IB^K r _ , ? v sz v^rff U «BH| * f ' ■ .rt *?' 1->P vX * \..r T V " X ■y?r- .. '' *„ 1 * -iij^ wlj ■'?w «>£ 'Ui > r ^ MMBBBBBMM^B^^MBHBi t.,^4 7L-' : v / LIBRARY OP THE University of California. GIFT OF . \„ pj., LtQKWfl MV4.&AA 7),' --.^ J > V ' '<„ ■V - ' J s,->. **" 1 Ira" ■ - t J> 0} .«af ■»■ fV . ■**• * J V . < c fc J>*- w . J ' ' - ■ V ■fv". ^%rf H ' W ; -- f { . " ^ , ■ w^-. *\ J ** \ — I > J , - ■ j • ~v< \J 5 i ■ ^- J- >-•■■ *, uf ? ■ .*,. <~: T^ ^* * \ r s ^ A ... ... ., f>& T. >»v I .r. I - Jf ,...'• ^' *". ' ■.'* % ?** %' ■ 1. V* 1 ' ,,J*-~ * I I '"4,'' «w- "Mf , • / <■ -* (r v- ■ ■ HH 'V* ■■ - £ * w. f" ■I ■ ^ K * An era is fast approaching when no writers will be read by the majority, save and except those who can effect /or bales of manuscript what the hydrostatic screw performs /or hales 0/ cotton — condense into a period what be/ore occupied a Page. — CoTTER. Ho? THE OME-blBRARY OF 7 XHeeful Iftnowlefcge A COMPLETE CYCLOPEDIA OF REFERENCE HISTORICAL, BIOGRAPHICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND STATISTICAU-f^X- or THF ' UNIVERSITY i EMBRACING or THE MOST IMPROVED AND SIMPLE METHODS OF Self-Instruction in all Branches O F Popular Education r COMPILED AND EDITED BY R. S. PEALE ASSISTED BY EMINENT SPECIALISTS IN EACH DEPARTMENT. CHICAGO Zhe Ibome Uibrarp association MUCCCLXXXXII. V /H^ ij> Copyright, 1883, —BY — ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. "=2jjfc{Eir- Copyright, 1884, by R. S. Peale. Copyright, 1885, by R. S. Peale Copyright, :886, by R. S. Pkale. Copyright, 1887, by R. S. Peals. Copyright, 1888, by R. S. Peal*. Copyright, 1889, by R. S. Pkale. Copyright, 1890, by R. S. Pkale. Copyright, 1891, by R. S. Peale. Copyright, 1893, by R. S. Peale. Press of tCt^e {Some library Association, Chicago. V- t V 3f- |IBBON has well said: "Every man has two educations: one which he receives from others, and one, more important, which he gives to himself." Sir Walter Scott emphasizes the sentiment when he says, using almost the same words: "The best part of every man's education is that which he gives to himself." The mind has been endowed with no more laudable or profitable ambition than that of self-improvement. The educated man, in every walk of life, carries with him his own capital — a capital unaffected by monetary crises; an investment whose interest is not regu- lated by the success of speculation ; a treasure which none can dispute and of which none can deprive him. It is his greatest source of pleasure and profit, and it is the best legacy he can leave to his children. In preparing the present volume, it has been the endeavor of the publishers to omit no branch of study that may be useful in the busy life of these busy times, and a perusal of the book will convince the reader that every subject has been treated concisely and thoroughly, presenting in an attractive shape all those points that go to make a finished education. Practical application to the affairs of life has been constantly kept in view, and throughout has been maintained a systematic arrangement making reference easy, and a degree of artistic typography pleasing to the eye, making the search for knowledge doubly pleasurable. To the youth who has not had the advantages of an early education is here offered a means of thorough self-instruction — a complete commercial college bound in a book. The business man who consults these pages will find every variety of forms used in business life, and will not seek in vain for such legal information as may be needed. The profes- sional man will have in this work a vade mecum of useful and practical information, saving both the expense of purchasing and the time of consulting a vast number of volumes. It is customary to burden the initial pages of a new publication with apologies. The publishers of this book have none to make. They have invested a large amount of diligent, painstaking labor and research, and no small amount of capital, and recognize the fact that they must depend upon merit and excellence for success. YL =k\ TABLE OF CONTENTS. Table of Oo^ttezstts- [For an Alphabetical Index of Principal Subjects, see page 819.] I , Page. Educational Department 9 The Points which go to Make a Finished Education — The Origin of Language — Classification of the Tongues of the Earth. The English Language 13 Its Origin, Growth, Development and Present Form — English Grammar — Formation and Derivation of Words — Spelling: Simple but Comprehensive Rules — Reformed Spelling — The Use of. Capital Letters — Punctuation — The Parts of Speech and their Proper Use — Errors in Speech, etc. Composition and Rhetoric 32 How to Write the English Language Correctly — Accuracy in the Arrangement of Words and Correct Expression in Written Language — The Qualities Constituting a Good Style — Figures of Rhetoric — Prosody and Versification — Poetic License. Elocution 40 Vocal Culture and Gesture — How to Read and Speak Correctly and Elegantly — The Three Forms of Speech — Conversation, Reading, Public Speaking — Dramatic Action. Business and Social Correspondence .... 48 Let ter-Wri ting in all its Forms — Style, Arrangement and Com- position of Letters — The Proper Use of Titles — Models for all Kinds of Epistolary Correspondence. A Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms . Containing over Twenty Thousand Words of both Similar and Contrary Significance — A Ready Vocabulary from which to Select Words that will Clearly and Forcibly Convey the In- tended Meaning. 64 7- A Self-Instructor in the German Language The New System of Object-Teaching, the Simplest Method Known — Exercises for Self-Instruction, and a Comprehensive Collection of Words and Phrases Designed to Facilitate Con- versation in German. S2 8, French Without a Master 100 A Simple System of Self-Instruction in the French Language. VL- 9 . Pacb Practical and Ornamental Penmanship , .116 The Work of the Pen Described and Illustrated, from the Plain- est Letter to the Most Elaborate Design — How to Learn and How to Teach Writing— Faults to be Guarded Against — Study and Practice — Copies for a Course of Twenty Lessons- Alphabets and Specimens for all Purposes— Examples of Blackboard Writing and Drawing, Engrossing, Flourished Cards, Designs for Albums and Ornamental Lettering. 10. Short-Hand and Typewriting 148 How to Acquire and How to Practice these Arts — A History of Stenography, and a Practical Exposition of the Various Sys- tems. II. A Self-Instructor in Short-Hand Writing . . . 156 A Complete Course, in Twelve Practical Lessons, based on the Benn Pitman System of Phonography. 12. The Art of Book-Keeping 168 The Systems of Single and Double Entry Compared Side by Side —The Principles Set Forth Clearly and Concisely — How to Prevent Errors and How to Detect Them— Comprehensive Rules, of Value to the Practical Accountant as well as to the Student— Complete Forms Illustrating the Two Systems, Pre- senting, besides the Ordinary Forms of Single and Double Entry, a Complete Set Illustrating the Combination of Day- Book and Journal, as well as the Six-Column Journal (combin- ing in One Book the Day-Book, Journal, Cash- Book and Sales- Book), and the Combined Statement (showing, on one Sheet, Trial Balance, Losses and Gains, Assets and Liabilities) — How to Change Single Entry Books into Double Entry. A Compendium of Biography 209 Embracing the Names and Records of Eminent Personages of All Ages, Arranged in Alphabetical Order and Selected with Special Reference to the Literature of America, Great Britain and Ger- many. 14. A Panorama of History 2S 2 A Graphic Account of Every Nation on the Globe— Profusely Illustrated, and with Maps of the World and of all Countries of Historic Interest. 5*- •• ^ VI. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 15 Fags. Historical Charts 321 A Simple Contemporaneous Exposition of Universal History from the Flood to the Present Year, with Special Charts, Illus- trating the Civil, Political and Military History of the United States— A Chronological Record of the Impartant Historical Events of Ancient and Modern Times, Presentee' in a Novel and Original Manner— Sixteen Full-page Plates, printed in Four Colors. l6. A Dictionary of Dates 337 The World's Progress as Shown in an Alphabetical Record of Notable Events and Discoveries. Scientific Department 340 A Brief and Simple Introduction to All the Sciences. l8. Natural Philosophy 342 The Forces of Nature and the Laws which Govern Them — The Elements of Natural Science — Physic* and Chemistry — Hy- drostatics and Hydraulics — Optics and Acoustics — Magnetism and Electricity. 19. Astronomy 355 The Wonders of the Heavens as Revealed by the Telescope — A History of the Progress of Astronomical Science — Our Solar System and the Universe of Stars — A Dictionary of Astronom- ical Definitions. 20. 376 How to Read the Sky Half-Hours with the Stars— A Plain and Easy Guide to the Knowledge of the Constellations— With Twelve Maps of the Heavens, True for Every Year. 21. Physical Geography 390 Our Globe, as it Was, and as It Is— Weather and Climate — Ani- mal and Vegetable Life — Geology, Meteorology, Climatology, Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology, Ethnology. 22. Commercial Law and Forms 403 Notes, Bills, Orders, Receipts, etc., Properly Drawn for Every State — Negotiable Paper, and the Various Forms of Endorse- ment — The Endorser's Responsibility — Necessary Legal Points — Swindling Notes — Points of Business Law — Laws of the United States and Canada Relating to Interest — Laws Relating to Limitation of Actions. 23- States and Territories 305* Maps of nil the States and Territories showing Compara- tive Statisli. . \n 1, Railroads, etc.— Printed In three colors — Population given on page, following page 584. 24. P*o«- Population of Cities and States 584* The Population of the Cities and States of the United States, of 8,000 and Over, Together with Population of all the States and Territories according to 1890 census. 25. Loisette Memory System '63 The Loisette Memory System, the Art of Never Forget- ting. 26. Banks and Banking «JI1 How the Business is Carried on — Discount — Officers and Em- ployes — How to do Business with a Bank — Deposits — How to Draw and Endorse a Check — Banking Frauds — Drafts and Bills of Exchange — Letters of Credit — Bills of Lading as Se- curity — The Clearing-House — Our National Banking System — Stocks and Bonds — Common and Preferred Stock — How Stock is " Watered " — Government Securities. 27. The Tariff 4«9 The New McKinley Tariff Bill (iSoo>— Comparison of New Rates with the Old— An Act to Reduce the Re.- enue and Equalize Duties on Imports, etc. 28. Lightning Calculator 439 Valuable Computations and Calculations for the Use of the Fanner, Mechanic and Business Man — Complete Tables of Simple and Compound Interest — Short Insurance Rates — Practical Cal- culations — A Calendar for the Century — The Legal Bushel — Standard and Foreign Weights and Measures — The Metric System. 29. Legal Business Department 451 How to Avoid Litigation — All Kinds of Legal Forms, and How They are Drawn and Executed — Agreements and Contracts — Agency and Attorney— Affidavits — Apprentices — Arbitration — Assignments — Bills of Sale — Bonds — Corporations — Deeds — Abstract of Title — Guaranty — Landlord and Tenant — Rights of Married Women— Real Estate and Chattel Mort- gages — Mechanics' Liens — Wills — Executors and t trators — Partnership, etc., etc SO- Patents, Pensions, Etc. A Complete Synopsis of the Rules and Regulations Governing the United States Patent Office — The Pension Laws — The Legal Fence. 3 X - The Collection of Debts How to Settle Accounts— Legal Steps to Enforce Payment- Jurisdiction of Justices— Legal Forms, etc.— The Australian Ballot System— Its History and Objects. 3 2 - Special Laws of the States and Territories . . Assignments, Attachments, Chattel Mortgages, Divorce, Exemp- tions, Rights of Married Women, Deeds and Their Ackno. *- edgmr nt , Will* , ami Mechanics' Liens— A Complete Synopsis of State and Territorial Laws, Compiled from the Latest Sources. 483 49° 5« k_ =afe- ■v » ik, - - £- «1 \ —-, r 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS. vii. 33. P.GK. A 2 . Page. F Causes of Success and Failure 524 How to Avoid Failure — Choosing an Occupation — Health— Self- The Mechanism of the Human Body — The Digestive, Circula- Reliance — Attention to Detail — Perseverance — Decision of tory, Respiratory and Excretory Organs — The Muscular Sys- Character. tem and the Bones — The Nervous System — The Eye and the Ear— Various Ailments, and How to Treat Them — How to 34- Proceed in Emergencies — Hygienic Suggestions, Study of Character in its Relation to Business Sue- 43- * Physiognomy and Phrenology — The Two Paths of Life : Effects of Training and Modes of Life on the Human Countenance — The Latest Designs, with Plans, Specifications, and Estimates — Face-Reading — The Temperaments Illustrated — How to Read Beautiful Homes, and How to Build Them — Choosing a Site — Character — A Synopsis of the Organs of the Brain. How the Money is Applied — Water Supply — Cellar and Ice- House— Outhouses and Barns — Valuable Suggestions. 35- 44. Statistical Department — Population, Religion, Education, Re- A Compendium of the Rules and Habits of Polite Society — The sources, Productions and Industries of the World — More than • True Spirit of Good Manners — Refinement and Good Breeding a Hundred Thousand Facts Presented in an Alphabetical Ar- — Etiquette for All Occasions, at Home and Abroad. rangement of Topics, with Twenty-three Illustrative and Com- parative Diagrams, Twenty of Which are Printed in Colors — 45- The Only Dictionary of the Kind in any Language. 36. Familiar Poems, and Those Who Wrote Them . 741 A Collection of the Brightest Gems of English Poetry, Those Which we All Wish to Preserve in some Enduring Form, Illus- Department of Public Business 587 trated with Portraits of the Poets. A Complete Digest of Parliamentary Law and Rules — How to Call, Organize and Conduct Meetings and Conventions — Com- 4.6. mittees and Their Work — A Comprehensive Table of Points of Order. A Dictionary of Prose and Poetical Quotations 768 37- Arranged both Topically and Alphabetically. Memorials and Petitions 592 47- The Right of Petition — Forms for Remonstrances, Petitions and Memorials. Heroes and Heroines of Prose and Poetry 786 38. A Compendium of the Celebrated Characters in the Literature of the World. Lyceums and Debating Clubs 594 48. Forms of Constitutions and By-Laws— Questions for Debate. 39- A Comprehensive List of Assumed Names in English and Ameri- can Literature. The Steps in the Growth of American Liberty . . 596 49. The Magna Charta — The Mecklenburg Declaration — The Dec- laration of Independence. 40. The Heathen Deities, and Other Fabulous Persons of Greek and Roman History. The Constitution of the United States .... 599 5 °\ Full Text of the Charter of American Liberty, with all the Amendments. Words of Phrases, Persons, Places, Pictures, Buildings, Streets 41. and Monuments Frequently Alluded to in Literature and in The Departments at Washington 604 Conversation. A Complete Analysis of our Government — The Executive De- 5 1 - partment — Department of Slate — The Diplomatic Service — The Treasury Department — The War Department and th Amer- ican Army— The Militia— The Navy Department— Oui Naval Sentences and Quotations from both Living and Dead Languages. History — The Post-office Department and its Workings — The Department of the Interior — The General Land Office — Home- 5 2 - stead and Preemption — Indian Affairs,— The Bureaus of Educa- J tion and Agriculture — The Attorney-General — The Supreme k Court — The Duties and Powers of Congress. A Comprehensive Glossary of Logogriphs in Good English Usage. . a / \ ® . '' H "» e EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. II ^ P^^^P^MMPMPMillMP-MPMP-MP^^MPtM i i i I J r -^%m>* M i ^.OJJIJ.MAMJJ J.M.W.M «™««™ Educational Department. 2qqS^qq2S8S&S8&K T**»»T»»f BBW^^^^^^^^^MM " ■■■;■'; LLi il l HllMi^l^lgi^l^^ M The Points Which Co to Make a Finished Education. gpwps ex LANGUAGE is a collection of certain articulate sounds used as the signs of our ideas, or of certain written characters which , represent those sounds. Language owes its ori- gin to the imitation and modifica- tion, aided by signs and gestures, of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals and man's own instinctive cries. Language con- sists in the oral utterances of sounds which usage has made the representatives of ideas. When two or more persons customarily annex the same sounds to the same ideas the expression of these sounds by one person com- municates his ideas to another. This is the primary sense of language, the use of which is to communicate the thoughts of one person to another through the organ of hearing. Articu- late sounds are represented by letters, marks or characters, which form words. Language is sometimes denoted by other terms ; as speech, tongue, idiom, dialect. Language is generic, denoting any mode of kl conveying ideas ; as the language of the deaf and dumb. Speech is the language of articulate sounds and contemplates language as broken or cut into words of different kinds ; as the parts of speech, the gift of speech. Tongue is the Anglo-Saxon term for the lan- guage of a particular people ; as the English tongue. Idiom denotes the form of the construction peculiar to a language. Dialects are varieties of expression which spring up in different parts of a country, or in different professions, etc. Origin of Language. There are various ways by which men can communicate with one another. They can make gestures, utter cries, speak words, draw pictures, write characters or letters. Articulate language is peculiar to man ; but he uses, in common with the lower animals, inarticulate cries to express his meaning, aided by gestures and the move- ments of the muscles of his face. This especially holds good with the more simple and vivid feel- ings which are but little connected with our higher intelligence. Our cries of pain, fear, sur- prise, anger, together with their appropriate ^ I r\~ IO EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. actions, and the murmur of a mother to her be- loved child, are more expressive than any words. It is not the mere power of articulation that distinguishes man from other animals, for, as every one knows, parrots can talk ; but it is his large power of connecting definite sounds with definite ideas; and this obviously depends on the development of his mental faculties. Gesture Language. When for any reason people cannot talk to- gether by word of mouth, they take to convers- ing by gestures, in what is called dumb show or pantomime. Imagine a simple case. A boy opens a parlor door; his brother sitting there beckons to him to be quiet, for his father is asleep ; the boy now intimates by signs that he has come for the key of the box, to which his brother an- swers by signs that it is in the pocket of his coat hanging in the hall, concluding with a signifi- cant gesture to be off and shut the door quietly after him. This is the gesture language. Ges- ture language has little power of expressing abstract ideas. The next step in the origin of language is to show the workings of another sort of signs, namely, the sounds of the human voice. Sounds of voice may be spoken to express our feelings and thoughts on much the same principle that gestures are made, except that they are heard instead of seen. One kind of sounds used by men as signs consists of emotional cries or tones. Men show pain by uttering groans as well as by distortion of the face ; joy is expressed by shouts as well as by jumping; when we laugh aloud, the voice and features go perfectly together. Such sounds are gestures made with the voice — sound-gestures. The next class of sounds used as expressive .lie imitative. As a deaf and dumb child expresses the idea of a cat by imitating the i rc.it hit's art of washing its f.uc, so a speaking child will indicate it by imitating its miaou. Natural Language. Now, joining gesture-actions and gesture- sounds, they will form together what may be called a Natural Language. This natural lan- guage really exists, and in wild regions really has some practical value, as when a European traveller makes shift to converse in it with a party of Australians around their camp-fire or with a Mongol family in their felt tent. What he has to do is to act his most expressive mimic gestures, with a running accompaniment of ex- clamations and imitative noises. Here there is found a natural means of intercourse, much fuller than mere pantomime of gestures only. It is a common language of all mankind, springing so directly from the human mind that it must have belonged to our race from the most remote ages and most primitive conditions in which man existed. Language is one branch of the great art of sign-making or sign-choosing, and its busi- ness is to hit upon some sound as a suitable sign or symbol for each thought. It is maintained by the best philologists that emotional and imita- tive sounds are the very source of all language, and that, although most words now show no trace of such origin, this is because they have quite lost it in the long change of pronunciation and meaning they have gone through, so that they have now become mere symbols. Besides the emotional and imitative ways, there were several other devices by which man chooses sounds to express thoughts. That there was always some kind of fitness or connection which led to each particular sound being taken to ex- press a particular thought is more than likely, and in this seems to lie the most reasonable opinion to be held as to Oe famous problem of the origin of 1 So far as language can be traced to its actual source, that source doe? not lie in some lost gifts or powers of man, but in a state of mind still acting, and not above the level of children and savages. The origin of language was not an event which took place long ago, once for all, and then ceased entirely. • A I V EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. II On the contrary, man still possesses, and uses when he wants it, the faculty of making new, original words by choosing fit and proper terms. But he now seldom puts this faculty to serious use, for this good reason, that whatever language he speaks has its stock of words ready to furnish an expression for almost every fresh thought that crosses his mind. Articulate Language. A sentence being made up of its connected sounds as a limb is made up of its joints, we call language articulate, or jointed, to distinguish it from the inarticulate, or "unjointed," sounds uttered by the lower animals. Conversation by gestures and exclamations, as was shown above to be a natural language common to mankind, is half-way between the communications of animals and full human speech. Every people, even the smallest and most savage tribe, has an articulate language carried on by a whole system of sounds and meanings which serves the speaker as a sort of catalogue of the contents of the world he lives in, taking in every subject he thinks about, and enabling him to say what he thinks about it. As in the course of ages man's knowledge became wider and his civilization more complex, his language had to keep up with them. Comparatively few and plain ex- pressions had sufficed for his early rude con- dition, but now more and more terms had to be added for the new notions, implements, arts, offices and relations of more highly organized society. New words were made by adding and combining old ones, carrying on old words from the old state of things to do duty to the new, shifting their meanings and finding in any new thought some resemblance to an old one that would serve to give it a name. As terms in- crease in every nation and the vast field of language is filled up, words, by a thousand fan- ciful and irregular methods of derivation and composition, deviate widely from the primitive character of their roots and lose old resem- blance in sound of the things signified. Words as we now use them, taken in general, may be considered as symbols, not imitations ; as arbi- trary or instituted, not natural, signs of ideas. Classification of Languages. The classification of the different languages of the earth into a few great families is due to the science of comparative philology and is of recent origin. Till the latter end of the last cen- tury the preference as to the antiquity of lan- guage was usually given to the Hebrew, but a striking improvement of linguistic study is dated from the discovery of the Sanskrit, the ancient language of the northern parts of Hin- dustan, in the latter part of the last century. A belief in an affinity between languages and a separation of them into certain great groups or families then arose. The languages of the world are divided into four great branches, viz., the Aryan, or Indo- European, the most important ; next the Sem- itic, the Turanian and the Dra vidian. The Turanian family, called also the Tataric, or Altaic, includes the numerous and widely dif- ferent languages of the Manchoos, the Mongols, the Turks (in Asia and Europe), the Magyars (in Hungary), the Finns (in Russia), and a multi- tude of other tribes. The Dravidian includes the Tamil and the dialects in Ceylon and the islands off Asia, etc. The Semitic includes the Hebrew, Syriac, Arctic and Ethiopic, Basque (in the Pyrenees), etc. The Indo-European, to which extensive family the English language belongs, is divided into six principal branches. I. The Indian branch, represented by the Sanskrit, which has now ceased to be spoken, but is the mother of the Hindustani, Bengali, Mahratti and the other numerous dialects of modern India. II. The Medo-Persic branch, at the head of which is the Zend, in which the Zend-Avesta is composed and the cuneiform inscriptions of / 77 ax* K 12 EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. I Cyras, Darius and Xerxes. Next follow the Fehlevi, of the Sarsanian dynasty ; the Parsee, in which the national poem of Ferdusi is written (A. D. iooo), and lastly the modem Persian. III. The Celtic branch, divided into two dia- lects, the Gaelic and the Cymric ; the former comprising the Irish or Erse, the Scottish Gaelic or Highland-Scotch, and the Manx of the Isle of Man ; and the latter Welsh, the Cornish (now extinct) and the Armorican of Britanny. IV. The Gr&co-Latin branch, comprising the two ancient classical languages, and the so- called Romanic languages, derived from the Latin, which are six in number, namely; the French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Walla- chian,and the Roumanish or Romanese spoken in the Grisons in Switzerland. V. The Teutonic branch, which comprises all the different German and Scandinavian dialects. VI. The Slavonic branch, divided into three principal classes: I. The Lettic, comprising the Lithuanian, the Old Prussian (now extinct) and the Lettish, the language of Kurland and Livonia. 2. The Western Slavonic, comprising the Polish ; the Bohemian or Tchechian, spoken in Bohemia ; the Slovakian, spoken by the Slov- aks in Hungary, and the Wendian, spoken in Lusatia. 3. The Eastern Slavonic, comprising the Old Slavonic, preserved in the translations of the Bible made by Cyrillus in the ninth cent- ury, and its derivate dialect, the Bulgarian; the Russian, Servian, Croatian and Slovinian. The Teutonic branch of the Indo-European family of languages is divided into two great branches, the German and Scandinavian. The German is divisible into three principal dialects, the Mceso- Gothic, the Low German and the High German, the two latter being so called because the Low German is spoken by the inhabitants of the low or flat country near the shores of the German Ocean, while the High German belongs to the higher country in the interior. 1. The Moeso-Gothic, the most easterly of all the German dialects, has long ceased to be spoken, but is preserved in the translation of the gospels by Ulfilas. 2. The Low German comprised the follow- ing dialects : ( 1 ) Anglo-Saxon, which was culti- vated with great success in England, and in which the second most ancient specimens of the Germanic language are preserved. (2) The Old Saxon, so called to distinguish it from the An- glo-Saxon in England, formerly spoken in Westphalia. (3) The Frisian, now confined to a small district in Holland. (4) The Dutch, the present language of Holland. (5) The Flemish, spoken in many parts of Belgium. 3. The High German comprises the Old High German, from the seventh to the eleventh century; the Middle High German, from the twelfth century to the Reformation, and the New High German, which since Luther's time has been the literary language of Germany. The Scandinavian branch, of which the most ancient language is the Old Norse, the lan- guage of Norway, is represented by the Icelandic, which was carried into Iceland by the Norse colonists in the ninth century and which con- tinues to be spoken on that island with little alteration. On the Continent the Old Norse is represented by the Swedish, Danish and Nor- wegian, of which the last has now become a mere patois. The following table exhibits the relationship of the different Teutonic languages : 1. Maso-Gothie. 2. Low German. (i.) Anglo-Saxon. English. iii.) Old Saxon. iii.) Frisian, iv.j Dutch. tA Flemish. Hlgk German. Teutonic -i ~ (i.) Old High German. (it) Middle High German, (iii.) Now 1 1 ivjh German. 1. OMSemmdi* II. SCANDINAVIAN (1.) 1> clandic (a " v ii.) F 2. .!/,'./<•' n Scandinavian. [,.) Danish. (ii.) Swedish. [Ui.) Norwegian. 4^ • T> V rr / THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 13 9^&9s^^^^^^^^^^&^^&59yyy^E&A English Language. w^w^ "WWW Its Origin, Crowth, Development and Present Form. HE English Language is the descendant and repre- sentative of the Anglo- Saxon. It has lost very much of the inflection and very many of the words which belong to the parent lan- guage ; and on the other hand it has borrowed words largely, to the extent even of half its vocabulary, from other lan- guages, especially the French and the Latin. Yet all the in- flections that remain in it, and most of its formative endings, the pronouns and particles, and in general the words which are in most frequent and familiar use, have come to it from the Anglo-Saxon. All the constituents of the English Language as it now exists are presented in a condensed form as follows : 1st. Saxon and Danish words, of Teutonic and Gothic origin. 2nd. British or Welsh, Cornish and Armoric, of Celtic origin. 3rd. Norman, a mixture of French and Gothic 4th. Latin. 5th. The French, chiefly Latin corrupted. 6th. Greek. 7th. A few words directly from the Italian, Spanish, German, and other Continental languages of Europe. 