm weather about the winter
solstice.

Handicap. Apportionment of the weights
that must be carried in a race by different
horses, considering their age and strength, to
equalize their chances.

Hansard. Name of the firm which prints
the debates of the British Parliament.

Hanse Towns. In the twelfth century
some commercial cities in the north of Ger-
many formed an association for the protec-
tion of commerce. To these other similar
cities in Holland, England, France, Spain
and Italy acceded, and for centuries this con-
federacy commanded the respect and defied
the power of Kings.

Hanseatio League. The name of the
confederation of Hanse towns. There were
seventy-two cities in the league, and they
held triennial conventions called Hansa. It
has long since fallen to nieces. Four of its
members, Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen and
Frankfort, arc called free cities, but arc really
part of the German Empire.

Hare, Mad as a March. The hare is
wilder than usual in March.

Harpies. Three ravenous and filthy mon-
sters, each having a woman's face and the
body of a vulture. Their names were Aello,
Ocypcte and Ccleno. Juno sent them to
plunder the table of Phineus.

Hari-Kari. (Happy dispatch.) Japanese
official suicide.

Harvest Moon. The full moon at or
nearest the fall equinox ; rises for a number of
days about sunset.
Heathen Chinee) The. A poem.

Heidelberg Castle. Ruins near Heidel-
berg, Germany.

Hegira. The date of Mohammed's flight
from Mecca, July 16th, 622. The epoch from
which the Mohammedans compute their
time.

High Church. The more conservative
portion of the Episcopal Church.

High Seas, The. The sea beyond three
miles irom tiie coast.

History, The Father of. Herodotus,
the Greek historian.

Hobson's Choice. Take what is offered
or go without. Tobias Ilobson, an English
stable-keeper, made whatever customer came
to hire a horse take the one nearest the door.

Holborn. A street in London by which
criminals used to be carried out to execution
at Tyburn.

Holy Alliance. Formed in 1816 by Aus-
tria, Prussia and Russia.

Holy Family, The. The name of pic-
tures representing in group the infant Jesus,
St. Joseph, the Blessed Virgin, John the
Baptist, Anna, and St. Elizabeth. The most
celebrated are by Michael Angclo at Florence,
by Raphael in London, and Dy Leonardo da
Vinci in the Louvre.

Holy Land, The. Palestine.

Holy League, The. The alliance of Pope
Julius II., France, Germany, Spain and
some of the Italian Republics in 150S, against
Venice.

Hon! soit qui mal y pense. (Shame to
him who evil thinks.) Motto of the highest
order of knighthood in Great Britain, that of
the Garter, instituted by Edward III. At a bail,
a garter of the Countess of Salisbury, having
fallen off, was picked up by the King, who
expressed himself in the above phrase and
fastened it around his own knee. This inci-
dent led to the formation of the order.

Honors of "War. Allowing a surrendered
enemy to keep his arms.

Hotel de Ville. The city hall in French
and Belgian cities.

Houris. Beautiful virgins of Paradise;
promised by the Koran for the delight of the
true believers.

Hundred Hays, The. From March 20,
1815, when Napoleon escaped from Elba, to
June 22, 1815, when he abdicated.

Iconoclast. (Image-breaker.) A radical
reformer.

Hiad. A Greek epic poem by Homer, re-
lating the story of the siege of Troy by the
Greets.

Independence, Declaration of. Issued
July 4, 1776.

Independence Hall. In Philadelphia,
Pa., where Congress met and adopted the
Declaration ot Independence.

Index Expurgatorius. A list of books
forbidden to be read by the Roman Catholic
Church.

Inns of Court. The four London law
societies which have the sole right of admit-
ting candidates to the Bar. Thcv are Gray's
Inn, Lincoln's Inn, the Inner Temple and
the Middle Temple.

Inquisition. A tribunal established in
some countries to try heretics.

Irish Agitator, The. Daniel O'Connell.

Iron City, The. Pittsburg, Pa.

Iron Duke, The. The Duke of W*dUng-
ton.

Iron Mask, The Man in the. A mys-
terious French state prisoner.

Jack Ketch. The hangman. The name
of an English hangman.

Jack Robinson. Before you can say
Jack Robinson; at once. Jack Robinson
was noted for the shortness of his visits ; the
servant had scarcely time to repeat his name,
before he would leave.

Jack, The Giant Killer. A nursery
hero.
Jack, Tho American, or Union. The

blue ground of the American fiag with the
stars but without the stripes.

Jacobins. A revolutionary club, 1789, in
Paris, held its meetings In what had been the
Jacobin Monastery. They were violent and
extreme in the mciLcurccthcy proposed. Their
name spread to all similar organizations and
to individuals acting with them throughout
France.

Jacobites. Adherents of James II. of
England, and of the Stuarts, his descendants.

Jardin des Fl antes. Botanical and
zoological garden in Paris.

Jardin Mabillo. Of world-wide notoriety.
A Parisian resort where the can-can flourish,
ed. Suppressed in 1SS2.

Jericho, Gone to. Disappeared; ruined.

Jerusalem Delivered. An Italian epic
poem by Torquato Tasso.

Jingo, Jingoism. Expression applied in
England to those who wanted the English
Government to assume an aggressive foreign
policy, 1S74-18S0.

John Bull. England. Nickname for an
Englishman.

John Chinaman. The Chinese in
America.

Johnny Cakes. Made of Indian meal
baked in the ashes.

Jubilee, Year of. Among the Jews the
jubilee came every fiftieth year, which was
the year after one week of weeks of years had
passed (seven times seven). All slaves who
were of Hebrew blood were freed, all debts
were canceled and all lands returned to orig-
inal owners during the iubilce. In the Roman
Catholic Church it is observed every twenty-
fifth year.

Juggernaut. A Hindoo god who has a
famous temple in India. There is an immense
car in the service of this god, which, when
moved about the country, causes the greatest
excitement. The car resembles a large build-
ing and its weight is very heavy. It is dragged
along by the multitude and their fanati-
cism is so great that crowds of devotees cast
themselves under the wheels and are crushed
to death, a fate which they believe ensures
paradise.

Julian Era, The. A method of reckoning
time from 46 B.C., when Caesar reformed the
calendar.

Junius, Letters of. Some remarkable
political letters written during the reign of
George III. Their authorship is unknown.

Kansas, Bleeding. So called by Horace
Greeley during the Free Soil controversy.

Kensington Gardens. A London Park
near which Queen Victoria was born.

Kilkenny Cats, The. Disputing people;

from the old verse :

There once were two cats in Kilkenny,

Who each thought there was one cat too
manv,

So they howled and they fit, and they scratch-
ed and they bit,

Until instead of two cats there wasn't any.

King can do no wrong, The. Meaning
that the Ministers and not the King are re-
sponsible for mistakes of government.

King of Ivetot. The Seigneur oflvetot
was made king of his estate by the King of
France as a recompense for the killing of his
father. It was a kingdom of eight square
miles.

4k-

804

A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS.

Kin* Cole. A legendary king of Britain,
who affected tobacco and spirits.

King Cotton. A name given to the great
Southern industry before the war.

King's Kvll. The scrofula. So called
from the belief that a king's touch would cure
the disease.

Kins; Log. A good-for-nothing ruler.
The name comes from one of Esop's fables,
wherein Jupiter puts a log to rule over the
frogs.

KlnR-Miiker, The. Richard Nevill, the
Earl of Warwick, who set up and deposed
klnga at his will during the Wars of the
Roses, In the fifteenth century.

Kins; Stork. A tyrant. The sequel to the
Esop fable mentioned above. The frogs grew
tlreu of King Log, whereupon King Stork
was brought in at their request, who devoured
the whole community.

Kit Kat Club, The. A London club
founded in 16SS. It had many eminent mem-
bers.

Knickerbocker. A member of any old
Dutch family in New York. Derived from
Irving's immortal history.

Knight of Malta. A chlvalric and mon-
astic order founded during the Crusades, also
called the Knights Hospitallers of St. John.

Know-Nothing*. A political party in the
United States, whose cardinal principle was
opposition to foreign office-holders.

Koh-i-Noor. A Golconda diamond, the
largest in the world, now one of the crown
diamonds of England. Value, 5025,000.

Koran, The. . The Mohammedan Bible.

Kremlin, The. The royal Russian resi-
dence in Moscow.

Labyrinth, The. A celebrated structure
built by Minos, King of Crete, which con-
sisted of a maze out of which no one who
entered could find the way back.

Laconic Curt. So called from the brief
speech in fashion in old Laconia, afterwards
called Sparta.

I.iii-ryiniil Christ!. An Italian wine.

Lake School, The. A society of English
poets consisting of Coleridge, Wordsworth
and Southey.

Land of Bondage, The. Egypt.

I. mid <>' Cakes, The. Scotland.

Land of Nod, The. Sleep; Dreamland.

Land of Promise, The. Canaan, the
goat of the Jewish wanderings in the wilder-
ness.

Lang Syne. Long ago.

Langiie d'Oo. Provence, a part of France
so called from the dialect In use.

Langiie d'USil. All of France except
Provence.

Laocoon, The. A celebrated statue In the
Vatican representing Laocoon strangled by
serpents.

Laodicean. A person luke-warm in re-
ligion.

Lares and Penates. The household gods.

Last Judgment, The. The theme of a
Dumber of frescoes of the Renaissance period
in Italy. r

Last Sapper, The. Similar to the above.
Leonardo da Vinci's best canvas is on this
subject.

Lateran Palace, The. One of the Papal
residences at Rome.

Laughing Philosopher, The. Democ-
rltus of Abdi-ra, who believed that life was
only to ba laughed at.

Leaning Tower, The. A celebrated
structure at Pisa, Italy, which leans thirteen
feet out of the perpendicular ; 17S feet high.

Learned Blacksmith, The. lilihu
Burrltt.

Leonine Verses. Verses which rhyme at
the middle and the end.

Llbby Prison. A Confedeiate gaol for
prisoners of war at Richmond, Va.

Lllliput. The pigmy land in Gulliver's
travels.

Lingua Franca. A dialect of French,
Italian and Arabic spoken on the Mediter-
ranean Sea.

Lion and Unicorn. The supporters of
the British royal arms.

Lion of the North, The. Gustavus of
Sweden, the great leader of the Protestant
forces during flic Thirty Years' War.

Lion's Share. The bigger portion in a
orriston. So called from one of Esop's
fables.

Little Corporal, The. Napoleon Bona-
parte.

Little Giant, The. Stephen A. Douglass.

Lloyds. The originators of marine insur-
ance.

Lombard Street. The financial street of
London.

Lone Star State, The. Texas.

Long Parliament. The Parliament
which sat for thirteen years at the beginning
of the civil war in England. It sat from 1640
to 1653.

Lorelei. A malignant but beautiful water-
sprite of the Rhine.

Lotus-Eaters, The. Homer in the Odys-
sey describes the effect of eating the lotus as
making the eater forget his home.

Louvre, The. The art palace of Paris.

Low Church, The. A part of the Epis-
copal Church which is opposed to cere-
monials.

Luslad, The. The Portuguese epic poem,
written by Camoens, describing Vasco da
Gama's adventures.

Lynch Lair. Mob law. The name comes
from a Virginia farmer who instituted the
first vigilance committee in America.

Mab, Queen. The queen of the fairies.
So called trom an Irish fairy princess named
Medh, who flourished in the night of time.

Macadamize. Paving with broken stones.
So called from the inventor, Sir John Mac-
Adam.

Macaronic Verse. A verse made by
mixing different languages.

Macchiavelllsm. Political trickery.

M .-id 11 m Tussaud's Exhibition. A fam-
ous London wax-works show.

Mad Poet, The. Nathaniel Lee, an in-
sane English -iramatist.

Madman of Macedonia, The. Alexan-
der the Great.

Madman of the North, The. Charles
III. of Sweden.

Madonna. The Blessed Virgin.

Maecenas. A noted patron of poets dur-
ing the reign of Augustus of Rome.

Magna Charta. The charter making the
cornerstone of English liberty, extorted from
Kingjohn Lack-Land.

Mahomet's Coffin. The body of Ma-
homet is said to hang in mid-air over
Medina.

Maid of Orleans. J oan of Arc.

Maid of Snragossa. Augustina Zara-
goxa, the heroine of the siege of Ssragossa in

M )i

Maiden Queen, The. Elizabeth of Eng-
land.

Maine Law. A prohibitory law first
adopted In Maine.

Mnlthuslan Doctrine, The. The theory
that the population of the world is growing
faster than the food supply.

Mammoth Cave. A cave near the Green
stiver, Kentucky, the largest cave in the
world.

Man In the Moon. According to the
legend the man who first broke the Sabbath.

Mar of Destiny. Napoleon Bonaparte.
Man of Iron, The. Bismarck.
Man of Straw. An irresponsible person.
Mare's Nest. A matter which seems of
importance but turns out to be nothing.

Marriage a la Mode. The title of six
satirical pictures by Hogarth.

Marseillaise. The French national air,
composed by Rouget de Lisle.

Martinet. A strict disciplinarian. So
called from a French officer of the seventeenth
century.

Mason and Dixon's Line. The north
boundary of the Slave States, dividing Vir-
ginia and Maryland from Pennsylvania.

Mausoleum. The tomb of Mausolus,
built by Queen Artemisia, one of the seven
wonders of the world.
Mayf air. The west end of London.
Mereator'"ProJe«tfo». (Or Mercstor's
Chart), is so called after Gerard Mercator, a
Flemish gc ographer of the sixteenth century,
the first to give an unbroken view of the whole
surface of the earth. In it all the meriaians are
straight lines perpendicular to the equator, and
all the parallels parallel to the equator, the
effect being to greatly exaggerate the polar
regions.

Merry Andrew. A buffoon, from Andrew
Horde, the whimsical physician of Henry VIII.
Merry Monarch, The. Charles II. of
England.

Mesmerism. Takes its name from Mes-
mer a German physician.

Mezzo Relievo. Carved or cast figures
projecting from the tablet a little more than
hasso relievo, and something less than alto
relievo, are called mezzo relievo.

Middle Ages, The. The period between
the destruction of the Roman Empire and
the revival of learning in Italy — 476 to 1500.

Middle States, The. New York, Penn-
sylvania, New Jersey and Delaware.

Minnesingers.' (Love singers.) The
German lyric poets of the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries.
Miserere. The fifty -first psalm.
Mississippi Bubble, The. A hollow
financial scheme.

Missouri Compromise, The. A measure
that prohibited slavery north of 36° jo 1 north
latitude.
Mistress of the Seas. England.
Molly Magulres. A secret society in the
United States. Many crimes were attributed
to it, especially tn Pennsylvania.

Monarch, Le Grand. Louis XIV. of
France.

Monroe Doctrine. The United States is
not to meddle in European affairs, nor to al-
low European Governments to meddle in the
affairs of the American Continent.
Mont de Plete. A pawnbroker's shop.
Montmartre. A Parisian cemetery.
Monumental City, The. Baltimore, Md.
Morey Letter, The. A forged letter at-
tribuiingto Gen. Garfield anti-Chinese senti-
ments, iSSo.

Morganatic Marriage. A marriage be-
tween a man of high rank and a woman of a
lower one. She does not take her husband's
title.

Mother of Presidents. Virginia: hav-
Ing produced seven Presidents of the United
States.

Mother Carer's Chickens. Stormy
petrels.

A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS.

805

Mother Goose. She lived near Boston,
and was a nursery rhymer. She sung rhymes
to her grandson Thomas Fleet, who printed
them in 1S19.

Mount Vernon. The home of Washing-
ton, in Virginia.

Muscular Christianity. An expression
of Charles Kingsley. "A sound mind in a
sound body."

Music of the Spheres. Order, harmony.
Plato taught that each planet had a siren
whose song harmonized with the motion of
our sphere and with that of the others.

Namby-Pamby. Childish. A term used
for poor literary productions.

Nantes, Edict of. A decree issued at
Nantes, France, in 1508, by Henry IV., grant-
ing toleration to the Protestant religion. Re-
voked by Louis XIV., October 22, 1685.

Nation of Shop-keepers. The name
given to the English oy Napoleon.

Natural Bridge, The. A natural arch
over Cedar Creek near James River in Vir-
ginia. It is 200 feet high.

Newgate. A London prison.

New World. The Americas.

Nibelungen Lied. A German epic poem
of the thirteenth century.

Nine Worthies, The. Joshua, David,
Judas Maccabxus, Hector, Alexander, Julius
C?esar, Arthur, Charlemagne and Godfrey of
Bouillon.

Noctes AmbrosiansB. The title of a
work by Prof. Wilson (Christopher North).

Noel, Christmas day.

Non-Conformists. Dissenters from the
Church of England.
Northern Giant, The. Russia.
Notre Dame. The Cathedral of Paris.

Odyssey A narrative poem of the adven-
tures of Ulysses on his voyage from Troy to
Ithaca-Homer.

Ogres Giants who feed on human flesh.

Oi Polloi. The multitude.

Old Abe Abraham Lincoln.

Old Bailey. A London criminal court.

Old Dominion, The. Virginia.

Old Guard, The. A favorite regiment of
Napoleon Bonaparte. In the Chicago Con-
vention, 1880, the friends of Gen. Grant re-
ceived this name.

Old Hickory. Gen. Andrew Jackson.

Old Probs. (Old Probabilities.) The U. S.
Signal Service.

Old Public Functionary. President
James Buchanan.

Old South, The. A famous church in
Boston, Mass.

Orangeman. A Protestant Irishman.

Member of an organization which cherishes
the memory of William Prince of Orange.

Orange Peel. Sir Robert Peel.

Ordinance of 1787. An act fixing the

government of the Northwest Territory of
le United States.

Orlando Furioso. An Italian poem by
Ariosto.

Ossian. The son of Fingal, a Scotch
bard. Ossian's poems, published in 1760, were
the work of James Mc Pherson, a gifted Cal-
edonian.

Ostend Manifeso. Was issued by the

United States Ministers to England, France
and Spain during Pierce's administration,
declaring that Cuba must belong to the
United States.

Ostracism. The Athenians expelled everv
public man againstwhom a sufficient number
of votes were cast. The votes were written
on oyster shells.

Palimpsest. A parchment having the
original writing erased and new writing sub-
tituted.

Pall Mall. A street in London.

Palladium. Is something that affords
defence, protection and safety. A statue of
Pallas was the palladium of Troy.

Pantheon. A circular building in Rome
erected in the time of Augustus. It is now a
church, the Rotonda.

Paradise Lost. A poem by John Milton
treating of the fall of man.

Paradise Regained. Poem by Milton
on the temptation and triumph of Jesus.

Paris of America, The. Cincinnati.

Parthenon. A temple of Minerva in
Athens.

Partington, Mrs. The American Mrs.
Malaprop. The creation of B. P. Shillaber.

Pasquinade. A lampoon or satirical
writing. Political squibs used to be posted
on an old statue that stood in Rome near the
house of a sneering old cobbler named Pas-
quin.

Peeler. A policeman. Sir Robert Peel
founded the Irish constabulary.

Peninsular War. The war between En-
gland and France in Spain and Portugal,
1S0S-1S12.

People's William. William E. Gladstone.

Pere-la-Chaise. A cemetery near Paris.

Philippic. An invective. The orations
of Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon
originated this word.

Philistine. A word in use in the German
universities for a person below caste.

Philosopher's Stone, The. A substance
supposed to have the property of turning
anything else into gold.

Plon-Plon. Prince Napoleon J. C. Bona-
parte.

Plumed Knight, The. Jf. G. Blaine,
American statesman.

Plymouth Bock. The rock at Ply-
mouth, Mass., where the Pilgrims landed
in 1620.

Poet's Corner. A corner in Westminster
Abbey where poets are buried. The poetical
column in a newspaper.

Pons Asinorum. (The bridge of asses.)
Fifth proposition, first book Euclid's Geom-
etry.

Poor Richard. Benjamin Franklin.

Porkopolis. Cincinnati.

Prater, The. A promenade in Vienna,
Austria.

Phoenix. A mythical bird, without a mate,
renews itself every five hundred years by be-
ing consumed in a fire of spices, whence it
rises from the ashes and starts for a new
flight.

Pied Piper of Hamelin, The. Not be-
ing paid for having drawn, by the sound of
his pipe, the rats and mice out of Hamelin
into tne river, he piped the children of the
town into Koppelberg hill, where 130 of them
died.

Pigeon English. A mixture of English,
Chinese and Portuguese.

Protestant Duke, The. The Duke of
Monmouth, natural son of Charles II. of En-
gland. ,

Pyramids. A number of remarkable old
structures in Egypt.

Quaker City, The. Philadelphia, Pa,

Quaker Poet, The. John G. Whittier.

Quartier Latin. A district of Paris in-
habited principally by students.

Queen of the Antilles. The island of
Cuba.

Ranz des Vaches. The air the Swiss
mountaineers play on the Alpine horns when
tending their cattle.

Railway King, The. George Hudson,
an Englishman.

Rebellion, The Great. The war be-
tween Charles I., of England, and Parlia-
ment.

Red Letter Day. A fortunate day. In
old calendars a red letter was used to mark
the saints' days.

Red Tape. Official routine.

Reign of Terror. The time during the
French Revolution between the overthrow of
the Girondists, May 31, 1793, and the fall of
Robespierre, July 27, 1794.

Reynard the Fox. A romance of the
fourteenth century.

Rialto, The. A bridge over the Grand
Canal, Venice.

Rights, Declaration of. An instrument
securing annual Parliaments^ trial by jury,
free elections, the right of petition, and deny-
ing to the crown the privilege of keeping a
standing army or of levying taxes, was drawn
up after the revolution of 1689, and accepted
by William and Mary.

Roost, To Rule the. To take the leading
part.

Robert the Devil. The first Duke of
Normandy.

Robin Goodfellow. Puck, a celebrated
fairy.

Roland for an Oliver, A. Tit for tat,
Roland and Oliver, two peers of Charle-
magne. So many romances were related of
these knights that, whenever one told an im«
probable story to match one that had been
told before, it "was called giving a Roland for
an Oliver.

Rossius, The British. David Garrick.

Rough and Ready. Gen. Zachary

Taylor.

Round Robin. Apetitionorremonstrance
signed by the names in a circle, so as to con-
ceal who signed it first.

Round Table, The. King Arthur's
knights sat at a round table so that any dis-
tinction of rank was avoided.

Roundheads. The Puritans, who wore
short hair.

Royal Martyr, The. Charles I. of En-
gland.

Royal Society, The. A society for the
advancement of natural science, founded at
London, 1645.

Rozinante. The horse of Don Quixote.

Rubicon, To Pass the. To take an irre-
trievable step. When Caesar crossed the
Rubicon he Decame an enemy of the Re-
public.

Rule Britannia. An English song.

Rump Parliament, The. A remnant of
the Long Parliament broken up by Cromwell.

Rye House Plot. A conspiracy in 16S3
to assassinate Charles II. and the Duke of
York. Rye House was the name of the con-
spirators' place of meeting.