8th. A few foreign words introduced by commerce or by political and literary intercourse. "Suppose," says Dr. Trench {English Past and Present), "the English language to be di- vided into a hundred parts; of these, to make a rough distribution, sixty would be Saxon, thirty would be Latin (including of course the Latin which has come to us through the French), five would be Greek; we should then have assigned ninety-five parts, leaving the other five, perhaps too large a residue, to be divided among all the other languages from which we have adopted isolated words." The English Language from the time of its first formation has been subject to continual changes. Old words have been from time to time falling away, and new ones have been formed and brought into use. The oldest Saxon manuscript dates about A.D. 700, and the Lord's Prayer then ran thus: "Uren fader thic arth in heofnas, sic gehalgud thin noma, to cymeth thin ric, sic thin willa sue is in heofnas, and in eortho," etc. The Modern Period of English commenced with the middle of the sixteenth century, and its present form was then assumed. Though it is impossible to assign any exact date to the change of Anglo-Saxon into English, the chief alterations in the language may be arranged approximately under the following epochs : _M K v 14 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. I. Anglo-Saxon, from A.D. 450 to 1 150. II. Serai-Saxon, from A.D. 1150 to 1250, so called because it par. takes strongly of the characteristics of both Anglo-Saxon and Old English. III. Old English, from A.D. 1250 to 1350. IV. Middle English, from A.D. 1350 to about 1550. V. Modern English, from A.D. 1550 to the present day. ANGLO-SAXON. A.D. 700. From the Anglo-Saxon Version of Matthew, Eighth Chapter. S6dllce tha se Haelend of tham munte nydher astah, tha fylig- don him mycle manio. Tha genealsehte an hre6fla to him and hine td him ge-eadhmSdde, and thus cwadh : Drihten, gyf thu wylt' thu miht me geclaensian. Tha astrehte se Haelend hys hand and hrepode hyme and thus cwadh : Ic wylle, beo geclaensod And hys hreofla was hradlice geclaensod. Tha cwadh se Hselend to him : Warna the thai thu hyt naenegum men ne secge ; ac gang, 3te6w the tham sacerde, and bring hym tha lac the Moy- ses bebead, on hyra gecydhnesse. Translation. — [Words wanting- in the original are introduced in italics; explanations or kindred words are inserted in brackets.] Shortly when the Savior from the mountain came-down, there fol- lowed him a great multitude [mickle, many]. Then came-near a leper to him, and him[sclf] to him humbled and thus said [quoth] : Lord, if thou wilt, thou may est me cleanse. Then stretched-outthe Savior his hand and touched him and thus said : I will, be cleansed. And his leprosy was quickly cleansed. Then said the Savior to him : Beware [warn thee] that thou it to no man say; but go, show thee to-the priest [Latin, sacerdos] and bring them the gift that Mo«es bade, for their information. A.D. 700. From Beowulf. Tha com of more under mist-hleodum Grendel gongan, godes yrre bar. Mynte se mlnscadha manna cynnes sumne besyrwan in sele tham hean, wod under wolcnum to thas the he winreced goldsele gumend gearwost wisse fiettiun feline : ne was that forma sidh that he HrOdhglres him ges6hte. Translation. — Then came from the moor under mist-hills Grendel to-go, God's ire he bare. He meant, the wicked destroyer [scather], of nirn's kin some one to. ensnare in the high hall, raging under wel- kin, seeing that the friend-mansion, the gold-hall of men, he most* readily knew, with jewels bedecked ; nor was that the first [foremost] time that Hrothgar's home he visited [sought]. A.D. 800. From King Alfred's Translation of Boethius. On tharc tide the Gotan of Scidhdhiu-mcegdhe widh Rfimana- rice gewin upfthofon, and mid heora cyningum, Rsdgota and Kallcrlca mron hatne, Romana-bwih abraecon and call Italia- rice, that is betwux tham muntuin and Sicilia tham e&londe, in anwald gerehton ; and thA after tham foresprecenan cyningum 1 hcodrlc feng to tham ilean rice. Translation. — In the time that the Goths from Scythla-country against the Komi an -empire commeiieril u.ir [war upheaved], and with their kings, who Ilhadagast ami Al.iric were called [hight], the Roman* city sacked [broke] and all Italy-realm, that is betwixt the mountains and Sicily the island, into their dominion reduced ; and when alter the • lid [fore-spoken] kings Theodoric obtained [took to] the same kingdom. A.D. MOO. From Ike Latter Part of the Saxon Chronicle. Thissum thus gedone, se cyng Willem cearde ongein to Nor- mandige. Re6wlic thing he dyde and redwltcor him gelamp. Hfl re6wlicor? Him geyfelade, odh that him strangllce eglade. Hwat mag ic teollan ? Se scearpa deadh, the ne forbet ne rice menn ne heine, se hine genam. He swealt on Normandige on thone nehstan dag after nativitas See Marie; and man be- byrgede hine on Cathum at See Stephanes mynstre; aerer he hit araerde, and sidhdhan manifaldlice gegodade. Translation.— This being thus done, the king William returned again to Normandy. A rueful thing he did and a ruefullcr befel him. How ruefullcr? He [literally, to him] grew-ill, till that// strongly ailed him. What may I tell? The sharp death, that does not let-pass neither rich men nor poor, thus took him. He died in Normandy on the next day after the nativity of St. Mary; and men [man] buried him in Caen at St. Stephen's minster ; earlier he up -reared it and af- terward [sithence] manifoldly enriched [conferred-goods-on] it. SEMI-SAXON. A. D. 1150. From Layamon's Brut. — Earlier Text. An preost wes on leoden, Layamon wes ihoten: he wes Leouenadhes sone ; lidhe hein beo drihten ; he wonede at Emleye, at cedhelen are chirechen, uppen Scuarne stathe. Translation.— There was a priest on earth [or in He land] trio was named Layamon ; he was son of Lsovenath — may the Lord be gracious to him !— -he dwelt at Ernley at a noble church upon Severn's bank. A.D. 1260. From Layamon's Brut. — Later Text. A priest was in londe Laweman was [i] hote : he was Leucais sone; lef him beo drihte: he wonede at Ernleie wid than gode cnithe, uppen Scuarne. Translation. — There was a priest in /*/ land who was named Laya- mon ; he was a son of Lcuca— may the Lord be gracious to him :— he dwelt at Krnlcy with the good knight upon the Severn. A.D. 1260. From the Ormulum. Nu, brotherr Wallterr, brotherr min affterr the pheshess kinde ; annd brotherr min i Crisstenndom thurrh fulluhht annd thurrh trowwthe ; annd brotherr min i Godess hus, yet o the thride I thurrh thatt witt hafenn takenn b* an rcyhellboc to follyhenn. unmlerr kanunnkess had annd lif, twa summ Sannt Awwstin sette. TlsmHsslslH tTmr brother Walter, brother mine after the flesh's kindred; and brother mine in Christendom through baptism and Y- •saS.* K THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. IS through truth ; and brother mine in God-s house, yet on the third wise, seeing [through] that we -two have taken both one rule-book to follow, under a canonic's hood and life, so as St. Austin set. OLD ENGLISH. A.D. 1300. From the Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester. Thus com lo ! Engelond into Normannes honde, and the Normans ne couthe speke tho bote her owe speche, and speke French as dude atom, and here chyldren dude al so so that heymen of thys lond, that of her blod come, [teche : lioldeth all theilke speche that hii of hem nome. vor bote a man couthe French, me tolth of hym wel lute. Translation. — Thus came, lo ! England into the Normans' hand, and the Normans knew not how to speak then but their own speech, and spoke French as they did at home, and their children did all so teach, so that the high -men of this land, that of their blood came, hold all the-same [the ilk] speech that they of them took: for unless [but] a man should-know French, men reckon [tell] of him very [well] little. MIDDLE ENGLISH. A.D. 1350. From the Travels of Sir John Mandeville. After for to speke of Jerusalem the holy cytee, yee schull un- derstonde that it stont* full faire betwene hilles, and there be no ryveres ne welles, but water cometh by condyte from Ebron. And yee schulle understonde that Jerusalem of old tyme, unto the tyme of Melchisedech, was cleped f Jebus; and after i*. was clept Salem, unto the tyme of Kyng David, that put these two names to gider, and cleped it Jerosolomye. And after that men cleped it Jerusalem, and so it is clept yit A.D. 1350. From the Vision of Pier's Ploughman. In a somer seson when softe was the sonne, I shoop me into shroudes J as I a sheep \ weere. in habit as a heremite unholy of werkes, wente wide in this world wondres to here. A.D. 1375. From the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. When that Aprille with his schowres swoote || the drought of Marche hath perced to the roote, and bathud evrry veyne in swich licour, of which vertue engendred in the flour. A.D. 1380. From Wycliffe's Translation of the Bible. Forsothe when Jhesus hadde comen doun fro the hill, many cumpanyes folewiden hym. And loo ! a leprouse man cum- mynge worshipide hym, sayinge : Lord yif thou wolt, thou maist make me clene. And Jhesus holdynge forthe the hond, touchide hym, saying: I wole, be thou maad clene. And * Stont, standcth. { Shoop me into shroudts, put me t Cleped, clept, called. into clothes. § Sheep, shepherd. || Swoote, sweet. anoon the lepre of hym was clensid. And Jhesus saith to hym : See, say thou to no man : but go shewe thee to prestis, and offre that yifte that Moyses comaundide, into witnessing to hem. A.D. 1400. From Purvey' s Recension of Wycliffe's Translation. But whanne Jhesus was come doun frc the hil, mych puple suede hym. And loo ! a leprouse man cam and worschipide hym and seide: Lord if thou wolt thou maist make me clene. And Jhesus helde forth the hoond and touchide hym and seide : Y wole: be thou maad cleene. And anoon the lepre of hym was clensid. A.D. 1450. From Caxton's Prologue to Malory's Morte a" Arthur. For it is notoyrly knowen thorugh the unyversal world that there been IX worthy and the best that ever were, that is to wete, thre paynyms, thre jewes, and thre crysten men. As for the paynyms, they were tofore the incarnacyon of Cryst, whiche were named, the fyrst Hector of Troye, of whome thystorye is comen bothe in balade and prose ; the second Alysaunder the grete; and the thyrd Julyus Cezar, emperour of Rome, of whome thystoryes ben wel kno and had. A.D. 1500. From Tyndale's New Testament. When he was come downe from the mountayne, moch pecple folowed him. And lo ! ther came a lepre and worsheped him, sayinge : Master if thou wylt thou canst make me clene. And Jesus put forthe hys hond and touched hym; saying: I wylL be thou clene, and immediately his leprosie was clensed. And Jesus sayde vnto him : Se thou tell nc man, but go and shewe hy selfe to the preste and offer the gyfte that Moses com- maunded, in witness to them. MODERN ENGLISH. A.D. 1550. From a Letter of the Duke of Northumberland. Hon ble Lord, and in this distress my especiall refuge, most wofull was the newes I recey ved this evenynge by M r Lieutenant that I must prepare myselfe against tomorrowe to receyve my deadly stroke. Alas, my good lord, is my cryme so heynous as noe redemcion but my blood can washe awaye the spottes thereof? An old proverb ther is, and that most true, that a lyving dogge is better than a dead lyon. A.D. 1650. From a Letter of Queen Henrietta Maria. This day I received yours of the 21, to which, being streight- ened in tyme, I shall answer in English that it may be soonest put into cypher. In the first place you conclude right, that noth- ing but the abundance of my love could make me take upon me the harsher part of pressing things which are inacceptible to you. '■ ^. \K 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. $t A.D. 1760. From a Letter of John Wesley. Always take advice or reproof as a favour: it is the surest mark of love. I advised you once and you took it as an affront: nevertheless I will do it once more. Scream no more at the peril of your soul. God now warns you by me, whom He has set over you. A.D. 1850. From a iMter of H'm. M. Thackeray. My dear Reed — Though I am rather slow in paying the tailor, I always pay him : and as with tailors so with men ; I pay my debts to my friends, only at rather a long day. Thank you for writing to me so kindly, you have so much to do. I have only begun work ten days since, and now, in consequence, have little leisure. &-&-¥& ENGLISH Cmmnw^^^n\^m\\L V » Q GRAMMAR. English Grammar is the art of speaking, reading and writing the English language cor- rectly. It is divided into four parts : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words and spelling. Etymology treats of the different parts of speech with their classes and modifications. S> lltax treats of the relation, agreement, government and arrangement of words in sentences. Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures and versi- fication. LETTERS. A Letter is an alphabetic mark or character commonly ren- ting some elementary sound of a word. An elementary sound of a word is a simple or pri- mary sound of the human voice usnl In speaking. The sound of a letter is commonly called its power: when any letter of a word is not sounded it is said to be silent or mute. The letters in the English lang-^-ge are twenty-six ; the sim- ple or primary sounds in the language are forty-one. lett«n "re: A a; 11 b; C c; D d; E e; F f; ft g; JIli; Ii;]j; Kk; I.[| Mm; \n; O o; P p; Q q; Rr; Ss : Tt; U u; V v; W w; Xx; Vy; Zi. The letters are divided into two general classes, Towels and consonants. fl » J> A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when ut- tered alone ; as, a, e, o. A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered till joined to a vowel ; as, b, c, d. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w andj'. W or y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, ye, yet. In all other cases these letters are vowels ; as, newly, dewy, eye-trow. Consonants are divided intosemi-vowels and mil ti -. A semi-vowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its sound may be protracted ; as, /, n, t, in al, an, ax. A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops tlu.- breath ; as, I; p, t, in ah, a/, at. The semi-vowels are/, *,/, /, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, ;. and c axukg soft; but w or y at the end of a syllable is a vowel. The mutes are eight : b, d, i, p, q, t. and c and g hard ; three of these — i, f, and e hard — sound exactly alike. The four semi-vowels, /, m, n and r, are also called liquids. 1". UN they readily unite with other consonants, flowing, as it were, into their sounds. The following consonants are styled dentals. \i-.: ,/,/, s, t, t, and g soft, being pronounced chiefly by the aid of the teeth. D,g,j, h, I, n and q are called palatals, from the use made of the palate in pronouncing them. B, p, /, v and m are called labials, being pronounced chiefly by the lips. 4— ^ K~ — s> V ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 M, n and the digraph ng are called nasals, being sounded through the nose. A", q and c and g hard are called gutturals, being sound- ed by the throat. Peculiarities in Sounds of Consonants. B preceded by m in the same syllable is generally silent ; as, lamb, limb, comb; but succumb is an exception. It is silent befo«e / in the same syllable ; as in debt, doubt, etc. The letter C is hard and sounds like k before a, and u; it is soft and sounds like j before e, i and_y; except in sceptic, scir- rhus, and their derivatives, in which it is hard, like k. In the words indict, indictable, indictment, czar and victuals, c is silent. Where c comes after the accent and is followed by ea, ia, to or eous, it takes, like s ox t under the same circumstances, the sound of sh; as, ocean, social, tenacious, cetaceous. In the words discern, sacrifice and suffice, c has the sound of z. The regular sound of the digraph Ch is the same as that of tch or tsh; as in chair, child, rich. In words from the French it has the sound of sh; as in chagrin, chaise. In words derived from the ancient languages ch is generally hard, like k; as, chemistry, choler, echo, chorus, stomach. Exceptions, cherub, charity, chart, charter. Ch is hard in all words where it is fol- lowed by / or r; as, Christian, chlorosis. When arch, signify- ing chief, begins a word from the Greek language, followed by a vowel, it is pronounced ark; as, archangel, architect; but when arch is prefixed to an English word it is pronounced so as to rhyme with march; as, archbishop, archduke. In drachm, schism and yacht, ch is silent. D is silent in Wednesday and handkerchief. G, like c, has two sounds, one hard and the other soft. It is hard before a, and ». The only exception is gaol, which is commonly written as well as pronounced/a//. G followed by « at the beginning of a word is silent ; as, gnarl, gnash, gnat. It is also silent when followed by n at the end of a word ; as, ar- raign, design, impugn. G before e, i and y is sometimes hard and sometimes soft. It is generally soft before words derived from the Greek, Latin and French, and hard before words from the Saxon. Gil. At the beginning of a word the h is silent; as ghost, ghastly. At the end of words both letters are commonly silent ; as, sigh, nigh, weigh. In some words it has the sound of f; as, rough, laugh; and in some the sound of k; as, hough, lough. The combination of letters ougll at the end of words has no less than seven different sounds, which are exhibited in the following lines : 'Tis not an easy task to show How o-ug-h sounds ; since, though An Irish lough and English slough And cough and hiccough, all allow, Differ as much as tough and through, There seems no reason why they do. Gilt. In this termination the letters gh are always silent ; as, fight, right; except in draught, which is pronounced, and in some of its senses usually written, draft. The letter h is a note of aspiration, and it is silent at the be- ginning of a number of words ; as, heir, heiress, honor, honesty, honorable, honor, hour, hostler, etc. In hospital, humble, humor, herb, etc., according to some authorities, it is silent; according to others it is sounded. It is always silent after r; as, rheum, rhetoric, rhapsody. J has the same sound as sohg. K. has the same sound as c hard. It is always silent before n; as, knee, know. It is also silent after c; as, barrack, back. Li is silent in many words ; as, calf, half, talk, balm, calm, would, should, etc. M always preserves its sound except in accompt, accomptant, comptroller, pronounced and more commonly written account, accountant, controller. M is silent when it precedes n ; as, mnemonics. K is mute when it ends a syllable and is preceded by / or m ; as in kiln, hymn, limn, solemn, column. P is silent before n, s and / at the beginning of words ; as, psalm, psalter, ptisan, pneumonia. Ph has generally the sound of f; as, physic, philosophy. In nephew and in Stephen it has the sound of v ; and in diph- thong, triphthong, naphtha, the h is silent. proper diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice. An improper diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. A Triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, eau in beau, tew in view. A proper triphthong is one in which all the vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. An improper diphthong is one in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beauty, iou in anxious. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, ant. In every word there are as many syllables as there are dis- tinct sounds ; as, gram-ma- ri-an. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as, home. A word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; as, he-ro. A word of three syllables, a trisyllable ; as, ke-ro-ic. And a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable; as, im-per-a-tive, dis-con-nect-cd-ly, sex-a-ge-na-ri-an. In dividing words into syllables we are to be directed chiefly by the ear ; it may, however, be proper to observe, as far as practicable, the following rules : Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diph- thongs which they modify in utterance ; as, ap-os-tol-ic-al. Two vowels coming together, if they do not make a diphthong, must be parted in dividing the syllables ; as, a-e-ri-al. Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical words to which they are added ; as, harm-less, great-ly, eon-nect-ed. Prefixes in general form separate syllables ; as, mis-place, out- ride, up-lift; but if their own primitive meaning be disregard- ed, the case may be otherwise ; thus, re-create and rec-reate are words of different import. Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which compose them ; as, no-where. At the end of a line a word may be divided if necessary ; but a syllable must never be broken. ACCENT. Accent is stress of voice laid on a certain syllable when a word is uttered. The syllable that receives the stress is said to be accented. It may be denoted by a mark called the acute ac- cent ('), placed above it to the right; as, lemon, engrave". Accent is of two kinds: primary, as in in-tend", where the full force of the voice is on the last syllable ; and second- ary, as in su'per-in-tend , where the first syllable is distin- guished by a stress greater than that laid on the second and third syllables, though less than that laid on the last. In some words there are two secondary or subordinate accents ; as, in- com 'pre-hen 'si-bit 'i-ty . There are about eighty dissyllables in which the same word is used for a verb on the one hand and a noun or adjective on the other. To distinguish them we accent the nouns and the adjectives on the first syllable, and the verbs on the last; as, a con'vert, to convert" ; a contract, to contract"; an object, to object"; an o'verflow, to overflow'; a perfume, to perfum/, etc. There are a few dissyllables which are at once nouns and ad- jectives. These are distinguished by accenting the nouns on the first syllable and the adjectives on the last. NOUNS. Au'gust, the month. Com'pact, an engagement. Kx'lle, banishment. In'stfnct, an impulse. Minute, of time. Su'pine, in grammar. ADjacrivas. August', noble. Compact', close. Exile', small, slender. Instinct', animated. Minute', very small. Supine', indolent. The word gallant departs from the above rule. When it de- notes a suitor or "attentive to ladies," it is accented gallant", and is changed into gaflant when it means high-spirited or daring. Simple words of two syllables have only one syllable accent- ed, except 'he word amen, which Walker says "is the only word in the language which has necessarily two consecutive accents." WORDS. A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as simple or compound. The former division is called their species ; the latter, their figure. A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great. A derivative word is one that is formed from some sim- pler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly, disconnect, unconnected. A simple word is one that is not compounded, not com- posed of other words; as, watch, man, never, the, less. A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words; as, watchman, nevertheless. Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, bookseller, schoolmaster. Others, which may b« called temporary com- pounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass-house, negro-mer- chant. Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart. When the simple words would only form a regular phrase of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood must be joined together or written separately as the sense and construction may happen to require. VL _M =7? &~ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. When the parts of a compound do not coalesce, as, to-mor- row, to-night, to-day, or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is mova- ble, as, first-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving, the hyphen should be inserted between them. When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronun- ciation, as, watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them. WORD-BUILDING. The primitive words of the English language are few com- pared with the derivatives. This is because many derivatives sometimes come from a single primitive. Thus from the prim- itive part are formed counter/a/-r, depart, impart, party, part- isan, /article, imparted, copartner, etc. A Prefix is a letter or letters placed before a primitive or compound to modify its meaning ; as, de in depart, un in ««- gentlemanly. A Suffix is a letter or letters placed after a primitive or compound to modify its meaning; as, isan in partisan, ly in ungentlemanly. Some derivatives come from roots not separately used as words. Thus avert, revert, convertible, etc., come from the root vert, meaning to turn. These roots are mostly from Latin words, and some of them enter into a great number of derivatives. The most important of these inseparable roots are: cede, ceed, cess, to go. ceive, cept, to take. elude, clus, to shut. cur, curs, to run. diet, to say or speak. duce, duct, to lead. feet, flci, to do, make. fer, to bear, to carry, fuse, to pour. Ject, to cast. late, bear, carry. lect, to choose, gather. lude, lus, to play. mit, miss, to send. pel, puis, to drive. pend, pens, to hang. pone, pose, to place. port, to earn.-. scribe, script, to write, sist, to stand. tain, tent, to hold. tend, tens, to shield. tract, to draw. vene, vent, to come. A derivative may be formed by uniting two or more prefixes or suffixes with a primitive or inseparable root; as, nr-«r-port, to carry-OK l-again ; just-ify-ing, conlinuing-to-make-just; re- col-\ed-ions, more-lhan-one-acf-of-ga,thermg-together-again. A derivative may be formed by uniting a prefix or suffix with a compound ; as, good-humor-^*/. Compounds may be formed by uniting two primitives ; as, moon-beam ; a primitive and derivative, as, bright-eyed ; two de- rivatives, as, brightest-eyed ; an inseparable root and a primi- tive, as, multiform ; two inseparable roots, as, geography. The Prefixes. In the formation of words, the particles which are employed as prefixes generally have some peculiar import, which may be separately explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon ori- gin, and the greater part of these are still employed as separ- ate words in our language. The rest are Latin, Greek and French prepositions. The roots to which they are affixed are not always proper English words. Those which are such are called separable radicals, and those which are not such, inseparable radicals. English or Anglo-Saxon Prefixes. A, as an English prefix, signifies on, in, at or to; as in a-broad, a-shore, a-sleep, a-far, a-field. The French a {to) is probably the same particle ; as in a-dieu. This prerix is some- times redundant ; as in a-wake, a-rise. Be signifies upon, to, by or for; as in bespatter, be-times, be-tide, be-speak. It is sometimes redundant; as in be-gird, be-deck, be-loved. Counter means against or opposite; as in counter-poise, counter-evidence, counter-natural. For, in composition, seems to signify from. It is found in the irregular verbs for-bear, for-bid, for-get,for-give, forsake, forswear ; and in for-do, for-pass, for-pine, for-say, for-thinh, for-waste, which last are now seldom used. Fore, prefixed to verbs, signifies before; as, fore-know, fore-tell; prefixed to nouns it is an adjective and signifies an- terior; as, fore-side, fore-part. Half, signifying one of two equal parts, is much used in composition, and often merely to denote imperfection ; as, half- sighted, seeing imperfectly. Mis signifies wrong ; as, mis-do, mis-place. Out, prefixed to verbs, generally denotes excess ; as, out-do, out-leap; prefixed to nouns it is an adjective and signifies ex- terior ; as, outside, out-parish. Over usually denotes superiority or excess ; as, over-power, over-strain, over-large, over-dose. Self signifies one's own person or belonging to one's own person. It is much used in composition; as, self-love, self- willed, self -accusing. Sometimes self means very; as, self- same. Un denotes negation or contrariety; as, un-kind, un- load. Under denotes inferiority ; as, undervalue, under-cleri. Up denotes motion upwards ; as, up-lift ; sometimes sub- version ; as, up-set. With, as a prefix (unlike the common preposition with), signifies against, from or back; as, withstand, with-hold, with-draw. Latin Prefixes. Not many of the primitives to which these ar^ prefixed are employed separately in English. The final letter of the prefix ad, con, ex, in, ob or sub is often changed before certain con- sonants. A, ab, abs, means from or away ; as, a-vert, to turn from ; ab-duce, to lead from ; abs-tract, to draw away. Ad, ac, af, al, an, ap, as, at, mean to or at; as, ad-vert, to turn to ; ac-cede, to yield to ; af-flux, a flowing-to ; al-ly, to bind to ; an-nex, to link to ; ap-ply, to put to ; assume, to take to ; at-test, to witness to. Ante, before; as, ante-cedent, going before; ante-mun- dane, before the world ; ante-date, to date before. ^ c K" A ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (' i I'C'li ill, around or about ; as, circum-volvc, to roll around. Con, com, CO, COl, Cor, together; as, con-tract, to draw together; corn-pel, to drive together; co-erce, to force to- gether; col-lect, to gather together; cor-rade, to scrape together; eon-Junction, a joining-together. ' Contra, against ; as, contra-diet, to speak against De, of, from or down ; as, de-note, to be a sign of; de-tract, to draw from ; de-pend, to hang down ; de-press, to press down. Dis, di, away ox apart ; as, dis-pel, to drive away; e, of or from; as in de-mure, of manners; de-liver, to ease from or of. Demi, half; as, demi-man, half-man; demi-god, half-god. En, em, in, into or upon; as, en-chain, to hold in chains ; em-brace, to clasp in the arms ; en-tomb, to put into a tomb ; em-boss, to stud upon. Many words have wavered be- tween the French and the Latin orthography of this prefix ; as, embody or imbody, ensurance or insurance, ensnare or insnare, enquire or inquire. Sur, upon, over or after ; as, sur-name, a name upon a name; sur-vey, to loo's over; sur-vive, to live after, to over- live. Suffixes. Able, ible, blC, denote that may or can be, worthy to be, worthy of; as, attainaWe, that may be attained ; \>\*mable, that may be blamed, worthy of blame ; \auc\able, worthy of praise. Ac denotes of, pertaining to; as, cardiac, pertaining to the heart ; elegiac, pertaining to elegy. AceoUS denotes resembling or having the nature ef, consisting of; as, arenaceous, consisting of sand ; (oMaceeus, resembling leaves, consisting of leaves, leafy. Acious denotes very or greatly; accustomed to or greatly addicted to, strongly ; as, audacious, daring much, very daring; capacious, taking or containing much; tenacious, holding strongly or firmly. Acy denotes — nets, state of being, quality or attribute ef office; as, accurals the quality of being accurate, accurateness ; curacy, the office of a curate ; celiba<-_y, the state of being un- married. tv -" 1 v" 1 ~7[ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Age denotes act of, — ing, state or condition of being, allow- ance for ; as, marriage, the act of marrying, the state of being married ; bondag-e, the state of being in bonds ; foliage, a col- lection of leaves ; peerage, the condition or rank of a peer, the peers taken collectively ; wharfa^allowance for use of the wharf. Al denotes of, pertaining to, befitting, done or made by; as, celestia/, of or pertaining to heaven; manual, of the hand, done by hand; maternal, of a mother, befitting a mother. An, can, tail, in nouns, denote one who, one who belongs to, native, inhabitant of; as, artisan, one who practices some art ; Christian, one who belongs to Christ ; European, a native or inhabitant of Europe. Ance, ancy, ency, denote the act of, — ing, state of be- ing, quality or attribute of; as, acceptanee, the act of taking to or of receiving ; assistant?, a standing by, aid ; constancy, a standing together, the state or quality of being constant ; inno- cence, the state or quality of being harmless. Ant, ent, in adjectives, denote —ing; as, militant, fight- ing ; pendent, hanging. Ar denotes in the form of, like, of, pertaining to, having; as, angular, having angles, in the form of an angle ; annular, in the form of a ring. Ar denotes also one who ; as, liar, one who lies. Ard denotes one who has an habitual fault ; as, drunkaro', one who gets drunk habitually ; sluggard, one who is habitually sluggish. Arious denotes pertaining to ; as, gregarious, pertaining to flocks. Ary in nouns denotes one who, the thing that or that which ; as, adversary, one who is against or opposed to ; boundary, that which bounds ; vagary, a thing or thought that wanders, a whim. Ary in adjectives denotes of or pertaining to, by; as, epistolary, pertaining to letters, by letters. Ate denotes office; as, consular, the office of consul; also, one who ; as, legate, one who is sent as ambassador. Ate in adjectives denotes having, — ed or — d; as, for- tunate, having fortune ; illiterate, unlettered. Ate in verbs denotes to make, to give, to put, to take; as, antiquate, to make ancient ; depopulate, to take the people from ; incarcerate, to put into prison. Atic denotes one who ; as, lunatic, one who is afflicted with lunacy. Cle, Cule, Ule, denote little, minute; as, animalcule, a minute animal ; globa/e, a little globe. Dom denotes the place in which dominion or jurisdiction is exercised, rank, quality or state; as dukeaW, the place or territory in which a duke exercises jurisdiction, the rank or quality of a duke ; wisdom, the quality or attitude of being wise. Ee denotes one to whom something is done or given, one who; as, absents, one who is absent; trusts, one to whom a trust is given. Eer, ier, denotes one who manages or has charge of, one who engages in or passes h is time in ; as, charioteer, one who manages or drives a chariot ; mountaineer, one who passes his time or lives in the mountains ; mutineer, one who engages in mutiny. En, n, in adjectives derived from nouns, denote made of, like; as, brazew, made of brass, like brass. En in verbs mostly derived from adjectives denotes to make; as, darken, to make dark. EoiIS denotes consisting of, like, pertaining to, — y; as, igneous, pertaining to fire, consisting of fire, like fire, fiery. Er denotes one who; as, builder, one who builds. Escence denotes state of growing or becoming, period of growing or becoming ; as, convalewence, the state or period of growing entirely strong. Escent denotes growing or becoming, somewhat; as, rub- escent, growing red, somewhat red. EtiC denotes having ; as, pathefiV, having feeling. Ey denotes consisting of; as, claye_y, consisting of clay. FiC denotes making or causing; as, horri/fe, causing hor- ror. Ful denotes full of; as, norteful, full of hope. Fy denotes to make; as, forti//, to make strong. Hood, head, denote state of being, the nature or distin- guishing attitudes of being ; as, childhood, state of being a child ; Godhead, the attitude or nature of God, divinity. lac denotes one who ; as, mani'ae, one who is mad. Ic denotes thing, art, science; as, fabr/e, the thing made, logic, the science of words. IC denotes also one who ; as, critiV, one who judges. Ic, ical, denote of, pertaining to, like; as, angelte, oran- gelical, of or pertaining to an angel, like an angel ; heroi'e, or heroical, like a hero. Ice denotes quality or attitude of being ; as, avarz'ee, the quality of being avaricious; justice, the quality of being just Ician denotes one versed or skilled in ; as, arithmetician, one versed in arithmetic ; musician, one versed or skilled in music. ICle denotes little ; as, parti'e/e, a little part. ICS denotes the science or art of; as, tactics, the science or art of military arrangement ; economies, the science of house- hold affairs. Id denotes — ing ; as, fervid, burning, glowing. He denotes of , pertaining to, like, that may or can be easily ; as, docile, that may be easily taught ; juvenite, of or pertaining to youth. I lie denotes one who ; as, marine, one who serves at sea ; also, of or pertaining to, like ; as, canine, pertaining to dogs, like dogs ; crystalline, of crystal, like crystal ; divine, pertaining to God, like a god. Ion denotes the act of, state of being ; as, probation, a try- ing or proving ; salvation, the act of saving, the state of being safe or saved. Is denotes act of, state of; as, synthesis, act of putting to- gether ; crisiV, state or point of judging. Ish in adjectives denotes somewhat, of or belonging to, like; as black/in, somewhat black ; Spanish, of or belonging to Spain ; childijn, like a child. Ish in verbs denotes to make ; as, finish, to make an end of. Ism denotes state or quality of being, an idiom, doctrine or doctrines of; as, barbarian, the state of being barbarous ; Gallicism, a French idiom ; Calvinum, the doctrines of Calvin. 1st denotes one who, generally one who is engaged in some pursuit or study ; as, artist, one who practices an art ¥L 7* 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ite denotes a descendant of, a follower of, a sectarian or party leader; as, Amalek»7e, a descendant of Amalek; Hussi'/e, a follower of John Huss. It* also denotes having ; as, definite, having bounds; op- posite, having opposition. '*Fj ^y> denote state or quality of being; as, amity, the state of being friends, friendliness, friendship ; antiqui'/y, ancientness, ancient times. Ive in nouns denotes one who, that which ; as, captive, one who is taken ; motive, that which moves or actuates. Ive in adjectives denotes having the power, disposed or having the disposition ; as, adhesive, having the power of stick- ing to, having a tendency to adhere. Ize, or ise, denotes to mate, to give, to act or do Hie; as, fertilize, to make fertile ; authorize, to give authority ; criticise, to act the judge or critic Kin denotes little; as, lamblin, a little lamb. Less denotes free from, without; as, careless, free from care, without care. Lot, et, denote little, young ; as, cygnet, a young swan; eyelet (literally, a little eye), the hole or eye of a needle; mail*/, a little mall. Like denotes resembling ; as, childlike, resembling a child; Godlike, like or resembling God. Ling denotes little, young ; as, found/i'»,f, a little child found without parent or owner ; gosling, a little or very .young goijse. L.y in adjectives denotes like ; as, beastly, like a beast Ly in adverbs denotes in a manner or way; as, joyfully, in a joyful manner. Ment denotes the act of, state of being, that which ; as, accomplishment, the act of accomplishing, the state of being accomplished ; payment, the act of paying, that which is paid. Mony denotes state of being, quality of being, that which; as, acrimony, the quality of being sharp or acrid; mat- rimony, the state of being a mother or wife, marriage ; patri- mony, that which is inherited from a father. Oid, or oidal, denotes having the form or appearance of, resembling ; as, ovoid, or ovoidal, having the form of an egg ; varioloid, a disease resembling small-pox. Ness denotes state of being, quality or attribute of being; as, baldness, the state of being bald ; holiness, the quality or attribute of being bold. Or denotes one who; also, the act of, sensation or emotion, that which causes or brings sensation ; as, auditor, one who hears, a hearer; color, a peculiar sensation in the eye, that which causes the sensation of color ; favor, the act of favoring, that which causes or brings favor ; splendor, brightness. Ory in nouns denotes the place or thing where; as, armory, the place where arms are kept. Ory in adjectives denotes giving, making or causing, per- taining to; as, adulatory, giving flattery, flattering; amatory, pertaining to love or lovers, causing love. Ose denotes full of; as, jocose, full of jokes. Ous denotes full of, consisting of; as, cartilaginous, con- sisting of cartilage, like cartilage ; timorous, fearful, fearing. Ry denotes state or qualify of being, the art or practice of, the place where, things of a certain kind or class taken collect- ively ; as, gallantry, the quality or attribute of being gallant, gallantness, nobleness, bravery; slavery, the state of a slave; brewery, the place where beer is brewed ; cutlery, knives and other cutting instruments taken collectively ; also, the art or business of a cutler. Ship denotes office of, state or relation of; as, cltrVship, the office of clerk ; friendship, the state or relation of a friend. Some denotes full of, making or causing ; as, blithesome, full of gayety, causing gayety or blitheness ; wearisome, making weary. Ster denotes one that; as, songster, one that sings songs. T denotes a thing done; as, gif/, a thing given; droit, a drawing; join/, a joining. Th denotes the act of, state of being, that which; as, breadM, broadness ; grow/A, growing or the act of growing, that which is growing, increase ; weal/A, the state of being well off or rich, that which makes rich. Tilde, or ude, denotes — ness; as, altitude, highness, height ; solicitude, anxiousness, anxiety. I lent, olent or lent denotes full of ; as, fraudulent, full of fraud, deceitful, dishonest ; pesti/eu/, full of plague or pestilence, corrupt, troublesome ; \iolent, full of force or vio- lence. lire denotes the act of, state of being, that which ; as, creat- ure, that which is created ; curvature, a bending ; rapture, the state of being carried away (with joy); seizure, the act of seiz- ing. Ward denotes towards ; as, homeward, towards home. Y in nouns denotes the state or quality of being; as, anarchy, the state of being without government ; lithography, engraving on stone. If in adjectives formed by adding this suffix to nouns denotes full of, consisting of, like ; as, rocky, full of rocks, like a rock ; sandy, full of sand, consisting of sand, like sand. i3-? SPELLING. iS-% Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. Before the invention of the art of printing lit- tle attention was paid to the mode of spelling words either in Anglo-Saxon or the English language, and, the orthography of most of the words being wholly unsettled, every writer, hav- ing no guide but his own ear, was at liberty to follow his own fancy or judgment. In the writ- ings of the Anglo-Saxons and the early English authors almost all the words are spelled in more than one way, and for a long time subsequent to the invention of the art of printing the spelling of the English language remained in a very un- 3 'pHog, etc. Change tongue for lung. When the preced- ing vowel is long, as in prorogue, vogue, rogue, retain final let- ters as at present. 2. Drop final e in such words as definite, indefinite, favorite, whore the preceding vowel is short. Thus spell opposit, hypo- crit, preterit. When the preceding vowel is long, as m polite, finite, unite, write, etc., retain present form unchanged. 3. Drop final te in words like quartette, coquette, cigarette. Thus spell roset, epaulet, gazet, vedet. 4. Drop the final me in words like programme. Thus spell program, orifiam, gram, etc 5. Change pit for/ in works like phantom, telegraph, phase, Thus spell alfabet, paragraf,filosofy,fonetic,fotograf, etc P.S. No change in proper names. The newspapers, however, have not continued to follow these rules, and in most cases have lapsed into the accustomed form of spelling, and the present outlook is not very nattering for the universal introduction of phonetic or reformed spelling. A' FORMS OF LETTERS. Different sorts of types or styles of letters are employed in the English language. Generally 'he Roman characters are used ; sometimes the Italic, and occasionally the Old English. In writing we use the Script- Roman. Italic. 1» CnrjttBl,, > PUNCTUATION. /&- -5-3 ^^-9- "~>* Punctuation is the art of dividing compo- sition by points or stops for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words, and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading. Although a knowledge of Punctuation is necessary to the clear expression of thought in writing, there are comparatively few who have mastered it, even among educated people. That it is important may be illustrated by the following sentence : The company consisted of Mr. Jones a lawyer his brother a soldier Mr. Black a New Yorker his sister and a boy. Without punctuation it is impossible to say how many were in the company, or what their relationship was. If commas are inserted it will appear that the company comprised eight people : The company consisted of Mr. Jones, a lawyer, his brother, a sol- dier, Mr. Black, a New Yorker, his sister and a boy. By inserting semicolons in the place of some of the commas the number of the company is reduced to five, as follows : The company consisted of Mr. Jones, a lawyer ; his brother, a soldier; Mr. IUack, a New Yorker; his sister and a boy. By otherwise punctuating it various changes would be made. As an illustration of the ludicrous errors which might occur from incorrect punctuation the following will serve : Woman, without her man, would be a savage. The proper sense and punctuation is : Woman — without her j man would be a savage. Such instances could be multiplied indefinitely. Usage, which is really the foundation for all rules of punc- tuation as well as of grammar, authorizes the three following methods of punctuating the same sentence. In the present work the method indicated in the first sentence has been followed : Rank, fame and honor are often undeserved. Rank, fame, and honor are often undeserved. Rank, fame, and honor, are often undeserved. Punctuation Points. The Punctuation Points are as follows : Period Paragraph V Colon Semicolon Comma * Brace Acute Accent 1 Interrogation Kxclamation Dash Point Point t Grave Accent Circumflex Accent Tilde, or Circumflex A Parep*-V-^S. Brackets () [] The Long, or Macron The Short, or Breve - Hyphen Quotation Marks Apostrophe Kllipsis J * * * * Diaeresis Cedilla Asterisk Dagger, or Obelisk Double Dagger 9 * t t Caret A Section 5 Index *2- Parallel ii Rules for Punctuation. The Period must be placed after every declarative and imperative sentence and every abbreviated word. Examples. — Obey your parents. Virtue is the only nobility. We write Jas. for James, N. Y. for New York, No. for number, George I. for George the First. A period after an abbreviation does not take the place of other points. Punctuate just as if the word were not abbrevi- ated. But at the end of a sentence closing with an abbreviation only one period must be used. Example.— "Goto the P. O., I tell you, and ask for a letter for H. Rob, Jr., M. D." A nickname which is not really an abbreviation is not followed by a period. Examples. — Dave Bidwell ; Sam Slick. The Interrogation Point must be placed after every interrogative sentence, member and clause ; also after the interjections eh and hey implying a question. Example. — Has the air weight? Air has weight; do you not believe it? You thought it would rain, eh? The Exclamation Point should be placed after every exclamatory sentence, member, clause and expression. Examples. — How disgusting is vice ! Life is short ; how careful we should be to use it aright ! For shame ! An exclamation point must also be placed after every inter- =^ 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. A, jection except 0, eh and hey, unless very closely connected with other words. Example. — Ah ! who could have foreseen it? Pshaw ! you are trifling. The Colon must be placed between the great divisions of sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by semicoions. Example. — Man has effected wonders ; he is every day advancing in knowledge and power: yet, surpassed by nature in even her hum- blest efforts, he can not so much as make a blade of grass. A colon must also be placed before a formal enumeration of particulars, or a direct quotation, referred to by the words thus, following, as follows, this, these, etc. Example, — There is much justice in this warning of Lavater: "Be- ware of him who hates the laugh of a child." A formal enumeration is one in which the fiords first, second- ly, etc., or similar terms, are introduced. These words are set off with the comma, the particulars are separated by the semi- colon, and before the whole enumeration a colon must be placed. Example. — There were fourgreat empires in ancient times: first, the Assyrian; second, the Persian; third, the Macedonian; fourth, the Roman. The Semicolon must be placed between the members of compound sentences, unless the connection is exceedingly close. Example. — The wheel of fortune is ever turning; who can say, "I shall be uppermost to-morrow"? If the members are very short and the connection is close, the comma may be used instead of the semicolon. Example. — Man proposes, but God disposes. A semicolon must be placed between the great divisions of sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by commas. Examples. — Plato called beauty a privilege of nature; Theocritus, a delightful prejudice. A semicolon should be placed before as when it introduces an example. Example. — An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun; as, a ■white hat. The Comma, Adjuncts and clauses, not essential to (he meaning of a sentence or modifying the whole proposition, are set off with a comma on each side when introduced between a subject and its verb, or other parts that are closely connected. At the commencement or end of a sentence, such adjuncts and clauses are set off with a comma after or before them, as the case may be. Example. — The bones of birds, in a word, combine strength with lightness in a remarkable degree. Blankets, which derived their name from Thomas Blanquct, were Introduced into England in 1340. By the way, gunpowder was first known to the Chinese. No man can be an atheist, if he will only examine his own structure. Subjects introduced by as well as, and not, etc., fall under this rule. Example.— Toledo, as well as Damascus, was noted for its sword blades. Single words relating to a whole proposition, and all vocative expressions, are also set off with the comma. Examples.— Galileo, accordingly, was imprisoned. Smile, O For- tune, smile on our attempt. No comma must be placed between restrictive adjuncts or clauses and that which they restrict. Examples.— All must pay the debt of nature. All lk.it glitters Is not gold. Tht man w/10 plants the f eld should reap the harvest. A noun in apposition, modified by an adjunct or adjective, is generally, with its modifiers, set off by the comma. Example.— Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, was defeated by Octavius. A comma should be placed between short member* of com- pound sentences, connected by and, but, or, nor, because, whereas and other conjunctions. Example. — Beauty dazzles, but amiability charms. A comma must also be placed before a conjunction connect- ing the parts of a compound predicate, unless they are very short and so closely connected that no point is admissible. Example.— The sun shines on all, even the wicked and ungrateful. A comma must be placed before or introducing an equiva- lent, or a clause defining the writer's meaning. Example. — Spelter, or zinc, comes chiefly from Germany. A comma is required by some authorities on the subject of Punctuation before and, or and nor preceding the last of a series of clauses, or words that are the same part of speech and in the same construction. Example.— Sunshine, cloud, and storm, all are sent for some wise purpose. When, to avoid repetition, and, or, nor, or a verb previously used, is omitted, a comma takes its place. Examples. — Tin is found in England, Bohemia, Saxony, Malacca and Banca. [Instead of saying England and Bohemia and Saxony and Malacca, to avoid repetition we omit and, and a comma takes its place.] Methusaleh was the oldest man ; Samson, the strongest. \Was is omitted after Samson, and a comma takes its place.] Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair. Example.— Joy and sorrow, cloud and sunshine, are alike sent for our benefit. Words repeated for the sake of their emphasis must be set off with their adjuncts, if they have any, by the comma. Example.— Truth, truth, and nothing but the truth, will satisfy the candid enquirer. A good general rule for the use of commas, as, in fact of other marks for punctuation, is : Use them when the meaning is thereby made clearer. The Dash is used to denote : 1. A break in the construction. Example.— Glory— what is it ? 2. A transition in the sentiment from grave to humorous. Example. — London is noted for its magnificent buildings, its exten- sive shipping, and— its dexterous pick-pockets. 3. A sudden interruption. Example.—" You know my feelings ; you know—" " Hold ! " inter- rupted my friend. 4. Hesitation. Example.— Such a man is a— a— I know not what to call him. 5. An abrupt or exclamatory repetition. Example. — Such was the testimony of Solomon — Solomon who had all the pleasures of the world at his command. A dash is sometimes used to denote the omission of letters, figures or words. Example.— In the year iS— , I stopped over night at the village of G . A dash after other points makes them indicate a greater de- gree of separation than they generally denote. Parentheses. Marks of Parentheses are used to enclose words which explain, modify or add to the main proposition, when so introduced as to break the connection between de- pendent parts and interfere with the harmonious flow. Example.— The Saxons (for they descended from the ancient Sac*) retained for centuries the energy and morality of their ancestors! ■*£ Al ^ ps" T 7 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2 7 If no point would be required between the parts of a sentence in case there were no parenthesis, then no points should be used at that place in addition to the marks of parenthesis. Example. — He (the aforesaid defendant) was ignorant of this matter. If a point would be required between the parts of a sentence, in case no parenthesis were there, then, when the parenthesis is inserted, said point sho.:ld be also inserted, and should be placed after the second mark of parenthesis. Example. — Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the proud man himself), is the most ordinary spring of action. When a complete sentence or complete sentences are enclos- ed in marks of parenthesis, they should be punctuated the same as if not thus enclosed, and the last point of punctuation should come before the last mark of parenthesis. Brackets. Brackets are used principally in quoted pas- sages, to enclose words improperly omitted or added by way of correction, observation or explanation. Example. — She is weary with [of] life. In regard to the use of points before and after the brackets, and the punctuation of any sentence or clause within the brack- ets, the same rules apply that have been given in regard to the marks of parenthesis. The Apostrophe denotes the omission of a letter or letters, and the possessive case of nouns. Examples. — 'Tis for /'/ is; e'en for even; don't for do not; o'clock for on [the] clock. So in the possessive: hero's, Charles', men's, heroes', children's. Pronouns never take the apostrophe in the possessive case. The Hyphen is used to connect the elements of a com- pound word, when each retains its own accent. Example. — Castle-builder, father-in-law. The hyphen is also used after a complete syllable at the end of a line, to connect the parts of a divided word ; also to de- note that the final vowel of a prefix does not form a diphthong with the first vowel of a primitive ; but in this latter case a mark of diaeresis is more appropriate. Example.— Pre-engagement, re-establish [preengagement, reestab- lish.] Quotation Points are used to enclose words quoted from an author or speaker, or represented in narrative as em- ployed in dialogue. Example. — "Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth." When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words, quotation points are unnecessary. Matter within quotation points is to be punctuated just as if it stood in any other position. When quotation points are needed at the end of a sentence, they come after whatever other point is required there if this point applies to the quotation alone, but before this point if it applies to the whole sentence and not exclusively to the quo- tation. Example.— Pilate asked, "What is truth?" Where now is the "man of destiny"? When a quotation encloses within it another quotation, the external quotation has the double marks, and the one included has only the single marks. Example— It has been well said, "The command, 'Thou shall not kill,' forbids many crimes besides that of murder." If the enclosed or secondary quotation ends a sentence, three apostrophes will there come together, of which the first will be- long to the enclosed quotation, and the other two to the orig- inal. When an enclosed quotation itself contains words or phrases that are quoted, those words or phrases have the double marks. Example. — "French says.'What a lesson the word "diligence" con- tains!'" When the sentence becomes more involved than this, the ad- ditional marks of quotation would create confusion, and may therefore be omitted. In some publications the order of single and double quota- tions is inverted, single quotation marks being used where cus- tom demands double marks, and quotations within quotations being indicated by double marks. The Pauses. The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech have in reality no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often told to pause at a comma while they count one; at a semi- colon, one, two; at a colon, one, two, three; at a period, one, two, three, four. This may be of some use, as teaching them to observe these stops that they may catch the sense; but the standard itself is variable, and so are the times which good sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is im- measurable. The following general directions are as good as any that can be given : The comma denotes the shortest pause; the semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause double that of the semi-colon ; and the period, or full-stop, a pause double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other marks vary according to the structure of the sentence and their place in it. Other Marks. The Ellipsis, or Suppression, denotes the omission of some letters or words. Examples.— ¥L — g, for king ; G * * * * m, for Graham ; A .... s, for Adams; H — m — hr — y, for Humphrey. The Caret, used only in writing, shows where to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted, would Example. — James said he a be home to-night. The Index, or Hand [J®*], points out something re- markable, or what the reader should particularly observe. The Brace [. — ' — ,] serves to unite a triplet, or to connect several terms to something to which they are all related. Examples. — 1 Nominative. f W. Brown. C Hob]™' Committee £&. I M. Mills. The Section [J] marks the smaller divisions of a book or chapter, and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge ref- erences. The Paragraph [1f] denotes the commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which are called paragraphs are in general sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line and carrying the first word a little backwards. iLeaderS [ ] are used in contents and indexes of books and similar matter to lead the eye to the end of the line for the completion of the sense. Example. — Wharfage, 55°- / V 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Vr The Asterisk, or Star [*], the Obelisk, or Dagger [f], the Diesis, or Double Dagger [J], and the Par- allels [||], refer to marginal notes or explanations at the bot- tom of the page. They are marks of reference. The Asterism, or Three Stars [*»*], a sign not very often used, is placed before a long or general note to mark t as a note without giving it a particular reference. Accent Marks. The accent marks are used to denote the proper pronunciation of words. They are: The Acute [ '], which marks the syllable which requires (he principal stress in pronunciation ; or to denote a rising inflection of the voice, or a close or short vowel. The Grave [ v ] is used in opposition to the acute to distin- guish an open or long vowel, or to denote the falling inflection of the voice. The Circumflex ["] generally denotes a broad sound or a combination of the acute and grave. The Breve ["] is used to denote either a close vowel or a syllable of short quantity. The Macron [-] is used to denote either an open vowel • or a syllable of long quantity. The Diaeresis ["] is placed over the latter of two vowels to show they are to be pronounced in separate syllables ; as, aerial. In German this character is called the Cnilaut, and denotes a modification of the sound of a vowel over which it is placed, peculiar to the Germanic languages. The Cedilla [,] is placed under the letter c to give it the sound of s before a or o ; as in the words fecade, Alencon. The Tilde [ "] is placed over the letter « in Spanish words to give it the sound of ny ; as, sefior, miiion. Emphasis. Emphasis, or prominence to certain words or sentences, should be designated by the writer by underscoring the words or phrases to be emphasized. One line indicates italics ; two lines, small capitals; three lines, large capitals; four lines, italic capitals. Example.— Strike! strike 1 strike I strike! strike! for freedom! This would appear in print thus : Strike! strike! strike! STRIKE! STRIKE! for freedom! -*- ETYMOLOGY. .ouu is tne name of a quality or property; &B,obstinacy, benevolence. A Participial Noun is the name of an action or state, ending in ing ; as, Seeing is believing. A Diminutive Noun is the name of something of its kind, derived from a primitive by the addition of a suffix. Diminutives are formed with the suffixes kin, let, ling, ock, ule, cule, cle, icte, et or aster, meaning a little. Streamlet, a little stream; gosling, a young goose; animalcule, a little animal, are diminutives. In the gender of some nouns the feminine is formed by ap- pending the suffix ess, ine, iua, ix or a to the masculine ; as, abbot, abbess; hero, heroine; czar, czarina: testator, testatrix; sultan, sultana. Plural of Nouns. The Plural of most nouns is formed by adding i to the singular; as, hat, hats; number, numbers. Nouns ending in s, sh, x, z, and ch soft, form their plural by adding es; as, dish, dishes; gas, gases; waltz, waltzes; tax, taxes; church, churches. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the / into ies; as, fly, flies; obloquy, obloquies. Nouns ending in i, o or u, preceded by a consonant, take tt m the plural ; as, alkali, alkalies ; cargo, cargoes ; gnu, gnues. Exceptions, canto, duodecimo, grotto, junto, lasso, major- domo, memento, octavo, portico, quarto, sorocco, solo and typo, which form the plural by adding s. The following nouns ending in / and fe form the plural by changing/ - or/* \s\\aves: Beef, leaf, sheaf, thief, loaf, calf, half, elf, self, shelf, wolf, life, knife, wife; thus, beeves, leaves, wives, etc Wharf makes both wharfs and wharves. Staff, a cane, makes staffs and staves. Some nouns are irregular in the plural; as, child, children; tooth, teeth ; mousv, mice. The following nouns have both a regular and an irregular plural, with different meanings: Brother, brothers (of a family) ; brethren (01 a society). Die, dies (stamps for coining); dice (cubes for gaming). Genius, geniuses (men of genius) ; genii (spirits). Index, indexes (tables of contents) ; indices (algebraic exponents) Pea, peas (distinct grains) ; pease (taken in bulk). Penny, pennies (distinct coins) ; pence (an amountot money). Compound nouns, to form their plural, generally vary their principal element; as, step-son, step-sons; sister-in-law, sisters- in-law; cousin-german coustns-german ; knight-errant, knights-errant. The following compounds vary both elements ; Man-child, men-children ; man-servant, men-servants ; man- singer, 1'ien-singers ; woman-servant, women-servants ; woman- singer, women-singers; knight-templar, knights-templars; knighl-daronet, knights-baronets; knight-hospitaller, knights- hospitallers. Rules for the Plural of Foreign Nouns. In forming foreign plurals the following rales apply: The ter- mination A becomes jE, sometimes Ata : larva, larva ; miasma, miasmata. Is becomes Es, sometimes Ides : asis, axes; apsis, ap- sides. Us becomes I : magus, magi; but, genus, genera. Uin and On become A: datum, data; phenomenon, phenomena. Ex and Ix become Ices . vortex, vortices; helix, helices. O becomes 1 : virtuoso, virtuosi. Errors in Speech. It is not the purpose of this work to go into all the mmutise ar.d details of grammatical rules, but the following rules and examples will show the reader how to avoid the common and most glaring errors in the use of language. These rules come under four divisions : the improper arrangement of words ; improper words or expressions ; too few words, and too many I words. A careful scrutiny of the examples quoted below will be | of great benefit to the reader. These rules belong mainly to that division of Grammar term- I ed Syntax, which means putting together, and which is that part of Grammar which treats of the relations and arrangements of words put together. The rules that bear on these relations are called the Rules of Syntax. Violations of these rules are called False Syntax. AVOiD THESE ERRORS: I. Do not say, "They said they could run faster than me;" bat, "They said they could run faster than I." Me must be changed to 1, because it is the subject of the verb could run understood. a. Do not say, " Oh, blissful hour, and thrice blessed us that see ft;" but, "Oh, blissful hour, and thrice blessed we that see it." Us must be changed to -we, the nominative case, because it is used inde- pendently. 3. When there are several modifying substantives, they are all in the possessive case. If they separately modiiy different nouns, each has the sign of the possessive. If they jointly modify the same noun, the possessive sign is annexed only to the last. If John, George and Henry have different fathers, I say: "John's, George's and Henry's fathers have arrived;" that is, John's father, George's father and Henry's father. If they are brothers, I say. "John, George and Henry's father has arrived." John and George are in the possessive case; but as all these substantives jointly modify the same noun, father expressed, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only. 4. A succession of possessives is inelegant. Do not say, "Our minister's son's partner's brother-in-law's store;" but, "The store belonging to the brother- in -law of the partner of our minister's son." 5. The possessive case and of witn the objective are not always equivalent. Thus, " Tin Lord's day is Sunday; but the day of the Lord is the day of judgment.'* We may speak of the flower of the field, but not of the field's flower. / -tTV 3° ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ; 6. Be careful not to use too many words. Do not say, " Consider of my offer; " but, " Consider my offer." Also, not " He will soon re- pent him of his crime ; " but, " He will soon repent of his crime." 7. Do not use too few words. Do not say: " Beware the tempter; " but, " Beware of the tempter." 8. Avoid making the same word the object of a verb and preposi- tion, or of two prepositions, separated by intervening words. " They not only themselves vigorously prosecuted, but called on their allies to aid them in, the war." Correct thus : " They not only themselves prosecuted the war, but called on their allies for aid." 9. Some verbs arc frequently followed by two objectives. "We promised the best speaker a prize." " Will you buy me a telescope." If the objects are transposed a preposition is inserted. " Will you buy a telescope/or me." " We promised a prize to the best speaker." 10. When such constructions arc thrown into the passive form, the object of the verb, and not that of the Deposition, must Be made the subject; as, "A prize was promised to the best speaker." Not, " The best speaker was promised a prize." u. To is omitted before home, north, south, etc., when not modified by other words, but expressed when they are modified ; as, " He went home, north, south." But, " He went to his home, to the north, to the south." 11. Be careful In the use of -who and whom. Do not say, " Who should I trust? " but, " Whom should I trust?" 