Sabbath Day's Journey. About one
mile.

Sack, To Get the. To be discharged.
The Sultan, when he wants to be rid of
one of his haram, has her put into a sack
and thrown into the Bosphorus.

Sadducees. A sect of the ancient Jews
who denied the resurrection of the dead and
the expectation of a future state.

Sagas. Scandinavian books containing
the Northern legends.

Saint Bartholomew, Massacre of.
Massacre of the French Huguenots in the
reign of Charles IX., on St. Bartholomew's
day, 1573.

■7"

8o6

A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS.

Sailor King, The. William IV. of
Kngland.

Suint Cloud. A once famous French
palace, destroyed in the 1' ranco-Prussian
war.

Saint James, The Court of. The En.

Jlish court, so called from the Palace of St.
ames in London, formerly a royal residence.

Saint Mark'*. Cathedral of Venice,
Italy.

SnlntPanl'i. The cathedral of London ;
designed by Sir Christopher Wren.

Saint Peter's. At Home; is the most
splendid church building; in the world.

Saint Sophia. A mosque in Constantino-
ple, Turkey.

Saint Stephens. A Gothic cathedral in
Vienna, Austria.

Snlt Itiver. Oblivion. Gone up Salt
River is generally taken to mean political
defeat.

Sambo. Nickname for colored man.

Sanctum. One's private office.

Sandwich. A piece of meat between two
pieces of bread.

Sang Azul. Of aristocratic descent.

Sanhedrim. The Jewish court of seventy
elders. '

Sans Calottes. (Without trousers.) The
French revolutionists.

Sans Souci. Palace of Frederick the
Great, at Potsdam, near Berlin.

Santa Crooe. A church In Florence,
Italy, the burial-place of Michael Angelo,
H al lM O, Machiavelli and others.

Saturnalia. A festival in honor of Saturn
observed annually bv the Itomans by givinir
way to the wildest disorders. Unrestrained
■cense for all classes, even to the slaves,
ruled the city for three days, December 17 18
and 19. '

Schoolmen. The medixval theologians.

Scotland Yard. The headquarters of the
London police.

Scourge of God, The. Atilla, King of

the Huns. •

Scratch, Old. The Devil.

Scylla. (Avoiding Scylla he fell into
Charybdis.) In trying to avoid one danger he
Jell into another. Scylla and Charybdis were
the two dangers in the Straits of Messina
Italy. •

Sea-girt Isle, The. Great Britain.
Secessia. The seceding Southern States.
Secular names. Games held by the
Komans once in a century.

8cm I ram is of the North. Catherine II

s of Russia. ''

Scpt..ml> 1 .r Massacres. The massacre

of the French Hoyallst prisoners in Paris.

kfued!" *' S 4l W " Ab ° Ut S '°°° wcr °

s.|,iu mint. A Greek version of theOld

Testament prepared by seventy doctors.

Scvrn-hlllnd City, The. Rome.

New ,1 Wonders of the World. The

Ida o hgypt; the Temple of Diana at

ua; the Tanging gardens of Babylon-

"; • "loss,., at tfWca; the Mausole,,,,, ,.

Hall .rnassus; the statue of Zeus bv Phidias

of aZS^^™ ( °' "**— •

Ru.il. ,»2V "£ ,in » t I' >»nce, Austria and
Huss.a, 1756 to 1701.

SI, : .,„ro.k. The emblem of' Ireland. St.

,',".,. mnd " "»» °" " •" prove the doctrine
ot the Trinity.

Spnnlsh Main. The southwestern part
of the Gulf of Mexico.

Sphinx. An emblem of silence and mys-
tery. A monument near Cairo, Egypt; half
woman, half lion.

St .that Mater. A Latin hymn on the
Crucifixion.
>i\ Hundred, Charge of the. At the

battle of Baiaklava, October 35, 1854, by a
mistaken order, the British light cavalry, 670
strong, made a most gallant charge on the
Russians.

Sleeping Beauty, The. A fairy tale.

Smell of the Lamp. A phrase first ap-

filled to the orations of Demosthenes, show-
ng their careful and labored preparation.
Demosthenes studied in a cave by lamplight.
Song of Roland. An old French poem
recounting the deaths of Oliver and Roland
at Ronccsvalles.

Shibboleth. A countersign. The pass-
word of a secret society. When the Ephraim -
ilea, after being routed by Jepthah, tried to
pass the Jordan, they were detected by not
being able to pronounce properly the word
.Shibboleth.

Sick Man, The. The Ottoman Empire.

Sinews of War, The. Money.

Single-Speech Hamilton. An English
statesman of the eighteenth century, W, G.
Hamilton. He never made but one speech,
but that one was most eloquent.

Stalwart. A member of the Republican
party of the United States clinging to the
principles and practices of the party. His
opposite, a "Half-breed," is a Republican
1 n willing to be controlled by the party
leaders.

Star Chamber, A court of criminal jur-
isdiction in England having extensive
powers. It existed from the time of Henry
VIII. until that of Charles I.

"Stonewall** Jackson. Gen. Thomas
J. Jackson, Confederate General.

Strasburg Cathedral. At Strasburg;
Gothic; 46S feet high ; has a wonderful clock.

Swedish Nightingale. Jenny Lind (now
Mme. Goldschmidt).

Sorbonne, The. A university in Paris
founded by Robert de Sorbonne in the thir-
teenth century.

Sortes Ribllcre. Fortune-telling by con-
sulting the Bible.

South Kensington Museum. A collec-
tion of works of art and manufactures in
■London,

South Sea Bubble, The. A company
formed m 1710 in England to pay the national
debt and to have in return a monopoly of
the South Sea trade. This company lasted
about ten years, and its failure was the ruin
of thousands.

Tabooed. Prohibited. A Polynesian
word meaning consecrated; used for what
is out of date or in bad taste.

T.i ininaiiy nail . A section of the Dem-
ocratic party in New York City, named
from their place of meeting.

TnmmnnyRlng. Or the "Tweed Ring,"
or "the Ring." A set of New York City
officials which nhsorbed large sums of the
city money. Exposed in 1S71.

Tammany, Saint. Patron saint of the
Democratic party in New York. He was an
Indi.in chief, whose name was really
Timcnund.

Tap!*, On the. On the carpet ; proposed
for discussion. From the tapis or cloth on a
council table.

Temple Bar. A stone house In London
over which the heads of traitors used to be
exposed. Torn down in 187$.

Termngant. A shrew. Termagant was,
according to the Crusaders, the wife of Ma-
homet.

Terra Flnna. Dry land.

Tertium Quid. A third somebody not
to be named.

Theatre Francais. A theatre in Paris.
Thi-leme, Abbey of. A creation of Rab-
elais in bis Gargantua. Its motto was, "Do

as you please."

Thirty Years' War, The. Between the

Catholics and Protestants in Germany, 1618-
164S. "

Thistle. The national emblem of Scotland.
One night when the Danes were attempting
to surprise an encampment of the Scotch,
one of them trod upon a thistle ; the pain
caused him to raise an alarm, and the Scotch
1 them. Ever since the thistle is the
insignia of Scotland.

Thor. Is the god of war, son of Odin, the
Scandinavian Myth.

Thread needle Street, The Old Lady
of. The Bank of Englr .id.

Three FUtates of the Rca'ji. The no-
bility, the clergy and the commonalty;
represented in the two houses of Parliament.

Thunderer, The. The London Times
(newspaper).

Tick, On. On credit.

Tit for Tat. An equivalent ; this for that-

Tom Thumb. Charles A. Stratton. Also,
a fairy tale.

Tory. The name of an English political
party ; opposite of Whig.

Tour, The Grand. From England
through France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany
and home.

Tower, The. The citadel of London.

Transfiguration, The. One of Raphael's
roost famous pictures, now in the Vatican.

Trimmer. One who takes a moderate
course in politics.

Trinity Church. An Episcopal church
on Broadway at the head of Wall Street, New
York. The richest church in America.

Triple Alliance, The. Alliance between
Great Britain, Holland and Sweden against
France, 1668.

Troubadours. Provincial poets from the
eleventh to the fourteenth century.

Trouveres. Northern French poets 1100
to 140a

Trumpet, To Sound One's Own. To
boast. The entrance of kr-.ghts into a list
was announced by the heralds with a flourish
of trumpets.

Tuft-hunter. A toady. At Oxford a
nobleman was called a tuft because of the
gold tuft on his college cap.

Tntlrrles. A French royal palace burn-
ed by the Commune in 1S71.

Tulip Mania. A European craze of the
seventeenth century centering in Holland.
Everybody was buying tulip bulbs, which ran
up to enormous prices. Many fortunes were
sunk in their acquisition.

Tune the Old Cow Died of. Words
Instead of alms. Old song: a man having
nothing with which to feed his cow, sings to
her of the grass which Is to grow. The ex-
pression is also used for a worn-out, tiresome
tune.

Tyburn. Once a London place of execu-
tion, now a wealthy and fashionable quar-
ter called Tyburnia.

Cfflxl. A buildinc in Florence in which is
a magnificent art collection.

Cltramontanes. In France, the more
extreme adherents of the Pope.

Underground Railroad, The. Organi-
sation of the different means used for t
cape of mnaway slaves, about the middle of
the present century.

t'nder the Rose. (Sub rosa.) Confi-
dentially.

A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS.

F07

Unlicked Cub. An ill-bred boy. The
bear cub was believed to be licked into shape
by its dam.

Unter den Linden. A street in Berlin
having four rows of lime trees.

Unwashed, The Great. The mob.

Upas Tree. An object that does harm
and should be avoided. The upas tree is
common in Java; its gum is poisonous, and
fable states that the atmosphere about it is
as deadly.

Up the Spout. Or more elegantly, "gone
where the woodbine twineth, or "at my
uncle's," means in pawn.

Upper Ten Thousand. The aristocracy ;
fashionable society.

Utilitarians. Those who believe that the
fitness of anything to promote happiness is
the right standard of morality.

Utopia. An ideal commonwealth. The
imaginary island, scene of Sir Thomas
More's romance of Utopia.

Valhalla. The palace of immortality,
where the heroes slain in battle dwell. (From
the Saga legends.)

Vampire. An extortioner. A fabulous
. bat said to suck the blood of persons during
sleep.

Vatican. The palace of the Popes, Rome,
Vatican, Council of the. The CEcume-

nical Council, 1S69, promulgated Papal in*

fallibility.

Vedas, The. Revelations of Brahma in
four sacred books.

Veni, Vidi, Vici. (I came, I saw, I con-
quered.) Phrase used by Julius Ca:sar, an-
nouncing his victory at Zela.

Venus de Medici. A Greek statue at
Florence.

Venus of Milo. A Greek statue found in
the Island of Melos, 1S20; it is now in the
Louvre.

Verbum Sap. A word to the wise,

Veronica. A relic at St. Peter's, Rome.

Versailles. A palace at Versailles, ten
miles from Paris.

Vespers, The Sicilian. The massacre of
the French in Sicily, March 30, 12S2. The
sounding of the vesper bell was the signal.

Via Dolorosa. The sorrowful way of our
Lord from the Mount of Olives to Golgotha.

Vinegar Bible, The. Has "vinegar" for
"vinevard", in the headline of Lukexxii.
Oxford, 1767.

Virgin Queen, The. Queen Elizabeth of

England.

Vitus Dance, St. A disease anciently
supposed to be under control of St. Vitus.

Wabash Avenue. A street in Chicago.

Wall of China, The. A wall 1,200 miles
long and 20 feet high, built as a protection
against the Tartars.

Wall Street. The great financial street
of New York.

Wallack's. A theatre in New York.

Walton, An Izaak. An angler.

Wandering Jew, The. A legendary per-
sonage condemned to wander over the world
until the day of judgment.

War of 1812. Between Great Britain and
the United States, 1S12-1S15.

War of the Host's. The English civil
wars in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies, between the houses of York and Lan-
caster.

Ward, Artemus. C. F. Browne.

Washington Street. A street in Boston,
Mass.

Wassail. (What hail!) Abowlof spiced
ale used on New Year's day is the Wassail
bowl.

Waters, The Father of. The Mississippi.

Ways and Means. An important com-
mittee of the House of Representatives; is
charged with the duty of devising ways and
means for the supply of the Government ex-
penses.

Wedding:. The first anniversary of a
wedding is the pater wedding, the gifts being
paper articles; the fifth, wooden', the tenth,
ttn ; the fifteenth, glass; twenty-fifth, silver',
fiftieth, golden ; seventy-fifth, diamond.

Well of St. Keyne. A well in Cornwall.
The first of a married couple to taste its
waters will " wear the breeches."

Westminster Abbey. A church in Lon-
don where many of the illustrious dead of
England are buried.

Wetherell, 'Elizabeth. Pseudonym of
Miss Susan Warner, author of The Wide,
Wide World.

Whig. The name of a political party now
extinct.

Whistle. (To pay too dearly for the whis-
tle). Dr. Franklin's story. Cost greater than
benefit.

White- Feather, To Show the. A dis-
play of cowardice.

White House. The Presidential mansion
at Washington.

Whiteboys. A secret society in Ireland,
17S9.

Wild Huntsman, The. A spectral

huntsman in the Mack Forest. German W
gend.

Windmills, To Fight with. To oppos<
imaginary objects. Don Quixote.

Windsor Castle. A royal residence near
London.

Wise Men of the East, The. The three
Magi guided by a star to Bethlehem.

Witch of Endor, The. The soothsayer
who foretold the death of Saul.

Witch-Hazel. A forked twig used for
finding witches ; in use still for finding water.

Wooden Horse. A ruse at the sie^e of
Troy.

Woolsack, To Sit on the. To be Lord
Chancellor of England.

Wyoming Massacre. The Valley of
Wyoming was ravaged by Indians in 177S.

Xanthos. The prophetic horse of Achilles.
Xantippe. The scolding wife of Socrates.

Yahoo. A ruffian. The Yahoos in Gulli-
ver's Travels are brutes shaped like men.

Yankee. A name given to all Americans.
In America itself the name is only used for
natives of New England.

Yarmouth Bloater. A red herring.

Yellow Jack. The yellow fever.

Young America. The growing genera-
tion.

Young Chevalier. Charles Edward Stu-
art, the second pretender to the throne of
Great Britain. (1720-SS,)

Young Germany. Heinrich Heine and
his followers.

Yosemite Valley. In California. Also
a picture by Bierstadt.

Yule. Christmas.

Yule-log. A large log of wood burnt on
the hearth at Christmas.

Zend-Avesta, The. Persian Scriptures
written in the Zend language.

Zollverein. An association between Ger-
man States for the maintenance of uniform
tariff rates.

8o8

A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES.

^ET?aisT?a[5 M^[5Tra[g[raisifgisi ra[5M^I^^

s A*LEXICON+ORFOREIGN+PHRASESg

m '^< I^W^I?^ ™* Is

Including Sentences and Quotations from both Living and Dead Languages.

'"VVVHlILE it is not considered good form
L'-f & to interlard one's discourse with
• Kv phrases culled from foreign languages,
™] _'■'_' ; 1 there are many cases wherein a
thought is more aptly and strikingly put in
Latin or French than in English. When this

is the case it is certainly permissible to use the
term which puts the idea in the best shape. It
is also well to have at hand a comprehensive
dictionary which will show at a glance just what
a word, phrase or sentence in a foreign tongue
means. The pages which follow contain the most
complete lexicon of the kind ever published.

4>£

A bas, ¥., down with.

Ab extra, L., from without.

Ab initio, L., from the beginning.

Ab intra, L., from within.

Ab normis sapiens, "L.. wise without teaching.

Ab origint, L., from the origin.

Ab oi'o, L., from the egg.

Absent* reo, L., the accused being absent.

Ab una disce omnes,L.., from one judge all.

Ab nrbo condita, L., from the founding ot the

city.
A compte, F., on account.
A corps perdu i ¥,, headlong.
Ad aperturam, L., at the opening.
Ad fistra per aspera, L., to the stars through

ililliculties. (The motto of Kansas.)
Ad calendas Graecas, L., at the Greek

calends; meaning never, as the Greeks

had no calends.
Ad eaptandum vutgus,!*., to catch the vulgar.
Ad eund em, L.., to the same (degree).
Ad extremum, L. ( to the extreme.
Adfinem } L., to the end,
Aa infinitum, L., to infinity.
Ad interim, L., in the meantime.
A discretion, ¥., at discretion.
Ad libitum, I,., at pleasure.
Ad literam, L., (even) to the letter.
Ad modum, L., after the manner of.
Ad nauseum, L., to disgust.
Ad referendum, L., for reconsideration.
Ad rem, L., to the point
Ad unutn omnes, L., every one.
Ad valorem, L. f according to value.
Ad vitam ant cuipam, I-., for life or for fault.
jflquo animo, L., with mind content.
AC tat is suae, L., of his (or her) age.
Affaire tf amour, ¥., a love affair.
Affaire eThonneur ¥,, a duel.
Affaire deeaeur, I-., :m affair of the heart.
Afortiori, L., for stronger reason.
A la camp<igne, !•'., as in the country.
Ala Francaise, K. t after the French (man*

ncr).
A r Anglais* F., after the English (manner).
A la mode, V ., after the fashion.
Alere fiammam, L., to feed the flame.
Al !><■•> '. It., in ih. open air.
Alii volat froprii*, I . . with her own

wings. (The motto of Oregon.)
Allei vohs en, F., begone.
Alloux, h ., roiiH'.
Alma mater, I,., benign mother.
Alter ego, L., -ninth.
Alter idem, I.., another similar.
Amende honorable, I., an apology,
A mense et thoro, I, . mm bed and board.
Amorpatri*, L. ( patriotism.

Amour propre, F., self-love.

Ancien regime, ¥., the old rule.

Anglice, L., in English.

Animis opibusque paralt, L., prepared with

our lives and our money. (Motto of South

Carolina.)
Anno atatts sua, L., in the year of his (or

her) age.
Anno Christij L., in the year of Christ
Anno Domini, L. ( in the year of our Lord.
Anno mundi. L., in the year of the world.
Annus miraoilis, L.., the wonderful year.
Ante bellum, L.., before the war.
Ante lucem, L.., before the light.
Ante meridiem*!*., before noon.
A Pout ranee, ¥., to the death.

Apercu. F., sketch.
Aplomb, ¥., firmly ;
A posteriori, L,., reasoning from* effect to

plomb, F M firmly ; perpendicularly.

cause.

Apriori, L., reasoning from cause to effect.
A propos, F., to the point ; by-thc-by.
Aqua vita:, L., water of life; alcohol.
Argumentum ad kominem, L,., an argument to

the man.
Argumentum ad ignoranttam, L., an argument

for the ignorant.
Argumentum ad baculum, L., an argument

with a cudgel.
Arriere pensee, F., on afterthought.
Ars est celare artem, L., art is to conceal art.
Ars lonqa. vita brevis est, L. f art is long, life

is short
Asinus ad tyram, L., an ass with a harp ; an

absurdity.
A teneris annis, L., from tender years.
Audacesfortunafuvat, L.., fortune favors the

bold.
Aude sapere, L., dare to be wilt,
Audi alteram, L., hear the other side.
Aufait, F., expert.
Am fond, F., at the bottom.
Aupis atler, ¥,, at the worst.
Aura popularix, I.., the wind of public favor.
Aurea mediocritas, L., the golden mean.
Au reste. F., forth.
Au revotr, V., till the next meeting.
Aussitot dit,aussitot fatt, F., no sooner said

than done.
Ant amat aut odit mulier, L., a woman either

loves or hate*.
Aut Cm*ar aut nullus, L., cither C*sar or

nobody.
Auto da/*, Portuguese, an act of faith ; burn*

ing a heretic.
Auto d* $*, L.,suicidc.
Am troisieme, ¥., on the third floor.

Aut vincere aut mori, L. f either to conquer or

die.
Aux armes, F., to arms.
Avant-cour*ur t F., a forerunner.
Avant -propos f F '., a preface.
Avec permission, ¥., with permission.
A verbis adverbera, L., from words to blow*.
A vinculo matrimonii, L., from the bond of

marriage.
A volonte, ¥., at pleasure.
A rntre sanit, ¥., to your health.

Bas bleu, F„ a blue -stocking.

Bean ideal, R, an ideal beautr.

Bean monde, F., the fashionable world.

Beaux maprBS. ¥., men of wit.

Beaux yeux, b., beautiful eyes.

Bet esprit, ¥., a brilliant mind.

Bete noir, F„ a bugbear.

Bien seance, ¥ ., politeness.

Billet doux, ¥., a love-letter.

Bis dat qui cito dat, L., he gives twice who

gives quickly.
Blase, ¥., surfeited.
Bon ami, ¥., good friend.
Bonbon, ¥., candy.

Bon gre mal gre, ¥., willing or unwilling.
Bonhomie, ¥ ., good nature.
Bonis avibus, L., with lucky omens.
Bon/our, good day.
Bonne, ¥., nurse.
Bonne foi, ¥., good faith.
Bon sotr, ¥., good evening.
Brevi manu, L., immediately.
Bmtnm fulmen, L., harmless thunder.

Cacoethes toquendi, L., an itch for speaking.

Cacoethes scribendi, L., an itch for "riling.

Ca>tera desunt, L., the remainder wanting.

Cmteris paribus, L., other tilings being
equal.

Candida pax, L., white-robed peace.

Caput, L., head.

Caput mortuum, L., the dead body.

Carpe diem, L., be merry to -day.

C«*mi tutissima virtus, L., Virtue is the
safest shield.

Casus belli, L. t a cause for war.

Catalogue raisonne, ¥., a topical catalogue.

( aus.i sine fuanou, l*.,nn indispensable con-
dition.

Cedant arma togm, L., let arms yield to the
gown.

Ce n'est que te premier pa* qui tout*, F., the
first step alone is difficult.
dire. P., that

Ckacnn a son gout, ¥,, every man to his taste.

A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES.

=tf"

809

Chef, F., the head; the leading person or
part.

Chefde batat'llon, ¥., a major.

Chefde cuisine^., head cook.

Chef-d'oeuvre, ¥., a masterpiece.

Chere amie, F,, a dear friend ; a mistress.

Chevalier ct Industrie, ¥., knight of industry;
one who lives by his wits.

Chiaroscuro, It, distribution of light and
shade in painting. m . ,

Cicerone, It., a guide who explains curiosities.

Cicisbeo, It., a male attendant on a married
lady.

Ci-devant, F., formerly; heretofore.

Cogito, ergo sum,!*., I think, therefore I exist.

Colubrem in sinufavere, L., to cherish a ser-
pent in one's bosom.

Comme t'lfaut, F., as itshould be.

Companion de voyage, F., a traveling com-
panion.

Compos mentis, L., sound of mind.

Compte rendu, ¥., account rendered; report.

Comte, F., count.

Comtesse, F., countess.

Con amore,F.,v/ith love or great pleasure;
earnestly.