13. Do not say, "It was me;" but, "It was I." After the verb to be the pronoun must be in the nominative. Thus again: "Did you suppose it was I ? " not, " Did you suppose it was me." " It is he ; " not, " It is him." 14. Be careful to use the correct number and person of the pronoun. Do not say, "One cannot collect their thoughts;" but, "One can- not collect his thoughts." Say: " I have lost the scissors ; have you seen them? " Not, " have you seen it ?" 15. After a superlative use that instead of who; as, " Hannibal was the deadliest enemy that Rome ever had." 16. Never use which to apply to persons except as an interrogative. Thus, "The man whom I met;" not, "The man which I met." 17. Do not use the pronoun them for the adjective those. "You might have saved those trees;" not, "You might have saved them trees." iS. Say, this sort of men; not, these sort, because sort is singular. These tidings; not, this tidings. 19. This here and these 'ere, that there and those 'ere are gross errors, Correct by omitting the adverbs. This boy; not, this here boy. 20. Say, "By this means;" not, " By these means." Means is singular. ii. Adjectives whose meaning precludes the idea of comparison must not be compared. Do not say, the chief est beauty, a truer state- ment, so faultless a character, the fartherest house, a more nearer view, the least surest course. Correct thus : the chief beauty, a more correct statement, a character so nearly faultless, the farthest house, a nearer view, the least wise course. it. After the comparative degree, use other with the latter of the terms compared if it includes the former, and only then. " The Ama- zon is longer than any river." Correct: " The Amazon is longer than any other river." Otherwise we assert, the Amazon being a river, that it is longer than itself. 33. An adjective In the comparative or superlative must precede an adjective modified by more or most relating to the same noun. Do not say: "A more interesting and larger volume;" but, "A larger and more interesting volume." 34. lie sure that the verb agrees with the right word. When it is sep- aratcd from its subject by an intervening substantive, there is a ten- dency to make it agree with the latter. "A succession of excite- merits are sure to distract the mind from study." Wrong, because succession Is the subject, and not excitements, which is the object of the preposition of. "A succession of excitements is," etc., is correct. So, " Your vessel, together with twelve others, have arrived." It .Oi.'uUI be, " Your vessel, together with twelve others, has," etc. So, "This confusion of ideas in educated minds is [not are] to be deplored."' YL 25. Do not use, " Says I ; ■ but, " Say I." 26. Do not say has went for has gone; havingwrote for having writ- ten; I seen for /saw; I done for / did. 27. Avoid corrupt forms. Among the most common of these are had have for had; hadn't ought for ought not; Tm a mind for / have a mind; arn't for are not; moughtn't for might not, etc. aS. The preposition for must not be used immediately before an in- finitive. Do not say : N He is trying hard /or to enter college ; " but, ■ He is trying hard to enter college." 29. The preposition of should not be introduced between a partici- ple and its object. Do not say, "by erecting of statues;" but, "by erecting statues." Not, " for controlling of elections;" but, control- ling elections." It is sometimes proper, however, to use of when the participle is preceded by the. 30. Do not use how, as how, or how that, for the conjunction that. "She said as how she would come." "Have a care how you listen to the tempter." Correct thus: "She said that she would come." " Have a care that you do not listen to the tempter." 31. Do not use two negatives. Do not say : " I did not do nothing; " but, "I did not do anything;'* or, "I did nothing." Not, "It makes no difference to you nor me;" but, " It makes no difference to you or mi:." 32. Care must be taken to place only and not only next to the word or words they are Intended to modify. Otherwise they give a wrong impression of the meaning. If I say, " He only hires the store," only modifies hire, and the impression conveyed is that another verb will follow. He only hires the store, he docs not own it. If I say: " He hires only the store," only modifies store, and the meaning is, he hires the store, but nothing else — not the rest of the house. 33. Do not use an adjective for an adverb. Donotsay: "He writes elegant;" but, "He writes elegantly." 34. After certain verbs by is used before a word denoting an agent or living object, with before a word denoting an instrument or inani- mate object. We say, accompanied by his friends, accompanied with illustrations; attended by a servant, attended with evil consequences; illustrated by an artist, illustrated with engravings; killed by an as- sassin, killed with a dagger. Followed takes by only. 35. Do not use if for whether— or but, but that or test for that— after the verbs doubt, fear, deny, or their equivalents. "Do you know if [correct to whether} a train will start this evening." " Pope was ap- prehensive lest [say that] his meaning might be mistaken." "Nobody can deny but that [say that] experience is the best teacher." 36. Ite cartful to use nor, not or, as the correlative of neither. "Neither youth nor [not or] innocence availed as a protection." 37. Re careful to use so. t ..as t not as.,,.as t after a negative denying equality of degree. " Few cities were so [not as] magnificent as Bab- ylon." 38. Do not add a pronoun to Its antecedent when the antecedent alone would express its meaning. Do not say, " J ames he said ; " but, "James said." 39. Avoid double comparatives and superlatives. "The most hap- f>ii-st day of my life." Correct: "The happiest day." 40. Avoid tautology or the recurrence of the same word or expres- sion. " The man that I met that was lame." Say: " The man that I met who was lame. 41. Avoid the use of improper words. Do not say: "He is laying down;" but, " He is lying down." Not: "We **•/ up;" hut, "We Ml up." Not: "Learn me;" but, " Tear h me." Not: "I k mowed It;" but, " I inewit." Not: "The coat sets well ; " hut, " The coat .v;/.«wtl]." Nut: "Them that expect nothing;" but, " They that expect nothing." 42. Do not say, " The Volga is the longest of any river In Europe." Omit of any and correct: "The Volga is the longest river In Europe." 43. Apply who to persons, which to things, and that to both. 44. Do not say: "Which did you naymri the largest lake In the world ? " Say is. Present facts and unchangeable truths must be ex- pressed in the present tense. -fr. K" ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 45. Avoid all improper modes of expressing- comparison or the plural of nouns. Do not say: beaut ij 'idlest ; but, most beautiful. Not " I saw three deers ; " but, " I saw three deer." 46. Avoid clumsy use of participles. **Afy being sick was the cause of my being absent ." Correct thus: "My sickness was the cause of my absence." 47. Do not needlessly use the passive form in verbs. " He is come ; M say, " He lias come." 48. Do not use needless compound participles. " The theatres are now being open on Sundays;" say, M The theatres are now open Sun- days." 49. An adverb should not'be used where a preposition and a relative pronoun would better express the relation of the terms. "A cause where [say in which] justice is so much concerned." 50. When verbs are connected by a conjunction they must either agree in mood, tense and form, or have separate nominatives expressed. "They would neither g-o in themselves, nor suffered [say, would suf- fer] others to enter." "If he understands his business, and attend [say attends] to it, wherein is he deficient? " FIGURES. A Figure in Grammar is an intentional deviation from the ordinary spelling, formation, construction or application of words. There are, accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of Etymology, figures of Syntax and figures of Rhetoric. When figures are judiciously employed, they both strengthen and adorn expression. They occur more frequently in poetry than in prose, and several of them are merely poetic licenses. Figures of Orthography. A Figure of Orthography is an intentional devia- tion from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. The principal figures of Orthography are two, namely : Mimesis, or Mimicry, a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a false spelling or the taking of one word for an- other. Example— "Ay, he was pom at Monmouth, Captain Gower." — Shakspere. "Jfaisler, says he, have you any wery good weal in your valletT" — Columbian Orator. This figure includes all imitations of brogues and dialects. Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthography. Examples. — " Unpleasing sight, I -ween." " Bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue." Figures of Etymology. A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation from the ordinary formation of a word. The principal figures of Etymology are eight Aphaeresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'neath, for against, began, beneath. Prothesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a word; as, adown, a/paid, ikstrown, evanished, _yclad, for down, paid, strown, vanished, clad. Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters of a word ; as, tried' cine for medicine ; e'en for even ; o'er for over ; conq'ring for conquering ; se'nnight for sevennight. Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters of a word ; as, tho' for though ; th' for the; t'other for the other. ParagOge is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a word; as, wilhouten for without; deary for dear; Johnny for John. Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels that might form a diphthong; as, cooperate, not cooperate; aeronaut, not aero- naut; orthoepy, not orthapy. Synasresis is the sinking of two syllables into one ; as, seest for seist; tacked for tack-cd; drowned for drown-ed. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound; as, "On which side soever;" "Toms ward;" "To God ward." Figures of Syntax. A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of Syntax are seven. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to convey the meaning. Such words are said to be understood, because they are received as belonging to the sentence though they are not uttered ; as, "A man and [a] woman ; " " The com- mon [/aw] and the statute law;" "I love [him] and [/] fear him ; " " The active commonly do more than they are bound to do; the indolent [commonly do] less [than they are bound to do]. ApOSCOpesiS is the leaving of something unsaid; as, " Whom /—but first 'tis best the billows to restrain." Zeugma is the referring of a word to two different ones which in strict syntax can agree with only one of them ; as, " In him who is, or him who finds a friend." Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words ; as, "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear ; " "I know thee who thou art;" "All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the earth." Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term ; it is therefore, in general, connected with some figure of Rhet- oric ; as, "The IVordv/as made flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld his glory." "Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria and preached Christ unto them." Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one modi- fication, for another ; as, " You know that you are Brutus that speak this ; " " Destruction's gates at once unlock." Hyperhaton is the transposition of words; as, "He wanders earth around." IT 32 COMPOSITION. ■ ^cyjyk - ^Composition. • low to Write tr^e Qnalisr} Qanauaae Oorrectl I^VERY educated person desires to write f, well, and with some elegance of diction. Accuracy in the arrangement of words and the ready and ccrrect expression of them in written language is not only a desirable but a needful attainment. This is taught by Composition. Style is the particular manner in which a person expresses his conceptions by means of language. It is different from mere words, and is not to be regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has some relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking, and, being that sort of expression which his thoughts most readily assume, sometimes partakes not only of what is characteristic of the man, but even of national peculiarity. The words which an author employs may be proper and so con- structed as to violate no rule of syntax, and yet his style may have great faults. To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as concise, diffuse — neat, negli- gent — nervous, feeble — simple, affected — easy, stiff — perspicuous, obscure — elegant, florid — are employed. A considerable diversity of style may be found in compositions all equally excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the different endowments by which genius is distinguished, require this divers- ity. But in forming his style the learner should remember that a negligent, feeble, affected, stiff or obscure style is always faulty, and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength and neat- ness are qualities always to be aimed at. /' In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing and writing something is indispensably necessary. Without exercise and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the attainment of this object will be of no avail. When the learner has acquired such a knowl- edge of grammar as to be in some degree qual- ified for the undertaking, he should devote a stated portion of his time to composition. This exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them. And if he has opportunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the best authors, acquire both language and taste, as well as sentiment; and these three are the essential qualifications of a good writer. In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here offer no more than a few brief hints. With respect to words and phrases, particular attention should be paid to purity, propriety and precision; and with respect to sentences, to perspicuity, unity and strength. Under each of these heads we shall arrange, in the form of short precepts, a few of the most important directions for the forming of style. Of Purity. Purity of style consists in the use of only such words and phrases as belong to the language which we write or speak. I, Avoid the unnecessary use of (preign words or idioms ; as, fraichtur, hauteur, dclicattsst, politesse ; he repented him- self ; it senes to an excellent purpose. a. Avoid, on ordinary occasions, obsolete or antiquated words ; as, whilom, erewhile, albeit, aforetime, methinkt, 3. Avoid strange or unauthorized words ; as, Jiutteration, unspectator, judgematical, electerixtd. l& ' COMPOSITION. 33 "7f 4. Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is ridiculous, however serious the subject ; as, "Personifications, however rich the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude ; analysis, however imposing the objects of parallel and the media of comparison : can never expose the consequences of sin to the extent of fact, or the range of demonstration." Of Propriety. Propriety of language consists in the selection and right con- struction of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we intend to express. 1. Avoid low and provincial expressions ; such as, "says I," "thinks I to myself," "to get into a scrap" "Stay here while I return." 2. In writing prose, avoid words or phrases that are nearly poetical; such as morn, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy. 3. Avoid technical terms, except where they are necessary in treating of a particular art or science. In technology they are proper. 4. Avoid the recurrence of words in the different senses, or such repetitionof words as denotes paucity of language; as,"His own reason might have suggested better reasons" " Gregory favored the undertaking for no other reason than this : the manager, in countenance, favored his friend." " I want to go and see what he wants." 5. Supply words that are wanting. Thus, instead of saying, "This action increased his former success," say, "This action increased the merit of his former success." 6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions ; as, " His mem- ory shall be lost on the earth." " I long since learned to like nothing but what you do." 7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions ; as, "I have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." " These words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." 8. Observe the natural order of things and events and do not put the cart before the horse ; as, " The scribes taught and studied the law of Moses." " They can neither return to nor leave their houses." "He tumbled, head over heels, into the water." Of Precision. Precision consists of avoiding all superfluous words and adapt- ing the expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than is intended by the author. 1. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or senti- ment; as, "return again; return back again; converse together ; rise up ; fall down ; enter in ; a mutual likeness to each ether; the latter end ; liquid streams ; grateful thanks ; the last cf all; throughout the whole book." " Wherever I go, he al- ways meets me there." "Where is he at?" " In there." "Noth- ing else but that." "It is odious and hateful" "His faith- fulness and fidelity should be rewarded." 2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonym- ous, and employ those which are the most suitable ; as, "A diligent scholar may acquire knowledge, gain celebrity, obtain rewards, win prizes and get high honor, though he earn no money." These six verbs have nearly the same meaning, and yet they cannot well be changed. Of Perspicuity. Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. It is a quality so essential in every kind of writing that for the want of it no mciit can atone. "Without it," says Blair, "the richest ornaments of style only glimmer through the dark, and puzzle instead of pleasing the reader." Perspicuity, being the most important property of language, and an exemption from the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to a degree of positive beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that frees us from all suspense in regard to the meaning ; that "carries us through the subject without embarrassment or con- fusion, and that always flows like a limpid stream, through which we can see to the very bottom." 1. Place adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs and explanatory phrases as, near as possible to the words to which they relate, and in such a situation as the sense requires. The following sentences are deficient in perspicuity : " Rever- ence is the veneration paid to superior sanctity, inter- mixed with a degree of awe." "The Romans understood liberty, at least, as well as we." "Taste was never made to cater for vanity." 2. In prose avoid a poetic collocation of words. 3. Avoid faulty ellipsis, and repeat all words necessary to preserve the sense. The following sentences require the words inserted in brackets: "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us both for the enjoyment of peace and [for] the performance of our duty." "The Christian religion gives a more lovely character to God than any {other] religion ever did." Of Unity. Unity consists in avoiding useless breaks or pauses and keep- ing one object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. Every sentence, whether its parts be few or many, requires strict unity. 1. Avoid brokenness and hitching. The following para- graph lacks the very quality of which it speaks: "But most of all, in a single sentence, is required the strictest unity. It may consist of parts, indeed, \>\sXthese partsraxiL^tha so closely bound together as to make the impression upon the mind of one object, not of many." 2. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and dis- tinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error: "The two vol- umes are, indeed, intimately connected and constitute one uni- form system of English grammar." 3. In the process of a sentence, do not desert the principal subject in favor of adjuncts. Error: "To substantives belong gender, number and case ; and they are alt of the third person when spoken of, and of the second when spoken to." 4. Do not introduce parentheses except where a lively re- mark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the principal subject Of Strength. Strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a sentence such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the best advantage and present every idea in its due 4k> « — «w 34 rr COMPOSITION. importance. A concise style is the most favorable to strength. 1. Place the most important words in the situation in which they will make the strongest impression. 2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding one. 3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their re- semblance or opposition will be rendered more striking if some resemblance in the language and construction be preserved. 4. It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may either be omitted or introduced earlier. A Discourse and its Paris. A composition in which a proposition is laid down and an p.ttempt made to persuade others that it is true is an argumen- tative discourse. If it is on religious subjects, it is a sermon; on other subjects, a speech or oration. Orations by the ancients were divided into six parts, to-wit: The Exordium, or introduction, in which the speaker strove to make his hearers attentive and disposed to receive his argu- ments. The Division, or plan the speaker intended to pursue in treat- ing the subject. The Statement, in which the subject and facts connected therewith were laid down. The Reasoning, in which the arguments were set forth. The Appeal to the feelings — a most important division of a discourse. The Peroration, in which the speaker summed up all he had said and concluded his discourse. An Essay. An Essay is a composition, generally on some abstract sub- ject, devoted rather to an investigation of causes, effects, etc., than to an examination of visible and material peculiarities. Brief descriptions and narrations may be introduced with ad- vantage. Figures of Rhetoric. A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from the ordinary application of words. Some figures of this kind are commonly called Tropes, i.e., turns. The principal figures of Rhetoric are twenty-two, namely : A Simile is a simple and express comparison and is generally introduced by like, as or so. Example. — "At first, tike thunder's distant tone. The rattling din came rolling on." — Hogg. " Man, like the generous vine, supported lives. The strength he gains is from th' embrace he gives. '• — Poft. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance of two objects by applying either the name or some attribute, adjunct or action of the one directly to the other. Example. — " His eye was morning's brightest ray." — Hogg. " Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." — Longfellow. An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol of a vine: "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it," etc Note. — The allegory includes most of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are called parables ; it includes also the better sort of fables. Metonymy is a change of names— calling one object by the name of another that sustains some relation to it. The principal relations on which this figure is founded are as fol- lows: 1. Cause and effect ; as, " Extravagance is the ruin of many" — that is, the cause of ruin. 2. Ancestor and descendants ; as, " Then shall Judah triumph" — that is, the descendants of Judah. 3. Attribute and that to which it belongs ; as, " Pride shall be brought low " — that is, the proud. 4. Container and the thing contained ; as, " The kettle boils " — that is, jlhe water in the kettle. 5. Emblem and thing represented ; as, "This was offensive to the crown " — that is, the king. 6. Material and thing made of it; as, "Gold is all-power- ful " — that is, money. Synecdoche is the meaning of the whole for apart, or of a part for the whole; as, "This roof [i.e., house] protects you." " Now thenar [/>., summer] is beautiful." Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagination is indulged beyond"the sobriety of truth. Example. — "The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread. And trembling Tiber div'd beneath his bed." — Dryden. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination as actually before his eyes and present to his senses. Example. — "I sec the dagger-crest of Mar ! I see the Moray's silver star Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war That up the lake comes winding far! "'—Scott. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the subject into an animated address. Example. — " Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death 1 where is thy sling r O grave ! where is thy victor)?"— /. Cor., ij: S4SS- Prosopopoeia, or Personification, is a figure by which in imagination we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities. Examples. — "The H'orm, aware of his Intent, H.ir.:njrued him thus, right eloquent.".— Cowper. "Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears 1 " — Roger*. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, con- fidently to assert the reverse of what is asked. Example.—" Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him? "— Job , 40:0. Kcphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some violent emotion of the mind. Example.—" O liberty ! — O sound once delightful to every Roman ear! — O sacred privilege of Roman citizenship !— once sacred — now trampled upon." — Cicero. Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition to heighten their effect by contrast 7; 1 Ll \9- sr *# COMPOSITION. 35 Example. — "Contrasted faults through all his manners reign : Though/00/", luxurious ; though submissive, vain ; Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; And e'en in penance, planning sins anew."~Goldsmith. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more important and interesting, or to descend to what is more and more min- ute and particular. Examples. — "Then Virtue became silent, heartsick, pined azoay and died.*' Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood; as, "Go on ; lime is worth nothing " — meaning that it is very valuable. Apophasis is the pretended suppression of what one is all the time actually mentioning ; as, "I shall say nothing of the immorality prevalent in Paris — immorality which is all the more dangerous because arrayed in the most attractive garbs." The Parallel is a figure used to show the resemblance between two characters or writings, to show their conformity in essential points ; as, the parallel between the Old and New Testament. Paralipsis pretends to conceal or omit what is really suggested and enforced. Example. — " I will not call him a villain because it would be unpar- liamentary," Allusion is a figure by which some word or phrase in a sentence calls to mind, as if accidentally, another similar or analogous subject. Example. — "I was surrounded with difficulties, and possessed no clue by which I could effect my escape." Repetition seizes some emphatic word or phrase, and, to mark its importance, makes it occur frequently in the same sentence. Example. — "He sang Darius, great and good, By too severe a fate, Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen, Fallen from his high estate and weltering in his blood.*' Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter at the be- ginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other. Example. — "The lordly lion leaves his lonely lair." Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for what would be disagreeable or offensive if told in the plainest lan- guage. Example. — Cushi did not say to David, "Absalom is killed ; " but, ''May all the enemies of the king be as that young man." Onomatopoeia is the formation of words in such a man- ner that their sound will suggest the sense; as, buzz, hiss, roar. Example. — "On the ear Drops the light drip of the suspended oar." ^ PROSODY. -*- f Dr. Blair says that the best definition of Poetry is this : " Poetry is the language of pas- sion, or of enlivened imagination, formed most commonly into regular numbers." Poetry is older than prose. Poems and- songs are the first objects that make their appearance in all nations. During the infancy of Poetry all its different kinds were mingled in the same com- position ; but in the progress of society poems assumed their different regular forms. Prosody is that part of Grammar which treats of the quantity of syllables, of feet, and the modes in which they are combined inverse. Versification. Versification is the art of arranging words into lines of corresponding length so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity. Verse is therefore language so arranged in lines that syllables of certain length may occur at certain intervals. Verse is the form in which poetry generally appears. Poetry is distinguished from prose not only by this form, but by its containing more figures, as well as peculiar words and ex- pressions. There are two kinds of verse, Rhyme and Blank Verse. Rhyme is that kind of verse in which there is a corre- spondence of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines ; as : "True wit is nature to advantage dress 'd, What oft was thought, but ne'er so well express' d." It lank Verse is metrical language without rhyme ; as : "Shall we serve Heaven With less respect than we do minister To our gross selves? " Quantity. By the Quantity of a syllable is meant the time required for its utterance. According to this time, syllables are distin- guished as Long and Short. One long syllable is equivalent to two short ones. A long syllable may be denoted by a short horizontal line placed over its vowel ; a short syllable, by a curve. In the case of monosyllables, nouns, adjectives, verbs, ad- verbs and interjections are for the most part long ; articles are always short; prepositions and conjunctions are generally short; pronouns are long when emphasized; when not, short. Poetic Feet. A Poot is two or more syllables constituting a portion of a line. A I.i IM> of Poetry consists of successive combinations of feet -ft / Al IV 36 71 COMPOSITION. The most important feet in English verse are as follows : The Iambus, a short syllabic and a long ... * * severe. The Trochee, a long syllable and a short . . . " " trembling. The Spondee, two long syllables .... " " cold winds. The Pyrrhic, two short syllables .... ' " wiljderness. The Anapest, two short and a long . . . . " " " barricade. The Dactyl, a long and two short . . . . * " " tenderly. The Amphibrach, a short, a long and a short . * " " tremendous. The Amphlmacer, a long, a short and a long " " " saddle-bags. In addition to these there are the Molosse, of three long sylla- bles ; the Tribrach, of three short ; the Bacchy, a short syllable and two long ones ; the Antibacchy, or Hypobacchy, two long syllables and a short one. The four principal kinds of verse or poetic measure are the Iambus, Trochee, Anapest and Dactyl. When a line is wholly composed of any of these four feet, it is called Pure. The remaining feet never form whole lines by themselves, but are sometimes interspersed with other feet A line into which different feet enter is called Mixed. Metre. By Metres are meant the different systems according to which verses or lines are formed. They are named from the feet employed and their number. Metres in which the iambus prevails are called Iambic ; those in which the trochee prevails, Trochaic; the anapest, Anapestic ; the dactyl, Dactylic. Distinguished by the number of feet in a line, the varieties of metre are as follows : Manometer, which consists of one foot ; Dimeter, of two feet; Trimeter, of three; Tetrameter, of four; Pentameter, of five ; Hexameter, of six ; Heptameter, of seven ; Odometer, of eight. Some metres, besides a certain number of complete feet, con- tain a syllable over at the end of the line. Such metres are called Hypercatalectic, or Hypermeter. When a syllable is want- ing the verse is said to be catalectic ; when the measure is ex- act the line is acatalectic. Scanning, or Scansion, is the process of dividing a line into the feet of which it is composed. Stanza- Long, Short and Common Metre. A Stanza is the combination of several lines in poetry, forming a distinct division of the poem ; as : "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, T'lc lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, TK„ ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me." A Verse is but a single line of a stanza — a certain number of long and short syllables, metrically disposed. "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." Long Metre. The long, short and common metres are known by the num- ber of feet or syllables found in them. Long metre stanzas contain in each line four iambic feet ; as : "Through every age, eternal God, Thou art our rest, our safe abode: High was thy throne ere heaven was made, Or earth, thy humble footstool, laid." Short Metre. Short metre stanzas contain three lines of six syllables and one of eight syllables — the third line being the longest and con- taining four iambic feet ; as : "Sweet is the time of Spring, When nature's charms appear; The birds with ceaseless pleasure sing And hail the opening year." Common Metre. Iambic verse of seven feet, divided into two lines, the first containing four and the latter three feet, makes what is known as common metre ; as : "When all thy mercies, O my God! My rising soul surveys, Transported with the view, I'm lost In wonder, love and praise." Iambic Verse. In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables, and the odd ones are short. .It consists of the following measures : Measure 1st. Iambic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. "O all | ye peo|ple, clip | your hinds, | and with | tr!flm' ; phlnt vc-icl-es sing; NO force | the mlght|-y pow'r | withstands | of God | the 0|-nlvers|-il King." Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or exchanged for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines ; thus : "The hour | is come | —the chcr, -ish'd hour, When, from | the busi -y world | set free, I seek | at length | my lone| -ly bower, And muse | in si.-lent thought 1 on thee." Measure 2nd. Iambic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. "The Lord | descend | -ed from | above | ind bOw'd ' ths heav \ -ens high." Modern poets have divided this kind of verse into alternate lines of four and of three feet ; thus : "O blind | to each | Indoll-gtnt Sim Of pflw'r | suprtme|-ly wise, Who fan;-cy haplpiness | in aughf The hand | of Heav'n | denies! " Measure 3rd. Iambic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. "Thy realm | fOrtv| -er lists, | thy Own | Mfcss!| -ah reigns." This is the Alexandrine ; it is seldom used except to com- plete a stanza in an ode, or to close a period in heroic rhyme. Measure 4th. Iambic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. "For prtise | tOo d(ar|-ly lOv'd | Or w»rm|-ly sought Enf eel- bits ill | Inter, -nil strength | Of thought." This is the regular English heroic. It is perhaps the only measure suitable for blank verse. The Elegiac stanta consists of four heroics rhyming alternately ; thus : "Enough | has Heav'n | indulg'd | of Joy | below To tempt | our tar| -riance in | this lov'd | retreat; Enough | has Heav'n | ordain'd | of us«|-ful woe, To make | us lanlguish for | a hap |- pier seat." Measure «th. Iambic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. "The joys | above | ire on' derstOod Ami reli-Uh'd on|-ly by 1 the good." Measure flth. Iambic Of Three Feet, or Trimeter. "Blue llghtl -nlngs singe | th* wives, And than j -der rends | the rock." 4fe 4 — fc V COMPOSITION. 37 / 4~ Measure 7th. Iambic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. "Their love | and awe Supply | the law." Measure 8th. Iambic of One Feet, or Monometer. "H6w bright The light." In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied by introducing a trochee ; as : "Planets | and suns | run law|-less through | the sky." By a syndesis of the two short syllables, or perhaps by mere substitution, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iam- bus, or a dactyl for a trochee ; as : "O'er man\-y a/r«|-en, man|-_y afi\-eify Alp." Trochaic Verse. In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and the even ones are short. Single-rhymed Trochaic omits the final short syllable, that it may end with a long one. This kind of verse is the same as iambic would be without the initial short syllable. Iambics and trochaics often occur in the same poem. Measure 1st. Trochaic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. "Once up| -on a | midnight | dreary, | while 1 [ pondered, | weak and ) weary, Over | miny & | quaint and | carious | volume | of fori -gotten | lore, While I | nodded, J nearly | napping, J sudden! -iy there | came a | tapping. As of J some one | gently | rapping, | rapping | at my | chamber | door." Measure !Sna. Trochaic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. "Hasten, | Lord , to | rescue I me, and J set me | safe from | trouble ; Shame thou | those who | seek my | soul , re 1 -ward their | mischief | double." SINGLE RHYME. "Night and | morning | were at | meeting | over | Water! -loo: Cocks had | sung their | earliest | greeting; | faint and | low they | crew." Measure 3rd. Trochaic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. "On a | mountain | stretch'd b6| -neath a | hoary | willow, Lay a | shepherd | swain , and | view'd the | rolling | billow." SINGLE RHY5IE. "Lonely J in the | forest, | subtle ] from his | birth, Lived a | necroj-manccr, | wondrous | son of | earth." Measure 4th. Trochaic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. "Virtue's | bright'nlng | riy shall | beam for] ever." SINGLE RHYME. "Idle I after | dinner, | In his | chair, Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat and | fair." Measure 5th. Trochaic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. "Round a | holy | calm dlf[ -fusing, Love of | peace and | lonely | musing." SINGLE RHYME. "Restless | mortals I toll f3r | naught, Bliss in | vain from [ earth is | sought." Measure 6th. Trochaic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. "When our | hearts are [ mourning." SINGLE RHYME. "In the | days of I old Stories I plainly J told." Measure 7th. Trochaic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. "Fancy | viewing, Joys enj-suing." SINGLE RHYME. "Tumult I cease, Sink to | peace." Measure 8th. Trochaic of One Foot, or Monometer. "Changing, Ranging." Anapestic Verse. In Anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third syllable. The first foot of an anapestic line may be an iambus. Measure 1st, Anapestic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. "At the close | Of the day, | when the ham| -let Is still, And mor~ \ tals the sweet | of forgetl -fulness prove." HYPERMETER WITH DOUBLE RHYME. "In a word, j so complete |-Iy forestall'd | were the wishj-es, Even har|-mony struck | from the noise | of the dish|-es." HYPERMETER WITH TRIPLE RHYME. "Lean Tom, | when I saw | him, last week, | on his horse \ awry, Threaten'd loud|-ly to turn | me to stone | with his sor\-cery." Measure 2nd. Anapestic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. "I am mOnJ-arch 6f all | I survey; My right j there is none | to dispute." Measure 3rd* Anapestic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. "When I look | On my boys, They renew | all my joys." Measure 4th. Anapestic of One Foot, or Monometer. "On the land Let me stand." Dactylic Verse. In the pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first sylla- ble of each successive three ; that is, on the first, the fourth, the seventh, the tenth syllable, etc Full dactylic generally forms triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is omitted the rhyme is double ; when both, single. Dactylic with single rhyme is the same as anapestic would be without its initial short syllables. Dactylic measure is rather uncom- mon, and, when employed, is seldom perfectly regular. Measure 1st. Dactylic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. "Nlmrad the | hunter was | mighty In | hQntlng, and | famed as the | ruler Sf | cities 6f | yore; Babel and | Erech, and | Accad, and [ Calneh, from | Shinar*. fair | region his | name afar j bore." Measure 2nd. Dactylic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. "Out of the | kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by | angels o'er | Satan vicl-torious, All that of[-fendeth, that | lieth, that | faileth to | honor his | name ever | glorious." Measure 3rd. Dactylic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. "Time, thou art | ever in | motion, on | wheels of the | days, years and | ages ; Restless as | waves of the | ocean, when | Eurui or | Boreas | rages." -71 ^ ■m 38 COMPOSITION. EXAMPLE WITHOUT KHYME. "This is the | forest pri ] .meval ; but | where are the | hearts that be|-neath it Leap'd like the | roe, when he | hears in the | woodland the | voice of the | huntsman?" Measure 4th. Dactylic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. "Now thou dost | welcome me, | welcome me | from the dark | sea, Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, | land of the | free." Measure 5th. Dactylic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. "Boys will anl-tlclpate, | lavish, and | dissipate All that your | basy pate | hoarded with I care ; And, in their | foolishness, | passion and | mulishness, Charge you with [ churlishness, | spurning your | pray'r." Measure 6th. Dactylic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. "Evfir sing | merrily, | merrily." Measure 7th. Dactylic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. "Free from si|-tl*ty, Care and anx[-iety, Charms in va[-ricty Fall to his | share." Measure 8th. Dactylic of One Foot, or Monometer. "Fearfully, Tearfully." Caesural Pause. A slight pause should be made, in reading poetry, at the end of every line, though the sense may not require it. Often a pause is made in or near the middle of the line, especially when it is a long one. This brings out the meaning and improves the rhythm and effect. This pause is called the ca-sural pause (i.e., cutting). The final pause is that occurring at the end of a line, and should not be distinctly marked when the sense does not require it. Varieties of Poetry. Poetry is of various kinds, such as Epic, Dramatic, Lyric, Elegiac, Pastoral and Didactic, Epic Poetry is the most dignified. An epic poem is the recital of some illustrious enterprise in a poetical form. The action or subject of an epic poem must have three proper- ties: it must be one; it must be great; it must be interesting. One action or enterprise must constitute its subject. Homer's Iliad, Virgil's AZncid and Milton's Paradise Lost are examples of epic poetry. Didactic Poetry is written with the express intention to convey instruction and knowledge. It may be executed in different ways. The poet may treat some instructive subject in a regular form, or he may inveigh against particular vices or make some moral observations on human life and character. Descriptive Poetry is indicated by its name. In general, description is introduced as an embellishment, not as the subject of a regular work. Various Kinds of Poems. There are many kinds of poems, of which the following are the chief designations : A Song is a short poem to be sung or uttered with musical modulations. A Chant is a song or words suited to musical tones with- out musical measure. A Hymn is a song of praise, generally of a religious char- acter. An Ode is similar to a song or hymn. There are four de- nominations of these. I. Odes addressed to God or composed on religious subjects. 2. Heroic odes, which concern the cele- bration of heroes and great actions. 3. Moral or philosophical odes, which refer chiefly to virtue, friendship and humanity. 4. Festive and amorous odes, which are calculated merely for amusement or pleasure. A Pcean is a loud and joyous song, a song of triumph or rejoicing. A Ballad is a popular song, narrative or sentimental, in simple, homely verses. An Epithalamillin is a nuptial song or poem in praise of the bride or bridegroom. The Song of Solomon in the Bible is a specimen. An Epigram is a short poem treating only of one thing and ending with some lively, ingenious and natural thought. A Sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, two stanzas of four verses each and two of three each, and so arranged that in the first part the first line is made to rhyme with the fourth, fifth and eighth, the second rhyming with the third, sixth and seventh, while in the second part the fir>t, third and fifth, and the second, fourth and sixth, also rhyme with each other. A Cantata is a poem set to music, comprising choruses and solos and recitations, arranged in a somewhat dramatic manner. A Canzonet is a short song in one, two or three parts. A Charade may be in prose as well as poetry. It is based upon a word, the parts of which taken separately are significant of their meaning and that of the whole word. An Epitaph is a brief descriptive sentence, in prose or verse, which is used on a tombstone. A Satire is a composition, generally poetical, holding up vice or folly to reprobation ; a keen or severe exposure of what in public or private morals deserves rebuke; an invective poem. A Parody is a kind of poetical pleasantry in which what is written on a subject, generally serious, is altered and applied in a ludicrous vein. A Prologue is a poem introductory to a play or discourse, generally spoken before the play begins. An Epilogue is a short poem reviewing the main inci- dents of a play, spoken by the actor or actors at the termination of a performance. An Impromptu is a verse or poetical composition writ- ten off-hand without previous study. An Acrostic is a composition, usually in verse, in which the first or last letters of the lines, in their order, or of words, one in each line, form a name or sentence. Poetical Peculiarities or License. The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in which poets indulge and are indulged, and which are termed poetic license, which is a deviation from the strict rules of gram- mar. 4^ COMPOSITION. 39 ~7[ 1. Tb,ey very often omit the articles; as: u What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime Like shipwreck' d mariner oj. desert waste! " 2. They abbreviate many nouns ; as, amaze for amazement; corse for corpse; fount [or fountain. 3. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose or are used but rarely; as, benison,fane, ten, welkin. 4. They introduce the noun self after another noun in the possessive case ; as : "Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom." 5. They often place adjectives after their nouns ; as : " Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue." 6. They place before the verb nouns or other words that usually come after it ; and after it, those that usually come be- fore it ; as : " No jealousy their dazon of love o'ercast, Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife." 7. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not liter- ally belong ; as : " Or drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds." 8. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities (i.e., adjectives for nouns) ; as : " Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, Sublime or dreadful, on earth, sea or sky." 9. They substitute quality for manner (i.e., adjectives for ad- verbs) ; as : " Thither continual pilgrims crowded still." 10. They form new compound epithets ; as : " In world- rejoicing state, it moves sublime." 1 1. They connect the comparative degree to the positive ; as : u Near and more near the billows rise." 12. They form many adjectives in y which are not in common use; as, a gleamy ray; towcry height ; vasty deep. 13. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form; as, drear for dreary ' ; scant for scanty ; ebon for ebony. 14. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose, or are used but seldom ; as, azu> e, darksome, rapt, sear. 15. They employ personal pronouns and introduce their nouns afterwards ; as : "// curled not Tweed alone, that breeze" 16. They sometimes omit the relative of the nominative case ; as: " For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise? " 17. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the rela- tive ; as : " Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys." 18. They remove relative pronouns and other connections in- to the body of the clauses ; as : " Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." 19. They make intransitive verbs transitive ; as : " A while he stands, Gaziuglhe inverted landscape, half afraid To meditate the blue profound below." 20. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third person ; as : " Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." " Be man's peculiar work his sole delight " 21. They employ can, could and would as principal verbs transitive ; as : " What for ourselves we can, is always ours." 22. They place the infinitive before the word on which it depends; as : " When first thy sire to send on earth Virtue, his darling child, designed." 23. They place the auxiliary after its principal ; as : "No longer heed the sunbeam bright That plays on Carron's breast he can." 24. Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prefixes; as, begird, bedim, for gird, dim; lure, wail, for al- lure, bewail. 25. They abbreviate verbs ; as, list for listen ; ope for open. 26. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose or are used but rarely ; as, astound, ween, trow. 27. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the in- finitive ; as : " For not to have been dipp'd'm Lethe lake Could save the son of Thetis from to die." 28. They employ the participles more frequently than prose writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar ; as : " He came, and, standing in their midst, explained The peace rejected, but the truce obtained" 29. They employ several adverbs that are not used in prose or are used but seldom ; as, haply, felly, rifely. 30. They give to adverbs a peculiar location ; as : " Peeping from forth their alleys green." 31. They omit the introductory adverb there; as : " Was naught around but images of rest." 32. They employ the conjunctions or ....or and nor .... nor ; as: " Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po." 33. They often place prepositions and their adjuncts before the words on which they depend ; as : "Against your fame with fondness hate combines." 34. They sometimes place the preposition after its object ; as: "When beauty, Eden's bowers within." 35. They employ interjections more frequently than prose writers; as: " Oh, let me gaze — of gazing there's no end. Oh, let me think — Thought too is wilder'd here." 36. They employ antiquated words and modes of expression; as: " Withouten that would come an heavier bale." " He was to weel, a little roguish page, Save sleep and play, who minded naught at all." *NW V 4o "7! ELOCUTION. ELOCUTION. HOW TO READ AND SPEAK CORRECTLY AND ELEGANTLY. §!||V;LOCUTION does not consist, as many *T*r suppose, in merely learning to " recite ffippy pieces." It is the art of reading and ?<&$*<■ speaking in the most correct and ele- I gant manner. Before this can be at- tained it is necessary to articulate dis- tinctly, to pronounce correctly, and to cultivate and strengthen the vocal organs. The study of Elocution is one in which none can be pronounced perfect. As, in pen- manship, a proficient may greatly improve by practice, and thousands are content to possess a handwriting next to illegible, instead of the neat, elegant hand of which they could easily become master, so thousands are satisfied with a harsh, disagreeable voice, a careless articula- tion, a monotonous expression and a repulsive manner, when by a proper training they might become fluent conversationalists, expressive readers and easy, if not eloquent, speakers. How many are content to work with one talent, when they could readily possess five! Among well educated persons of taste and refinement, how often do we find those to whom a knowledge of Elocution would be inval- uable, because of its power to set forth their other accomplishments ! The first tones of a speaker's voice always convey an idea, favorable or unfavorable, of the speaker himself; and, if the latter, much effort will be required of him to regain the estimation so unwittingly lost. What can be more satisfactory to its possessor than a rich, clear, melodious tone, a distinct, clean-cut articulation, a perfect command of the modulations, and a pleasing style both in voice and manner? All this is possible to any one who does not possess imperfect vocal organs and who will assiduously devote himself or her- self to the study, believing :t to be worthy of all efforts required to obtain a mastery of the art. Elocution consists in the utterance or ex- pression of thought. Thought may be conveyed by voice or ges- ture ; the latter reaching the hearer through the eye, the former through the ear. Elocution may be divided into four branches, viz.: Vocal Culture, Articulation, Expression, or Modulation, and Gesture. Vocal Culture. Voice is produced by breath passing over the vocal chords, which are situated in the larynx, or upper portion of the wind- pipe. The voice is the principal agent by which thought is conveyed, and Is the basis of elocution. Proper Breathing consists in taking in and giving out full inspirations of pure air in such a manner as not to in- terfere with speech. Correct breathing is an important factor in elocution, of more consequence than might be supposed. It should be so timed as not to interfere with speech. Breath should be taken only at pauses. Study at first never to destroy the connection of the thought by a pause for breathing purposes. In long sentences we should economize the breath as much at possible. The culture of the voice should be a matter of necessity a* well as the training of the mind or the development of the body. Frequent vigorous practice induces healthy activity ; the voice U strengthened and rendered pure and resonant. Articulation. Articulation consists of a distinct and correct utterance of the elementary sounds. These sounds, forty-six in number, are formed by the organs of speech and are divided into Vocal Sounds, Aspirati Sounds and Combined Sounds. ♦4 YL : ELOCUTION. 41 The Organs of Articulation are the tongue, lips, palate and teeth, forming the Lingual, Labial, Palatal and Dental sounds, respectively. These organs, like valves, act either singly or together upon the stream of breath issuing from the larynx, and mould sound into speech. The mouth cavity and nasal cavity assist in modifying the tone of voice, giving it character and resonance. Vocal Sounds are those having vocality. Aspirate Sounds are those produced by the breath only. Combined Sounds are those which are produced by both voice and breath. ' Cognates are those sounds which occur in pairs, one vo- calized and the other not, but both having the same articulate modification. The Trilled " R " often adds much to the rendering of a passage ; but, like the flourish, it may be misplaced. It should be used sparingly, seldom or never in the most serious discourse. In light descriptions and imitative modulations it may be employed, taking care, however, that it is never used unless immediately followed by a vowel sound. Practice in articulation should be directed especially to those exercises in which transitions or repetitions of the same sound occur, as those will be quite difficult of mastery. See that both sounds are correctly and distinctly given, and that the organs of speech pass rapidly from one to the other. Examples. — S, s. False sounds. s/i, s/j. Hush, Charlotte! z, X. As zealous. */, st. Severest storms. Pronunciation. The subject of Pronunciation should receive special attention by the learner, as a good voice and a distinct articulation tend to magnify any defect in utterance. In reading, foreign words are often found which are utterly unpronounceable to one not having at least an elementary knowledge of the language to which they belong. To pronounce such words according to English rules would in many cases be allowable ; but this could not apply to Goethe and similar names. Clearly the only cor- rect way is to approach as nearly as possible to the native pro- nunciation, except in words and names thoroughly anglicized. To pronounce Paris Paree would be pedantry. Modulation. Modulation consists in such a use of the voice as will convey the thought in the best manner. It has reference to Quality, Melody, Form, Force, Time and Stress. Modulation concerns the proper management of the voice in speech and treats of those changes that should be made in it to best express the sentiment. QUALITY OF THE VOICE. The Quality or kind of voice may be Pure or Im- pure. In ordinary conversation, reading or speaking, we should always use the Pure ; but in expressing fear, anger, con- tempt, hatred, loathing, etc., we should employ a different qual- ity of tone. When we feel the influence of these passions, we can easily make use of the proper form, but we should so con- trol the voice that, in reading or speaking in the absence of passion, we can assume the tone best adapted to give expression to the sentiment. The Pure quality is used in all cases when there is not a demand for the Impure. Great attention should be given to the cultivation of the conversational voice, until a habit of cor- rect speech is acquired. This tone should always be full, rich and resonant. Of it there are two varieties, the Simple and Orotund. The Simple Pure is used in ordinary conversation, reading and speaking. Example. — And he said, A certain man had two sons; and the younger of them said to his father, Father, give me the portion of goods that falleth to me. And he divided unto them his living. The Orotund is a full, round tone used in expressing grandeur, awe, sublimity, courage, reverence, veneration and other holy emotions. Example.— Thou too, sail on, O Ship of State ! SaiJ on, O Union, strong and great! The Impure quality of voice is used to express the action of the baser passions. It is also used in mimicry. The Impure qualities are the Aspirate, Pectoral, Guttural and Falsetto. The Aspirate is the intense whisper, with little or no vo- cality. It is used to denote fear, secrecy, great caution, etc. Example. — Soldiers, you are now within a few steps of the enemy's outposts. The Pectoral is the deep tone of despair and anger. It is used to denote great solemnity and in describing the super- natural. It is orotund, very low in pitch, and is formed wholly in the throat. Example. — Oh, I have passed a miserable night — So full of dreadful dreams and ugly sights, That, as I am a Christian, faithful man, I would not spend another such a night, Though 'twere to buy a world of happy days— So full of dismal terror was the time. The Guttural is a harsh throat-tone, lacking the orotund quality of the Pectoral — the language of hatred, intense anger, loathing and contempt Example. — I loathe ye in my bosom, I scorn ye with mine eye, And I'll taunt ye with my latest breath, And fight ye till I die ! The Falsetto is a shrill, high-pitched tone used in ex- pressing pain or terror. It is also employed in imitating the female voice. Example. — When the lorn damsel, with a frantic screech And cheeks as hueless as a brandy peach, Cries, "Help, kyitid Heaven!" and drops upon her knees On the green — baize, beneath the — canvas — trees. MELODY. Melody in elocution is the effect produced upon the ear by the succession of vocal notes. It has reference to Pitch, Slides and Cadence. Pitch. Pitch relates to the elevation or depression of the tone. It may be Natural, Low or High. Natural Pitch is used in all ordinary discourse. Example. — England's sun was slowly setting o'er the hills so far away, Filling all the land with beauty at the close of one sad day. ■» V ■VI- 42 ELOCUTION. Low Pitch is used in language serious, grave, sublime, grand, solemn, reverential and vehement Example.— Silence how dead, and darkness how profound; No eye nor listening ear an object finds; Creation sleeps. High Pitch is used to express sentiment lively, joyous or impassioned. It is also characteristic of fear and grief. Example.—" Oh, spare my child, my joy, my pride; Oh, give me back my child!" she cried. Slides. Slides are inflections of the voice used to prevent monotony and to give better expression to the idea. They are Ascending and Descending; both are united in the Circumflex. In music the ascent and descent is made by distinct steps ; but in speech the voice is bent more or less up- ward or downward. These changes are continually taking place, except in the Monotone, and they give expression to the voice. Ascending Slides de- mote uncertainty, doubt, interro- gation and incompleteness of idea. Example.— Hast ^hou ever known the feeling I have felt, when 1 have seen, 'Mid the tombs of aged heroes, Memories of what hath been? Descending Slides in- dicate positiveness, determina- tion or a completion of the thought. £rfl«//f.-Come one, come all, this rock shall fly From its firm base as soon as II The Circumflex is used to denote surprise or to express a secondary meaning which may be in harmony with or directly opposite to that conveyed by the worc ] s< SELF-POSSESSION ON THE PLATFORM. Example. — Whalt shear a wolf, a prowling violft Cadence. Cadence is the tone with which a sentence terminates. According to the sentiment, it may have the ascending or the descending slide, the rising or the falling circumflex, or it may vanish with no slide whatever. A sentence expressing a com- plete thought, having no modifying phrase or clause, and not affected by anything preceding or following it, should always terminate with a downward inflection ; but when so modified it should close with a tone adapted to the connection or meaning. The reader should study variety and avoid uniformity in closing sentences. FORM. Form of voice may be Natural, Effusive, Expulsive or Explosive. The Natural is that ordinarily used in conversation. Example. — While a single white cloud to its haven of rest. On the white wing of peace floated off in the west. The Effusive is a very light, gentle form usually charac- terized by a swell. It is -used in expressing that which is beau- tiful, tranquil or pathetic It is characteristic of lofty sentiment not requiring vigorous expression. Example. — How beautiful she Is! how fair She lies within those arms that press Her form with many a soft caress Of tenderness and watchful care. The Expulsive is a forcible utterance expressive of de- termination and intensity ol feeling. Example. — Up, all, and shout for Rudiger — Defiance unto Death! The Explosive is used in vehement language and in powerful description. It usually manifests itself in the bursting of the voice on a single word. Example.— "Halt!" —the dust-brown rank stood fast ; "Kirc ! "—out blaied the rifle blast. FORCE. Force or power of the voice lsof three kinds. Natural, Heavy and Gentle. Natural Force is that most commonly used in speak- ing or reading. Example.— We are two travcllcrs.Roger and 1. Roger's my dog — come here, you scamp ! Jump for the gentleman— mind your eye 1 Over the table— look out for the lamp! Heavy Force is used in grand description and in con- veying any idea of power. Example.— Bell never yet was hung Between whose lips there swung So grand a tongue. Gentle Force is used in tender and pathetic descrip- tion, and in all cases where a subdued form is necessary to cor- rectly express the sentiment. Example.— Noiselessly as the daylight Comes when the night is done , And the crimson streak on ocean's cheek Grows into the great sun. TIME. Time in Elocution has reference to Quantity, Rate and Pause. 7i V- .2 ELOCUTION. 43 Quantity. Quantity is the amount of time given to a word. It may be Natural, Long or Short. Natural Quantity is that usually given to words in unemotional language. Example.— There is on' accomplishment, in particular, which I would earnestly recommc cd to you. Cultivate assiduously the ability to read well. * Long Quantity is used in expressing that which is grand, sublime, gloomy or humble. Example. — O thou Eternal One! whose presence bright All space doth occupy, all motion guide. Short Quantity is used to express sentiment light, joyous, gay and brisk. It also expresses haste, fear, command, indignation, etc Example. — The year is going, let him go ; Ring out the false, ring im the true. Rate. Rate is the degree of rapid- ity or slowness with which sev- eral successive words are utter- ed. It may be Natural, Slow or Fast. Natural Rate is that which a person naturally uses in reading or speaking. Example. — O good painter, tell me true, Has your hand the cunning to draw Shapes of things that you never saw? Slow Rate may denote horror and awe; it should be used in language serious, sub- lime and pathetic. Example. — Meanwhile the shapeless iron mass Came moving o'er the wave, As gloomy as a passing hearse, As silent as the grave. Fast Rate is used to ex- press sentiment lively, joyous, impassioned and vehement. Example. — Hurrah ! the foes are moving! Hark to the mingled din Of fife and steed, and trump and drum, and roaring culverin ! Example.— Have you heard the tale of the Aloe plant. Away in the sunny clime ? By humble growth of a hundred years It reaches its blooming time. Long Pause usually accompanies Slow Rate or a change of sentiment, and marks a suspension of the sense. Example.