Con commodo, It., at a convenient rate.

Conditio sine qua non, L., a necessary condi-
tion.

Confrere, F., a brother of the same monas-
tery; an associate.

Conge d'e/ire t F., leave to elect.

Conqniescat in pace, L., may he rest in peace.

Cornell de famille, F., a family consultation.

Conseil d'etat, F., a council of state; a privy
council.

Constantia et virtute, L., by constancy and
virtue.

Consuetudo pro lege servatur, L., custom is
observed as law.

Contra bonos mores, L., againstgood morals
or manners.

Coram nobis, L., before us.

Coram non judice, L., before one not the
proper judge.

Corps de garde, F., a body of men who watch
in a guard-room; the guard-room itself.

Corps diplomatique, F., a diplomatic body.

Corpus Christi,L.., Christ's body.

Corpus delicti, L., the body, substance or
foundation of the offence.

Corrigenda, L., corrections to be made.

Couleur de rose, F., rose-color; an aspect of
beauty and attractiveness.

Coup d'essai, F., a first attempt.

Coup d'etat, F., a stroke of policy in state af-
fairs.

Coup de grace, F., the finishing stroke.

Coup de main, V., a sudden attack; a bold
effort.

Coup d'ceil, F., a slight view ; a glance.

Coup de theatre, F., a theatrical effect; clap-
trap.

Coule qu'il coute, F., let it cost what it may.

Credula res amor est, L., love is a credulous
at fair.

Crescite et multiplicamini, L., grow, or in-
crease, and multiply. (The motto of Mary-
land.)
Crimen leesa majestatis, L., the crime of high

treason.
Cui bono? L., for whose benefit is it? what

good will it do?
Cut de sac, F., the bottom of a bag; a place

closed at one end.
Cum grano satis, L., with a grain of salt;

with some allowance.
Cum privilegio, L., with privilege.
Currente calomo, L., with a running or rapid

pen.
Custos retulorum, L., the keeper of the rolls.

Da capo, It., from the beginning.

D'accord,¥., agreed; in tune.

Damnant quoanon intetligunt, L., they con-
demn what they do not understand.

X>e bonne grace, ¥., with good grace; will-
ingly.

X>e die in diem, L., from day to day.

De facto, L., from the fact; really.

Degage, ¥., easy and unconstrained.

Dei gratia, L.,by the grace of God.

Dejeuner a la fourchette , F., a meat breakfast.

Dejure, L., from the law; by right.

Delenda est Carthago, L.., Carthage must be
blotted out or destroyed.

De mortuis nil nisi bonum, L., let nothing but
good be said of the dead.

De nihilo nihil jit, L.., of nothing, nothing is
made.

De novo, L., anew; over again from the be-
ginning^.

Deograltas, L., thanks to God.

Deojuvante, I-., with God's help.

Deo, non fortuna, L., from God, not from for-
tune.

Deo volente, L., God willing; by God's will;
usually contracted into Z>. K.

De profundi's, L., out of the depths.

Dernier ressort, ¥., a last resource.

De bonis non, L., of the goods not adminis-
tered on.

De gustibus non est disputandunt, L., there is
no disputing about tastes,

Desagrement, F., something disagreeable.

Desideratum, L., a thing desired.

Desunt catera, L., the other things are want-
ing; the remainder is wanting.

De trop, ¥., too much, or too many; not
wanted.

Dies tree, L., the day of wrath.

Dies non, L., in taw, a day on which judges
do not sit.

Dieu defend le droit, F., God defends the
right.

Dieu et mon droit, F., God and my right.

Dignus vindice nodus, L., a knot worthy to be
untied by such an avenger, or by such
hands.

Dit Penates, L., household gods.

Diimajores, L., the greater gods.

Diimtnores, L., the lesser gods.

Dirigo, L.., I direct or guide. (The motto of
Maine.)

Disjecta membra, L., scattered limbs or re-
mains.

Distingue, F., distinguished ; eminent.

Distrait, F., absent in thought.

Divertissement, F., amusement; sport.

Divide et t'mpera, L., "divide and rule.

Dolce far niente, It., sweet doing-nothing;
sweet idleness.

Double entente, F., double meaning; a play
on words ; a word or phrase susceptible of
more than one meaning. (Incorrectly writ-
ten, double entendre.)

Dramatis persona, L.., the characters or per-
sons represented in a drama.

Droit des gens, F., the law of nations.

Dulce domum, L., sweet home; homewards.

Dutce est desipere in loco, L., it is pleasant to
jest or be merry at the proper time.

Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, L,, it is
sweet and becoming to die for one's coun-
try.

Dum spiro, spero, L., while I breathe, I hope.

Dum vivimus, vivamus, L., while we live, let
us live.

£au de Cologne, F., a perfumed liquid;

Cologne water.
Eau de vie, F., water of life ; brandy.
Ecce homo, L., behold the man. (Applied toa

picture representing our Lord given up to

the Jews by Pilate, and wearing a crown of

thorns.)
Editioprinceps, L., the first edition.
Egalite, F., equality.
Ego et rex meus, L., I and my king.
El dorado, Sp., the golden land.
Emigre, F., an emigrant.
Empressement, F., ardor; zeal.
En arriere, F., in the rear; behind.
En attendant, ¥., in the meanwhile.
En avant, ¥., forward.
En deshabille, F., in undress.
En echelon, F., in steps ; like stairs.
En famille, ¥., in a domestic state.
Eitfans perdtts, F., lost children ; in mil., the

forlorn hope.
Engrande tenue, F., in full dress.
En masse, F., in a body.
En passant, F., in passing; by the way.
En rapport, F., in relation ; in connection.
En regie, ¥., in order; according to rules.
En route, ¥., on the way.

Ense petit plaeidam sub lihertate quietem, ¥.,
with the sword she seeks quiet peace under
liberty. (The motto of Massachusetts.)

En suite, ¥., in company.

Entente cordiale, ¥ ., evidence of good-will
towards each other, exchanged by the chief
persons of two states.

Entourage, ¥ '., surroundings; adjuncts.

En tout, ¥., in all ; wholly.

Entree, ¥., entrance; first course at meals;
freedom of access.

Entremets, ¥ '., dainties ; small dishes.

Entrepot, ¥., a warehouse; a place for de-
positing goods.

Entre nous^ ¥., between ourselves.

Entresol, ¥., a suite of apartments between
the basement or ground flour and the sec-
ond floor.

En verite, F, in truth ; verily.

E Pluribus unum, L.,one composed of many.
(The motto of the United States, as one
government formed of many independent
States.)

Errare est humanttm, L., to err is human.

Esprit borne, ¥., a narrow, contracted mind.

Esprit du corps, ¥., spirit of the body; fel-
lowship ; brotherhood.

Esse quam videri, L.., to be, rather than to
seem,

Esto perpetua, L., let it be perpetual; let it
endure forever.

Et c&tera, L., and the rest ; etc.

Et hoc genus omne, L., and everything of the
kind.

Et sequentes, L., Et sequentia, L., and those
that follow.

Et sic de cateris, I-., and so of the rest.

Et tu, Brutel L., and thou also, Brutus !

Eureka, Gr., I have found it. (The motto ot
California.)

Ex adverso, L.., from the opposite side.

Ex animo, L., with the soul ; heartily.

Ex capite, L., from the head; from memory.

Ex cathedra, L., from the bench, chair or
pulpit; with high authority.

Excelsior, L., higher; more elevated. (The
motto of New York.)

Exceptio probate regulam, L., the exception
proves the rule.

Excerpta, L., extracts.

Ex concessio, L., from what is conceded.

Ex curia, L., out of court.

Ex dono, L., by the gift.

Exempli gratia, L. , for example ; for instance.

Exeunt, L., they go out.

Exeunt omnes, L., all go out.

Exit, L., departure; a passage out; death.

Exitus actaJ>robat, L., the event justifies the
deed. (Washington's motto.)

Ex necessitate ret, L., from the necessity of
the case.

Ex nihilo niliilfit, L., out of nothing, nothing
comes.

Ex officio, L., by virtue of office.

Ex parte, L.., on one part or side onlv.

Ex pede Herculum, L., we see a Hercules
from the foot; we judge the whole from the
specimen.

Exterimentum crucis, L., the experiment of
the cross; a decisive experiment; a most
searching test.

Experto crede, L.., trust one who has had ex-
perience.

Ex post facto, L., after the deed is done.

Ex tempore, L., off-hand; without premedi-
tation.

Extra muros, L,., beyond the walls.

Ex uno disce omnes, L., from one learn all ;
from one you can judge the whole.

Ex usu, L., from or t>y use.

Facetta, L., witticisms; humorous pleas-
antry.

Facile Princets, L., evidently pre-eminent;
the admitted chief.

Facilis est descensus Averni, L., the descent
to hell is easy ; the road to evil is easy.

Fac-simile, L-, an exact copy ; a likeness.

Fait accompli, ¥., a thing already accom-
plished.

Fas est et ab hoste doceri, L., it is well to
learn even from an enemy.

ft*

810

A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES.

Fata Morgana, It., a meteoric phenomenon
nearly allied to the mirage.

Fata (slant, I.., the Fates oppose It.
aulruil, !•'., an easy chair.

ux pas. F\, a false step ; a mistake.
ecil, L., he made it; put alter an artists
name. ^

Felicitas multos habit amtcos, L., prosperity
has many friends.

Feliciter, L., happily; successfully.

Frio de it, L., a self-murderer ; onewho com-
mits felony by suicide.

Fimme couverte, P., a woman covered or
sheltered ; a married woman.

Femme de chambre, P., a woman of the cham-
ber; a chamber-maid.

Femme soit, V., a single woman ; an unmar-
ried woman. .. ,

Ftra natura, L., of a wild nature— said of
wild beasts.

Ftstina Unit, L., hasten slowly.

FeUchampttrc,V., a rural festival.

/>// /)»>», F., the Corpus Christi fesUval of
the Roman Catholic Church.

/V« dtfoit, F., a bonfire ; a discharge of fire-
arms on joyful occasions.

Fiat fustitia, mat ceelum, L., let justice be
done, though the heavens should fall.

Fidti defensor ,V,., defender of the faith.

Fides Punica,!.., Punic faith ; treachery.

Fidus Achates, L., faithful Achates ; a true
friend.

Fills de chambre, F., a girl of the chamber; a
chamber-maid.

Fintm rtspict, L., look to the end.

Fit fabricando faber f L., a workman Is made
by working; practice makes perfect.

Flagranti delicto, L., in the commission of
crime.

Fortiter in re, L., with firmness In acting.

Fortuna fiavet fortibus , F., fortune favors the
brave.

Fronti nulla fides, L., no faith in appearance;
there is no trusting to appearances.

Fuit Ilium, L., Troy has been.

Fulmen brittutn, L., a harmless thunderbolt.

Functus officio, L., having discharged bis
office.

Furor loquendi, L., a rage for speaking.

Furor poeticus, L., poetic fire.

Furor scribendi, L., a rage for writing.

Garde du corps, F., a body-guard.

Garde mobile, P., a guard liable for general
service.

Gardes bien, F., guard well ; take care.

Genius loci, I.., genius of the place.

Gens (farmes, r .. armed police.

Gens de lettres, F ., literary people.

Gens de memtfamille, P., "birds of a feather.

Gentilhomme, V ., a gentleman.

Germanice, I.., in German.

Gloria in excclsis, L., glory to God In the
highest.

Gloria Patri, L., glory to the Father.

Gradus ad Parnassum, L., a step to Parnas-
sus, a mountain sacred to Apollo and the
Muses ; a book containing aids In writing
Greek or Latin poetry.

Grande parure, F., full-dress.

Gratis dictum,!*., mere assertion.

Guerre a Poutrance, L., war to the uttermost.

Hand passibus aquis, L. ( not with equal

■MM,

Haul gout, F., fine or elegant taste; high

flavor or relish.
Hie ei ubique, L., here and everywhere.
Hie facet, L.., here liis.
Hie labor, hoc opus est, L., this is labor, this

is work.
Hie sepullus, L., here buried.
Hinc ilia lucrima, L., hence proceed these

tr.ir-..
HisloritUt, F., a little or short history; a

tale. '

Hoipolloi, Gr., the many ; the rabble.
Hombre de un libra, Sp., a man of one book.
Hommt d' esprit, L., a man of talent; a witty

man.
Honi soit qui maly pense, F., evil be to him

*rbo evil thinks.
Honorarium, L., a fee paid to a professional

Horribile dictu, L., terrible to be said.
Hors de combat, F\, out of condition to fight.
Hortus siccus, L., collection of dried plants.
Hotel de ville, !•'., a town hall.
Hotel des lnvalides, L., the military hospital

In Paris.
Humanum est errare, L., to err is human.

Ich dien, Ger., I serve.

Id est, L., that is— abbreviated to /.*.

Imitatores servumpecus, L., imitators ; a ser-
vile herd.

Imperium in imperio, L., a government with •
in a government.

In wternum, L., forever.

In armis, L., under arms.

In articulo mortis, L. , at the point of death.

India expurgatorius,!*.,* list of prohibited

In esse, L. t in being.

In exlenso, L., at full length.

In extremis, L., at the point of death.

Infiagrante delictu, L., taken in the act.

In forma pauperis, L., in the form of a poor

person.
Inforo conscientia, L., before the tribunal of

conscience.
Infra dignitatem, L., below one's dignity.
In hoc signo vinces, L., under this sign, or

standard, thou shalt conquer.
In hoc statu, L. f in this state or condition.
In limine, L., at the threshold.
In loco, L., in the place.
In loco parentis, I.., in the place of a parent
In medias res, in the midst of things. _
In memoriam, L., to the memory of; in mem-
ory.
In nomine, L., In the name of.
In nubibus, L., in the clouds.
In face, L., in peace.
In perpetuum, L., forever.
In petto, L., within the breast; in reserve.
In plena, L., in full.

Jm posse, L., in possible existence; that may
be possible.

Inprasenti, L., at the present time.

In propria persona, L., in one's own person.

/« puris naluralibus, L., in naked nature ;
quite naked.

In re, L., in-the matter of.

In rem, L., against the thing or property.

In r.rum natura, L., in the nature of things.

In situ, L., in its original situation.

Insouciance, F., indilfcrence ; carelessness.

In statu quo, L., in the former state.

Inter alia, L., among other things.

Inter nos, L., between ourselves.

Inter pocula, L., between drinks.

In terror em, L., as a warning.

Inter se, L. f among themselves.

In totidem verbis,!.., in so many words.

In toto, L., in the whole ; entirely.

Intra muros, L., within the walls. _

In transitu, L., on the passage; during the
conveyance.

In vacuo, L., in empty space; free, or nearly
free, from air.

In vino Veritas, L., there is truth In wine.

Invito Minerva, L., against the will of
Minerva.

Ipse dixit, t.., he himself said it; dogmatism.

Ifsissima verba, L., the very words.

Ifsissimis verbis, I.., in the very words.

Ipso facto, L., in the fact itself.

Ira furor brevis est, L., anger is a short mad-
MM,

Jacta est alea, L., the die Is cast.

Je ne sais quoi, F., I know not what.

Jet cTeau, F., a Jet of water.

Jen de mots, F., a play on words ; • pun.

Jen a- esprit, F., a play of spirit ; a witticism.

Jubilate Deo, L., be joyful in the Lord.

Judicium Dei, L., the judgment of God.

Jupiter tnnans, L., Jupiter the thunderer.

Jure divino, L., by divine law.

Jure humano, L., by human law.

Jus canonicum, L., canon law.

Jus civile, L,, Civil law.

Jus divinum, I.., divine law.

Jus gentium, L., the law of nations.

Justemilieu, F., the golden mean.
Labore el honore, L., by labor and honor.
Labor ipse voluplas, L., labor itself is a

pleasure.
Labor omnia vincit,!.., labor conquers every-
thing.
La fame non vuol leggi. It., hunger obeys no

laws.
Lcissexfaire.F., let alone; suffer to have iu

own way.
Lapsus calami, L., a slip of the pen.
Lapsus lingua, L., a slip of the tongue.
Lapsus memoria, L., a slip of the memory.
Lares et penates , L., domestic and household

gods.
Latct unguis in htrba, L., a snake lies hid in

the grass.
Laudaria viro laudato, L., to be praised by a

man who is himself praised.
L'avenir, F., the future.
Laus Deo, L., praise to God.
Le beau monde, V ., the fashionable world.
Lt bon temps viendra, I '"., the good time will

come.
Le grand monarque.F., the great monarch-
applied to Louis XIV. of France.
Le pas, F., precedence in place or rank.
Le roile vent, ¥., the king wills it.
Lese-mafeste, L., high treason.
L'etoilt du nord, F ., the star of the north—

the motto of Minnesota.
I. e tout ensemble, F., all together.
Lettre de cachet, F., a sealed letter; a royal

warrant.
Lettre de marque, F., a letter of marque or

reprisal.
Lex non scripta, L., the unwritten law.
Lex scripta, L.,the written law; the statute

law.
Lex talionis, L., the law of retaliation.
Liberum arbitrtum, L., free will.
Lima labor, L., the labor of the file ; the alow

polishing of a litenuy composition.
Lis subfudice, L., a case not yet decided.
Lite pendente, L., the law-suit hanging ; dur-
ing the trial.
Litera scripta manet, L., the written letter

remains.
Loci communes, L., common places.
Locos y ninos dixen la verdad, Sp., children

and fools speak the truth.
Locum tenens, L., one holding the place; a

deputy or substitute.
Locus standi, L., a place for standing ; a right

t<> interfere.
L^cuxpenitentia, L., place for repentance.
Lusus natura, L., a sport or freak of nature.

Ma chrre^F., my dear— fern.

Mafois, F., upon my faith.

Magna est Veritas el prcvaltblt, L., truth ia

V great and it will prevail.
agnum bonum, L., a great good.
Magnum opus, I.., a great •
Maintien, F '., deportment ; carriage.
Maison de sante l F., a private hospital.
Maitre d'hotel, F., a house-steward.
Malade dupays, F\, home-sickness.
Mala fide, t..~, with bid faith ; treacherously.
Malapropos, V., ill timed.
Male porta male dilabuntur, L., things ill

gotten are ill spent.
Malgre nous, !•"., in spite of us.
Ma'nibus pedibusour,L.,K>lh hands and feet.
Malum in se. Lj, Main itself.
Mann propria. L., with one's own hand.
MtarmJGrm*, P.. Starov* Tuaadir.
Materfcmilias, L., the mother o. a family.
Mauvaise honte, V., false shame.
M.mvais suj't, F., a bad subject ; a worthiest

Maximns in minimis, L., very great In trifling

Medio^tutissimns ibis, L.. you will go most

safclv in a middle course.

Mega bib/ion. mega iahon, Gr., a great book

is a great evil." ,

Me indie, L., I being judge; n my opinion.
Memento mori. I... remember death.
Mens sana in corf ore sano, L., a sound mind

In a sound 1' , .

Mens sili censes* recti, L., a mind conscioul

of rectitude.

A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES.

8ll

Mens agitat molem, L., mind moves matter.

Menu, P., a bill of fare.

Mesalliance, F., improper association; mar-

riage with one of lower station.
Meum ct tuurn, L., mine and thine.
Mirabile dictu, L., wonderful to be told.
Mirabile vtsu, L-, wonderful to be seen.
Mise en scene, F., the getting up for the stage,

or the putting in preparation for it.
Modus operandi, L.,the manner of operation.
Mollia temporafandi, L., times favorable for

speaking.
Mon ami,F., my friend.
Mon cher, F., my dear — masc.
Monlani semper liberty L., mountaineers are

always freemen — the motto of West Vir-
ginia.
Afore majorum, L., after the manner of our

ancestors.
More suo, L., in his own way.
Motu proprio, L., of his own accord.
Multum in parvo, L., much in little.
Mundus vult decipi, L., the world wishes to

be deceived.
Mutatis mutandis, L., the necessary changes

being made.

Natale solum, L., natal soil.

Necessilas non habet legem, L., necessity has

no law.
Nee, F., born, family or maiden name.
Ne exeat, L., let him not depart.
Ntfronticrede, L., trust not to appearance.
Nemine contradicente, L., without opposition.
Nemine dissentiente, L., no one dissenting;

without opposition.
Nemo me impune lacessit, L., no oneprovokes
me with impunity — the motto of Scotland.
Nemo mortatium omnibus horis sapit, L., no

one is wise at all times.
Nemo repente fuit turpissimus, L., no manbe-

comes a scoundrel at once.
Ne plus ultraj L., nothing further.
Ne $md detriment! respublica capiat, L., lest

the republic should receive harm.
Ne sutor ultra crepidam, L., let the shoe-
maker stick to his last.
Nil admirari, L., to wonder at nothing.
Nil desperandum, L., never despair.
N\importe, F., never mind.
Nisi dominus,frustra, L., unless the Lord

helps, nothing is gained.
Nisi prius, L., unless previously.
Nitor in adversum, L., I strive against op-
position.
Noblesse oblige, F., nobility obliges; nobles

must act nobly.
Nolens volens, L., willy-nillv.
Noli me iangere, L.. don't iouch me; hands

off.
Nolle prosequi, L., to abandon prosecution.
Nolo episcopari, L., I am unwilling to be a

Kishop.
Nom de guerre, F., a war name; an assumed

name.
Nom de plume, F., a pen -nanus; name assumed

by an author.
Non compos mentis, L., not in one's right

mind
Non constat, L., it does not appear.
Non est inventus, L., he has not been found.
Non multa, sed multum , L., not many things,

but much.
Non nobis solum, L., not for ourselves alone.
Non mi ricordo, It., I do'not remember.
Noscitur a sociis t L., he is known by his

companions.
Nota bene, L., markwell.
Nous avons change tout cela, F., we have

changed all that.
Nous verrons, F., we shall see.
Nunquam non paratus, L., never unprepared.

Oderint dum meturant, L., let them hate, pro-
vided they fear.

Odiprofanum, L., I hate the vulgar.

Odium theologicum, L., theological hatred.

Olla podrida, Sp., a mixture.

Omne ignotum pro magnijico, L., everything
unknown is thought magnificent.

Omnia vincit amor t L., love conquers all
things.

On dit, F., they say ; people say.

Onus probandi, L., the burden of proof.

Ora pro nobis, L., pray for us.

O temporal O mores! L., oh, the times! oh,

the manners.
Oti'tm cum dignitate, L., ease with dignity.
Outre t F,, extravagant; extreme.

Palmam qui meruit feral, L., who merits

bears the prize.
Par excellence, F., by way of eminence ; in the

highest degree.
Par hasard,Y ., by chance.
Paripassuj L., with equal step.
Parvenu, t., an upstart; a rich "snob."
Paterfamilias, L., the father of a family.
Pater patriie, L., the father of his country.
Pax vobiscum, L., peace be with you.
Peccavi, L., I have sinned.
Pendente lite, L., while the suit is pending.
Per annum, L., by the year.
Per capita, L., by the head ; on each person.
Per contra, L., on the other hand.
Per diem, L., by the day ; every day.
Periculum in mora, L., danger in delay.
Per se, L. by itself.
Personnel^ r.,

vice.

the staff; persons in any ser-

Petitio principii, L., begging the question.