— Pause a moment. I heard a footstep. Listen now. I heard it again. But it is going from us. It sounds fainter — still fainter. It is gone. Short Pause accompanies Fast Rate, and is character- istic of haste, fear, etc Example. — John, be quick! Get some water! Throw the powder overboard! It cannot be reached ! Jump into the boat, then! Shove off! There goes the powder — thank Heaven, we are safe! Pause. Pause is the suspension of the voice. Poetic and Oratori- cal Pauses express emotion. Rhetorical Pauses are those de- manded by the sense and structure of a sentence. Grammatical Pauses are those indicated by the usual marks of punctuation, and Prosodical Pauses are those used only in verse. But in this connection it is best to make three divisions, viz.: Nat- ural Pause, Long Pause and Short Pause. Natural Pause is used in unimpassioned language and ordinary description. STRESS. Stress has much to do with the power, beauty and general effect of a sentence. It is that finishing, polishing touch which causes the thought to stand out in relief — throwing it vividly upon the background, with its profile welk defined, its lights and shadows harmoniously blended — rendering it com- plete, beautiful and sym- metrical. There are six distinct kinds ot Stress, viz.: Initial, Final, Median, Compound, Thorough and Tremulous. Initial Stress is an ex- plosive force on the first part of a syllable or word. It is char- acteristic of lively, joyous de- scription. Example. — I come from haunts of coot and hern ; I make a sudden sally, And sparkle out among the fern, To bicker down a valley. The Final Stress is an explosive force on the latter part It is used in expressing defiance, de- THE AWKWARD SPEAKER. of a syllable or word. termination, or intensity of feeling or purpose. Example.— A breath of submission we breathe not ; The sword we have drawn we will sheathe not. Median Stress, or the Swell, .characteristic of the Oro- tund Quality and Effusive Form, is most marked in the sublime, but it is found in all classes of literature, sometimes occurring on a single word and again continually through an entire sen- tence. Example.— Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! Compound Stress is a union of the Initial and Final in one word. It is indicative of surprise, irony and determi- nation. Example.— Gone to be married! Gone to swear a peace! Shall Lewis have Blanche, and Blanche these provinces t VL K= 44 "7f ELOCUTION. -^ Thorough Stress is an abrupt, heavy force, used in command, fearlessness and braggadocio. £xampfe.—Tl]iizc t with your serried columns! I will not bend the knee ! The shackles ne'er again shall bind The arm which now is free. Tremulous or Intermittent Stress is used in fear, joy and laughter, in the broken voice of sorrow, and in imitation of the feeble voice of age. Example. — Ho, why dost thou shiver and shake. Gaffer Gray, And why does thy nose look so blue? * " 'Tis the weather Is cold, 'tis I've grown very old, And my doublet is not very new, wcll-a-day." Emphasis. " Emphasis," it has been said, " is in speech what coloring is in painting. It admits of all possible degrees, and must, to in- dicate a particular degree of distinction, be more or less intense, according to the groundwork or current melody of the dis- course." It consists of any peculiarity of utterance which will call special attention to a particular word or words in a sentence. Thus it will be seen that emphasis may be of force, stress, qual- ity, pitch or rate. No definite rule can be given for the use of emphasis. It is so subtile, its shadings so delicate, that it can never be cabled to inflexible rules. But in general we should emphasize: 1. Words, phrases or clauses that are particularly significant. 2. Words, phrases or clauses that contrast. 3. Anything repeated for the sake of emphasis. 4. A succession of objects or ideas. Word Individuality. The "royal road" to success in reading lies in a true concep- tion of the spirit of the piece and a faithful delineation of the author's meaning. Endeavor to grasp the ideas, make them a part of yourself and clothe your hearers with them. Another element of power lies in playing upon words and giving them their full individual expression. For instance, the word firm should usually be spoken in a firm tone of voice, strong in a strong tone, light in a light tone, grand in a manner conveying an idea of grandeur. Word Individuality. Expressive Intonation, Imi- tative Modulation and Sound to Sense are the terms used to express the act of playing upon words, sounding the syllables or intoning the vowels in such a way as to more fully bring out the meaning of the word by its sound. Old, sweet, long, gay, cold, deep, roar, whisper, fierce, wild, growl, titter, gush, burst, dash — these and similar words may be rendered infinitely more expressive by giving each word its own peculiar individual character. The following table of derivatives indicates the peculiar char- acter of words : St denotes firmness or strength ; as, stand, stay, stout, stop, stamp, etc. Sir indicates violent force or energy; as, strive, stress, strength, strife, etc. Thr indicates forcible motion; as, throw, throb, thrust, threaten, thrill, etc. CI indicates smoothness or silent motion j as, glib, glide, glow, etc rVr denotes obliquity or distortion ; as, wry, wrest, wrestte, wring, wrath, wrangle, etc. Sw implies silent agitation or lateral motion ; as, sway, sweep, swerve, swing, etc SI denotes gentle fall or less observable motion ; as, sly, slide, slip, slit, slack, sling, etc Sp indicates dissipation or expansion ; as, spread, sprout, sprinkle, split, spoil, spring, etc — ash indicates something actingnimbly or sharply ; as, crash, dash, rash, flash, lash, splash, etc — ush denotes something acting more obtusely and dully ; as, crush, brush, hush, gush, blush, etc Analysis and Grouping. In reading it is necessary first to analyze the thought, to de- cide in the mind what portions are most prominent, and these should receive greatest emphasis. The subordinate thoughts should be properly grouped together and expressed in such a manner as will clearly show them to be subordinate. To use a figure of speech, let the more important parts stand in the fore- ground, giving them intensest light ; the auxiliary thoughts may repose in the shadows of the background. In general the sub- ject, predicate, object and connectives of a sentence should re- ceive emphatic force. Give the same degree of force to words having a close grammatic connection, but separated from each other in the sentence. The intervening portions should be read parenthetically. Transition. Transition is the art of changing easily, rapidly and completely from one modulation or form of voice to another. It should be carefully practiced. Climax. It has been previously stated that a succession of objects or ideas should receive emphasis ; that is, each of the series should be made more emphatic than the one immediately preceding. This gives a constantly increasing emphatic scale. The extreme point of the scale is called the Climax. There the vocal ef- forts should reach their culmination, giving great strength to the sentence. Repose. Repose is the sublime emblem of infinite power. It is reserve force that is immeasurable. He who by violent exertion shows that he has reached his limit loses that greater concep- tion that we may have formed regarding his powers. Where I'lim.ix is employed in speech, in order to convey the greatest I of power it is necessary to make the concluding 11 of the sentence with that repose which indicates unlim- ited reserve strength. It has been well said, "The highest power is master)', and the highest mastery is self-master)', and of self-master)' repose is the emblem." J^ ^L! "7[ ELOCUTION. 45 Impersonation. In Impersonation the reader or speaker puts himself in the place of another, using the tone and style required by the assumed character. This, however, should not be resorted to when the beauty or sublimity of thought contained in a passage would be weakened thereby, as an assumed form always de- tracts from the ideas by directing our attention to the manner. But there are many times when personation really adds to the beauty and effectiveness of the rendering. The judgment of the reader must decide when it should be employed, and in what particular cases it may be omitted. 'When impersonating the voice may be changed, as well as the general manner. A heavy or light voice, fast or slow rate, low or high pitch will often be a sufficient change. Old age requires a feeble or cracked voice, higher pitch, slower rate, gentler force, a greater use of the in- flections, and an apparent toothlessness easily secured by re- tracting the lower jaw and drawing the underlip as far as possi- ble over the teeth. Children's voices are imitated by light force, many rising and falling slides, using great expression. Let the throat be contracted that the voice may appear to be formed in the front part of the mouth. In imitating the voices of women the reader should employ greater or heavier force, as required. Dialogue Reading. In dialogue reading several impersonated voices may occur, varying one from another by changes of force, pitch, rate or quality. As a general rule, the direction of the eyes and head should change with each transition of character. When only two speakers are represented, the whole body may change position, but when several appear a slight change only is required. In representing two characters the gaze is alternated left and right, but the descriptive portions (those not spoken by either of the characters) should always be given front. Let changes of position and voice be sudden and decided, especially so when one speaker is interrupted by another. ^C -S"—' -McG B S T U R B.3N- < — *-^vrt^- 'Ik T- Elocution maybe divided into two parts : that which is heard, and that which is seen. The former is called Voice , the latter, Gesture. Both are important and indispensable to its proper study. The manner may be so out of harmony that it entirely contradicts the words, and an idea is conveyed directly opposite to that intended. It is important, then, that we study manner as well as matter. A pleasing style of delivery adds much to the effectiveness of a production, and in this Gesture plays an important part. It is absolutely essential to the per- fect success of vocal delivery that it be accompanied by a man- ner that will not provoke criticism, nor in any way draw the hearer's attention from the thought uttered. It should rather aid that thought by conveying to the eye what the voice sends to the ear. Gesture should always be an assistant, never a hin- drance, as it certainly is when not properly used. Those who naturally employ many gestures should learn how to correctly use them ; those who use few should cultivate the use of more by making themselves familiar with the laws that govern intel- ligent gesticulation. Double Gestures have the same signifi- cance as single gestures. They are used for variety and greater effect and force. In speaking, do not employ one hand exclu- sively, but occasionally use the other to avoid sameness. Rules Governing Gesture. Gesture is that part of elocution which appeals to the eye. It relates to Position and Movements. POSITION OF THE BODY. The position of the body should be in harmony with the character of the thought. Vigorous expression requires a firm posture ; beauty of sentiment, a graceful attitude. The position should be changed, not too often, as quietly and with as few movements as possible. The arms, when not in use, should hang easily at the sides, and one foot should be slightly in ad- vance, the head being held naturally erect The speaker should always take his position near the front of the stage, to be better seen and heard. In reading, always stand or sit erect, with lungs well inflated. MOVEMENTS. Movements of the body are necessary to give character to the delivery, but they must be natural, graceful and appropriate. The Head. The Head should maintain an easy position and allow the eyes to move deliberately over the audience. Do not stare into vacancy while before a company, but fix your gaze upon the in- dividuals composing the assemblage. Avoid an excessive use of the head, both in reading and speaking. In reading, the eyes should be raised from the book as much as possible. Prac- tice will give facility in reading long sentences with a single glance at the book. The expression of the face should reflect the character of the thought. UL UNIVERSITY ) K" 4 6 ELOCUTION. The Hands in gesture should be used easily and grace- fully. Frequent practice before a mirror will be advantageous in securing freedom and grace of movement. The hands may be Supine, Prone, Vertical, Pointing and Clenched. The Supine Hand lies easily opened, with the palm upward. It is a common form of gesture. The Prone Hand is opened with the palm downward. It is used to denote negative as- sertion, superposition, etc. The Vertical Hand is opened, with the palm outward from the speaker. It is used in warding off and in de- noting a limit The Pointing Hand, forefinger extended, is used in designating or pointing out any partic- ular thing or place. Or- dinarily, the hand is loosely opened, but, when the gesture i s emphatic, it is tightly closed. The Clenched Hand denotes intense action of the will or passions. The accompanying il- lustration, with explan- ations appended, shows the principal forms of hand gestures. The Arms. The Arms should be used naturally and with decision. In forci- ble utterance they move in straight lines; in graceful expression they move in curves, but even in the curves they should show that they are servants sent to per- forin certain duties, and that they arc guided in every motion by a power beyond them- selves. Sometimes, in familiar gesture, the forearm only is used, but ordinarily the arm moves freely from the shoulder. Hand and Arm Gestures. Hand and Arm <-«'s*ures are made in four general directions, viz.: Front, O/diaue, Lateral and Backward, Each of these is subdivided into Horixontal, Descending and Ascending, POSITIONS OF THE HANDS. 1. Simple affirmation. a. Emphatic declaration. 3. Apathy or prostration. 4. Energetic appeal. 5. Negation or denial. 6. Violent repulsion. 7. Indexing or cautioning. S. Determination or anger. 9. Supplication, to. Gentle cn> treaty. 11. Carelessness, ia. Argumentation. 13. Earnest entreaty. 14. Resig- nation. Front Gestures are used to designate or to illustrate that which is near to us, whether it be an object, a thought or a feeling. In addressing an object, real or ideal, we suppose it to be placed in the direction of the Front gesture. Oblique Gestures are less emphatic and more general in their application than the Front Gestures. They* relate to things indefinitely. Lateral Gestures denote expansion, ex- treme distance, breadth, or the placing of per- sons, objects or ideas in contrast with one an- other. Backward Gestures indicate things remote, obscure or hidden. Horizontal G e s - TURF.S are employed in general allusions ; they indicate a level or equality and belong to the realm of the Intel- lect. Descending Ges- tures denote inferior- ity or inequality, and, when emphatic, they show determination and purpose. They belong to the WilL Ascending Ges- tures denote superior- ity, greatness, an un- folding or lifting up figuratively or literally. They belong to the Imagination. Make all gestures with decision. When the gesture is com- pleted, let the arm fall slowly to the side. Never allow the arms to swing. Ijl THp FO^g OF gpEEtln. Conversation. This is the simplest form of speech, and it is the most natural. In conversation we are ourselves ; we use no forced, unnatural style of utterance. Always endeavor in *7^ conversation to express the best thoughts in the best manner, avoiding those subjects not of general interest to the listeners, using the best language at command. Reading. In conversation our ideas are evolved from oar own minds. In reading the thought may be the same and the manner the same, though the phraseology differ. In read- ing our own composition, we are too liable to fall into a read- ing tone — air 'innatural mode of expression. This droning process causes the hearer to lose a large portion of the thought which he would receive were the reading intelligent instead of mechanical. In emotional reading, he receives all the thought, and it is intensified in its conveyance to him. When you desire to read well, be sure to previously familiarize yourself with the words, arrangement of paragraphs and logical connection of all the thoughts contained in the piece of reading. Always hold your book or paper in such a way that you can readily take in a whole line at once. Allow the letters to be about fourteen inches from the eye, not directly below, nor horizontal with the eye, but half-way between these two positions. Look off the book as much as possible. Public Speaking. This is conversation magnified. The same forms of voice are employed as in conversation ; the difference lies in a symmetrical enlargement of the sentences. In this, do not distort, but preserve the form in its simplicity and you will have it in its greatest purity and power. Apply all rules of elocution and rhetoric to your conversation, and you will have the form best suited to public address. Always make a marked distinction between the conversational (or explana- tory) and the oratorical and dramatic portions. Studiously avoid anything like an oratorical style in simple descriptions or narratives. Never appear in public without thorough prepara- tion, and be sure that this is succeeded by a period of rest, that you may be in your best condition. Tone the voice just before beginning your vocal effort. In your approach, do not appear hurried ; but let your manner be graceful and your bearing dig- nified. This will insure respect. Put yourself at ease by a strong mental effort and begin deliberately, gradually warming up with your subject. Never acquire the useless habit of drinking water during a vocal performance. Water will not supply the nat- ural moisture of the vocal organs, and if they are properly used there is no necessity for artificial moistening. Pay special at- tention to the articulation, and let it always be distinct. Deliver she sounds sharply and correctly, and your audience will ap- preciate your efforts, though they may not themselves know wherein lies the charm of the voice to which they listen. DRAMATIC ACTION. Dramatic action differs from oratory, though it employs the same vocal expression. The orator is always himself, in his best condition ; the actor acts an assumed character which would often not be consistent with the dignity of the orator. In oratory we may borrow certain gestures (termed Special Ges- tures) from the art of acting; hence it is necessary for us to be informed as to the significance and proper method of using these gestures. In acting, the moderate step may become a stride. Actors are permitted to move in a lateral direction, while the oratof can only advance and recede from his audience. The actor may also stamp, start or kneel. These demonstrations are forbidden the orator. An erect position is the only one suitable to the dignity of the orator. In acting, grief depresses, and pride throws the body backward. The head is raised in arrogance, inclined in languor or indif- ference, and hung in shame. The head may take the following positions: Inclined, Erect, Assenting, Denying, Shaking, Tossing, Aside, Considered in reference to the direction of the eyes, it may be Averted, Downward, Upward, Around or on Vacancy. The countenance may take the expression of anger, shame, contempt, pride, despair, terror or any other violent passion. In oratory this is not admissible. The hand may take the following positions : Hollow, Hold- ing or Grasping (according to the degree of energy), Applied (palms together), Clasped, Crossed (upon the breast), folded (fingers of right hand between the thumb and forefinger of the left), Enclosed (back of the one within the palm of the other), Touching (points of the thumb and fingers of each hand brought into contact), Wringing (clasped hand, lowered, and separated at wrists, but without fingers disengaged), Enumer- ating (first finger of the right hand laid successively upon first and other fingers of the left). The arms may be Folded (crossed and enclosing each other), Akimbo (one or both hands on hips, elbows extended at one or both sides), Reposed (elbows nearly resting on the hips, one hand holding the wrist of the other — a female position). In designating the manner of motion, Gesture may be con- sidered as Noting (the hand being drawr back and raised, then advanced and by gentle stroke depressed), Projecting (arm thrust forward in the direction in which the hand may be point- ing), Retracting (the arm drawn back preparatory to projecting or to avoid an object), Waving (fingers pointing downward, the hand flung smartly upward), the Flourish (in which the hand describes a circle or part of a circle above the head), the Sweep (the hand making a curved movement, descending from the opposite shoulder and rising high above the head ; or the reverse, changing in the first case from the Supine to the Ver- tical, and in the second from Vertical to Supine ; sometimes a Double Sweep is used, combining both movements), Beckoning (with whole hand or simply the forefinger), Repressing (the op- posite of Beckoning), Advancing (the hand moved slowly for- ward and upward to the horizontal, the whole body aiding the action, and a step in advance being taken), Springing (the hand, having nearly arrived at the limit of the gesture, spruigs suddenly up to it by a quick movement of the wrist), Striking (hand and arm), Bending (preparation for Striking), Recoiling (a return to position after Striking), Throwing (arm flung out- ward in the direction of a person addressed), Clinching (clench- ed hand raised threateningly), Collecting (arm sweeps inward toward the body), Shaking (tremulous motion given to arm and hand), Pressing (the hand being laid upon any part, the elbow is raised and the fingers contracted), Rejecting (vertical hand pushed toward the object, head averted). £_ JM 4» ; BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. W^' BUSINESS^ <-v£_ o V< H- 50CIAL^ f\ Correspondence.: e— E" 1 - «>—4 — ^sg$s^ -•$>— c— 3—9 Letter-Writing in All Its Korms. <-vg_ . A, » ■ - ■ " ^ . -^c y^- -» -^«*-Jt-(i-n-Ji-J»-JV-n--n--n-«-A^^ — M .J-a+o-J. ETTER-WRITING in its true ex- cellence can scarcely be regarded as an art. Instruction may, no doubt, be imparted through the medium of rules, but those appli- cable to the subject are few and, at the same time, of the simplest character. The following observations will, it is hoped, be found of some practical use to young persons, and assist them in avoiding errors and in acquiring a degree of proficiency in epistolary composition. It should always be borne in mind that letter- writing is but "speaking by the pen." The first endeavor of a writer should, therefore, be to express himself as easily and naturally as in conversation, though with more method and conciseness. STYLE. The style should be determined in some measure by the nature of the subject, but in a still greater degree by the relative positions of the writer and the person addressed. On important subjects, the composition is expected to be for- cible and impressive , on lighter subjects, easy and vivacious ; in condolence, tender and sympathetic; in congratulation, lively and joyous. To superiors, it should be respectful ; to inferiors, courteous; to friends, familiar; and to relations, affectionate. An old writer justly remarks: "Much has been said on the epistolary style, as if any one style could be appropriated to the great variety of subjects which are treated of in letters. Ease, it is true, should distinguish familiar letters, written on the common affairs of life, because the mind is usually at ease while they are composed. But even in these, topics incidentally arise which require elevated ex- pression and an inverted construction. Not to raise the style on these occasions is to write unnaturally ; for nature teaches us to express animated emotions of every kind in animated language. The dependent writes unnaturally to a superior in the style of familiarity ; the suppliant writes unnaturally if he rejects the figures dictated by distress. Conversation admits of every style but the poetic ; and what are letters but written conversations ?" Arrangement of Ideas. The purport of every letter should be well considered before its commencement — not only with a view to the attain- ment of a thorough clearness of expression, which is of pri- mary importance, but likewise that the principal points to be discussed may be prominently brought forward, while those of a trivial nature are slightly mentioned. It requires, how- ever, not only a certain amount of tact, but some quickness of perception to avoid the stiffness and formality which are incident to the arrangement of the subject, and which are great defects in letter- writing. Ornamentation. A redundancy of ideas and of language is a common fault with those capable of writing with facility. A» a rule, there- fore, all striving after effect or attempt at ornamentation should be avoided ; and as the chief charm of a letter is its origin- ality, writer* should not avail themselves either of hackneyed K" ~A BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 49 expressions or of ideas borrowed from others. An exhibition of epistolary talent is far less likely to gratify a correspondent than an easy, free and faithful expression of the sentiments of the writer; and by thus expressing himself he will also naturally avoid any excess of flattery or exaggerated profes- sions of regard, so peculiarly objectionable in a letter, and at variance with all delicacy of taste. At the same time, a strict adherence to the natural expression of the thoughts will grad- ually introduce a degree of ease, fluency and force which may be carried to a high degree of perfection. Long Sentences. Unpracticed persons will at first find it desirable to make their sentences as short as possible, that they may have them completely under control. Long sentences, even when well constructed, frequently occasion some degree of obscurity, and are less forcible than short ones. Parentheses, though sometimes necessary, likewise tend to obscure the meaning of a writer, besides weakening the effect of sentences ; they should therefore be avoided as much as possible. COMPOSITION OF LETTERS. As regards the composition of letters, it is generally desir- able to commence with some introductory remarks, not as a mere formality, but for the purpose of conciliating attention to the main subject of communication, which may otherwise strike too abruptly upon the mind of the reader. The intro- duction should be followed by the development of the topics for discussion, according to the importance attaching to each ; and the conclusion should, when occasion requires, be de- voted to the confirmation or summing up of what has been previously stated, and to expressions of regard or affection. Tautology. Tautology, or the repetition of the same words, should be guarded against, as forming a blemish of a striking character. In this effort, the continual need of words of like meaning will soon render a writer familiar with a variety of synonyms ; and the possession of a copious vocabulary will conduce greatly to the general freedom of the composition. Postscripts. Postscripts are generally indicative of thoughtlessness, and should be avoided, except when necessary for the purpose of mentioning some circumstance that has occurred after a letter has been written. To convey any assurance of regard or affection by means of a postscript is a great impropriety, as appearing to imply that the sentiments are so slightly im- pressed upon the mind of the writer as to be almost forgotten. There are special circumstances, however, which may render an expression of feeling in a postscript even more impressive than in the body of the letter; but such cases are exceptional, and must be left to the judgment of the practiced writer. Quotations. Quotations should not be introduced too frequently, for, though a short and appropriate one, occasionally given, is both effective and elegant, yet to give them prominence in a letter appears pedantic and affected. The common use of French or proverbial phrases also offends against good taste. Underlinings. Underlinings and interlineations are objectionable. A well constructed sentence will seldom require the emphasis to be marked by underlining any of the words, and a frequent re- petition of the practice is not complimentary to the under- standing of a correspondent. Any occasion for interlineations may usually be superseded by the exercise of care in writing and by a little forethought. Grammatical Correctness. It is scarcely necessary to observe that correctness in grammar and spelling is of the highest importance, and that no elegance of diction compensates for imperfection in these respects, but rather serves to render more glaring errors so essentially indicative of a defective education. When the rules of grammar are understood, the constant attention to apply them will soon render them familiar, and, at the same time, tend to promote readiness of expression. Abbreviations in spelling, even though warranted by general practice, have a certain appearance of laxity, ana detract much from a good style. Contractions and Abbreviations. Be careful and do not use the character $ except in the title of firms ; as, Brown & Cox, A. T. Scott & Co. As a general thing, characters are to be avoided. The economy of time and space secured by their use hardly compensates for the mutilated appearance of the words and the liability to error involved. Don't, can't, isn't, and other contractions of the same class, are allowable in familiar letters, and where familiar conversation is quoted, but not in any graver style. Figures of Arithmetic. Numbers, except dates and sums of money, should be spelled in full, unless exceeding three words in length. Never write, "I saw 5 birds," "We have 8 cats." Capitals. Capitals should be cautiously used in letter-writing. We should certainly not confine the writer of a letteY to the rigid rules observed in printed literature, because an impor- tant word may sometimes be graced with a capital which in a printed form would begin with a small letter. But an indis- criminate, or even frequent, use of capitals may be taken as a proof of the ignorance of the writer. 7- .M !*•" \ 5° BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. . Punctuation. Proper punctuation is essential to a correct and regular mode of expression. The best general rule to follow is to place the points where a pause would occur in speaking. Dashes should only be used to mark a sudden change in sentiment or in place of parentheses. Correct punctuation not only gives ele- gance to a composition, but it makes its meaning clear, enforces attention to those words or passages which most require it, and, to a great extent, prevents a mis- understanding or wilful misconstruction of the writer's meaning. [Da,,.] Repetition. Avoid repetitions. They always offend the judicious ear, and are seldom proper, except when they enforce any particular meaning or explain it more fully. Form of a Letter. A letter usually consists of six parts, viz.: the date, complimentary address, body of the letter, complimentary closing, signature, superscription. Position of the Parts Letter. of a q^LuA+t**., <&. <@.,$>«fy //^ /<««. [ Complimentary addrett.\ \Body of LctttT.\ (3f fate* €n*- u-u*4fif cf i^cc^M^n^n^u^UT '.'' t/ut^wfUl fed- ttwtj- t^CM-l 6e4wct4- (/Ut€ T f 7 wvwwviAMV^vvw>vsnw many post-offices of the same name In the United States. If you write from a street, mention the name and number of the street, or the name of the hotel. With English writers, it is customary to put the day before the month in dating a letter j as, 1 8th September, instead of September iSth. Custom favors the latter in this country. Proper Modes of Address. The styles of address are varied to suit the occasion, and the terms of compliment at the close of a letter are always considered as mere courtesy or form ; they should not, there- fore, on any occasion be avoided. To a person with whom a writer is not well acquainted he should say " Sir," or "Madam," concluding with "Your obedient servant," or "Yours respectfully;" to those with whom he is tolerably well acquainted, "Dear Sir." or "Dear Madam," with "Yours faithfully ;" and to those with whom he is on familiar VL ■ a -. .- . P ■ fit s : 7 r 1 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 5 1 \ terms, " My dear Sir," or " My dear Madam," with " Yours My dear Cousin : truly," "Yours very truly," "Yours sincerely," or ' Yours I have been so busy — very sincerely." To two or more ladies, married or single, the form of address is "Ladies." To a young unmarried My dear Son : lady, the salutation is usually omitted to avoid the repetition You have not written — of "Miss," the address alone being used as an introduction. The complimentary address is generally written at the top of Materials. a business letter. The names of the different kinds of papers, and when used. Model Headings. are as follows : Mr. William C. Jones, Legal-cap is used in writing all legal documents, articles Washington, D. C. of agreement, etc. The characteristic of legal-cap is a red line running from top to bottom of the sheet. Dear Sir: Bill-paper is used for bills, etc., and is ruled expressly Your letter of the 12th — for the purpose, and usually bears the name and business of the person using it at the top. Mrs, Maria Jansen, Foolscap is used in writing notes, orders, receipts, com- Philadelphia. positions, petitions, subscription headings, etc. Dear Madam : Letter-paper is used for the ordinary letter. I send you herewith — Note and billet paper is used for notes of invitation, parents' excuses for children to teachers, and all brief com- munications. It is the smallest sheet-paper made. Commercial note is used for business letters, and is Miss Edith Blaine, Chicago : You will receive by express — generally narrower than ordinary paper. Titles. Messrs. Harper Bros., Broadway, Titles in America are either social, scholastic or official. New York. Social titles are Mr. (Mister, formerly Master), Sir, Esq. Dear Sirs: (Esquire), Gentlemen (only in the plural). Master (for boys Yours of the 1st inst.— only), Mrs. (Mistress), Madam, Miss, and Ladies. Esq. is properly used only to persons of some prominence. Scholastic titles are those conferred by universities or other Messrs. Harper Bros., institutions of learning. They may follow or precede the Broadway, New York . name, as Prof. W. M. Jones; W. M. Jones, A.M. ; Dr. W. M. Jones; W. M. Jones, M.D. Dear Sirs: Yours of the 26th ult, was — Official titles include titles applied to persons in the civil, military or naval service. The following list illustrates the various titles used for the Messrs. Smith, Beggs !r Co., Chestnut St., different ranks among individuals either in the complimentary Philadelphia. address or superscription on the envelope : Gentlemen : To Royalty— To the King's Most Excellent Majesty. We have none of the goods — To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty. To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. To Her Royal Highness tiie Princess of Wales. To His Royal Highness the Duke of Connaught. To Her Royal Highness the Princess Beatrice. To Nobility — To His Grace the Duke of Devonshire. Messrs. Smith, Beggs Sf Co., Chestnut St., Philadelphia. To Her Grace the Duchess of Devonshire. Gentlemen : We have th e — To the Most Noble the Marquis of Salisbury. To the Most Noble the Marchioness of Salisbury. To the Right Honorable Earl of Carlisle. Miss Lucy Hooper, To the Right Honorable the Countess of Carlisle. Paris, III. : To the Right Honorable Lord Viscount Palmerston. We have received your— To the Right Honorable the Viscountess Palmerston. To the Honorable Baron Crandall. To the Honorable the Baroness Crandall. 1 My dear James : The younger sons of noblemen in England are addressed , Your note of the 10th — as Honorable ; also members of Parliament and other persons . o) / .. \ L H a "■ v- AS= V 52 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. holding certain positions of honor and trust. The elder sons of noblemen take by courtesy the title next in rank below that of their fathers. Baronets are addressed thus : Sir Waiter Scott, Bart. ; and Knights thus : Sir Morton Peto, Kt Clerical Titles. The Pope— His. Holiness Tope Leo XIII. Cardinal— -His Eminence, John, Cardinal McCloskey. Archbishop— Most Rev. Peter R. Kenrick, D.D. Bishop— Rt. Rev. P. J. Ryan, D.D. Vicar-General— -V 'try Rev. Henry Muehlsiepen. Priest or Clergyman — Rev. James Farquhar. Rev. Dr. Amos Foley. Titles Used in the United States. His Excellency— The President of the United States, Governor of any State, Ministers to foreign countries. Honorable — Vice-President of the United States, members of the Cabinet, members of Congress, heads of Departments, Assistant-Secretaries, Comptrollers and Auditors of the Treasury, Clerks of the Senate and House of Representatives, State Senators, Judges, Mayors of cities. Miscellaneous Titles. His Excellency and Mrs. R. B. Hayes. Governor and Mrs. Thos. T. Crittenden. Hon. and Mrs. James G. Blaine. Rev. Dr. and Mrs T. De Witt Talmage. Professor and Mrs J. F. Crunden. Mr. and Mrs. Henry Ames. Drs. John M. and Chester H. Thorn. Drs. Walter C. and Mary C. Williams. Mr. W. T. and Mrs. Dr. E. C. James. Rev. H. E. and Mrs. Dr. E. C. Howe. Rev. Mrs. William Bass. Rev. Mrs. W. H. Crow. Rev. Jane H. Moon. Rev. Miss Jane H. Moon. The Envelope. The superscription on the envelope should be written very plainly. It is fashionable to write it as near the right-hand under angle or corner of the envelope as convenient The full name and title of the person addressed, with place of res- idence, written out fully, including town, county, State, and country, if it goes abroad. The number of the post-office box, or the door number and the name of the street, or the name of the county, may stand at the lower left-hand corner. P. ft Sex jtx). <<=%&». ^i^uu. &/ci >i . In writing to the President of the United States, he is addressed on the envelope thus : 'VWW\NVWl> ± I BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. S3 ^ The Governor of a State is thus addressed : u . ^e^i^u^ (iT(ir<38UtMe*uJe*t, When a person's official designation is given in full it forms the next line below the name. A letter of introduction should be addressed in this manner : Qfy.c@£u&.®!Z 4 Jl tft 4 •mct&yi. Introducing Mr, Edward Granger, 0/ Charleston, S. C. When a letter is sent by a friend the name of the bearer it written on the lower left-hand corner. 8^5 +- - ■■/■'-•■'■ . o *° 5^9 GENERAL HINTS. J ^w L -^ Z^ Be sure you affix the propef stamp to every letter before you send it. Alerter will not be forwarded unless it is prepaid at least one full rate. In writing' a letter the answer to which is of more benefit to your- self than the person to whom you write, enclose a postage stamp for the reply. A letter of introduction or recommendation should never be sealed, as the bearer to whom it is given ought to know the contents. As a rule, every letter, unless insulting in its character, requires an answer. To neglect to answer a letter when written to is as uncivil as to neglect to reply when spoken to. In the reply, acknowledge first the receipt of the letter, mentioning its date, and afterwards consider all the points requiring attention. In business and ceremonious letters do not write on both sides. A person in -nourning should never write a congratulatory letter on mourning paper. Either ruled or plain paper may be used, but unruled or plain paper is more stylish, and is to be preferred. Avoid all erasures or blots, even if compelled to rewrite your letter. Letters of compliment should always be written in the third person. Avoid writing with a pencil. Never write other than business letters on a half sheet of paper. Owing to the almost universal use of gummed envelopes, the use of sealing-wax has become nearly obsolete, though it adds a much more refined appearance to a note than simply closing it with adhesive gum. A neat little seal of red wax for a gentleman, and of gold, blue, or other fancy color, for a lady, is elegant and appropriate. The envelope should be adapted both in size and color to the paper. The stamp should be placed on the upper right-hand corner of the face of the envelope. The stamp should be right end up, and the edges of the stamp should be parallel with the edges of the envelope, as putting a stamp upside down or awry indicates carelessness, and is disrespectful to the person to whom it is sent. y^- r- 1 V rv 54 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. :.: JHE characteristics oi the commercial style are concise- ness and perspicuity. With the exception of a few terms of compliment, scarcely a superfluous word should be used. It is, however, not at all necessary to sacrifice correctness of style or language. A careful simplicity and the clearness of expression necessary to convey the ideas to be imparted, combined with the rejection of all words not absolutely indispensable, while giving rise to a forcible style, form in themselves some of the chief essentials of true elegance. Persons unpracticed in correspondence, before writing a letter of any length, should note down the several heads of the matter forming the subject of communication, so that the various points may be brought forward in proper consecutive order. If several subjects are to' be alluded to, they should be kept perfectly distinct, as the proper division of a letter into paragraphs is of the utmost importance. A confusion of sentences not only looks extremely ill, but is very likely to lead to a misapprehension of the writer's meaning, and to result in delay or injury, or, at all events, to necessitate further correspondence. In replying to a letter, each point should be taken up as it arises, and be discussed in a separate paragraph ; and each paragraph should be so clear and unambiguous that its pur- port may in no way be doubted. All business letters should be answered the same day they are received. In all letters of business, it is customary to write the name and address on the first page, as otherwise, if the superscription were lost, it would not appear to whom the letter had been written. Business letters should always be written upon plain paper. To use gilt-edged or any other fancy paper for this purpose is accounted the extreme of vulgarity. From a Young Man Commencing' Business to a Whole- sale House, irith Order. Ckkenville, III., July j, 18S3. Mr sirs. Gray Is* Wardwtll, Now York. Gentlemen: Having commenced business here on my own ac- count, with every prospect of success, I shall he glad to open an account with your house, doubting not it will be to our mutual advantage. With this view, I note below an order, which I shall thank you to execute with the least possible delay, and on your best terms as to goods and prices. I beg to refer you to my late employer, Henry Weatherby, of Chicago, who will satisfy you as to my integrity and trustworthiness; but, a* this is a first transaction, on your for- warding me an invoice of the goods, deducting discount for cash, I shall remit a sight draft on a bank In your city for the amount per return mail. Requesting your usual prompt attention, I am, gentlemen, Yours respectfully, John Hardaway. Reply from Wholesale House, vrlth Invoice. New York, July 8th, iSSj. Dear Sir : Agreeably to your esteemed order of the md inst., we have the pleasure to enclose invoice of goods amounting to S , subject to five per cent discount for prompt cash. We may mention that, from the opinion entertained of you by Mr. Weatherby, we have no hesitation in opening the account, and at once placing you on our best terms. The parcels have been dis- patched this day per Adams Express, and we trust they will arrive safely and receive your approval. We believe the goods will bear a favorable comparison with those of any house in the trade, and desire that you should satisfy yourself as to value and quantities before remitting settlement. We are, dear Sir, Yours respectfully. Gray * Wardwell. To Mr. John Hardaway, GrttnvilU, III. From Country Merchant Complaining of Quality of his Goods. Waukesha, Wis., Jan. 14, *8,j. Dear Sir : Since I entered into business transactions with you, It has been my invariable course to act with integrity and honor, expect- ing the same conduct in return. Until lately, indeed, I had no cause to complain ; but the goods I had last week from you, as well as the parcel just delivered, are so inferior in quality that I hesitate to offer them to any of my customers. As I can have much better value else - where, and I do not sell job goods on any account, I am reluctantly obliged to advise you that, unless you can send me others In their stead, I must withdraw my correspondence altogether. Meantime, both parcels are laid aside awaiting your orders. An immediate answer will oblige Yours respectfully, Abeam Matthews. To Mr. Jamis Santo, Nrm York. To a Publisher's Firm, Proposing to Open an Account. Cincinnati, Jan. 1st, iSSj. Gentlemen: As our business is rapidly on the Increase, we are desirous of opening an account with your house, and shall feci obliged by your t-ansmitting us a trade list of your publications, as well as some of your general catalogues. Our usual terms of settle- ment are as follows : (here state them). Should they be agreeable to your house, the favor of an early attention to our request will oblige, Gentlemen, Your obedient servants, Benson A Co. To Mtitn. Scriomrr ** Co., Soto York. 7- V BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 55 V t UR examples under this head will be useful as afford- ing specimens of an appropriate style to be adopted in answering advertisements or in applying for situa- tions. On such occasions, while the proper deference due to an employer should be exhibited, it is desirable to preserve that tone of self-respect which, the employes should bear in mind, has a much better effect than any subservient expres- sions. From a Youth Applying for a Junior Clerkship. Albany, Jan. 16th, 18S0. Gentlemen : Understanding by your advertisement in the Herald of the 15th inst. that you are requiring the services of a junior clerk, I beg respectfully to offer myself as a candidate for the appointment. I am fifteen years of age, and from my attainments in various branches of education, I believe myself qualified for the duties required. I may mention that I am not altogether unacquainted with book- keeping and accounts, having for some months past assisted my father, Mr. Phineas Kincaid, lumber merchant, in the counting* house department of his business. Should you entertain my application, I beg to refer you to Mr. Willis Bancker, of Walnut St., Philadelphia, and Mr. Paul Parker, of Chambers St., New York, who will have pleasure in testifying to my character and abilities. I am, gentlemen, Your most obedient servant, Philip Kincaid. To Messrs. Cole &• Taylor, Trenton, N. Y. Reply of the Firm. Trenton, N. J., July 19th, 1883. Sir: Having made inquiries of Mr. Parker, one of the references mentioned in your letter of the 16th inst,, we are satisfied with his recommendation. Before making an arrangement, however, we should desire a personal interview, and should, therefore, be glad if you could make it convenient to call at our counting-house on Satur- day forenoon at eleven o'clock. Yours, Cole & Taylor. To. Mr. Philip Kincaid, Albany, N. Y. Application for Situation as Housekeeper. No. 20 Canal St., New York. Box 301, Post-Office: I beg respectfully to offer myself as a can- didate for the situation advertised as above in to-day's Herald. I am at present, and have been for five years, housekeeper in the family of Mr. Hamilton, 2314 Madison Avenue, to whom I can confidently refer you as to my character and qualifications for the duties required. I am also permitted to refer you to John Houseman, Esq., Troy, N. Y., with whom I served two years in the same capacity previous to my engagement with Mr. Hamilton. My age is thirty-two years, and I am unmarried. I am your most obedient servant, Elizabeth Ellis. From a Nursery Governess in Answer to an Advertisement. Germantown, Pa., March 4th, 1883. Madam: i Understanding that you have a vacancy for a nursery governess for your three daughters, I beg to state that I have occu- pied that position for three years in the house of Mr. Anthony, and only left in consequence of the family going to reside in the West, I am well acquainted with the usual routine of an English education, and have sufficient knowledge of French, drawing and music to teach the first rudiments, and attend to the practicing in the absence of the teacher, which, I presume, is all you would require. I enclose some testimonials which, I venture to hope, will satisfy you as to my character and competency for the office. Should you honor me with your confidence, I assure you that neither kindness nor exertion shall be wanting to do justice to your children, without exercising undue severity or unkindness. Awaiting the favor of your reply, I remain, Madam, Your obedient servant, Helen Holmes. To Mrs. Jeremiah Borie, Philadelphia. Application to a Clergyman for a Testimonial. Beeker St., Boston, May 4, '82. Reverend Sir: Being a candidate for the appointment of matron in the New York Hospital, I beg to solicit the favor of a testimonial from you as to my general conduct, which you have had opportunities of observing in your capacity of director and visitor of the institution where I, at present, fill a responsible place. And should you deem me worthy of the more important situation referred to, anything you can do to forward my interests will be ever gratefully acknowledged by, reverend Sir, Your dutiful and humble servant, Eliza Hazlbton. To the Rev. John Snowaen, Riitenhouse Square, Boston. Application for a Situation as Gardener. No. 231 Canal St., New York, June 3d, '83. Sir : Understanding that you want a gardener, I beg to offer myself as a candidate to fill the vacancy. I have had constant experience both in nursery grounds and private gardens, and am thoroughly acquainted with the management of the green-house and hot house. I inclose some testimonials from gentlemen with whom I have lived, which, I hope, will prove satisfactory. The last situation I filled was with Mr. Ogden, who will, I believe, speak favorably of my character and fitness for the office. I am a married man, with a family of three children, and my age is thirty-five. Should you entertain my appli- cation, a letter directed to the above address will meet with prompt attention from. Sir, your most obedient servant, ^ ,, ... James O'Reillt. To Henry Houghton, Esq., Troy, M. T. / \ 35- 'lv 56 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. , N old writer says: "We all delight to talk of our- selves; and it is only in letters, in writing to a friend, that we can enjoy that conversation, not only without reproach or interruption, but with the highest propriety and mutual satisfaction. In such letters, above all things, a natural and lucid expression of the sentiments of the writer is necessary. Friends expect our thoughts and feelings, not a letter filled with unmeaning verbosity ; and though, where excellence is aimed at, considerable attention must be paid to the disposition of the words and sentences, it must not be at the sacrifice of the energy resulting from a free expression of the sentiments. Let the thoughts first be mastered, and the words be suggested by the sentiments, without the slightest affectation of manner. The ease of diction, so essential, may, in a measure, be acquired by familiarity with the best English authors, and an approach thus made to that perfection which may be said to be attained only by the happy union of ease and freshness with the dignity of true friendship." It is a common saying with young friends, as an excuse for remissness in their correspondence, that they have nothing to write about; but surely, between friends, there must be a similarity of taste on some subjects, and a discussion of their sentiments and opinions on any one of them, in a course of correspondence, would be acceptable and also valuable, as tending to their mutual improvement. But this division of our subject comprises also the letters passing between relatives and others united by ties of affection — excepting only the correspondence of lovers, and of parents with their children, which form distinct chapters. In such letters, the heart speaks and the imagination is most eloquent. Letters of courtesy should be written on the best paper. For those to gentlemen the paper should be neither figured nor tinted. To a Lady Friend, with a Ring. Cincinnati, October 4O1, 1SS1. ' My Dear Miss Atkins: As a ring was adopted by the ancients as ft symbol of eternity, I venture to request your acceptance of the accompanying little circlet as an emblem of esteem and affection on my p.irt, which, I am sure, will be perpetual. Please receive it in the spirit in which it Is tendered. Place it on your finder, and let me hope that as often as you look at it you will be pleasantly reminded of one win. has experienced much happiness in your society, and who Is now, as heretofore, Your old and sincere friend, Henry Lewis. The Reply, Returning the Present. West Thirtieth St., New York, Oct. loth, iSSa. Dear Sir : I hope you will not be offended at the liberty I have taken in returning your kind present, as I make it ft rule never to receive anything in this way from gentlemen. I assure you that, while my sentiments of respect and esteem are as cordial as ever, I cannot allow myself, even on the score of friendship, to infringe on a hitherto inviolate principle; and I, therefore, tru t the rejection of your valuable and kindly-meant gift will not be thought unfeeling or Impolite. True good-will and esteem, indeed, are superior to such external evidences, and I am satisfied your generous mind will not for a moment doubt the sincerity of those feelings I continue to cherish toward you. I am, dear Sir, your faithful well-wisher, Lizzie Atkins. To Mr. Henry Lewis, Cincinnati, Ohio. k Young Lady Congratulating an Aunt on Her Birthday. RlTTENHOUSE SQUARE, PHILADELPHIA, January 10th, 1SS2. My Dear Aunt: To-morrow will be the fiftieth anniversary of your natat day, and I should dj injustice to my feelings were I to permit the occasion to pass without expressing my sincere congratu- lations and wishing you many happy returns of the day. Aside from the near tie of relationship which exists between us, I shall ever cherish with ftft IlllHS of gratitude and affection the remembrance of the very many favors and kindnesses I have received at your hands. Conse- quently it is only natural I should feel a gratelul interest In each return of this happy anniversary. Fortunate, indeed, shall 1 esteem myself if, at your age, I can review my past life with equal satisfaction, for, after all, there is no happiness so complete as that afforded by looking back up:m a well-spent life. Birthdays are the m.lcstones which mark the progress of the traveller along the difficult highway of life, and happy is the individual who can pass each one without a sigh of regret or a feeling of mistrust in the future. With my best wishes for your future happiness, I remain. Your affectionate niece, To Mrl. Mary Page, Fifth Averne, -V. 1 '. Kitty Pine. To a Friend, on Being Married. New York, Jan. 4th, iSSa. My Dear Phil: I believe there are certain stereotyped phrases in which it Is customary to congratulate newly-married folks; but, utterly disregarding all rules and regulations in such cases made and provided, I wish you joy in the familiar words which our friendship warrants and my feelings suggest. If your married lift is half as happy as I desire it to be, you will have good cause to be satisfied with your lot. Present my kind regards and compliments to your bride. Wishing you many happy returns of the anniversary of your wedding-day, I remain. Your friend, Walter Cooper. To Mr. Philip Brandon, Chief, III. 4h^ pIHp tffig Letters of ^ Friendly Counsel and Remonstrance. -*5^»0 ■+- V 5 ^, PERHAPS no class of letters demand more delicate treatment than such as one friend sends to another with words of counsel or remonstrance, either in com- mon emergencies or on subjects of general importance. We give a variety of examples. One is from the correspondence of Franklin, and is worthy ef study as a model of the instruc- tive class, when the writer is the acknowledged superior of his correspondent in knowledge and experience. From Dr. Benjamin Franklin to a Young Lady. My Dear Friend: I send you the books I mentioned to you last night. I beg you to accept them as a small mark of my esteem and friendship. They are written in the familiar, easy manner for which the French are so remarkable, and afford a good deal of philosophical and practical knowledge, unembarrassed with the dry mathematics used by more -,xact reasoners* but which are apt to discourage young beginners. I would advise you to read with a pen in your hand, and enter in a little book short hints of what you find that is curious or that -nay be useful, for this will be the best method of imprinting such particulars on your memory, where they will be ready either for prac- tice on some future occasion, if they are matters of utility, or, at least, to adorn and improve your conversation, if they are rather points of curiosity. And as many of the scientific terms are such as you can- not have met with in your common reading, and may, therefore, be unacquainted with, I think it would be well to have a good dictionary at hand, to consult immediately when you meet with a word you do not comprehend the meaning of. This may at first seem troublesome and interrupting, but it is a trouble that will daily diminish, as you will daily find less and less occasion for your dictionary as you become more acquainted with the terms ; and, in the meantime, you will read with more satisfaction, because with more understanding. When any point occurs on which you would be glad to have more information than your book affords you, I beg that you would not in the least apprehend that I should think it a trouble to receive and answer your questions. It will be a pleasure and no trouble. For though I may not be able, out of my own little stock of knowledge, to afford you what you require, I can easily direct you to the book where it may be found. Adieu, and believe me ever, my dear friend, Yours affectionately, B. Franklin. To a Friend who has Traduced You. No. 21 Madison Av., New York, October 12th, 1882. Sir : I have it from good authority that you have spoken of me in most unfriendly terms to our mutual acquaintances. At first I could scarcely believe it, and hoped that there was some mistake ; but the proofs of your misstatements and misrepresentations are too strong to be doubted. What could have been your motive for thus slander- ing me, I cannot conceive. As you know full well that there were no grounds for the disparaging assertions you have made, the least you can do is to repair the evil by disabusing the minds of those to whom you have traduced me. This I shall expect of you, and without delay. Yours, etc., Charles Singleton. To Sidney Delaney, Esq., Wall St., N. Y. Answer to the Foregoing. Wall St., Oct. 13th, 18S2. Dear Sir: I think the remarks to wh*ch vou refer have been taken more seriously than they should have been by the parties who re- ported them to you. Still, I do not deny that, under the influence of vexation, for which I now believe there was not sufficient cause, I did speak of you in terms of which I am now ashamed. I therefore owe you an apology, and make it freely. Any false impressions concern- ing your character and conduct which may have been derived from my words, I will take care to remove by a full explanation. Hoping that this candid acknowledgment will satisfy you, I remain, Sir, Truly yours, Sidney Delaney. To Charles Singleton, Esq., No. 21 Madison Av. From an Aged Lady to her Niece. " The Highlands," Sept. 4th, '82. Dear Niece: The sincere love and affection which I have for your indulgent father, and ever had for your virtuous mother when alive, together with the tender regard I have for your future happi- ness and welfare, have prevailed on me to inform you of what I have heard of your unguarded conduct, and the too great freedom you take with Mr. Martindale. You have been seen with him at the theatres, in the Central Park, and other public places. Don't imagine that I write this from a desire to find fault, but believe me, your familiarity with him gives me no small concern. His character is extremely bad, and he has acted in the most ungenerous manner to two or three young ladies of my acquaintance who entertained too favorable an opinion of his honor. It is possible, as he has an uncle of consider- able fortune, that you mi*.y be tempted to imagine his addresses an offer to your advantage; but that is greatly to be questioned, for I have heard that he is deeply in debt, and also that he is privately engaged to a rich old wiJow at Flushing. Let me prevail on you, dear niece, to avoid his company; for, notwithstanding your purity of heart, your good name may be compromised by such open acts of imprudence. I have no other motive but an unaffected zeal for your interest and welfare, and I flatter myself you will not be offended with the liberty here taken by your sincere friend And affectionate aunt, Sarah Glasgow. The Young Lady's Answer. St. Luke's Place, N. Y., Sept. 5, '8a. Dear Aunt: I received your letter, and when I consider your reasons for writing, thankfully acknowledge you my friend. It is true I have been at those public places you mention with Mr. Martin- dale, but was utterly ignorantof his true character. He did make me proposals of marriage, bift I told him I would do nothing without m^ father's consent. He came to visit me this morning, when I told him that a regard for my reputation obliged me never to see him any more, nor even correspond with him by letter, and you may depend on my adhering to that resolution. In the meantime, I return you a thousand thanks for your friendly advice. I shall leave New York in about six weeks, and will call to see you alter I have been at my father's. I am, dear aunt, your affectionate niece, To Mrs. Sarah Glasgow. Bella Burns. VL 58 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. (T- 2 '♦' — ^■*'*V3>),,''iSV>'"« ' ^ ♦ , ,- e> <^@ «^S'i >&- Letters Soliciting Advice or Friendly Favors. ^c e^ ♦ $Q^k±-&i> ■<- -*j «-^tS~ s F rj-^C ETTERS of this kind, although they do not relate i jjjt^ to transactions which bear a commercial value, are i»- ' generally connected with business and require prompt attention. Introductions, for example, are often of the highest value, and as such favors can always be reciprocated, they are seldom refused or neglected by men acquainted with the usages of society. Such letters may be written by persons having only a business acquaintance, or may pass between mutual friends. Soliciting a Loan from an Intimate Friend. Broad St., Philadelphia, May II, '83. My Dear Sir: A disappointment in the receipt of some money due has exposed me to a temporary embarrassment. The sum which would extricate me from this painful difficulty is not large, as $400 would be amply sufficient to release me from my present pressure. I have so great an aversion to borrowing; money from a professional lender that I prefer the course of soliciting the aid of some well- known friend. I have thought of several, but none with a greater degree of confidence than yourself. Can you grant me, then, the ac- commodation of the above sum without in any way intrenching on your own convenience? If you can, I believe I may rely on your readiness to do so; and you may in turn depend upon it being reim- bursed with the strictest punctuality by the 5th of April. A speedy reply to this request will extremely oblige, my dear Sir, Yours most sincerely, Howard Thomas. To Mr. Let Williams, ai Pint St., Philadelphia. In Answer to the Above, on Account of Incapability. No. ai Pine St., Philadelphia, May 13, '83. My Dear Sir : I truly regret that my circumstances will not per- mit me to oblige a friend so dear to me as yourself; but at present I am in great need of money, and last Friday I was compelled to borrow to meet a pressing obligation. I, therefore, do not have it within my power to comply with your request. Trusting that you may be more successful in some other quarter, and with feelings of regret at my own inability to render you a service which you might otherwise readily command, believe me to remain. Ever your sincere friend, Lee Williams. To Howard Thomas, Esq., Broad St., Philadelphia. Friendly Letter of Introduction. Chicago, Feb. 4th, 1S80. Mt Dear Sir : This will introduce to you my esteemed friend Mr. Henry W. Bonsall, whom, I am sure, you will be happy to know. Any attention you may have it in your power to bestow during his visit to Boston will be gratefully reciprocated by Your friend, Chauncey Gardener. To Raymond llowtlls, Esq., Boston, Soliciting a Subscription for the Benefit of a Widow. Logan Square, Philadelphia, April 4, *8a. Madam : I venture to solicit your benevolent aid on behalf of aa urgent and most deserving case. The widow of John Wood, a laborer on the Hudson River Railroad, who was killed by an accident on the line, has been left by his untimely end with a family of six helpless children. The two youngest are at present afflicted with a dangerous fever, and require their mother's sole care, thus preventing her from obtaining employment or doing anything for the support of those depending on her. As Mrs. Wood is a