Petite, F., small ; little-Tern.

Piece de resistance, F., a joint of meat.

Pinxit, L., he (or she) painted it.

Pts alter, F., a last expedient.

Plebs, L., the common people.

Poeta nascitur, non ft, L., a poet is born, not

made.
Point d'appui, F., point of support.
Populus vult decipi, L., the populace wish to

be deceived.
Posse comitatus, L., the power of the country ;
the force that may be summoned by the
sheriff.
Poste reslante, F., to be left till called for.
Post meridiem, L., afternoon.
Post mortem, L., after death.
Post obitum, L., after death.
Pourparler, F., a consultation.
Pour prendre conge, F., to take leave.
Precieuse, F., a fclue stocking; a conceited

woman.
Preux chevalier, F., a gallant gentleman.
Prima donna, It., the first lady; the princi-
pal female singer in Italian opera.
Prima facie , L., on the first face; at first

sight.
Primus inter pares, L., first among his peers.
Pro bono publico, L., for the public good.
Proces verbal, V., verbal process ; the taking

of testimony in writing.
Pro el con, L., for and against.
Pro forma, L., for the sake of form.
Pro patria, L., for one's country.
Pro tempore, L., for the time.
Punicafdes, L-, Punic faith, i.e., treachery.

Quantum sufficit, L., as much as is sufficient.
^uelque chose, F., something.
Quidnunc, L., what now ; a gossip,
^uidpro quo, L., an equivalent.
^uivive, F., who goes there?
\uod erat demonstrandum, L., which was to
be demonstrated.
Quondam, L., at one time ; once.

Para avis, L., a rare bird.

Rechauffe, F., warmed over; stale.

Recherche, F., choice ; elegant.

Redacteur, F., an editor.

Redivivus, L., restored to life.

Reductio ad absurdum, L., reduction to an

absurdity.
Rentes, F., public funds; national securities.
Requiescat in pace, L., may he (or she) rest

in peace.
Res angusta domi, L., the narrow things at

home ; poverty.
Resgestat, L., things done.
Resurgam, L., I shall rise again.
Revenons a nos moutons,F., let us return to

our sheep ; come back to the subject.
Robe de ckambre, F., a dressing-gown.
Roue, F., a rake.
Roufre et noir, F. t red and black ; a game.

Sanctum sanctorum, L., the holy of holies.

Sangfroid, F., cold blood ; self-possession.

Sans culottes, F., without breeches; red re-
publicans.

Sartor resarlus, L., the tailor patched.

Sauve qui feut, F '., save himself who can,

Savoirfaire, F., knowing how to do things.

Savoir vivre, F., knowledge of the world.

Semper idem, L., always the same.

Semper paratus, L., always prepared.

Sequitur, L., it follows.

Seriatim, L., in order.

Sic itur ad astra, L., thus the road to immor-
tality.

Sic semper tyrannis, L., thus always with
tyrants.

Sic transit gloria mttndi, L., so passes the
glory of the world.

Sic volo, sicj'ubeo, L., thus I will ; thus I com-
mand.

Similia similibus curantur, L., like tilings are
cured by like.

Similis simiti gaudet , L., like is pleased with

Si monumentum quarts, circumspice,L.., if you

seek his monument, look around.
Sine die, L., without a day appointed.
Sine qua non, L., an indispensable condition.
Siste t viator, L., stop, traveler.
Si vis pacem, para helium, L., if you wish

peace, prepare for war.
Soi-disant, P., self-styled.
Spero metiora t L., I hope for better things.
Spirt'tuel, L., intellectual ; witty.
Spolia opima, L„ in ancient Home, the spoils
of a vanquished general taken by the vic-
torious general; a rich booty.
Sponte sua, L., of one's own accord.
Statu quo ante helium, L., in the state which

was Defore the war.
Status quo, L., the state in which,
Stet,l*., let it stand.
Suaviter in modo,fortiter in re, L., gentle in

manners, brave in deed.
Subjudice, L., under consideration.
Sub poena, L., under a penalty.
Sub rosa, L., privately.
Sub silentio, L., in silence or stillness.
Sui generis, L., of its own kind.
Summum bonum, L., the chief good.
Summum jus, summa injuria, L., the rigor

of the law is the height of oppression.
Surgit amari aliquia, L., something bitter

arises.
Suum cuique, L., let each have his own.

Tableau vivant, F., the representation of
some scene by groups of persons.

Tabula rasa, L., a smooth or blank tablet.

Tadium vita, L., weariness of life.

Taut pis, F., so much the worse.

Te Deum, L., a hymn of thanksgiving.

Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis,
L., the times are changed and we are
changed with them.

Tempusfugit, L., time flies.

Terminus ad quern, L., the time to which.

Terminus a quo, L., the time from which.

Terra firma, L., solid earth.

Terra incognita, L., an unknown country.

Tertium quid, L., a third something.

Tete-a-tete, F., head to head; a private con-
versation.

Toga virilis, L., the gown of manhood.

Tokalon, Gr., the beautiful ; the chief good.

Totidem verbis, L., in just so many words.

Toties quoties, L., as many as.

Toto carlo, L., by the whole heavens ; diamet-
rical'*' opposite.

Tcujourspret, F., always ready.

Tour deforce, F., a feat of strength or skill.

Tout-afait, F., entirely: wholly.

Tout ensemble, F., the whole taken together.

Trojafuit, L., Troy was.

Trottoir, F., a sidewalk.

Tuquoque, Brute 7 L., and thou, too.Brutus!

Tutor et ultor, L., protector and avenger.

Tuum est, L., it is your own.

Ubimel,ibi apes, 1,., where honey is, there

are bees.
Ultima ratio regum, L., the last argument of

kings; war.

'71

3l2

A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES.

Ultima Thull, L., the utmost boundary or

limit.
Un Hex fait n' est jamais perdu, F., a kindness

is never lost.
Unfait accompli, L„ an accomplished fact.
Unguibus el roslro, L., with claws and beak.
Usque ad nauseam, L., to disgust.
Usus loquendi, I... usage in speaking.
Utile dulci, L., the useful with the pleasant.
Ut infra, L., as below.
Uli possidetis, L.i as you possess; state of

present possession.
Ut supra, L.., as above stated.

Vade mecum, L., go with me.

Vale, I.., farewell.

Valet de chambre, F., an attendant; a foot-
man.

Variat lecliones, L., various readings.

Variorum not*, L., the notes of various
authors,

Vint, vidi, vici, L., I came, I saw, I conquered.

Vera pro graliit, L.., truth before favor.

Verbatim el literatim, L., word for word and
letter for letter.

Verbum sal sapienli, L., a word is enough for
a wise man.

Veritas prevalebit, I.., the truth will prevail.

Veritas vincit, L.., truth conquers.

Vestigia, L., tracks; vestiges.

Vestigia nulla ntrorsum, L., no footsteps
Iiitckwanl.

Vexata quttslio, L., a disputed question.

Vice, L., in the place of.

Vice versa, L., the terms being exchanged.

Vid, licet, L., to wit ; namely.

Vide ut rtipra, L., see what is stated above.

Viet armis, L.,by force and by arms; by
main force.

Vincil qui se -vincit, L., he conquers who
overcomes himself.^

Vinculum matrimonii, L., the bond of mar-
riage.

Virtus laudatur, el algel, L., virtue is prais-
ed, and is not cherished (is starved).

Virtus semper viridis, virtue is ever green
and blooming.

Vis inertia!, L., the power of inertia; resist*
ance.

Viva! regina! L., long live the queen I

Vivat rex, L., long live the king.

Viva voce, L,., by the living voice; by oral
testimony.

Vivat respublica I L., long lire the republic I

Vivela republiquel K., long live therepublicl

Vive I'tmpereurl F., long live the emperorl

Vivt le roil F., long live the king/

Voila, F., behold ; there is or there are.

Volens et potent, L., able and willing; motto
of Nevada.

Volente Deo, L., God willing.

Volenti non fit injuria,!*., no injustice is done
to the consenting person.

Vox it pr ultra nihil, U., a voice and nothing
more ; sound without sense.

Vox populi, vox Dei, L., the voice of the peo-
ple is the voice of God.

Vulgo, L.., commonly.

Vultus est index antmi, L., the face la the In-
dex of the mind.

^PK-

«*?T|.E UpME OF §K[$.m

AMETHY8T, PEACE OF MIND.

Regarded by the ancients as having the power to dispel drunkenness.

OLOOD-STONE, I MOURN YOUR ABSENCE.

Worn by the ancients as an amulet or charm, on account of the medi-
cinal and magical virtues it was supposed to possess.

DIAMOND, pride.

Awarded supernatural qualities from the most remote period down
to the Middle AgW< Has the powerof making men courageous
and magnanimous. Protects from evil spirits. Influences
the gods to lake pity upon mortals. Maintains con-
cord between husband nnd wife, and for this
reason was held as the most appropriate
stone for the espousal ring.

EMERALD, success IN LOVI.

Mentioned In the Bible as worn In the breast-plate of the High Priest
as an emblem of chastity.

RUBY, A CHEERFUL MIND.

An amulet against poison, sadness, evil thoughts. A preservative of

health. Admonishea the wearer of impending

danger by changing color.

8APPHIRE, CHASTITY.

Procures favor with princes. Frees from enchantment. Prevents
Impure thoughts.

TOPAZ, FIDELITY.

Calms the passions.

TURQUOISE ...... SUCCESS AND HAPPINESS.

Preserves from contagion.

GARNET, FIDELITY IN EVERY ENGAGEMENT.

ONYX, RECIPROCAL LOVE.'

OPAL, PURI THOUGHTS.

PEARL, ......... PURITY AND INNOCENOl.

'V*J

^g p^pgp^ptjjM^P-^PM^MP^P-^p^

DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS.

»AILY is the use of abbreviations increasing in America. The demand for continual short-cuts in writing as well as in everything
else has built a great number of logogriphs, which without a comprehensive glossary must be often unintelligible. Below will
be found all the abbreviations in good English usage.

a. In commerce, to.

<&. In commerce, at.

A.A.G. AssistantAdjutant-Gen-
eral.

A.A.P.S American Association
for the Promotion of Science.

A.A.S. Academics Americana So-
cius, Fellow of the American
Academy (of Arts and Sci-
ences).

A.A.S.S. Americana Antiquar-
ians Societatis Socius, Member
of the American Antiquarian
Society.

A.B. Artium Baccataureus,
Bachelor of Arts.

A.B.C.F.M. American Board of
Cotnissioners for Foreign Mis-
sions.

Abp. Archbishop.

Abr. Abridgment.

Abbr. Abbreviation.

A.B.S. American Bible Society.

A.C. Ante Christum , before
Christ; Arch-Chancellor.

Acad. Academy.

Acct. Account; Accent.

A.C.S. American Colonization
Society.

A.D. Anno Domini, in the year
of our Lord.

A.D.C. Aide-de-camp.

Ad. Advertisement.

Adj. Adjective.

Adjt. Adjutant.

Adjt.-Gen. Adjutant -General.

Ad lib. Ad libitum, at pleasure.

Atlm. Admiral ; Admiralty.

Adm. Ct. Admiralty Court.

Admr. Administrator.

Admx. Administratrix.

Ad v. Advalorem, at (or on) the
value.

Adv. Adverb; Advent; Adver-
tisement.

Att. AZlatis , of age ; aged.

A.F.&A.M. Ancient tree and
Accepted Masons.

A.F.B.S. American and Foreign
Bible Society.

A.G. Adjutant- General.

Agr. Agriculture.

A.G.S.S, American Geograph-
ical and Statistical Society.

Agt. Agent.

A.H. Anno Hegiree, in the year
of the Hcgira.

A.H. M.S. American Home Mis-
sionary Siciety.

Ala. Alabama.

Aid. Alderman.

A.L. of H. American Legion of
Honor.

Alex. Alexander.

Alg. Algebra.
fc Alt. Altitude.

A.M. Anno mundi. In the year
of the world ; Artium Mag-
r'ster, Master of Arts ; Ante
meridiem, Before noon, morn-
ing.

Amb. Ambassador. (See Emb.)

Amer. American.

AMM. Amalgama, Amalgama-
tion.

Amt. Amount.

An. Anno, In the year.

An.A.C. Anno ante Christum,
in the year before Christ.

Anat. Anatomy.

Anc. Ancient; anciently.

And. Andrew.

Ang. Sax. Anglo-Saxon.

Anon. Anonymous.

Ans. Answer.

Ant. Antiquity.

Anth. Anthony.

Aor. or aor. Aorist.

A.O.S.S. Americana Orientalis
Societatis Socius, Member of
the American Oriental Society.

A.O.U.W. Ancient Order of
United Workmen.

Ap. Apostle ; Applus.

Ap. Apud, in the writings of ; as
quoted by.

Apo. Apogee.

Apoc. Apocalypse.

App. Appendix.

Apr. April.

A.Q.M.G. Assistant Quarter-
master-General

A.R. Anna Regina, Queen Anne.
Anno regni, year of the reign.

A.R.A. Associate of the Royal
Academy.

Arab. Arabic, or Arabia.

Ariz. Ter. Arizon: i crritory.

Arg. Argumento, by an argu-
ment drawn from such a law.

Ai ith. Arithmetic.

Ark. Arkansas.

A.R.R. In the year of the reign
of the king.

A.R.S.S. Fellow of the Royal
Society of Antiquaries.

Art. Article.

A.S. or Assist. Sec. Assistant
Secretary.

A.S.A. American Statistical As-
sociation.

Asst. Assistant.

Afist. Surg. Assistant Surgeon.

A.S.S.U. American Sunday -
School Union.

Astrol. Astrology.

Astron. Astronomy.

A.T. Arch -Treasurer.

A.T.S. American Tract Society.

Ats. At suit of.

Atty. Attorney.

Atty. - Gen. Attorney- General.

A.U.A. American Unitarian As-
sociation.

Aub.TheoI. Sem. Auburn Theo-
logical Seminary.

A.UTC. In the year of Rome.

Aug. August.

Aur. Gold, Aurum.

Auth. Ver. Authorized version
(of the Bible).

Av. Average ; Avenue.

Avoir. Avoirdupois.

A.Y.M. Ancient York Masons.

b. Born.

B.A. Bachelor of Arts.

B.A. British America.

Bal. Balance. .

Bait. Baltimore.

Bar. Barrel ; Barleycorn.

Bart, or Bt. Baronet.

Bbl. Barrel.

B.C. Before Christ.

B.C. Bachelor of the Classics.

B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law.

B.D. Bachelor of Divinity.

Bd. Bound.

Bds. orbds. Boards (binding).

B.E. Bachelor of the Elements.

Benj. Benjamin.

Bk. Book.

B. Lit. Bachelor of Letters.

B.LL. Bachelor of Laws.

Bl., Bis. Barrel, Barrels.

B.M. Bachelor of Medicine.

B. Mus. Bachelor of Music.
Bor - . Borough.

Bost. Boston.

Bot. Botany.

Bp. Bishop.

B.R. The King's or Queen's

Bench.
Brig. Brigade ; Brigadier,
Brig. -Gen. Brigadier- General.
Brit. British; Britain.
Brit. Mus. British Museum.
Bro., Bros. Brother, Brothers.
Br. Univ. Brown University.
Brus. Brussels.
B.S. Bachelor of Science.
Bu., Bush. Bushel.
B.V. Blessed Virgin.
B.V. Farewell.
B.V.M. Blessed Virgin Mary.
G, Ch. or Chap. Chapter ; Consul.

C. or Cent. A hundred, Centum.
C.A. Commercial Agent.

ca?t. par. Other things being
equal, Ccetcr is paribus.

Cad. Eng. Cadet Engineer.

Cal. California; Calends; Cal-
endar.

Cam. Cambridge.

Can. Canon ; Canada.

Cant. Canticles.

Cap, or c. Chapter, Caput, cap-
itulum.

Caps. Capitals.

Capt. Captain.

Capt.-Gen. Captain-General.

Card. Cardinal.

C.A.S Fellow of Connecticut
Academy, Conn. Academies So-
cius.

Cash. Cashier.

ca. resp., ca. sa. A legal writ.

Cath. Catholic.

Cath. Inst Catholic Institute.

C.B. Companion of the Bath.

C.B Common Bench.

C.C. County Clerk; County
Commissioner.

C.C. Caius College; Account
Current.

C.C. Chancellor Commanuer;
Consular Clerk.

C.C.C. Corpus Christi College.

C.C.P. Court of Common Pleas.

C.E. Civil Engineer: Canada
East.

Cel. or Celt. Celtic.

Ccn. Century; Centennial.

Cf., orcf. Compare, Confer.

C.G. Commissary-General; Con-
sul-General.

C.G.S. Commissary-General of
Subsistence.

C.H, Court-house.

Ch. Church; Chapter; Charles;
Chaldron.

Chamb. Chamberlain.

Chanc. Chancellor.

Chap. Chapter; Chaplain.

Chas. Charles.

Chem. Chemistry.

Chf. E. Chief Engineer.

Chf. Con. Chief cfConstruction.

Chf. Med. Pur. Chief Medical
Purvevor.

Chf. Ord. Chief of Ordance.

Chr. Christopher.

Chron. Chronicles.

Cin. Cincinnati.

C.J. Chiefjustice,

CI. Clergyman.

Cld. Cleared.

Clk. Clerk.

CM. Vincentians or Lazarists.

CM. Master in Surgery.

CM. Common Meter.

C.M.G. Companion of the Order
of St. Michael and St. George.

Co. Company ; County.

Coad. Coadjutor.

Coad. Bp. Coadjutor Bishop.

Coad. cum jure sue. Coadjutor
with right of succession.

C.O.D. Cash (or collect) on de-
livery.

Col. Colonel ; Colossians ; Col-
orado.

Coll. Collector ; Colloquial ; Col-
lege; Collection.

Colo. Colorado.

i**

• m

•

814

DICTIONARY OF

ABBREVIATIONS.

Com. Commerce; Committee;

D.T. T>octor of Theology.

Fr. Franc; Francs; French;

H.R. House of Representatives.

CommcuU;. | .ioner;
Commodore : Community.

D.V. God willing, Dto volmte.

.France.

li.R.E. Holy Roman Emperor.
H.R.H. HisorHerRoyalHigh-

Dub. Dublin.

I 1. Fragment

Com. Arr. Committee of Ar-

Dwt. Pennyweight.

Fr. Francis ; Father ; Friar ;

neas,

rangements.
Cotndg. Commanding.
Comdt. Commandant.

£. East.

Frank.

H.R. I. P. Here he rests in peace.

ea. Each.

F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Astro-

H.S. Here lies, J fie situs.

E. by S. East by South.

nomical Society.
F.R.C.S.L. Fellow of the Royal

H.S.H. His Serene Highness.

Comm. Commentary.

Eben. Ebenezer.

h.t. This title; In or under this

-u\o. ComiiKidurr,

Eccl. Bcclstl

College of Surgeons, London.
Fred. Frederick.

title, //o<r titulo.
h.v. This word, /foe -zerbum; In

Comp. Compare ; Compound.
( mn. Ver. Common Version (of

Ecclus. Ecclcsiasticus.

Ed. Editor: Edition.
Edia. Edinburgh.

F.K.G.S. Fellow of the Royal

these words. ffis verbis.
Hund. Hundred.

the Bible).

graphical Society.
Fri. Friday.

Con. Against; In opposition,
Contra,

Edit. Edition.

I, II, III. One, two, three, or,

Edm. Edmund.

F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal So-

first, second, third.

Con. Cr. Contra, Credit.

Edw. Edward.

ciety.

la. Iowa.

Con. Convent.

B.K. Errors excepted.

Frs. Frisian.

lb. or ibid. In the same place.

Conch. Conchology.
Cong. Congress ; Congregation ;
Ccmgregauonallat

E.E. & M.P. Envoy Extraor-

F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal

Ich. Ichthyology.

dinary and Minister Plenipo-

Society, Edinburgh.

Ictus. Counselor at Law.

tentiary.

F.K.S.L. Fellow of the Royal

Id. The same, ftfem.

Conj. or conj. Conjunction.

e.g. For example. Exempli gratia.
e.g. From the flock, among the

t v, London.

Id. Ter. Idaho Territory.

Conn. orCt. Connecticut.

F.K.S.L. Fellow of the Royal

i.e. That is, fd est.

Const. Constable ; Constitution.

rest.

Society of Literature.

I. H.S. Jesus the Savior of men.

Contra.

E.I. East Indies or East India.

F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of

ij. Two {medical).
111. Illinois.

Conv. Convent.

Ehz. Elizabeth.

Arts.

Cor. Corinthians; Corner.

E. Ion. East longitude.

F.S.A.E. Fellow of the Society

In. Inch ; Inches.

Cored. Corollary.

Emp. Emperor; Empress.

of Antiquaries, Edinburgh.

incog. Unknown, fncognito.

Cor Sec. Corresponding Secre-

Encyc. Encyclopedia.

Ft. Foot ; Feet ; Fort

incor. Incorporated.

tary

E.N.E. East- northeast.

Fur. Furlong.

Ind. Indiana; Index; Indian.

C.P. Common Picas.

Eng. England ; English.

Eng. in Cnf. Engineer in Chief.

F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological

Tnd. Ter. Indian Territory.

C.P. Court of Prnh.iie.

Society.

Indef. Indefinite.

C.P.S. Keeper of the Privy Seal.

Ens. Ensign.

G. or g. Guineas.

Inf. Beneath or below, Infra.
in f. At the end of the title, law

C.R. Keeper of the Rolls.

Ent. Entomology.

G.A. General Assembly.

Cr Creditor; Credit.

Env. Ext. Envoy Extraordinary.

Ga. Georgia.

or paragraph quoted, fnjine.
in lim. At the outset, fn limine.

Crim. Con. Criminal conversa-

Ep. Epistle.

Eph. Ephesians ; Ephraim.

Epis. Episcopal.

Gal. Galatians ; Gallon,

tion, or Adultery.
C.S. Court of Sessions; Com-

G.B. Great Britain.

in loc. In the place ; on the pas-

G.C. Grand Chancellor.

sage, In toco.

missary of Subsistence.

Esd. Esdras.

G.C. Grand Chapter.

in or. In the beginning and be-
fore the first paragraph of law,

C.S. Keeper of the Seal.
C.S.O. Chief Signal Officer.

E.S.E. East -Southeast

G.C.B. Grand Cross of the Bath.

Esq., Esqs. Esquire, Esquires.
Ban. Esther.

G.C.H. Grand Cross of Hanover.

in frincipio.
I.N. R.I. Jesus of Naxarath,

Ct.,cts. Cent, Cents; Connec-

G.C.L.H. Grand Cross of the

ticut.

et al. And others, Et alii

Legion of Honor.

King of the Jews.
Insp.-Gen. Inspector- General.

C. Thcod. In the Theodosian

etc. or &c. And other things ;

G.E. Grand Encampment

Code.

And so forth.

Gen. Genesis ; General.

Inst. Instant, of this month ;

C.W. Canada West.

et seq. And what follows, Et

Gent. Gentleman.

Institute.

Cwt. Hundredweight.

scquentia.

Geo. George.

in sum. In the summary, /*

Cyc. Cyclopedia.

Evang. Evangelical; Evangelist.

Geog. Geography.
Gcol. Geology.

summa.

d. Penny or Pence.

Ex. Example.
Ex. Exodus.

Int Interest ; Interpreter.

d. Died; Day.

Gcom. Geometry.

Gcr. German ; Germany.

Interj. Interjection.

D. Five hundred.

Exc. Excellency; Exception.

Intr. Introduction.

Dak. Ter. Dakota Territory.

Exch. Exchequer.

G.L. Grand Lodge.

in trans. In the passage, /•

Dan. Daniel; Danish.

Exec. Com. Executive Com-

Gl. A gloss, Glossa.
Glas. Glasgow.

transitu.

D.C. Again ; Deputy Consul.

mittee.

Introd. Introduction.

D.C. District of Colombia.

Execx. Executrix.

G.M. Grand Master.

Io. Iowa.

D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law.

ex. g. For example, Exempli

G.O. General Order.

I.O.G.T. Independent Order of

D.D. Doctor of Divinity.

gratia.
Exr. or Exec. Executor.

Goth. Gothic.

Good Templars.

D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Sur-

Gott Gottingen.

I.O.F. Independent Order of

DTE. Dynamic Engineer.

Ez. Ezra.

Gov. Governor.

Forest

Ezek. Ezcklcl. '

Gov. -Gen. Governor-General.

I.O.O.F. Independent Order ot

Dm, Deacon.

E. & O.E Errors and omissions

G.R. King George, Georgia*
Rex.

Odd Fellows.

Dec. December; Declaration.

excepted.

I.O.U. I owe you.

D«R. orDft, Defendant.

Fahr. Fahrenheit.

Gr. Greek; Gross.

I.q. Idem quod, the same as.
Isa. Isaiah.

Di x- DogfOa <>r di>jrees.
I*i 1. Delaware; Delegate.

F.A.M. Free and Acceped Ma-

Gram. Grammar.

sons.

Gro. Gross.

11. Island.

Dot <>r dot Hi; drew it.

Far. Farthing.

Grot. Grotius.

l.S.M. Jesus Sahator mrnndi,

Dep< Deputy.

D0p. Q.M.G. Deputy Quarter-

F.A.S. Fellow of the Antiquar-

h. Hour.

Jesus the Savior of the world.

ian Society.

h.a. This year, I top anno.

Ital. Italic; Italian.

master-Gent r:il.

■' fcp. Foolscap,
F.D. Defender of the Faith.

Hab. Habakkuk.

Itin. Itinerant or Itinerary.

Dept Department.

Hab. corn. You may have the
body, Ifabeas corpus*

I V. Four or fourth.

Deut. Deuteronomy.
D.F. Dean of the Faculty.

Fe. Iron, Ftrrum.

IX. Nine or ninth.

Feb. February,

Hag. Haggal.

J. Justice or Judge. JJ. Jus-

D.G. By God's m
D.G. Thanks to God.

Fee. He did It, Fecit.

Ham. Coll. Hamilton College.

tices.

I in. Feminine.

H.B.C. Hudson's Bay Company.

j. One (medical).

Diam. Diameter.

Fern. Ac. or Acad. Female Ac-

H.B.M, His or Her Britannic

J. A. Judge -Advocate,
lac. J

Diet. Dictator; Dictionary.

ademy

M;ii

Dim. DiminntiM .

F.E.S. Fellow of the Entomo-

H.C House of Commons,

Jam. Jamaica.

Dioc. Dim

logical Society ; of the Ethno-

Hdkf. Handkerchief.

Jan. January.

Dloc Stm. Diocesan Seminary.

logical Society*.
Feud. Feudal.

U.K. His Eminence.

J as. James.

Disc. Discount.

h.e. That is, or this is, Hoc est.

J.C.D. Juris Civilis Dmctor,

Diss. Dissertation.

F.I r.S. Follow of the Geological

Hob. Hebrews.

Doctor t f Civil Law.

in It District.

Society.

Her. Heraldry.

M. Exc. His Kxcellency.

J.D. Jurum Doctor, Doctor of

DI t \itv. District-Attorney.

F.H.8. Feiw of the Horticut-

Laws,

Wv. DMd

tural Society,
fi. fa. Cause it to be done, Fieri

HI'. Holy Father.
Hf.-bd. 11

Jcr. Jeremiah.

I'M. Doctoi 0! M

J no. John.

D.M.D. Doctor Dental Med-

facias.

f, D< fender of the Faith.

Hg. Mrrrurv, Hydrargyrum.
nil. His Holiness.

Jnna. Jonathan.

icine.

Jos. Joseph.

josh. Jorliua.

Do. The Sara*. DAfo

Dot , Dols.,$. Dollars.

Figure ; figurative.
Fir. Firkin.

Ulul. Hogshead.

Hurt Htston ; Historical.

J. P. Justice of the Peace.

Dom, To God, the best, the

Fla. Florida.

His. ll, re 1. buried.

H.L. House Of I

j.Ptod. Ji ite.

groat

F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnxan

j.R. ju'roru* Rett, King James.

Jr. or Jun. Junior.

j.l'.n". orJ.VJX yuris uSrius*

Dom. Prel. Domestic Prelate.

Society.

H.M, Mis or Her Ma)i

D02. Dozen.

Fol, 1

R.M.P, I retted this monument

I> l\ D01 ! ! Philosophy.

ign.

1 ton. Honorable.

que Doctor. Doctor of both
(of the Canon and the

Dr. Debtor; I)..,

Fellow of the Philological

Hoit. Horticulture.

D.S. From the sign.

Society.

Hos. Hose a.

Civil Law).

\£

-J

• — -

■» ■ «

h-3t—

DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS.

8l5

Jud. Judith.

Judg. Judges.

Judge- Adv. Judge -Advocate.

Jul. July; Julius.

Jul. Per. Julian Period.

Jun. June; Junius; Junior.

Jus. P. Justice of the Peace.

Just. Justinian.

J.W. Junior Warden.

K. King.

K.A. Knight of St. Andrew, in
Russia.

K.A.N. Knight of St. Alexan-
der Ncvskoi, in Russia.

Kas. Kansas.

K.B. King's Bench; Knight of
the Bath.

K.B.A. Knight of St. Bento
d'Avis, in Portugal.

K.B.E. Knight of the Black
Eagle, in Russia.

K.C. King's Counsel; Knight
of the Crescent, in Turkey.

K.C.B. Knight Commander of
the Bath.

K.C.H. Knight Commander of
Hanover.

K.C.S. Knight of Charles III.
of Spain.

K.E. Knight jof the Elephant,
in Denmark. *

K.F. Knight of Ferdinand of
Spain.

K.F.M. Knight of St. Ferdin-
and and Merit, in Sicily.

K.G. Knight of the Garter.

K.G.C. Knight of the Grand
Cross.

K.G.C.B. Knight of the Grand
Cross of the Bath.

K.G.F. Knight of the Golden
Fleece, in Spain.

K.G.H. Knight of the Guelphs
of Hanover.

K.G.V. Knight of Gustavus
Vasa, in Sweden.

K.H. Knight of Hanover;
Knights ofHonor.

Ki. Kings.

Kil. or kii. Kilderkin.

Kingd. Kingdom.

K.J. Knight of St. Joachim.

K.L. or K.L.A. Knight of Leo-
pold of Austria.

K.Li.H. Knight of the Legion
of Honor; Knights and Ladtes
ofHonor.

K.M. Knight of Malta.

K.Mess. King's Messenger.

K.M.H. Knight of Merit, in
Ftolstein.

K.M.J. Knight of Maximilian
Joseph, in Bavaria.

K.M.T. Knight of Maria Ther-
esa, in Austria.

K.N. Know -Nothing,

Knick. Knickerbocker.

K.N.S. Knight of the Royal
North Star in Sweden.

Knt. Knight.

K.P. Knight of St. Patrick
Knight ofFythias.

K.R.C. KnightoftheRedCross.

K.R.E. Knight of the Red Ea-
gle, in Prussia.

K.S. Knight of the Sword, in
Sweden.

K.S. A. Knight of St. Anne, in
Russia.

K.S.E. Knight of St. Esprit, in
France.

K.S.F. Knight of St. Fernando,
in Spain.

K.S.G. Knight of St. George, in

Russia.
K.S.H. Knight of St. Hubert,

in Bavaria.
K.S.J. Knight of St. Januarius,

of Naples.
K.S.L. Knight of the Sun and

Lion, in Persia.
K.S.M. & S.G. Knight of St.
Michael and St. George, in the
Ionian Islands.

K.S.P. Knight of St. Stanislaus,

in Poland.
K.S.S. Knight of the Southern

Star, in Brazil; Knight of the

Sword, in Sweden.
K.S.W. Knight of St. Wladimir,

in Russia.
K.T. Knight of the Thistle;

Knight Templar.
Kt. Knight.
K.T.S. Knight of the Tower

and Sword, In Portugal.
K.W. Knight of William, in

the Netherlands.
K.W.E. Knight of the White

Eagle, in Poland.
Ky. Kentucky.
L. Fifty or fiftieth; Liber \

book; Lake.
L, £ or 1. Libra or Librae,

Pound or pounds in weight.
L.C. Lord Chancellor; Lord

Chamberlain ; Lower Canada.
I.e. Lower-case.
L.C.B. Lord Chief Baron.
L.C.J. Lord Chief -Justice.
L.D. Lady-Day.
Ld. Lord.
Ldp. Lordship.
Leg. Legate.
Legis. Legislature.
Lev. Leviticus.
Lex. Lexicon.
L.I. Long Island.
Lib. Liber, book.
Lieut. Lieutenant.
Lieut. -Col. Lieutenant-Colonel.
Lieut.-Gen. Lieutenant-Gencral,
Lieut. -Gov. Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor.
Linn. Linnxan.
Liq. Liquidation.
Lit. Literally; Literature.
Liv. Livre, book.
LL.B. Legum Bacca /aureus ■,

Bachelor of Laws.
LL.D. Legum Doctor, Doctor

of Laws,
loc. cit. Loco citato, in the place

cited.
Lon. Longitude.
Lond. London.
L.S. Locus sigilli, Flace of the

seal.
Lt. Lieutenant.
LX. Sixty or sixtieth.
LXX. Seventy or seventieth ;

The Septuagint (Version of tne

Old Testament).
LXXX. Eighty or eightieth.
M. Meridies, noon.
M. Mi He, a thousand.
M. or Mons. Monsieur, Sir.
M.A. Master of Arts.
Mace. Maccabees.
Mad. Madam.

Mad. Univ. Madison University.
Maj. Major.

Mai. -Gen. Major-General.
Mat. Malachi.
Man. Manasses.
Mar. March.
March. Marchioness.
Marg. Margin.

Marg. Tran. Marginal Transla-
tion.
Marq. Marquis.
Masc. Masculine.
Mass. Massachusetts.
Math. Mathematics ; Mathema-
tician.
Matt. Matthew.
Max. Maxim.
M.B. Medicitue Baccalaureus,

Bachelor of Medicine.
M.B. Musicee Baccalaureus,

Bachelor of Music.
M.B.G. ct H. Magna Britannia,
Gallia et Hibemia, Great Brit-
ain, France, and Ireland.
M.C. Member of Congress.
Mch. March.

M.D. Medicina Doctor, Doctor
of Medicine.

Md. Maryland.

Mdlle. or Mile. Mademoiselle.

Mdse. Merchandise.

M.E. Methodist Episcopal; Mil-
itary or Mechanical Engineer.

Me. Maine.

Mech. Mechanics, or Mechanical.

Med. Medicine.

Mem. Memorandum. Memento,
remember.

Merc. Mercury.

Messrs. or MM. Messieurs, Gen-
tlemen.

Met. Metaphysics.

Metal. Metallurgy.

Meteor. Meteorology.

Meth. Methodist.

Mex. Mexico, or Mexican.

M.-Goth. Mceso-Gothic.

M.H.S. Massachusetts Histori-
cal Society; Member of the
Historical Society.

Mic. Micah.

Mich. Michigan.

Mil. Military.

Mil. Acad. Military Academy.

Min. Mineralogy; Minute.

Minn. Minnesota.

Min. Plen. Minister Plenipoten-
tiary.

Miss. Mississippi.

M.L.A. Mercantile Library As-
sociation.

MM. Their Majesties ; Mes-
sieurs , Gentlemen ; Two thou-
sand.

M.M.S. Moravian Missionary
Society.

M. M. S. S. Massachusettensis
Medicinal Socielatis Socius,
F'ellow of the Massachusetts
Medical Society.

Mo. Missouri; Month.

Mod. Modern.

Mon. Monday.

Mons. Monsieur, Sir.

Mos. Months.

Mont.Tcr, Montana Territory.

M.P. Member of Parliament;
Metropolitan Police.

M.P.P. Member of Provincial
Parliament.

M.R. Master of the Rolls.

Mr. Mister.

M.R.A.S. Member of the Royal
Asiatic Society ; Member of the
Royal Academy of Science.

M.R.C.C. Member of the Royal
College of Chemistry.

M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal
College of Surgeons.

M.R.G.S. Member of the Royal
Geographical Society.

M.R.I. Member of the Royal
Institute.

M.R.I.A. Member of the Royal
Irish Academy.

Mrs. Mistress.

M.R.S.L. Member of the Royal
Society of Literature.

M.S. Memories sacrum, Sacred
to the Memory; Master of the
Sciences.

MS. Manuscriptum, Manuscript.

MSS. Manuscripts.

Mt. Mount or Mountain.

Mus.B. Bachelor of Music.

Mus.D. Doctor of Music.

M.W. Most Worthy; Most Wor-
shipful.

Myth. Mythology.

N. Nortn; Number; Noun ;
Neuter.

r.. Note.

N.A. North America.

Nah. Nahum.

Nat. Natural.

Nat. Hist. Natural History.

Nath. Nathanael or Nathaniel.

N.B. New Brunswick; North
British; Nota bene, mark
well, take notice.
N.C. North Carolina; New
Church.

N.E. New England ; Northeast.

Neb. Nebraska.

Neh. Nehemiali.

n.e.i. Non est inventus. He is
not found.

nem, con. or nem. diss. Nemine
contradicente. No one oppos-
ing; Unanimously.

Neut. Neuter (gender).

Nev. Nevada.

New Test, or N.T. New Testa-
ment.

N.F. Newfoundland.

N.G. New Grenada ; Noble
Grand.

N.H. New Hampshire; New
Haven.

N.H.H.S. New Hampshire His-
torical Society.

Ni.pri. Nisiprius (law).

N.J. New Jersey.

n.l. Non liquet, It does not ap-
pear.

N.lat. North latitude.

N.Mex. New Mexico.

N.N.E. North-Northeast.

N.N.W. North- Northwest.

N.O. New Orleans.

No. Numero, number.

Nol.pros. Nolens prosequi,! am
unwilling to prosecute.

Nom. or nom. Nominative.

Non con. Not centent; dissent-
ing (House of Lords).

Non cul. Non cuipabilis, Not

Non oust. Non obstante, not-
withstanding.

Non pros. Non prosequitur, He
does not prosecute.

Non seq. Non sequitur, It does
not follow.

Nos. Numbers.

Nov. November.

N.P. N otary Public ; New
Providence.

N.S. New Style (after 1752);
■ Nova Scotia.

N.T. New Testament.

N.u. Name or names, unknown.

Num. Numbers ; Numeral.

N.V.M. Nativity of the Virgin
Mary.

N.W. Northwest.

N.W.T. Northwestern Territory.

N.Y. New York.

N.Y.H.S. New York Historical
Society.

O. Ohio.

Ob. Obiit, He (or she) died.

Obad. Obadiah.

Obj. Objection; Objective.

O.K. A slang phrase for "All
correct."

Obt. Obedient.

Oct. October.

O.F. Odd Fellow, or Odd-Fel-
lows.

O.F.P. Order of Friar Preachers.

Old Test, or O.T. Old Testa-
ment.

Olym. Olympiad.

Orit. Ontario.

Opt. Optics ; Optical; Optional.

Or. Oregon.

Ord. Ordinance; Order; Ord-
nance; Ordinary.

Orig. Originally.

Ornith. Ornithology.

O.S. Old Style (before 1752).

O.S.F. Order of St. Francis.

O.T. Old Testament.

O.UJV. Order of United Ameri-
cans.

Oxf. Oxford.

Oxon. Oxoniensis, Oxonii, of
Oxford, at Oxford.

Oz. Ounce.

P. Pondere, by weight.

P. or p. Page; Part; Participle.

Pa. Pennsylvania.

Pal. Palaeontology.

Par. Paragraph.

Par. Pas. Parallel passage.

-77

**?

816

DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS.

Pari. Parliament.
Pathol. Pathology.

Fayt. PftJBM

Pb. Plumbum, Lead.

P.M. llaccataureus,

"phy.
Poire* t'OMtcriph, Con-
script Fathers; Senator*.

P.C. Privy Council; Privy Coun-
cillor,

P.D. Philosophic Doctor, Doc-
tor of Philosophy.

JM-. Protectant Episcopal.

P.K.I. Prince Edward Island.

Penn. Pennsylvania.

Pent. Pentecost.

Per. or pr. By the.

IVr in. Per annum, by the year.

Per cent. Per centum, by the
brad

Peri. Perigee.

im. r

)'.(.. Past Grand.

Phar. Pharmacy*

Ph.it. Philosfhtae Baecataureus,

i >f Philosophy.
Ph.D. Philosophic Doctor, Doc-
tor ot Philosophy.
; Philii

ppians; Phil-

Phil. Ph. to
osophy; Philemon.

Phila, or Phil. Philadelphia.

Philom. Philomathts, Lover of
learning.

Philomath. Philomathemati&is ,
A lover of mathematics.

Phil.Trans. Philosophical Trans-
actions.

Phren. Phrenology.

I'.ll.s. Pennsylvania Historical
Society.

Pinx. Pinxit, He tor she) paint-
ed it.

Pk. Peck.

1*1. or nlur. Plural.

PItf. Plaintiff.

1*. M . Post meridiem, Afternoon.
Evening; Postmaster; Passed
Midshipman ; Paymaster.

P. M. G, Postmaster-General.

P.O. Post-office.

Pbi i. P<»« Heal

Pop. Population.

Port. Portugal ; Portuguese.

Pos. Position; Positive; Pos-
session.

P.P. Pater Patria. Father of
his Country; Parish Pr

P.P.C. Pour prendre conge, to
take leave.

Pp. or pp. Pages.

Pph. Pamphlet.

Pr. By.

P.R. Poputus Romanus, the

Roman People! Porto Rico;

Proof reader; Prize King.
P.R.A. President of the Royal

Academy.
P.R.C. Post Romam conditam,

After the building of Home.
Prat Pr I
Prep. Prapoaraon.
Prot Protestant.
Pro tern. Pro tempore, for the

tlma K elng,
Prov. Proverbs; P>ov*ost.
1'f t. Proximo, next (month).
P. U.S. President of the Royal

Society.
P.S. Post scriptum. Postscript.
P.S. Privy Seal.
Pi. Psalm or Psalms.
Pt. Parr ; Pint | Pavmcnt; Point;

Port; Post-town.

Publication;

Publl bad: Public
Pub, Doc. Public- Documents.

P.v. PoM-vill"'
Pwt. Pern a t;

weights. "*

Pxt. Pinxit, He (or she) painted

Q. Qurrn.

q. Quasi, mm it were ; almost.

Q.R. Queen's Bench.

Q,C. Queen's College; Queen's

Counsel,
q.d. Quasi dicat, as if he should
say; yuasi dictum, as if said;
quasi dtxisset. as if he had said.
q.e. Quod est, which is.
q.e.d. $uod erat demonstran-
dum, which was to be proved,
q . e . ( . Quod erat faciendum ,

which was to be done,
q.e.i. Quod erat inveniendum,

which was to be found out.
q.l. Quantum libet, as much as

you pit
QM. Quartermaster.
qm. Quomodo, how; by what

means.
Q.M.G. Quartermaster- General.
q.p or q.pl. Quantum placet, as

much as you please.
Qr. Quarter.
Q.S. Quarter-sessions; Quarter*

section.
q.s. Quantum sufiicit, a sufficient

quantity.
Qt. Quart,
qu. or qy. Quare, inquire,

query.
Quar. Quarterly.
Ques. Question,
q.v. Quod vide, which sec;

quantum vis, as much as you

wilt.
R. Recite, Take; Regina. Queen ;

/?«•, King; River; Rod ; Rood;

Rises.
R.A. Royal Academy; Royal

Academician ; Royal arch ;

Royal Arcanum ; Royal Artil-
lery.
R.C. Rescriptum, A rescript, Re-
written.
R.E. Royal Engineers.
Rod Recipe; Recorder.
1<< ( (1. Received.
Rec. Sec. Recording Secretary.
Rcct. Rector ; Receipt.
Ref. Reference; Reform.
Ref. Ch. Reformed Church.
Reg. Register; Regular.
Reg. Prof? Regius Professor.
Rcgr. Registrar.
Regt. Regiment.
u. 1. Religion.
Rep. Representative; Reporter;

Republic.
Rev. Reverend ; Revelation

(Book of); Review; Revenue;

Revise.

Rhct Rhetoric.

R.l. Rhode Island.

RlcHd. Richard.

R.I. U.S. Rhode Island Histori-
cal Society.

ELM. Royal Marines; Royal
Mail.

K.M.S, Roval Mail Steamer.

R.N. Roval Naw.

R.N.O. Riddare of Nordstjerne
Ord.-n Knight of the Order of
the Polar Stnr.

Ro. Recto, Right-hand page.

Root Row

Horn. Romans (Rook of).

Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic.

li.V. ffiartii Professor, the
King': Prof • < .

RK. TU^raajl

U.S. Recording Secretary.

Rs. Rcsfflttsum, Answer ; AV-
spondere. To answer.

Royal Society of Antr-

Qnaitaa; Royal Scottish Acad-
emy.

Royal Society of Dub-
lin.

Royal Society of Edin-
burgh.

tvof London.
R.S.Y.P. Respondex sit rous

ploit, Answer ji ■
Ht. lion. 1;
Ut, Rev, Right Reverend.

Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful.

H.W. Right Worthy.

R.W.O. RtddareafWasa Orden,

Knight of the Order of v
S. South ; Saint; Sen:

phur, Sunday; Sun; Series.
S. Sotidus, A shilling.
S.A. South America; South

Africa; South Austrolia.
s.a. Secundum artem. According

to art.
Sam. Samuel.
Sjnsc. Sanscrit.
s.A.s. Sih i. talis Antiquariorum

Socius, Fellow of the Society

of Antiquaries.
Sat. Saturday.
Sax. Saxon.

Sax. Chron. Saxon Chronicle.
S.C. Senatus consultum, A de-

drce of the Senate ; South Car -

olina.
Sc. He (or she) engraved it.
sc. or scil. Namely.
Scan. Mag. Scandal, Scandulum

magnatum; or, Great scandal,

Scandalum magnttm.
S. caps. Small capitals.
Schol. A note, Scholum.
Schr. Schooner.
Sci.fa. Make known (legal),

Scire facias.
Sclav. Sclavonic
Scot. Scotland.
Sculp, or sculp. He (or she)

engraved it, Sculfsit.
S.D. Sends health. Salutem dicit.
S.D. Doctor of Science.
S.E. Southeast.
Sec. Secretary; Second; Sec-
tion.
Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation.
Sec. leg. According to law.
Sec. rcg. According to rule.
Sect. Section.
Sem. It seems.

Sen. & Date; Senator; Senior.
Sept. September; Siptu^gint.
Seq. Following, Sequent to ; It

follows, Sequitur.
Ser. S

Serg. Serge:u.t.
Serg.-Maj. Sergeant- Major.
Servt. Servant,
S.G. Solicitor -General.
Shak. Shakspere.
S.II.S. Fellow of the Historical

Society.
Sing. Singular.
S.Isl. Sandwich Islands.
Sist Sister.
S.J. Society of Jesus.
S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court.
Bkr. Sanscrit.

8.L. Solicitor at Law.

Sid. Sailed.

South Latitude.

S.M. State Militia; Short Meter;
nit-Major; Sena of
Malta.

S.M. Lond. Soc. Cor. Corre-
sponding Member of the Lon-
don Medical Society.

s.n. According to nature, Seeuu-
dam not ar am.

Soc, Isl. Soci ■ f

Sol. Solomon ; Solution ; Solici-
tor.

Sol. -Gen. Solicitor- General.

s. ,>f s-o. Bong of Solomon.

S.l*. Without issue, Sine prole.

Sp. Spam.

S.I'.A.s, Member of the Amcri-
1

s.l* .< .. Societvfnr the Propaga-
tion of the (

Sp.gr. Specific gravity.

s. P.q.lt. The Roman Senate
■nd P.

Sq.ft. Square foot or square
feet

Sn, in. Square inch OT inches.

Sq.m. Square mile <>r mil
Sq.r. Square rood or roods.

Sq.yd. Square yard.
Sr. Sir or Senior; Sister.
S.R.I. Holv Roman Empire.
S.K.S. Fellow of the Royal

Society.
S.S. Sunday -school.
SS. Saints.

SS. ores. To- wit. Scilicet.
ss. Half, Semis.

South -southeast.
S.S.VV. South -southwest.
St. Saint , Street ; Strait.
Stat. Statute.

S.T.D. Doctor of Sacred Theol-
ogy-

Ster. or Stg. Sterling.
Professor of

S.T.P. Professor "of Sacred

Theology,
Su. Sunday.
Subj. Subjective.
Subst Substantive,
Su. Goth. Suit* Gothic
Sun. or Sund. Sunday.
Sup. Supplement ; Superfine ;

Superior.
Supt. Superintendent.
Surg. Surgeon ; Surgery.
Surg. -Gen. Surgeon - General.
Surv. Surveyor.
Surv.-Gen. Surveyor-General.
Sus. Susannah,
s.v. Under the word or title, Sut>

verbo.
S W. Southwest.
Syn. Synonym ; Synonymous.
T. Territory.
T. All together, Tutti.
T. or Tom. Tome ; Volume.
T.E. Topographical Engineers.
Tenn. Tennessee*
Ter. Territory.
Tex. Texas.

Text Rec. The Received Text.
Th. or Thurs. Thursday.
Theo. Theodore.
Theol. Theology; Theological.
Theoph. Theonhilus.
Thess. Thessalonians.
Tho\ Though.
Thos. Thomas.
Thro'. Through.
Thurs. Thursday.
Tim. Timothy.
Tit. Titus.
T.O. Turn over.
Tob. Tobit
Tom. Volume.

Topog. Topography; Topo-
graphical.
Tr. Transpose; Translator;

Translation.
Tr., Trs. Tnistee, Trustees,
tr. A shake, Trillo.
Trans. Translator ; Translation ;

Transactions.
Trcaa. Treasurer.
Trin. Trinity.
Tues. or Tu. ' Tuesday.
Tvp. T vp orra pher.
U.C. • me.

U.E.I.C. United East India

I tpany.
V.] C. Doctor of both Laws

(Civil and Canon).
UK. Doited Kingdom,
ult. Last ; of the last month, I V-

t:'mo.
Unit Unitarian.
Univ. Unlvca
U.S. United states,
u.s. As above, I't supra or uti

supra.

United States Arm v.
United States of Amer-

u s; \.
US \.

U.s.M

r.s.M

United Si
Unit
U.S.M. V Unite; States Military
Acadcmv.

f
\. United States Naval
Aradcmv.
U S.S, I nib d st ites Senate.
U.T. Utah Territory.

DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS.

8l 7

V. Five or fifth.

V. Violin. VV. Violins.

v. or vid. See, Vide,

v. or vs. Against ; In such away:

Versus ; Versiculo.
V.A. Vicar Apostolic.

V. Adml. Vice-Admiral.
Va. Virginia.

Vat. Vatican.

V.C. Vice -Chancellor.

V.C. Vice-Consul.

V.C.G. Vice-consul-General.

V.D.M. MinisterofGod'sWord.

Ven. Venerable.

Ver. Verse ; Version.

V.F. Vicar-Forane.

V.G. Vicar-General.

v.g. As for example, Vtrbi Gratia.

VI. Six or Sixth.

VII. Seven or Seventh.

VIII. Eight or Eighth.
Vic.-Ap. vicar- Apostolic.
Vic-Gen. Vicar-General.
Vice-Pres., or V.P. Vice-Pres-
ident.

Vil. Village.

Vise. Viscount.

viz. orvi. To wit; Namely; That

is to say : Videlicet.
Vo. Left hand page, Verso.
Vol. Volume.
V.R. Queen Victoria, Victoria

Regina.
V.R: Very Reverend.
VS. Veterinary Surgeon.
Vt. Vermont.
Vul. Vulgate (Latin version of

the Bible).
W. West.
Wash. Washington.
W.Ter. Washington Territory.
Wed. Wednesday.
West. Res. Col. Western Reserve

College.
w.f. Wrong font.
Whf. Wharf.

W.I. or W.Ind. West India.
Wise. Wisconsin.
Wisd. Wisdom (Book of).
Wk. Week.

W.Lon. West longitude.
W.M. Worshipful Master.
Wm. William.
W.M.S. Wesleyan Missionary

Society.
W.N.W West-northwest.
Wpful. Worshipful.
W.S. Writer to the Signet
W.S.W. West-southwest
W.T. Wyoming Territory.
X. Ten or tenth.

X. or Xt. Christ.

XI. Eleven.

XII. Twelve.

XIII. Thirteen.

XIV. Fourteen.

XV. Fifteen.

XVI. Sixteen.

XVII. Seventeen.

XVIII. Eighteen.

XIX. Nineteen.

XX. Twenty.
XXX. Thirty.
XL. Forty.
XC. Ninety.

Xmas or Xm. Christmas.

Xn or Xtian. Christian.

XntyorXty. Christianity.

Xper or Xr. Christopher.

Vd. Yard.

y. or ye. The.

ym. Them.

yn. Then.

yr. Their; Your.

ys. This.

yt. That.

Y.M.C.A. Young Men's Chris

tian Association.
Y. M. Cath. A. Young Men's

Catholic Association.
Yrs. Years ; Yours.
Zach. Zachary.
Zech. Zechanah.
Zeph. Zephaniah.
Zool. Zoology.
&. And.
&c. And the rest; And so forth:

£t ceetera.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

=7?

819

^^^^^^^^^^^ r j'J^^^^^ r j,j.j r j.j,j r j,j,j r j r j,j r j,j, Jr j r j r JUI

RLPHHBETICnL NDEX

r l r l r l r J r l r l r l r i r l r l r l r l r l rJr lr> r l,l r Jr>^ r lr' r JttP?rZWZ,J r l r l r l r J r l r l r J r JJ r l r J r l r l r l r J r l r lJJ r JJ

OF PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS.

Note. — It has been deemed unnecessary to repeat, in this summary of contents, those topics which have been arranged in
alphabetical order in various departments cf the work. A glance at the Table of Contents will enable the reader to determine
under which heading any subject of reference not named in the following pages may be found.

Abbreviations, dictionary of ................. 813

' ■ in letter-writing __._.._. ........ 49

Aberration oflight 348

Absorption of heat 349

Abstract of title 468

Abyssinia, history of... 316

, map of ....... 299

Accent 18

■ marks 28

Accommodation of the eye 664

■ ■ paper _ 408

Acids 354

Acknowledgment of deeds. See Special Laws.

Acne 652

Acoustics _ 347

Acquisition of territory. .....___...._. 544

Acrostic 38

Address, proper modes of 50

Adhesion 34s

Administrators and executors.. 478

Advice, letters soliciting 58

Aerolites 369

Affection, letters of. 56

Affidavits _ _.... 458

■, general form of ......... 458

to accounts .... ........ ._ 458

to petition 458

— to signature of absent witness 459

Affinity, chemical 345

Afghanistan and Beloochistan, history of...._ 311

Africa, history of 314

, map of 298

Age 545

Agency and attorney........................ 456

Age of Man ......... ... . 394

Agreements and contracts.............. 453

Agriculture, Bureau of 620

■', statistics of 562, 563

Ague 670

Air 398, 545

Air-balloons .... 337

Air, forces acting upon 346

Air-guns ......... .. ... 337

Air-pump __..... ... ...... 347

Alabama, special laws of 502

Albums, new designs for 145

Alchemy 353

Alcohol 545

Alcoholic liquors 545

Alexandrian library 800

Algebra 337

Alien and sedition acts 337

Alkalis 354

Allegory 34

Alliteration 35

Allusion 35

Allusions, dictionary of familiar 800

Almanacs 337

Alphabet 337

Alphabets. See Penmanship,

Alphabet, telegraphic 416

Altitude as affecting climate .... ... 398

Aluminum 402

Amendments to the Constitution 602

Anaemia 643

Anaesthesia 337

Anapestic verse ... 37

Anchors 337

Andorra 306

Animal and vegetable life 401

Animal kingdom, the 400

Animals, age and weight of „ 545

Antarctic current, the 397

Anti-slavary Society 337

Antithesis 34

Antonyms, dictionary of 64

Aphaeresis 31

Apocope 31

Apophasis 35

Apothecaries' weight 446

• measure 446

Aposcopesis ........ ...... 31

Apostrophj 27, 34

Appetite, excessive (polyphagia)... ..... 632

Apprentices 459

Aqueducts 545

Arabia, history of. 312

', map of 299

Archaism 31

Arbitration 460

> bond, form of 460

, form of submission to 460

Arbitrators, form of award of 460

, form of notice to ...... 460

Architecture for Modern Times 679

Practical architecture 679

The choice of a site 680

Building a home 680

How the money is applied 681

Water, cellar, ice-house 681

Beautiful homes — plans and estimates 682

Noteworthy suggestions 711

Area of States and countries (diagram) 336

Argand lamps 337

Argentine Republic, history of. 27a

Arizona, special laws of . ..... ...... 502

Arkansas, special laws of 503

Armada 800

Army and navy expenditure 563

Army death rate .... 545

officers 609

proportions 545

■ " ■ statistics 610

, the American 609

Arquebus .......... 337

Artesian wells 346,800

Articulation 40

Artillery 545

Asia, history of ....... .. 308

Assignment *. 461

Assignment of money due on account... . 462

of a note 46c

of wages ...... . 462

with guaranty of assignor . . 462

— ■ without recourse ... 462

with power of attorney 462

■ See, also, Special Laws.

Assumed names in literature 791

Assurance 424

Asteroids, or minor planets 368

Asthma 648

Astigmatism 665

Astrology 356

Astronomy _... 355

History of astronomical science 355

Astrology 356

The solar system 357

The sun 358

The sun's apparent motion 358

T?7

<a *w

820

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Astronomy— Continued.

Sun-spots 359

Solar prominences 359

The planets 359

Mercury 359

Venus 359

Our earth and her satellite 360

The seasons 363

The moon 364

The phases of the moon 365

The tides ,... 366

Mars 367

Jupiter, the giant planet 368

Saturn 368

Uranus... 369

Neptune 369

The asteroids, or minor planets 369

Meteors 369

Comets 369

The zodiacal light 370

The fixed stars 370

Motion of the heavenly bodies 370

The constellations 371

Double and multiple stars 371

New and variable stars 371

Distance of the stars 371

Proper motion of the stars..... 372

Nebula; and star-clusters 373

The nebular hypothesis 373

The milky way 374

A dictionary of astronomical definitions .. 374

How to read the sky 376

Maps of the heavens 378, 389

Atoms and molecules 343, 353

Atomic theory 353

Attachments. Set Special Laws,

Attorney 456

, power of .... 457

Attorneys-General .......................... 6ai

Audiphone 348

Aurora boreal is 399

Australia, history of. 320

— ■■■ , map of 295

Austria-Hungary, history of 381

■ t map of........... ................... 391

Authors 545

Avalanche 394

Average clause (Insurance) 424

Avoirdupois weight 446

Azoic ago 394

Ballad 38

Ball, etiquette of the 7-*>>

Balloons 548

II ml , Imw to do business with a 438

Bank discount 437

inking 337

Banking frauds 4j q

Banking, statistics of 548

ll. ml i>flicen and employes 497

Banks and banking 43ft

Banks, national 43a

■' of circulation 437

of deposit 427

— -.-of exchange 4«7

Barbarians ^ 01

Barbary States, history of. 317

Barker's mill j 4 $

Bams, designs for 709

Barometer 337, 346, 548

Barrels, measurement of 4-45

Barrenness 548

Battering-ram 337

Battery, Bunsen's 352

, Grove's 35a

— — , the Daniells 35*

, the Galvanic 351

— , the Leclanche 353

, the so-called Gravity 352

Battles, diagram of decisive 334

, statistics of 548

Bayonets 337

Bays 548

Beer 548, 575

— — , production of. 575

Bees 548

Belgium, history of. 384

Bells 337. 54*

Bellows 337

Beloochistan, history of 311

Bible 548

Bicycle 548

Biography, a Compendium of. 309

Birds, flight of 548

Birthday parties 723

Bites and stings 676

Bilious temperament — 535

Bill of exchange 4^9

, foreign 43°

Bill of lading as security 43*

Bill of sale 4*2

, common form, with warranty......... 463

, personal property 463

, short form 463

Blackboard writing and drawing 14-

Blankets 337

Blank verse 35

Bleeding from the lungs 675

— .—■- from the nose 675

Blindness 548

Blood 638,642

■ , composition of. 643

-■ ■, circulation of 337

— — — , diseases of the 643

, elements of 548

Board of Trade, Chicago 4ft

Boards, measurement of. 444

Boards of trade and stock exchanges 411

Board, table of_. 443

Bolivia, history of. S72

Bombs 337

Bonds 463

and stocks 432

— , government 433

Bond, general form of...... 464

— to execute an assignment 464

to execute a deed 464

.short form of 463

secured by mortgage... *. 463

Bones of the human body 654

■^— , diseases of the 654

Book-keeping 168

Books used in single entry t6S

Books used in double entry 169

How entries are made 169

Row to detect errors 169

How errors are made 170

Subsidiary books 170

Book-keeping — Continued.

The two systems compared.... 171

Book-keeping by single entry 171

Single entry cash-book 17a

Single entry day-book 174

Single entry ledger 176

Deductions from single entry set 178

Book-keeping by double entry 179

The key to journalizing 179

The principles of double entry book-keeping 180

How to close the ledger 180

Balance sheets 181

Auxiliary books 181

Set I.— Day-book 18a

Set L— Journal 183

Set I. — Ledger 184

Set I.— Trial balances 186

Day-book and journal combined 187

Set II. — Journal day-book ; 188

Set II.— Ledger 196

Set II. — Trial balance and inventory 904

Set II.— Balance sheet 305

How to change single entry books into dou-
ble entry ao6

The columnar journal 306

A stx-column journal — 307

Combined statement 208

Books 337. 549

Boots 337

Boston fire 337

Brahminism 401, 554

Brain 535 , 549. *5*

——, synopsis of the various organs of 538

Brazil, history of. 267

Bread 337

Breathing (elocution) 40

Bricks 337

■ ■ ■ ) number required for a building 444

Bridges 337. 5*9

Bronchitis........... 648

Bruises 675

Bucket-shops 4M

Buckles 337

Buddhism 401^ 554

Buenos Ayres, history of 273

Buildings, capacity of public 55a

Bulgaria, history of 306

Bullets 337

Bullion 337

Burns 676

Bushel, legal weight of. 447

Business and Social Correspondence 48

Style 48

Arrangement of ideas 48

Ornamentation 49

Composition of letters 49

Form cf a letter jo

Proper modes of address 50

Model headings 5*

Materials 5*

Titles, etc ji

General hints 53

Letters of business 54

Letters of recommendation 35

Letters of courtesy, friendship and affection. 56
Letters of friendly counsel and remonstrance 57

Letters soliciting advice or favors 58

Letters of sympathy and condolence 59

Letters between parents and children 60

Notes of ceremony and familiar invitation . . 61

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

£<

821

Business and Social and Correspondence— Cont'd.

Miscellaneous letters - 62

Business law, points of .. 408

■ letters 54

Butter 337

By-laws for a society 595

Cable code 423

Cadence (elocution) ........... ....... . 42

Cadet Corps 60S

Caesural pause 38

Calendar 552

1 for the century 450

Calico printing 337

California, special laws of 503

Camels .. . 552

Camera 349

Camera obscura 337

Canada, history of,... ................ 260

, map of 270

Canada Pacific Railway 261

Canals 337, 552

Cancer of the stomach..... 634

Candles . 337

Cannon .. . . 337

Cantata 38

Canzonet 38

Cape Colony, history of . ... 316

Capital letters, the use of.... ._ 24, 49

Caps 337

Carbonic acid.... . . 552

Carboniferous age . .. .......... 394

Carbon, percentage of, in food ._ 560

Cards, designs for ............... 145

, etiquette of 716

.playing 337

Carriage house, design for 708

Carriages . 337

Carrier-pigeons .. 552

Carving, the art of.... 738

Casks, measurement of... 445

Catarrh . ... 647

Cathedrals, height of.... 561

Cattle-raising statistics .. . 563

Cattle, table for computing price of 439

■, weight of, by measurement. 444

Causes of Success and Failure 524

Caveats 486

Cyclones ... 399

Celestial axis, the . . 370

Cellar, number of perches of stone required .. 444

Cellar, how to build 6S1

Census, curiosities of the . 551

Central America, history of.... 265

■- , map of 394

Centrifugal and centripetal force 344

Ceremony, notes of 61

Chain-shot ..... 337

Chaldean period ... . ... .... 355

Change, terms used on 415

Character, decision of........ . 529

— — — , how to read 538

, the study of 531

Characters offiction 786

Charade 38

Charcoal ....................... 552

Charts and Diagrams.

Charts of universal history 321, 329

Charts and Diagrams — Continued.

Thehistory of the United States 329, 332

Political parties in the United States 333

The eighteen decisive battles of the world.. 334
Military and naval strength of various nations 335
Comparative area in square miles of the

States and foreign countries 336

Receipts and expenditures U. S. government 546
Public debts of the States and various coun-
tries 547

Comparative density of population 550

Curiosities of the census 551

The religions of the world 554

Distribution of Christians throughout the

world .. .. 555

Comparative showing of religions in the

United States 558

Educational statistics of the United States

and other countries 559^

The world's industries compared 562

The world's commercial balance sheet ..... 562

Shipping 563

Steam power 563

Agriculture 563

Cattle 563

Army and navy expenditure 563

The yearly wheat crop in principal countries 566
The world's yearly production of the precious

metals 567

Pig-iron _. 570

Annual production of coal 571

The world's yearly production of cotton and

tobacco 574

Beer production 575

Railroads, telegraph and telephone lines.... 578

The clocks of the world 579

The new system of standard time 580

Chattel mortgages 476

■. See also Special Laws.

Check -book, how to keep stub of 428

Checks, altered 429

, certified .„„, , 429

, how drawn and endorsed 428

, proportion of,[to coin _. 552

', raised .... 429

Chemical affinity 345

phenomena .... ................ ... 354

— ^— substances, common names of 552

Chemistry 353

Chess 337

Chicago fire 337

Chickenpox 673

Childbirth, average of deaths in 553

Chili, history of. 267

Chimes on bells 337

China, history of. 309

China, Dresden 337

Cholera, epidemic ................ 637

, statistics of 553

— — , prevention of . ....... 638

, sporadic ..... ........ 636

infantum 637

morbus .... 636

Christians, distribution of - 555

, number of..... 554

Chromatic aberration of light 348

Churches, capacity of 552

Cipher for telegraphic communication 416

Circle, area of a 445

Circulatory organs 638

Cisterns, construction of 681

, measurement of. 444

Cities, population of 583, 584

Civilization . 401

Civil rights bill .. 337

Civil service reform 337

Civil war, troops furnished 577

Clay's compromise 337

Clearing-house system... 431

Clergyman's sore throat 630

Climate 398

, mean annual temperature..... 553

Climax in elocution 44

in rhetoric 35

Clocks 337

Clocks of the world (diagram) 579

Clothing, deformities from . 655

Cloth, woolen 339

Clouds ... ..... 399

Coaches 337

Coal 337

—— statistics 571

Coffee, production and consumption 553

Cohesion 345

Coin 337

Coining 337

Cold in the head 646

Cold, remarkable instances of 573

Colic 636

Collection of debts. See Attachments, under
head of Special Laws.

Colorado, special laws of ..._.......... .. 504

Colors, contrast and harmony in .... 731

Columnar journal . .. .......... 206

Combustion and heat... . .... .... 624

Comets 369

Commerce, statistics of 553, 562

Commercial law and forms.... 403

Negotiable paper 403

Promissory notes 403

Endorsements . 404

The endorser's responsibility 405

Necessary legal points 405

Forms of notes ._ 405

A swindling note 407

Due-bills 407

Orders and receipts _. 407

Points of business law _ 408

Laws relating to interest „ 409

Laws relating to limitation of actions 410

Committees 589

Compass, mariner's 337, 350

Compendium of Biography . 209

Complexion. 729

Composition 32

Style 32

Purity 32

Propriety 33

Precision 33

Perspicuity 33

Unity *. 33

Strength 33

A discourse and its parts 34

Figures of rhetoric... ... 34

Prosody 35

Versification 35

Meter 36

Iambic verse ....... .... . 36

Trochaic verse 37

Anapestic verse 37

822

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

-4

Composition— Continued.

Dactylic verse 37

Ciesural pause 3 8

Varieties of poetry 3 s

Various kinds of poems 3 8

Poetical license 3 8

Condolence, letters of 59

Congress, duties of 633

Connecticut, special laws of... 5°4

Consonants, peculiarities in sounds of 17

Constellations 37 1

, guide to the knowledge of the ........ 37°

, zodiacal 375

Constipation 635

Constitution for a society, form of 594

Constitution of the United States 599

Consumption 553

Continents, elevation of. 557

Contracts and agreements 453

Contract, causes which vitiate a 435

, building 455

, for the sale of property — 455

, short form of 455

, with employe 455

Contractions (letter-writing) 49

Conventions - 589

Conversation 46

.the art of. 7<3

Convulsions - ---- 658

Cooking, loss of meat in 56°

, the art of 739

Copernlcan system 356

Copying 553

Coral Islands 39°

Corners 4*3

Corona seen In solar eclipses 366

Corporations 465

Coryza 646

Costiveness $35

Cottages, designs for 68a

Cotton 337

, area under cultivation 553

gin 337

— picking table 44 a

— statistics 574

, table for computing price of. 439

Counsel, letters of 57

Courtesy, letters of 56

Court of England, presentation at 714

Creation, the six eras of. 39a

Credit Mobilier 801

Cremation 55°

Crises 556

Cuba, history of. "66

Cubic or solid measure 446

Culture and intelligence 4"»

Culvrrins .-.';?

Currency 55$

Currents 397

Customs receipt! v 546

Dactylic verse 37

Daguerreotypes „ 3.17

Dakota, special laws of 505

Dates, Dictionary of 337

Day and night 39'

Dead letters 615

Death 556

Death rate, army 545

Deaths, proportion of from various diseases... 556

Debate, questions for 595

Debating clubs . 594

Debts of various countries 547

Debut, younglady's 723

Declaration, Mecklenburg 596

Declaration of Independence 597

Deed 467

, Chancellor Kent's form 467

' ■■ — "" , short form in California 467

——, short form in Indiana 468

— — , short form used in Virginia and Texas 468

—^—, short form of warranty 468

, short form of trust 468

', quit claim 468

. See, also. Special Laws.

Deaf mutes 556

Deformities from clothing ........ 655

Delaware, special laws of. 505

Department of public business 587

Departments at Washington 604

Devonian age 394

Dew 399

Diaeresis 28, 31

Diagrams. See Charts and Diagrams.

Dialects - 9

Dialogue reading 45

Diamonds 337, 55°

Diarrhcea 634

Dice 337

Dictionary of abbreviations 813

of astronomical definitions 374

■ of biography 209

of dates 337

of facts and figures 544

■ of familiar allusions 800

of foreign phrases 808

Dictionary of heroes and heroines of prose

and poetry 786

of mythology 79°

— — of noms de plume 791

of prose and poetical quotations 768

. of synonyms and antonyms 64

■ ■ . of terms used on 'change 415

Didactic poetry 38

Diffraction of light 348

Digestion 556,629

Digestive organs 626

, diseases of 629

Dinner-giving 7 18

Diphtheria 673

Diplomatic service of the U. S 605

Dipping-needle 337, 350

Dipsomania 632

Dipsomaniacs. See Drunkenness.

Discoveries, record of 337

Diseases, proportion of deaths from 556

Dislocations 675

Distilling 337

District of Columbia, special laws of 506

Diving-bell 337

Divorte. See Special Laws.

Drafts and bills of exchange 439

Drafts, how drawn 429

Dramatic action 47

Dress 730

Drift 394

Driving, etiqnette of 71*.

Drowning 076

Drunkenness, statistics of 55*

Dry measure 446

Due bilk, forms of 407

Duties 434

Dwarfs 557

Dwellings, designs for 693

Dynamical electricity 35'

Dysentery 633

Dyspepsia... - °3°

Earth : Our Earth and her Satellite 361

Earth, motions of the 391

, surface of the 394

Earthquakes.. 395

Ear, anatomy of the 666

" , physiology of the 668

- , diseases of the 668

Easter, the festival of 552

Ecliptic 359, 374

Eclipses — 365

Ecphonesis 34

Ecuador, history of 269

Eczema 65a

Edict of Nantes 33 8 , 805

Education, Bureau of 620

, progress of 557

, statistics of. 559

Educational Department 9

Egypt, history of. 315

, map of 299

Electrical machines 35*

Electricity 35°

Electric light 337, 35*

Electric telegraph 339, 35«

Electrolysis and galvanoplasty 352

Electroplating 352

Electrotyping 35 a

Elements 353

Ellipsis 27. 3»

Elocution 4°

Vocal culture '. 4°

Proper breathing 4°

Articulation 4°

Pronunciation 4*

Modulation 41

Quality of the voice 4"

Melody 4»

Form 4»

Force 4»

Time 4*

Stress 43

Emphasis 44

Word-individuality 44

Analysis and grouping 44

Transition 44

Climax 44

Repose 44

Impersonation 45

Dialogue reading -- 45

Rules governing gesture 45

The three forms of speech 46

Conversation 46

Reading... 47

Public speaking 47

Dramatic action 47

Emancipation proclamation 338

Emergencies, medical and surgical treatment in 675

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

823

Emphasis (elocntion; . 44

Enallage . 31

Endocarditis .... 641

Endorsement of notes, various forms 404

Engagements, etiquette of. 732

England and Wales, map of 283

English language 13

Its origin and development . ........ 13

Constituents and alterations 13

Anglo-Saxon, a.d. 700-1100 14

Semi-Saxon, a.d. 1150-1250 .... ........ 14

Old English, a.d, 1300 . 15

Middle English, a.d. 1350-1500 15

Modern English, a.d. 1550 15

Grammar ........ 16

Composition.. - 32

Engraving .......................... 338

Enteritis 634

Envelopes 52, 338

Epic poetry 38

Epigram 38

Epilepsy 658

Epilogue 38

Epitaph 38

Epithalamium 38

Equator 374

Equatorial currents . 397

Equinoctial 375

Equinoxes 362* 375

Erotesis 34

Errors in book-keeping 170

— — in speech 29

Erysipelas 652

Essay 34

Etching 338

Ether 348

Ether as an anaesthetic 338

Etiquette : A compendium of the laws of eti-
quette 712

Etiquette, general hints on 734

Etiquette, military 611

Ethnology 400

Etymology .... 28

, figures of .... 31

Euphemism ...... 35

Europe, history of 727

— — , map of 282

Evictions in Ireland 557

Exchange, bills of 429

, foreign bills of 430

Excretory organs 649

Executive department ......... 604

Executors and administrators 478

Exemptions. See Special Laws.

Exhibitions 557

Expectation of life 425, 586, 473

, as affected by drink 556

Expenditures U. S. government 546

Exports and imports. See Commerce.

Express 338

Extension of patents . 486

Eye, anatomy of the 660

— — — , physiology of the 663

, muscles of the............. 66a

— — „ diseases «fthe.... .......... 665

Face-reading 534

Facts and figures, dictionary of. 544

Failure, how to avoid 523

Fainting..... 677

fairs 557

Falling bodies, the law of 344

Familiar allusions, dictionary of 800

Familiar Poems and Those Who Wrote Them 741

. Thanatopsis. Bryant 74"*

Hiawatha's Wooing. Longfellow 743

The Barefoot Boy. W.tttier 744

TheBells. Poe 745

Blow, Blow, thou Winter Wind. Shak-

sperc . . 746

Bugle Song. Tennyson 746

The Sea. Barry Cornwall 746

Those Evening Bells. Moore 747

The Village Preacher. Goldsmith 748

The Ivy Green. Dicken* w . 743

From Home to Horn., Anon 749

Battle of the Angels. Milton 750

Farewell to His Wife. Byron 750

The Hour of Death. Mrs. Hemans 751

A Woman's Question* Mrs. Browning .... 751
A Horseback Ride. Grace Greenwood.... 753
Angel Watchers. Rosa Vertner Jeffrey... 752

A Farewell. Kingslcy 753

What the Birds Say. Coleridge 753

A Georgia Volunteer. Mary A. lownsend 754
The Picket Guard. Ethel Lynn Beers .. . . 754

The Soldier's Dream. Campbell 755

Bill and Joe. Holmes * 755

Extractfrom Lucile. Owen Meredith 755

Pictures of Memory. Alice Cary. , 756

Go to Thy Rest. Mrs. Sigourney 756

We Parted in Silence. Mrs. Crawford.... 757

The Song of the Camp. Taylor 758

Our Own. Margaret E. Sangster 758

There is no Death. McCreery 758

Makin* an Editor outen o' Him. Carleton*. 759
The Lightning-rod Dispenser, Carleton.. 759

Hannah Jane. Nasby 760

John Anderson, my Jo. Bums 761

Home, Sweet Home. Payne 761

The Bivouac of the Dead. O'Hara 762

The Stars and the Flowers. Holmes 762

BoatSong. Moore 763

Jim. Bret Harte 764

Married. Anon 764

Winged Words. McGregor 765

The Closing Scene. Read 766

The Death ofthe Flowers. Bryant 767

Families, number in U. S 557

Famines 557

Farms, number in XT, S 557

Far-sightedness 665

Fasting, notable instances of 557

Fast time •. 548, 585

Fata Morgana 400

Fatty degeneration ofthe heart 641

Fauna ....... 401

Favors, letters soliciting 58

Federal courts 622

Feet, deformed. v „_ .. 655

Feet, poetic 35

Fence, the legal... 489

Fenian raids . ....... 338

Fetichism 401

Fevers .... 669

Fiction, celebrated characters of ...... 786

Fields and lots, contents of... 445

Fields of fire 395

Figures in grammar 31

Filibustering 338

Fire engines............ ........... 338

Fire insurance 424

Fixed stars 370

Flag, American 338

Flax statistics 557

Flora 40P

Flourishing.... . 137

Florida, special laws of. 506

Fogs 399

Food, foot-tons of energy per ounce of . 560

, percentage of carbon in 560

, relative value of 560

, statistics of. 557

Force (Elocution) 42

Force, centrifugal and centripetal 344

Forces of nature 343

Foreign phrases, lexicon of _. 808

Foreign population of U. S 551

Forests 560

Forged paper 408

Forks 338

Fortification 338

Fractures 675

France, history of. 289

, map of . 200

Free Soil Party —.333, 338

Freight car, capacity of 560

French without a Master 100

Alphabet and pronunciation . ....... 100

Accents and other marks 101

Number and gender 101

Parts of speech 101

Exercises in the use ofthe article 101

The noun .......... .... X04

The adjective 104

Numeral adjectives 104

Ordinal numbers 105

Vocabulary of adjectives 105

The pronoun 105

The verb 106

The auxiliary verbs............ ........... 106

Regular verbs . 108

The four conjugations 108

Vocabulary of verbs no

Vocabulary of adverbs in

Vocabulary of prepositions 112

Vocabulary of conjunctions . 112

Conversation in French.... 112

Friction . _ 345

Friendship, letters of 56

Frost-bites 676

Frost, remarkable instances of 573

Fruit 560

Fuel 5 6o

Fugitive slave law 33B

Futures 412

Galvanic battery.... —...-............ 351

■ electricity.... 351

Galvanometer 353

Galvanoplastyj 353

Gamut 338

Gas-light _ 3-38

Gastritis _ _ 632

Gems, the language of. _ 812

Geologic ages 394

Geology 39*

Georg la, special llwl of VI

Geysers 395

German dlalecu ■

German, etiquette of the 7"

German : A self-instructor in the German lan-
guage J*

Alphabet anil pronunciation 8*

.licle »3

Combination of article and noun 83

lata in the article and noun 83

The adjective 87

Vocabulary of adjective* 87

Cardinal, ordinal, and collective numbers... 88

Pronoun* — ............ 89

The verb 89

Aualllary verba 89

The regular verb 9 1

Vocabulary of verba oa

Adverba 9'

Prepositions 93

Conjunctions 93

Conversation In German 93

German Legal Builneas Department 490

Germany, history of - «79

, map of. I m *9t

Gesture language "

Gesture, rules governing 45

Giants 5*o

Gilding 338

Glacial period 394

Glaciers 394

Glass _ 338

Gluttony <<i'

Gold 5«7

Government, principal forma of. 4°'

Grain, measurement of 444, 445

Grammar, F.nglish 16

Orthography 16

I-rllrrS l6

Peculiarities In sounds of consonants 17

Combination of vowels ............•••».... 18

Syllables >8

Accent — ....................... 18

Words «8

Word-building 19

Prefixes 19

Suffixes to

Selling as

Rules for spelling S3

Reformed spelling >3

Forms ofletters 84

The use of capital letters 14

Punctuation 15

Etymology e8

The parts of speech al

Soma rules of grammar t8

Plural of nouns to

Rules for the plural of foreign noun* so

Syntax 90

Errors In speech 19

Figures of orthography 31

Figures of etymology 31

Figures of synta* 31

Figures of rhetoric 34

Prosody 33

■ V, capacity or contenta of. 445

•iravity 344

', center of 344

.specinc 344, 560

Great Britain, history of 73

Greece, history of 3°7

Gregorian year 803

Gristmills 338

Guano 5*o

Guaranty I... 47°

, general ................. 47°

of fidelity 47°

, extension of time 47°

-of a note 47°

Guiana, history of '-' >

Gulf stream.: 397

Gunpowder 338

Gunpowder plot, the 803

Gun* 31*

Habeas corpus act „„„„ ,„ 803

Hail 399

Hair 560

, care of the 729

.false 338

Half-hours with the stars 376

Handkerchiefs 338

Hartford convention . ........ 338

Hay, weight of, by measurement 444

Head, measurement of the . 531

Headache 630

Heaet and blood-vessels 639

Heart, diagrams of the 640

.diseases of the 641

Heat 349, 56b, 616

, extremes of. 573

Heat-lightning 399

Height of noted cathedrals, etc 561

Hcmaplegia .... 658

Hemorrhage . 675

Heraldry 338

Heroes and heroines of prose and poetry..... 786

Hindoolsm 401

Historical chart* 331

History : A panorama of history. A graphic

account of every nation on tlse. globe .. 352

The United States »5'

The Dominion of Canada .............. too

Mexico 103

Central America 365

Cuba 166

South America............... too

Brazil l«7

Chili *6>

Peru *68

The United State* of Colombia >nd other

countries of South America..... 169

Europe ay*

Great Britain 173

Ireland ays

Scotland 178

Germany 179

Austria-Hungary.. t8t

Belgium 184

Holland (the"Netherlands) 184

Norway and Sweden t88

France tto

Russia 1x13

Italy too

Spjin 300

Portugal 301

Switnrland 301

HUtory— Contintud.

Turkey 304

Roumania 306

Bulgaria 300

Servia 30*

Andorra, San Marino and Monaco 306

Greece 3»7

Asia 308

China 3°»

Japan « 309

British India 3">

Afghanistan and Beloochistan 311

Persia 3"

Arabia . .' 3™

Palestine 3"

Siam 3'4

Africa 3'4

Egypt 3'S

Nubia 3'5

Abyssinia 3 10

Cape Colony 3"6

Madagascar 3*7

The Barbary States 3'7

Republic* in South Africa 3>8

Oceanlca 3 ! 9

Australia ¥°

Hoar frost 399

Holidays in the U.S 5*»

Holland, history of. '84

Home etiquette .- 7*9

Homestead, how to secure a 017

Homoeopathy 33 s

Hops 5«t

Horizon 375

Horse-power .... ... 5 01

Horseshoes 33 8

Hostess, duties of. 7'9

Hot springs 395

Hour-glasses 338

Housekeepers' measure* 446

House of Representatives 013

Hunger, deaths from 557

Hurricane — ... ; 399

Hydraulic press 34*

Hydraulics 34«

Hydrometer 33 8

Hydrostatic pre**.... 34*

Hydrostatics and hydraulic* 34*

K/mn 3*

Hyperbaton 31

Hyperbole 34

Hypcrmetropia — °°4

Hypertrophy *4'

Iambic verse 3°

Ice 5«>

Idaho, special laws of S08

Idiom 9

Illegitimacy 5*>

Illinois, special laws of 5«>8

Illiteracy. Set Education.

Impersonation 45

Import duties, general average 573

, complete schedules of. 4.;5

Imports and exports. Stt Ctmmtrct.

Impromptu 3 9

Inanition — 03s

Incorporating, form* for 465

5£=

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

8*5

Incorporating, state license for. 466

India, history of British ..................... 310

Indian Affairs, Bureau of ... ....... 619

Indian agents 619

Indiana, special laws of.... 509

Indians -.— 561

Indian traders .- 619

India rubber 561

Industries of the world 562

Infallibility, Papal 338

Infantile paralysis......... 658

Inflammation of large intestine 635

Inflammation of small intestine 634

Inflammation of the stomach 632

Inflammatory rheumatism 642

Initials, artistic . 14 6

Inoculation 338

Insanity 561, 660

■ , treatment of 660

, cases of, traceable to drink 556

Insomnia 660

Insurance 424

, history of 338

' ■ , short rates table 442

Intemperance. See Drunkenness,

Interest, compound, tables of 442

—^—, laws relating to 409

— — , short rule 442

, tables of. 44*

Intermittent fever ... ... . 670

Internal revenue .....s. 434

■ receipts 546

Intestines __ 628

Introduction, letter of. — ... 63

Inventions. See Dictionary 0/ Dates.

Invitation, notes of . ..... 61

Iowa, special laws of _ 510

Ireland, history of. — .. 275

, map of 286

Iron statistics 570

Irony 35

Islands 396

Isothermal lines 39S

Italy, history of 296

Japan current 397

Japan, history of ... 309

Jesuits 338

Jews, number of - 554

Judiciary act 338

Jupiter, the giant planet....... 367

Justice, department of........ ......... 621

Juvenile parties - 722

Kansas, special laws of. 510

Kentucky, special laws of 511

Kepler's laws . 356

Kidneys 649

— , diseases of the 650

Knitting 338

Knives 338

Know-nothing (or American) party 333, 338

Labor statistics 564

Lace 338

Lakes 397

— — , length and width of. 564

Lamp, safety ... ...... . 338

Land grants 564

Landlord and tenant 471

Landlord's agreement 472

■■ notice to quit 473

Land offices ... 617

Lands, public............................... 617

Language 9

Origin oflanguage ................ 9

Gesture language 10

Natural language 10

Articulate language 11

Classification of languages n

Language of gems 812

Languages ......401, 564

Lanterns ... . ......... .. 338

Laryngitis 647

Lava 395

Law, commercial 403

, points of business 408

Lease, common form of 472

of farm and buildings 472

of a mill 472

, short form of 472

Legal Business Department 451

How to avoid litigation 451

Legal business forms 453

Agreements and contracts 453

Agency and attorney 456

Affidavits 458

Apprentices 459

Arbitration 460

Assignments . — -- 461

Bills of sale 462

Bonds 4 6 3

Corporations 465

Deeds 4 6 7

Abstract of title 468

Guaranty 47°

Landlord and tenant 471

Rights of married women 473

Real estate mortgages 474

Chattel mortgages 476

Mechanic's lien ... 477

Wills 477

Executors and administrators...... 47S

Partnership 481

German legal business department 490

Legal fence 4 8 9

Legislative department 623

Liver 628

Lenses 34^

Leprosy 5°4

Letter-carriers 616

Letter of credit '- 43°

of revocation 457

, composition of 49

,form of 50

— ■ - of substitution 457

Letters, advertised 615

- ■ , registered _ 615

Leverand inclined plane 345

Lexicon of foreign phrases 808

Leyden jar 33 8 » 35*

Liberty party 338

Library 338

License, poetical 38

Life-average 564

Life-boats 338

Life, duration and expectation of. ..... 5«€

Life insurance 425

Life-saving service 607

Life, the two paths of. 533

Light -. 348

, electric 337, 352

,gas 338

Light-house Board 607

Lightning 351, 399

Lightning-rods .... . ... ---338, 351

Lightning Calculator 439

Limitation of actions, laws relating to 410

Linear measure 446

Linen — ... ........ 338

Liquid measure 446

Lithography 338

Living, cost of_... 576

Llanos 394

Logs, number of cubic feet in.... 445

Longevity ........ ...._... ... . 564

Longitude and time compared 446

Louisiana, special laws of....... 51a

Lowlands 394

Lumber measure, table of. 443

Lungs 644

Lyceums and debating clubs 594

Lymphatic temperament 534

Machines 345

, electrical _ 351

Madagascar, history of.............. .. 3:7

Magic lanterns .......... 338

Magna Charta 596 '

Magnetism and electricity 350

Magnify ing-glasses 338

Mail contracts ..... 616

Maine, special laws of.. .. 512

Malarial fever ._ 670

Malthusian doctrine 804

Mammalian age 394

Mankind, races of. 400

Manufactures, statistics of...... 562

Maps :

The United States --.258, 259

The Dominion of Canada 270, 271

Europe 282

England and Wales 283

Ireland. - 286

Scotbnd 287

France 290

The German Empire and Austro- Hungarian

monarchy 291

The West Indies and Central America 294

Occanica and Australia 295

Africa 298

Egypt, Abyssinia, etc 299

The World (Mcrcator's Projection) 301, 302

Maps and globes 338

Maps of the heavens 378-389

Margins 413

Marine and transit insurance 424

Mariner's compass _. 337

Marriage, a woman's chances of. 564

, etiquette of 73J

Married woman's note 405

Married women, rights of. 473

— - - . See also Special Laws.

4^=

•f 6 ■»■

4k-

Man, the planet 3 06

..•ary'am,, special Uwi of. 5 I 3

Massachusetts, special law* of 5>3

Matches, friction 33 8

34=

, general properties of . 343

, specific properties of. 343

Measles 671

Measures and weights 44*

, foreign 44**

Meat, loss of in cooking 5°°

Meats, how to select 739

Mechanic's lien 477

' . See also Special Laws.

Mechaniim of the human body 624

Mecklenburg declaration 59°

Medical. See Physiology and Medici**.

Medicines, table of dotes 678

Meeting, how to call a 587

, organizing a 588

Memorials and petitions 59 2

Mental temperament 535

Mercury, the planet 3°°

Metals 4°'

, as conductors 5°4

— - , chemical relations of 4 oa

, fluid density of 5 6 4

, tenacity of 5 6 4

■-, value of 5^4

, some strange 40*

Meteors 3°*

Meteorites 3°9

Metric system 449

-,key to the 445

Metaphor 34

Metonymy 34

Mexico, history of y - 963

Michigan,speciallawsof 5M

■ me % 347

Microscopes 33 8 » 349

Military Academy 33 8 » 608

M ilitary and naval strength (diagram) 335

Military etiquette 6it

Militia 6"

Milk 564

Milky way, the 374

Mimesis, or mimicry 3t

4°*

Minnesota, special law* of 514

Mirage 400

Mirrors 33*. 349

Mississippi, special laws of. 515

r) compromise 338

1 .tl laws of. 315

Modulation of the voice 41

Mohammedanism 554

Moisture and climate 398

• sand atoms 34a, 353

'nm 345

3<X

564

. See Currency .

Monty orders 613

Monroe doctrine 338

Montana, special law* of 316

Monuments, height of 561

Moon, the 3A4

■ .1 t map of the 364

»P*th of the 303

, phases of the 365

Mormons 33 s

Mortgages, chattel 47*

, real estate 474

Mortgage, assignment of 475

, promissory note secured by 475

f release and satisfaction of 47°

, release or discharge of 475

— -■, shortest form of 475

Motion 345

, perpetual 34*

Motive temperament 535

Mountain ranges as affecting climate 398

Mountains 394

.height of 565

Mouth : *a*

Mumps 63°

Muscular system 653

Musical note* 33 8

Myopia -— 665

Nails, size and weight of. 565

Nantes, edict of 33 8 » 805

National banking system 43*

Natural history 34 2

Natural philosophy 34 3

Physics and chemistry 34 a

The properties of matter 343

Solids, liquids, gases 343

The forces of nature 343

Hydrostatics and hydraulics 346

Pneumatics 346

Acoustics 347

Optics 34 8

The theory of heat 349

Magnetism and electricity 350

Chemistry 353

Nature 340

■, the forces o* 343

Naval armament _.._ 565

Naval expenditure 563

Naval history, American 6:3

Naval strength (diagram) 335

Navies of the world 335» 6l 3

Navy Department 612

Near-sightedness 665

Nebraska, special laws of. 516

Nebulae and star-clusters . 373

Nebular hypothesis 373

Necessaries, comparative prices of 57*

Needles 338

Negotiable paper 403

, as collateral security 408

——, payment of, before maturity 408

, State laws as to payment of 408

. See.tfoU.

Neptune, the planet 368

Nervous system 655

, diseases of the 658

Nervous temperament 535

Netherlands, history of the 884

Neuralgia 658

Nevada, special laws of _ 516

■npshiir, special lawsof 517

New Jersey, special laws of 517

Nrw Mexico, special laws of 517

Newspapers 338, 565

Newton's law ot gravitation 357

New York, special laws of 318

Nicknames of States and Territories 565

Nicotine 5*5

Nomsde plume, dictionary of 791

North Carolina, special laws of 518

Norway and Sweden, history of. 288

Notes of ceremony and familiar invitation 61

Notes, promissory 4°3

Note, bearing interest 405

, collateral 4°*

•■ --, common form of. - 4°4

, joint 4*5

— — , joint and several..... 4°5

, judgment •. 406

.judgment, short form of. » 406

. , married woman's, in New York 405

... f negotiable only by endorsement 405

, negotiable without endorsement 405

, not negotiable . 4°S

— , payable at bank 4°5

■ ■ — , partnership — - 4°5

,payable by "nstallments 4°*

• — —.payable on demand 405

, principal and surety 4P5

, sealed 4°*

.secured by mortgage 475

, swindling form 407

Note, special forms in several States 4°*

Nubia, history of... 3*5

, map of »99

Nullification ordinance 338

Occupation, choosing an.... 5*3

Ocean 39*

Oceanica, history of 3*9

■ , map of «95

Oceanic movements .- 397

Oceans, superficial extent of. 5*5

Ode 3«

Ohio, special laws of 5<8

Omnibuses 33 8

Onomatopoeia 35

Opera-glass 349

Opium 5*5

Optics 34 8

Option trading 4*3

Order, three hundred points of 59*

Orders, forms of 4°7

Oregon, special laws of 5*9

Organs 33 8

Orthography »6

.figures of.. • 3 1

Ostend manifesto 33 8 . %°S

Oxidation and animal heat 625

Oysters 568

Psean 3 s

Pagans, number of > 554

Palestine, history of. 3'*

Palpitation of the heart 641

Pampas - 394

Pancreas *»8

Papal court, presentation at. — .. 714

Paper 33*

— — , accommodation 4°8

hangings 338

1 money 33 8 . 33*

Paper. See also Currency.

• $ negotiable 4°3

— .■ , forged 4° 8

— — , stolen or lost 408

Paragoge 3 1

Paraguay, history of 269

Parallax 375

Parallel 35

Paralysis 658

, infantile - 658

Parchment 33 8

Parents and children, letters between 60

Parody — ...... 38

Parliamentary law 587

Parsing... 28

Parties in the U. S. (diagram) 333

Partnership 481

agreement, form of 482

, notice of dissolution of 482

Parts of speech 28

Party, etiquette of the 720

Pascal's law 346

Patent Office 620

PateRt-right law 338

Patents 483

Paths of life 533

Pause, caesural 38

Pauses in punctuation 27

Paving with stones 338

Pendulum 344

Peninsular war 805

Penmanship, practical and ornamental 116

Positions 117

Movement .- 118

Scale of slant 118

Movement exercise 118

Care in practice 118

Writing not a special gift 119

Unity and simplicity of form 119

Economy of form 119

Correct proportion 120

Correct spacing 120

Slant of writing 120

Size of writing 121

Conspicuous faults 121

Movement exercises 124

Principles 124, 128

Copies 124

Scale of proportion of letters 128

Standard alphabets 129

Abbreviated capitals for business 129

Extended letters for ladies' epistolary writing 129
Specimens of business and correspondence

writing 130

Whole-arm capitals 131

Round writing for headings 132

Specimen business letters 133

Artistic penmanship 135

Materials _ 136

• Pens 136

Exercises for flourishing 137

Specimens for blackboard writing and draw-
ing 142

Ornamental alphabets - 144

Designs for flourished cards and albums 145

New designs for artistic initials 146

Pennsylvania, special laws of ,. 519

Pens 338

Pension laws - 487

Pension Office 619

Pericarditis ..__*. 841

Peritonitis 633

Perpetual motion 346

Perseverance . 528

Persia, history of 311

Personification, or prosopopoeia 34

Perspicuity of style 33

Perspiration 651

Pertussis 648

Peru, history of 268

Petitions _ %.... 592

Pharyngitis, acute . ._ 630

— , chronic granular 630

Phenomena, physical and chemical 342

Philadelphia riots 338

Phonograph --338, 348

Phosphorescence 396

Phosphorus 338

Photographs 338

Photophone 348

Phrenology 531

Phrenological organs, chart of. 538

Phthiriasis 651

Physical geography 391

Geology 392

The six eras of creation 392

The geologic ages 394

The earth's surface 394

Volcanic phenomena 395

Land and water... . 396

The air 398

Climate 398

Winds and weather 398

The animal kingdom 400

Ethnology 400

Animal and vegetable life 401

Minerals and metals ...._ 401

Physicians, number of. 568

Physiognomy, or face-reading 534

Physiognomy, comparative _ 536

Physiology and Medicine _ 624

The mechanism of the human body 624

Combustion and heat 624

Oxidation and animal heat 625

Power and life due to heat 626

The digestive organs 626

The mouth 626

The teeth 627

The stomach 627

The^intestines 628

The liver 628

The pancreas 629

The process of digestion 629

Diseases of the digestive organs _ 629

Mumps 630

Acute tonsilitis — Quinsy 630

Acute pharyngitis — Sore throat — Cold 630

Chronic granular pharyngitis — Clergy-
man's sore throat 630

Dyspepsia 630

Polyphagia — Excessive appetite — Glut-
tony 632

Polydipsia — Excessive thirst 632

Dipsomania ._ 632

Inanition— Starvation 632

Gastritis — Inflammation of the stomach .. 632

Ulcer of the stomach 633

Cancer of the stomach 634

Diarrhoea . 634

Summer complaint 634

Physiology and Medicine — Continued.

Enteritis — Inflammation of small intestine. 634
Dysentery — Inflammation ef large intes-
tine 63s

Constipation — Costi veness 635

Colic 636

Cholera morbus 636

Cholera infantum 638

Epidemic cholera 639

Prevention of cholera 638

The circulatory organs and the blood 638

Absorption 638

The heart and Mood vessels. 639

Diseases of the heart 642

The blood 642

Diseases of the blood 643

The respiratory organs 644

The lungs 644

The mechanism of respiration 645

Movements of respiration .... 646

Diseases of the respiratory organs 646

Cold— Catarrh — Bronchitis 646

Catarrh.. 647

Acute laryngitis... 647

Disease of vocal cords 647

Bronchitis 648

Pertussis — Whooping cough 648

Asthma 648

Pleurisy 648

Pneumonia 649

The excretory organs 649

The kidneys 649

Diseases of the kidneys 650

Theskin 651

Diseases of the skin 651

Phthiriasis — lousiness 651

Scabies — The itch 652

Tinea trichophytina — Ringworm 652

Acne 652

Eczema — Salt rheum 652

Erysipelas 652

The muscular system 653

The bortes 654

Diseases of the bones 654

Rickets 654

Deformity from clothing 655

Deformed feet 655

The nervous system 655

Diseases of the nervous system 658

Neuralgia 658

Convulsions 658

Epilepsy 659

Paralysis 659

Insomnia 660

Insanity 660

The eye 660

Anatomy of the eye. 660

Physiology of the eye 663

Errors of refraction and accommodation.. 664
Diseases of the eye and their treatment .. 665

The ear 666

Anatomy of the ear . 666

Physiology of the ear 668

Diseases of the ear and their treatment 668

Fevers 669

Typhoid fever 669

Typhus fever 670

Malarial fever— Intermittent fever — Ague. 670

Remittent fever 671

Yellow lever.. % 671

I*?

Q •_

828

AI.PHAKhTICAI. INDI X

Physiology and Medicine — Continued.

Rubeola — Measles . 671

Variola — Small-pox 672

Varioloid 673

Vaccination— Cow-pox 673

Vericella — Chicken-pox 67a

Scarlatina— Scarlet fever 673

Diphtheria 673

Rheumatism 673

Emergencies 675

Hemorrhage 675

Accidents . 675

Bite* •'nd stings 676

Burns, scalds and frost-bites 676

Suffocation— Drowning 676

Poisoning 677

■ing 677

Sunstroke 677

Penological table— Doses of medicines 678

Pianoforte 338

Pig Iron statistics 569

Pflgrtet, landing of the 33b

P' ns 339

Pistols 339

Pilch and tar 339

; location) 41

PhglfcM, remarkable, of modern time* 568

Planets, the 359

Plank*., tin .iMirement of 444

Plaster of Paris 339

Pleonasm 31

Plethora 643

Pleurisy 648

f nouns 29

Pneumatics 346

alt 649

Poems, various kinds of 38

Poetical quotations, dictionary of. 768

Poetic license 38

Poc, T 35

-.varieties of 38

. See Familiar Poems.

Poisoning 677

Political parties 333

ia 63a

■flat 63a

Population, center of 551

" ——, comparative density of 550

— — of U. S., proportions of 551

, statistics of. 568, 581

Porcelain 339

ual table 678

Pottage, rate* of. 616

stamps , 5

Postal cars 6,6

Postmasters, duties and commission* of... 615, 616

Postmasters-General 6t6

Post-office Department 614

Post-office, origin of. 339

, work of the 614

'» 40a

' • t,,r y 339

„.. 368

Poverty not an obstacle to success 5a 6

Power of attorney to collect debts, rents, etc.. 457

tosrll Mock 45,

— , short form »■

Practical calculations 444

Prairies 394

Precious metals, statistics of 7....:.....-. 567

Precision of style 33

Preemption of public lands 617

Preferred stock 433

Prefixes 19

Presbyopia 665

Presentation, rules of 714

President of U. S., duties of, etc 604

Printing 339

Prologue 38

Promissory notes 403

Pronunciation 41

Propriety of style 33

Prose and poetical quotations 768

Prosody ._ 35

Prosopopoeia, or personification 34

Protest (drafts and notes) 430

Protestants, distribution of 555

Prothesis ^

Proxy. See Power 0/ Attorney.

Ptolemaic system 356

Pu"ey 345

Pum P s 337, 347

Punctuation _„. 35

in letter-writing 50

points 25

Purity of style 33

Pyramids 339 , 569

Quarantine 607

Questions (parliamentary law) 591

Quicksilver 339

Quinine 569

Quhny 630

Quit-claim deed 4 68

Quotations, dictionary of 768

Rabbits m 569

I mankind 4 oo

Radiation of heat 349

Railroads, history of 339

, fastest time 585

Railway mail service 616

signal code 569

Railways 569, 578

Rain 349

Rainbow 3^8

Rainfall, amount of on a building 444

, average annual 569

Rank in the army and navy 612

Reading .-

Ready Reckoner 4 j 9

Real estate, how transferred 467

Receipts and expenditures U.S. government.. 546

Receipts, furnis of ^7

Receptions, etiquette of. 721

Recommendation, letters of 55

m oflight 34 8

Refraction of light 34 8

Registered letters 615

Reign of terror * goj

Rc "C' on 401, 369

Religions in the U.S. 55 g

of the world 554

Remittent fever __ 670

Rrm.inxtrancc, form of 593

, letters of 57

Repose (elocution) 44

Reptilian age 395

Republican party -333, 339

Respiration, the mechanism of..... 645

Respiratory organs 644

■ , diseases of 646

Resumption of specie payments 339

Rhetoric, figures of. 34

Rheumatism, acute articular 673

— — , chronic. 674

— -— , inflammatory.. 64a

Rhode Island, special laws of 530

Rhyme 35

Ribbon looms 339

Rice production 569

Rickets 654

Riding and driving, etiquette of. 734

Rivers 397

, length of 569

Rocks 303

Roman Catholic church 569

Roman Catholics, distribution of 555

Roof, numberof shingles required for a 444

Roumanla, history of 306

Rubeola 671

Ruling-machines 339

Running records 585

Russia, history of. ........... .. 393

Kyc 569

Saddles

Safety-lamp

Saltpeter

Salt rheum

Salts

Salutation, etiquette of

Sanguine temperament

San Marino, history of

Si tire

Saturn, the planet

Savages

Saws

Scabies

Scalds

School statistics....

Scientific department

Natural philosophy

Physics

Chemistry

Astronomy

Physical geography

Scotland, history of

1 , map of.

Seals of the various States. See S/eciaJ Imw*.

Seas

Seasons

, change of

Secretaries of the Interior

of the Navy

of State

of the Treasury

of War

Sedan chairs.
Self-reliance .

Senate

September 1

Serfs

Servants, management of. .

339
338
339
65»
354
7»S
535
306
38
3*7
40«
339
<5>
676
559
340
34»
34>
353
355
390
»78
»*7

57*

JD3

39«

On
613
605
607
6to
3»
5«»
««J
S06
57»
7*

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

*t*

829

Servia, history of . 306

Seven Years' War 806

Sewing machine 339

Sex, proportion of, to population 551

Sextant 339

Shay's Rebellion 339

Sheep 57 2

Sheep barn, design for 711

Shingles, number required for a roof 444

Shipping 57 2

Shoemakers' measure 572

Short-hand and Type-writing 148

History of stenography 148

Short-hand or phonographic alphabet 149

Benn Pittman's system 149

Type-writing ..... . .. 150

Advantages of the different systems 152

Practical short-hand 154

Short-hand amanuenses 155

A self-instructor in short-hand writing 156

Short rates 424

Siam, history of. 314

Sicilian Vespers 807

Sick headache 630

Sickness, ratio of 57 2

Signal Service 608

Silk production 572

Silurian age ... 394

Silvas 394

Silver 567, 572

Simile 34

Simoon 399

Siphon 347

Sirocco, the 399

Six-column journal 007

Skin, diseases of the 651

Slavery 572

■ See also Serfs.

Sleeping-cars 339

Slides (elocution) 42

Small-pox 672

— - --, statistics of 572

Snow . 399

Soap 339

Sodium _ 402

Shipping statistics ...................... 563

Soil as affecting climate. 398

Solar prominences 359

Solar system, the 357

Solids, liquids and gases 343

Solid measure 446

Solstices 362, 375

Song _ 38

Sonnet 38

Sore throat 630

■ ■ ■ , clergyman's.... 630

S«und 347

South African Republics 318

South Carolina, special laws of..... 520

South Sea bubble ............ 806

Spain, history of _ 300

Speaking, public .................—... 47

Speaking trumpets.. . ............... 339

Special laws of the States and Territories .... 502

Specific gravity.... ................... 560

Spectacles 339

Spectroscope 375

Speech 9

' , the three forms of 46

, parts of 28

Spelling, rules for 23

■ , reformed.. 23

Spherical aberration of light 348

Spinning wheel . 339

Spiritlevel 346

Sprains 675

Springs 397

Square or surface measure. 446

Starvation 632

Stings of wasps and bees 676

Stomach, the 627

, cancer of 634

■ , inflammation of. 632

- ■ , ulcer of the....... 633

Strangulation 676

Stamp act 339

Stamps, postage 615

Standard time 580

Stanza ....... 36

Starch, percentage of ingrain 573

Star-clusters 373

Star-maps .......378, 389

Stars, distance of the 37?

, double and multiple 371

— — , fixed 370

— — , how named and numbered 371

, names of the principal ........ 377

, new and variable 371

, proper motion of the 372

State department 604

Statist ical'department 544

Statute of frauds 454

Statutes of the United States 339

St. Bartholomew, massacre of. 805

Steamboat, fastest time 585

Steam power, statistics of.................... 563

Steam engine 339, 349

Steamship, fastest time 585

Steel 339

— ■ statistics 573

, tensile strength of 573

Steppes 394

Stereotype printing.... 339

Stirrups .... 339

Stocks and bonds 432

Stock exchanges 411

Strength, comparative scale of 573

Strength of style 33

Stress 43

Style (rhetoric) 32

(letter-writing) 48

Suffixes 20

Suffocation ... 676

Sugar 33*

Sugar production 573

Suicide statistics _ 573

Summer complaint 634

Sun 358

, apparent motion of the....... 358

Sunday-schools 339

Sun-dials 339

Sun-spots 359

Sunstroke 677

Supreme Court 622

Surface measure 446

Sweden, history of 288

Switzerland, history of 301

Syllables x8

Syllepsis 31

Sympathy, letters of 59

Synxresis 31

Syncope 31

Synecdoche . 34

Synonyms and antonyms, dictionary of. 64

Syntax 29

Syntax, figures of 31

Table, etiquette of the 717

Tariff and internal revenue 434, 546

Tariff, general average of importations 573

Tariff of 1883 435

Tax 434

Taxation 339

Taxes and duties 434

Tea 339

statistics 573

Teachers, average pay of 559

Teeth 627

, care of the 729

Telegraph, electric 339, 352

, mechanical 339

— —statistics ....573, 578

Telegraphic alphabet 416

Telegraphic Code..... . ......._. . 416

Telegraphic Detector 416

Telephone 339, 347

, statistics of... 578

Telescopes 339, 349

Temperaments 534

■ - ■, combination of 535

Temperature and climate 398

Temperature, variations of . 573

Tenant's agreement 473

Tenant's notice of leaving 473

Tennessee, special laws of. 520

Territory, acquisition of. 544

Texas, special laws of. 521

Tides 366, 397

Time 375

, comparative diagram 579

, in elocution 42

— — , measures of 446

■, standard 580

— — . See also Fast Time.

Tinea tricophytina 652

Title, abstract of. 468

Titles 51

Thermometer .... ......... --339, 349. 57*>

Thermometric scales, comparison of 445

Thirst, excessive (polydipsia) 632

Thread 339

Thunder 399

Tmesis ......... . . 31

Tobacco, introduction of 339

.statistics of. 574

Toilet ........... 729

Tonsilitis, acute 630

Topophone.. 348

Tornadoes 399

Torricelli's experiment 346

Trade-winds 398

Transit (astronomy) 375

Transit insurance _ 424

Traveling, etiquette of 727

Treasury Department 606

Triple alliance, the ...... 806

Trochaic verse 37

Trotting records 585

Troy weight 44A

«3°

ALPHABETICAL II

Trutt deed 408

Tug-boats 57*

Turf record* 5 8 5

Turkey, hlitory of 3°4

Type*, form* of. 3 4

Typhoid fever — - 660

Typhoon — 399

Typhu* fever 070

t the stomach $33

BtAtM, growth of - 581

——, history of 35 3

■ 1 ■ , map of 358

, population of ..... 58a

<f Colombia, history of 269

f style (composition) 33

Uranus, the planet 368

Uruguay, history of 37a

Utah, special laws of. pi

Vaccination 330, 673

Vacuum -pans 349

Variola 673

id 673

Vegetation 401

576

Venezuela, history of 369

Ventilator! 339

Venus, the planet 360

Ha 673

Vermont, ipecial laws of 53a

Veime 36

1 lion 35

339

Virginia, special laws of 511

. or imagery 34

V:ul temperament 535

Vocal culture ¥>

Vocal cords, disease of 647

Voice 40

.quality of. 4*

Volcanic islands 39*>

mh> phenomena 395

Volcanoes 395

Volute electricity 35 1

Voltaic pile 35»

Vowels and consonants rf

Vulcan, the planet 359

Wages and cost of living 576

Wages, quick method of computing 443

Wall, number of perches of stone required.... 444

Wall-papers 339

War, cost of 576

— , losses by 576

Win I Apartment 008

War-ships 339

Warranty deeds 468

Washington city government 604

Washington Territory, special laws of. 523

Watches 339

Water 396, 577

——,cvaporation of 398

Watered stock 433

Water-power 577

Water-mills 339

Waters, inland 397

Water-spouts 399

Waves 397

Wealth of nations 577

Weather 398

Weather-cocks 339

Wedding anniversaries 807

■ etiquette 733

Weight and stature of man 577

Weight of various substances 560

Weights and measures 447

, foreign 448

Wells or cisterns, measurement of 414

West Indies, map of... 994

West Virginia, special laws of 5*3

Wheat statistics 566

Wheel and axle 345

Whirlpools 397

Whirl winds 398

White House 604

, presentational 714

Whooping cough 648

Wild-fire : 339

Wills 477

— — , codicils to 479

, forms of... 479

, short form of j. 479

. See also Special Laws.

Winds and weather 398

Winds as affecting climate.. 398

Wind, velocity and pressrre of. 577

Wine. See Alcoholic Liquors.

Wire-drawing 339

Wisconsin, special Laws of 593

Women workers 577

Wood, number of cords in a pile 445

Woolen cloth 339

Words and word-building 18

World, map of the 301

Wyoming, special laws of. 533

Yellow fever 671

Yellowstone National Park........... 339

Zeugma 31

Zodiac 375

Zodiacal constellations 375

Zodiacal light 37o>

Zoology 400

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