respectable and well-behaved woman, and la very much averse to applying for ward assistance, a very moderate sum is being raised to relieve her immediate necessities, and, if possible, to establish her in a small shop as a means of future sub- sistence. Trusting you will excuse this intrusion, and that I may have the pleasure of adding your name to the accompanying sub- scription-list, I am. Madam, Your most obedient servant, Jane Heaslxy. To Mrt. Kathtrine Roosevelt, Fifth Avenue, N. Y. Answer to the Foregoing. Mrs. Roosevelt has received Mrs. Headley's letter, and is happy In being able to assist with her mite so worthy an object, and is gratified in placing her name on the subscription-list for five dollars, which sum is herewith enclosed. Mrs. Headley will oblige by a note of acknowledgment. Fipth Avenue, N. Y., April 5th, 1S81. From a Gentleman to his Friend, Requesting the Loan of a Book. * INI.LESIDB," Oct. loth, 18S3. Sir: When last at your house you called my attention to a book entitled " The Origin of Species," which I remember as a work of so much Interest that I feel much inclined to peruse it, and should esteem it a great favor if you would lend it to me. I will take great care of it and return it in a few days, as I have at present abundant leisure for reading. I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, John Carter. To Nathan Shrwtll, Elf., " Tho Oaks." Affirmative Answer to the Foregoing. " The Oaks," Oct. nth, 1SS3. Dear Sir : You are quite welcome to the volume you express a wish to see; but I must ask you to let me have it by the middle of next month, as I shall then have occasion to use it for some literary purposes. Believe me, dear Sir, Yours very truly, Nathan Shbwbll. To JUkm CnrUr, Esq., " Inghside," sV. V. 7i K ^LJus. BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 59 Vf" Letters of Sympathy and Condolence. ■o fr ij p lj if 1} if tj -jf. \ \if fj if. tj if v 1 t T t-4 o^. I rr>(ETTERS of this class are among the more important mIlCj °f those which friendship and affection dictate. <5^ r ~' Their composition should be more studied than ordi- nary letters of friendship. The most important rule is to avoid mere conventionalities. In the composition of such there must be no high-flown words or expressions, no strain- ing after effect. If heart speaks not to heart in the simplest, most soothing language of nature, words will to the sufferer prove cold and unimpressive — worse than useless. Be it ever bome in mind that, to the afflicted, the mourner in spirit, "there is only one true source of consolation, that we shall meet those we love in another and a better world, where the wicked cease from troubling and the weary are at rest" Courtesy requires that the letters of condolence to a friend, on the death of a relative, should be written on black-edged paper and sealed with black wax, even though you should have been unacquainted with the deceased. To a Lady on the Death of Her Child. Chicago, Jan. nth, 1880. My Dear Hester: The painful news of the removal of your dear child has just reached me, and I hasten to express my affectionate sympathy with you under so severe an affliction. Aias ! how fresh in my memory is the recollection of the liveliness and innocence of the lovely departed 1 All that was mortal is changed now, and clouded forever; but how great is your comfort in the well- grounded assurance that the Good Shepherd, who " careth for his flock,*' has taken the gentle lamb into his own fold ! Your child has gone to him who said, " Suffer little children to come unto me," and we know not how soon our hour may come. Oh, that we may all meet in that brighter and happier world, where sorrow and sin and suffering are alike unknown 1 That a higher than- human power may console and support you under this heavy stroke is the earnest prayer of, My dear Hester, Yours sincerely, Arabella Winters. To Mrs. Hester Appleby, Columbus, O. Reply to the Foregoing. Columbus, O., Jan. 13th, 1880. My Dear Arabella: It is indeed true, although yet "we can scarcely believe it. A little while ago our darling child was regarded as the strong one of the family, overflowing with happy animal spirits — the fountain of joy in the house. Now her poor earthly garment is laid in the early grave, and her generous, loving, truthful spirit, with its mine of unwrought wealth, can be with us only by the eye of faith. Wonderful is this dispensation of a heavenly Father's chastening hand! Yet can we see many merciful preparations for it, the foremost being the dear child's own inner life; and through the trials of the past five or six weeks there have been mercies In. numerable, tempering the wind to the shorn lamb. Our hope and prayer is that, though seen no longer, she may be a ministering angel in our home. "To do good and distribute" was her element when visibly present. It may be that her desire to bless those she so fondly loved may only have received a deeper and more inward power. Believe me ever Most truly yours, Hester Appleby. To Mrs, Arabella Winters, Chicago, III. On a Sndden Reverse of Fortune. Stamford, Ct., July 6th, 18S0. My Dear Friend: Hackneyed phrases of condolence never yet comforted a man in the hour of trouble, and I am not going to try their effect in your case. And yet, let me say, in heartfelt earnest, that I was deeply pained to hear of your sudden and unexpected reverse of fortune. Misfortune is very hard to bear when it falls upon one like a flash of lightning from a clear sky, without any warning. But do not be discouraged. When Senator Benton saw the work of many years consumed in ten minutes, he took the matter coolly, went to work again, and saw the damage repaired before his death. So, I hope, will you. There is no motto like " Try again " for those whom fate has stricken down. Besides, there are better things than wealth, even in this world, to say nothing of the next, where we shall neither buy nor sell. Cheer up, and believe me, as of old, Your friend, Willis Goodhelp. To Mr. Harvey Brown, Boston, Mass. To a Lady on the Death of Her Hnsband. New York, December nth, i8Sa. My Dear Mrs. James: Although unwilling to intrude on the sacred privacy of grief until its first pangs have, in some measure, subsided, I participate so sincerely in your affliction that I cannot longer keep myself from writing. And yet, so weak and ineffectual is all human consolation, that I scarcely know how to express the deep sense I have of the heavy stroke under which you are prostrated. Yours is, indeed, a sad bereavement; but I doubt not, from your strong faith in Him who "doeth all things well," you will be sustained and comforted by his own consolations, which are " neither few norsmall." The recollections of him who has so lately departed must be so full of painful regret, that I will not dwell on this dark side of the picture, but rather look to its brighter aspect, in the hope that he has gone to a happier sphere, and that what is loss to you is to him " unspeakable gain." 1 add no more but my fervent prayer that you may be divinely comforted in your sore trial, and be roused from your grief by claims of duty to those whose welfare demands your care and affection. Believe me, my dear Mrs. James, Your sympathizing friend, Jane Harvey. To Mrs. Henry James, Nantucket, Mass. Al 6o BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. Letters Between Parents and Children. < I:*: '*:• I! lUULMI); JlILill JIlOIIIUlilLX "^■"^ fr iif S fc^ - jft ^ a jTp-^ETTERS expressing the feelings of children toward s|lfr7 their parents, and the anxious affection of parents for 3 • ' their children, afford themes of the most interesting character, and examples of the most perfect confidence. In style, they have the widest range ; 4 « from grave to gay, from lively to severe." Children away from home, in the excitement of new scenes and new acquaintances, may for a time forget and neglect their parents; but moments must recur reminding them of their affectionate solicitude, and in trouble and affliction mak- ing them yearn for a sympathy they may then, only in its absence, thoroughly appreciate ; and it is at such times that a letter reveals the heart of the writer and moves that of the parent Children should, however, accustom themselves to write regularly to their parents, and they should express them- selves in the same easy, cheerful way that they would do in speaking at home. The only rule we think it necessary to lay down is the propriety of preserving a due regard to the relationship in which the writers are placed to each other. A father, when writing to a son, should preserve his superior- ity by a gentle degree of authority, and a son should never lose sight of the manner in which he can best express his sense of filial authority. From a Father to his Son at School. Tremont St., Boston, Sept. 23rd, 1SS3. My Dear Son: lam delighted to hear of your progress, and send you a little remiUance of pocket money to prove to you that I am ever ready to give encouragement when it is deserved. You must always bear in mind that upon your career at school much of your future life depends. To waste the precious hours of youth is to make prepara- tion for a useless and dishonorable old age; whereas by steady Industry, care of that health with which God has happily blessed you, and submission to those who have the best right, as well as the best inclination, to advise you for your good, you may hope to ripen into a respectable and useful member of society, and to render yourself At to encounter those responsibilities which fall to every man's lot. Your mother unites in hearty wishes that you may go on as you have begun, and that your whole life may prove a credit to yourself and a comfort to us. Give our best respects to your excellent preceptor, and believe me Your affectionate father, Jamxs McIIenry. To Matter William McHenry, Nazareth //all, Naearetk, Pa* From a Boy at School to Both rarents. Nazareth, Dec. 4th, 1SS3. Mr Dear Parents. It will doubtless give you much pleasure to learn that, owing to the unremitting attention of the Rev. Mr. Kluge, I have made such satisfactory progress that I have not only been re- moved one class higher in the school, but have carried off the second prize for Latin verse. I sincerely hope that I may continue sufficiently industrious to keep up all the expectations you have formed of me, and which you have spared no pains or expense to realize. With mingled feelings of regret at leaving my kind preceptor and of delight at the prospect ol our speedy meeting for the holidays, I remain, my dearest parents, With kindest love to ail at home. Your affectionate son, William McHevkY. To Mr. and Mr t. McHenry, Tremont St., Botton. From a Young Lady to her Mother. Boston, Mass., June Sth, *3i. My Dear Mamma: From what you know of Boston, you will not be surprised to hear that I have enjoyed an incessant round of gaiety and pleasure. My health, too, is completely recruited, and my friends ar-: so kind that I feel almost at home. But I have another serious matter to confess to you, at which, I hope, you will not feel angry. It seems almost ungrateful to think of loving any one but you; but oh, Mamma, if you saw Harry Leaning, you would forgive me, I am sure. He is so h.indiome, so gentle in his manners, and yet so sensible and so accomplished ! We met at a party given by your old friend, Mrs. Grayson, and he scarcely quitted my side the whole evening. Mrs. Grayson has so high an opinion of him that she repeatedly invited him to her house, until his visits have become of almost daily occurrence. He is most honorable and straightforward, and only waits permission to write to y<>u, in order to give you full particulars as to his condition and prospects. Forgive me, dear mamma, when I tell you that my feelings are deeply enlisted in his favor, and that I feel as if much of my future happiness depended on o.ir union. I wish von were here to counsel and advise me, for never before did I so much feel my own heart master of my reason . I hope you will write directly or come immediately to your affectionate but anxious child, Minnie Howson. To Mrt. Gertrude Howton, Fi/lk Av., A". K The Mother's Reply. Firm Avenue, June 10th, •8*. Mr Dear Child: Make yourself perfectly at ease as to my consent to anything that will promote your happiness. If Mr. Lenning prove to be what you represent, my fondest wishes, that you might meet a desirable partner in life, will be realized. At the same time, do not be too hasty to give an unqualified assent to his proposals, but take time to study his character and disposition through a longer acquaint* ance. I shall be in Boston on the 15th, and I shall be delighted, not only to meet my dear child again, but to be Introduced to the man whom she has thought *o worthy of her affections. Your ever loving mother, Gertrude Howson. Te Mitt Minnie Hoveton, /Jetton, Matt. & _\ BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. ^ £*. ^mili Erui: itiimi imtiiir iff f ■iiinllii tti iiirm i r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 rn m nil f I III 11 1 1 1 mil ri 1 1 r mtiti nr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 nif mi =*:•£ •£•{• *:**>;• *>.•»:««•«.«:* •:••:••:•:•:••:••:••:•:•:- -t •:••:• •:• •:• •:• •:• ♦ •:• •:• •:• •:■ •:■ •? * ■:■ •:• •:• ■:• •:■ •> •:• ■:■ J •:• •:• * * •:• •:• •:• -:• ■:■ ••- ■■• fHE form of the note is most frequently adopted by ladies, who in this way generally issue invitations to •parties. It is, however, on many general occasions extremely useful, as in returning thanks for any courtesy shown, or when any misunderstanding has arisen between friends, in which case it tends to guard against personalities. It is a form useful, also, as being intermediate between the distant and the familiar styles, though it is not usually em- ployed when the communication is of any length. Notes must be written in the third person throughout, any departure from this rule, either in allusion to the writer or to his corre- spondents, being a fault of the most glaring kind. It is neces- sary, also, to avoid the too frequent use of the personal pronouns, which may be effected by occasionally repeating the names of writer aud correspondent when the length of the note requires this expedient. The date and the address of the writer should always be at the foot of the note. The established forms for notes of invitation to dinner, to evening parties, etc., are given under the division of Etiquette. A note of invitation from an intimate friend may be appropri- ately written in whatever style the degree of mutual under- standing between the parties may justify. The chief reason for introducing this class of letters is to point out that they should always be definite, however brief, and however freely written. The best guide in these cases is to consider for a moment the time and circumstances under which the letter will be received. How often has unnecessary trouble and doubt been caused by a note without date or even the day of the week, inviting the recipient to come and dine with the family to-morrow ! Another infallible recipe for obscurity in this class of notes is to write on a Tuesday afternoon, for example, and write your friend to come next Wednesday. An Inyitation to a Bachelor Party. Sept. aoth, 1883. Mv dear Alf: My festive self and half-a-dozen other good fellows are going to devote a few hours on Thursday evening to the enjoyment of a few glasses of wine, a game of euchre, and so on. I hope you will make one, as we have not enjoyed " the feast of reason and flow of soul" in each other's company f«r some time past. Believe me, dear Alfred, Yours ever, Harry Hunter. To Alfred Bcllville, Esq., No. ig Madison Av., N. K A Lady to Her Friend in the City, Inviting Her to Spend a Month in the Country. Eddington, Bucks Co., Pa., June 4th, 1SS3. My dear Friend: I need scarcely tell you that I always feel the greatest pleasure in your society, and am selfish enough on the present occasion to covet it for a month, or for a longer period, should it suit your convenience. If, therefore, you are not so wedded to the attractions of a city life as to be loth to leave them for a short time, I think you would gather some amusement, and aiso, perhaps, improve your health, by a sojourn in the country. Will you, then, do us the favor of making pur rural retreat your temporary abode, assuring yourself that your presence will enliven our family circle, and be a source of real enjoyment to Your sincere friend, Eliza Hooper. To Mrs. Letty Davidson, Fifth Av., N. Y. Answer to the Same, Affirmatively. Fifth Avenue, N. Y., June 5th, 1S83. My dear Eliza: I have just received your kind letter inviting me to spend a short time at your pleasant home. Though I live so much in New York, I assure }'ou that there are few who feel more delighted with the country than myself, and I could be well contented to make it my residence during a larger part of every year, and should cer- tainly do so did the pursuits of Mr. Davidson allow us to live out of the city. However, my domestic duties are not at present of so press- ing a nature as to force me to decline your friendly invitation, and Mr. Davidson, so far from offering any obstacle to my absence from home for a short time, has urged me to send you an affirmative answer, as he thinks that, in addition to the enjoyment which I can - not fail to experience in the society of yourself and family, I shall benefit my health by a change of air and scene. I therefore accept your kind invitation most cheerfully, I may add gratefully. And I am. My dear Eliza, Your ever affectionate friend, Letty Davidson. To Mrs. Eliza Hooper, Eddington, Pa. An Invitation to a Water-Party. August 10th, 1883. Dear Charlie: Jack Halcoll, myself and four others are going down the bay in a six-oared boat next Wednesday. Now, you're a jolly fellow and a good steersman, so I hope you will give us your company and your services ; indeed, we will take no excuse. Wo shall set out from my rooms at 7:30 p.m. without fail. Do not dis- appoint us. Yours truly, in haste, Edward Neville. To Charles Ellwood, Esq., Pine St., Philadelphia. -7T Ai V 62 BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. EfcrWM^M: Miscellaneous Letters. ,: j. ,._;, .,,-._■, _ ,. j, ,^„ ^,. ,^,;.,_,,,_^ *HE reader will find arranged under this heading a variety of letters for a variety of circumstances and occasions. With the examples given on the preceding pages, they make the department of " Business and Social Correspondence M a complete and comprehensive guide for all classes of letter-writers. From One Young Man to Another in Reference to an Attachment. Atlanta, Ga., Feb. 4th, 18S3. My Dear Kenneth: You will laugh at mu, and with some reason, when I tell you that all my old skepticism about matrimonial happi- ness is at an end. I have met with a young lady who, I believe, would convert even you to a belief that marriage may be a very happy state and that bachelors are only miserable wretches after all. In brief, I am the engaged and accepted suitor of Miss P'ord, whose visit to New York you remember. Words cannot suffice to express how great has been the enjoyment I have hitherto derived from her society, and the more I see of her amiable character and high accomplishments, the more certain do I feel that the day that first made known to me her consent to share my fortunes will prove one *>t the happiest in my whole existence. You may think this a very wild effusion and one strangely at variance with my former avowed callousness on the score of domestic life; but, believe me, you willsoonbe a convert when you see my dear Lettie. Wishing that you may prove as fortunate in the selection of a partner us 1 have been, I remain, My dear boy. Ever affectionately yours, John Norton. To yam** CtukHl, Wall St. , N, K. invitation from a Familiar Friend. Dkar Mr. Mitchell: We shall look for you on Monday evening (the 14th, mind !) at seven o'clock, and if Mrs. Mitchell can leave her baby and come with you, 1 need not say that we shall be doubly glad to see her. In great haste, which 1 know you will excuse and rather admire than otherwise, I am sincerely yours, Gertrude Gibson. Cambridoe, March 10th, 1833. Requesting a Friend to Forward Letters. Norristown, April 9th, 1883. Dear Sir: May I trespass on your kindness to send me in the enclosed envelope any letter that may come through you to me up to Wednesday, aist inst. f By to doing you will add to the many kind- nesses experienced by, Dear Sir, Your obliged friend, Harriet Hart. To Htnry CAa** t Eso„ joj Arch St. t PhtU. To a Daughter on Her Birthday. Mv dearest Child: Your father, brothers and sisters all unite with me in sending you a thousand good wishes on this your fifteenth anni- versary. We could all have desired that circumstances would have ad- mitted of your spending it with us; but feeling in these matters must sometimes be sacrificed for our good, and our selfish delights must not be permitted to interfere with the prospects of those dear to us. The package which accompanies this letter contains not only some trifling tokens of affection from all of us, but the materials for a little entertainment which, 1 have no doubt, Mrs. Boynton wilt allow you to give to your school-fellows, as I have written to bog a half-holiday on the occasion. God blest you, my dear child! and that every succeeding year may see you increase in all that is desirable in body and mind, is the earnest prayer of your ever anxious parents. With best compliments to your mistress and teachers. Believe me. Your ever affectionate mother, Margaret Thomas, To Mis* Ltttit Thomat, "Linden Hall" Seminary, Lititx, /It, A Gentleman to His Son, on the Latter** Marriage. Philadelphia. Jan. 30th, 1883. Mv dear Son: It is with no small pleasure, and a slight feeling of parental pride, that I now congratulate you upon your recent change of state. That you have my best and heartiest wishes for your future happi- ness you already know ; but I feel natural pleasure in again giving them expression ; and here I have to add that no parent could join in those wishes with more fervent sincerity than your dear and kind mother, who desires to unite with me in the most affectionate regards to our new relation, our daughter-in-law. That your marriage state may be blessed with the same domestic happiness that has fallen to my lot. is the sincere wish 0/ Your ever affectionate father, John Paul Jo ToIItnry Paul yon**, PoUstown. Pm. Requesting a Friend to Execute a Commission* Yonrers, June 3d, 1SS3. My dear Jennie: Will you kindly execute the following little commissions for me as soon as you can make tt convenient ? Purchase for me at Stewart A Co.'s the following- articles there state muslin, lace, etc.) Will you also call at Applcton's and inquire when Bulwer't new novel will be out, as I am all anxiety to know? Please give them my address at Stewart's, and tell them to pack the parcel carefully and tend it by express. The weather up here is delightful, but f wish I had the pleasure of your company to render it more to. Pray write a line, and let me know how toon you can make me a visit, and thus afford me an opportunity to thank you personally for your kindness. Ella Forester. To Miss 7*nni* Ifa/r, AV 40 Sixth Avon**, .V. }'. lK Application of Servant for Testimonial. East Fourth St., N. Y m Jan. i, *Sa. Respected Madam: Being- desirous of again entering service in my former capacity of cook and laundress, I write to ask the favor of a testimonial from you as to my general character and capability. I am sorry to have to trouble you, but I feel that you will do anything you can to further me in obtaining employment. With sincere thanks for your past kindness, I am, respected Madam, Your grateful servant, Charlotte Fields. To Mrs, Louise Balmer, No, 24 West Fifty-first St., Nrw York. Acknowledging Receipt of Testimonial, with Thanks* Beaker St., Boston, May 15, '82. Reverend Sir; I have received your most obliging and con- siderate communication, and I beg that you will accept my warmest thanks for the handsome, if not too flattering, testimonial you have been pleased to hand me. I sincerely trust that my future career may continue to be marked by conduct worthy of your approbation, and assuring you of my deep sense of the obligation under which you have placed me, I am, reverend Sir, Your obedient and grateful servant, Eliza Hazleton. To the Rev. John Snowden, Rittenhouse Square, Boston. Inquiry Regarding a Servant's Character. No. 1428 Pine St., St. Louis, May 4, '83. Madam: Susan Macy, who is applying for the place of cook in my house, refers me to you for her character and qualifications. I shall, therefore, feel obliged by your informing me if she is honest, cleanly, industrious and obliging; also if she is well acquainted with plain cookery. 1 am, Madam, yours respectfully, Mary Martin. To Mrs. Ann Cooler, 24J Arch St., Phila. A Merchant Urging Payment of Account. Warren St., New York, May 3, '82. Sir: I must solicit your prompt attention to the enclosed account, which has* already been due over two months. On the 10th I have a heavy obligation to meet, which will require all the funds I can pro- cure; and, as you have not remitted me any cash for some time past, I trust you will comply with my request, and forward a draft for the whole or a considerable part of the balance due me. Please reply by return mail, and let me know whether I may depend upon you. Your obedient servant, Jjlmbs Parsons. To Henry P. Jones, Brooklyn, A Letter of Introduction. New Orleans, June 3d, *8i. Dear Sir: The present will be handed you by Mr. Smith, partner of Mr. Stillwell, who was himself an associate of the house of Cross & Black, Memphis. Mr. Smith intending to visit your city on business of his house, we take the liberty of recommending him to you, and of begging you to render him all the services in your power, and to furnish him oil thu information of which he may have need, or which may appear likely to you to insure the success of his trip. Should Mr. Smith have need of ;my money for his expenses, you will be good enough to let him have what he may ask for, and charge the same to our account. ^ery respectfully, Yours, etc., Lord & Taylcr. To Julius Sichel, Esq., Wall Street, N. V. From a Lady to Another, an Invalid. Spruce St., Philadelphia, May 1, 1S83. My Dear Miss Hartman: I am truly grieved to hear of your continued indisposition, but trust that you may speedily enjoy the return of your wonted health and energy. There is much consolation in the fact that your spirits are good, and that the illness does not affect any vital part. Considering which, I have every confidence that, with God's blessing, the careful attentions of your friends will soon make your complete recovery a matter of certain and cordial congratulation. With kindest wishes and sympathy, I am, dear Mis* Hartman, Yours ever sincerely, Amanda Merrill* To Miss Ella Hartman, Columbus, Ohio. An Invitation to a Picnic Party. Newark, June 15th, 1883. My dear Sir : We are endeavoring to get up a small excursion to visit High Bridge on the iSth of this month. Will you do us the favor of making one of our number? Mrs. Shaw and my family desire their compliments, and request me to mention that they have taken upon themselves the task of providing the "creature comforts" for that occasion, and trust that their exertions will meet with unanimous approval. Should you have no previous engagement for that day, and feel disposed to join our party, a carriage will be at your door by seven o'clock on Wednesday morning. And believe me to be, My dear Sir, Yours most sincerely, Charles Shaw P. 5.— The favor of an early answer will oblige. To Stephen Wainwright, Esq., Yonkers, N. K V JM ^2= K" 64 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. # .- .- .- ■■■ .- SYNONYMS «-*§-^- Antonyms. Containing over Twenty Thousand Words of both Similar and Contrary Meaning. OTHING can be more embarrassing than that deplorable poverty of speech which makes a man iterate and reiter- ate his one word, when but a slight knowledge of Synonyms would permit him to express his ideas in an ele- gant and faultless manner. Every one has felt the neces- sity, in writing or speaking, of having at command a ready vocabulary from which to select words that will clearly and forci- bly convey the intended meaning and at the same time save the inelegance of frequent repetitions. In fact, some writers have made the number of Synonyms in a language the test of its civil- ization and fitness for literature. Thus the ancient Greek fairly teems with words having a like signification, so that every delicate shade of meaning might be clearly and forcibly put; the same may be said of Latin and of Hebrew. On the other hand, while the English language contains about forty thousand words, Latham and other scholars have decided that the vocab- ulary of the English peasant does not contain more than five or six hundred words. Conse- quently it seems clear that a knowledge of words is the most direct possible test of culture and civilization. The rhetorical fault known as tautology is best overcome by an acquaintance with Syno- nyms. On the other hand a knowledge of An- tonyms stands next in importance to Synonyms, for one of the strongest figures of speech is "Antithesis," or the putting of matters in start- ling contrast and opposition — a method known of old as one of the most effective weapons in the armory of the rhetorician. The Dictionary of Antonyms following will be found one of the most complete ever published. The student will, upon finding the antonym he wishes, turn to its peculiar synonyms, and thus find the very- word for which he may be seeking. To illustrate the use and necessity of synonyms to the writer and speaker we append a sentence which clearly shows the value of a dictionary of this char- acter. 4^= —Jt, SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 65 Example. He was a man of acute perception, acute judgment, acute intellect and acute observation. The Same Sentence Improved. {acute } keen > perception, quick j {shrewd 1 ( bright 1 piercing >judgment,< sharp > intellect and discerning J (subtle J ( intelligent *| < penetrating V observation. ( clear-sighted J On the other hand there are cases when the reiteration of the same word gives strength and consistency to a sentence ; when the same word used again and again comes at last to be like the blows of a hammer, riveting attention to the subject. Of this character is Webster's celebrated sen- tence in his speech on "American Institutions." Webster's Celebrated Sentence. " Our Government can stand trial, it can stand assault, it can stand adversity, it can stand per- secution ; it can stand everything but the weak- ness of our owrtstrength, it can stand everything but disorganization, disunion and nullification." Abandon, v. i. Leave, quit, forsake, drop, relinquish, evacuate, give over, cast off. 2. Surrender, cede, resign, waive, vacate. Anto., keep, hold, retain. Abandoned, adj. i. Deserted, forsaken. 2. Depraved, corrupt, profligate, shameless, incorrigible. Anto., I. Kept, cared for. a. Virtuous, holy. Abase, v. I, Reduce, lower, a. Degrade, humble, disgrace. Anto., i. Increase, raise, a. Honor, praise. Abash, v. Shame, confuse, humiliate. Anto.y embolden, reassure. Abate, v. 1. Lessen, reduce, diminish. a. Moderate, allay. 3. Suppress, remove, terminate. Anto., 1. Augment. 2. Infuriate, 3. Empower, permit. Abbreviate, v. Curtail, shorten. Ante, enlarge, lengthen. Abduct, v. Kidnap. Anto. t rescue. Abet. v. Aid, assist, help. a. Favor, sanction. 3. Instigate, incite. Anto., 1. Re- sist, a. Oppose. 3. Forbid. Abhor, v. Hate, loathe, detest. Anto., love, admire. Abide, v. Sojourn, live, dwell. Anto., depart, leave. Ability, n. 1. Power, force, might. 2. Competency. 3. Capacity, genius, turn. Anto. t Inability. 1. Feebleness, a. Insuffi- ciency. 3. Incapability. Abject, adj. Base, vile, mean, low. Anto., lofty, good, noble. Able. adj. 1. Clever, accomplished, tal- ented. 2. Qualified. 3. Gifted, strong, mighty. Anto., 1. Stupid, a. Unfit. 3. Weak, feeble. Abolish, v. 1. Repeal, revoke, annul, cancel. 2. Overthrow. Anto., 1. Enforce, hold. 2. Establish. Abominable, adj. 1. Hateful, odious. 2. Loathsome, nauseous. 3. Vile, wretched. Anto., 1. Lovable. 2. Pleasant. 3. Happy, good. Abridge, v. Contract, compress. Anto., expand. See Abbreviate. Abrupt, adj. 1. Broken, rugged. 2. Steep. 3. Sudden, unexpected. 4. Short, curt. Anto., 1. Smooth. 2. Level. 3. Slow. 4. Long, courteous. Absolute, adj. 1. Real, positive, a. Arbitrary, despotic. 3. Independent. Anto., 1. Shadowy. 2. Limited. 3. Dependent. Abstinence. «. Temperance, fast. Anto., feast, plenty, orgies. Abstruse, adj. Profound, recondite, hid- den. Anto., simple, clear. Absurd, adj. Silly, foolish, laughable. Anto., wise, solemn. Abundance. n. Plenty, profuseness, richness. Anto., famine, want, poverty. Abuse, v. 1. Pervert, misuse. 2. Harm, injure. 3. Revile, reproach, malign. Anto., 1. Use. a. Protect. 3. Praise. Accept, v. Receive, take. Anto., refuse, reject. Acceptable. adj\ Pleasing, welcome. Anto., displeasing. Accidental, adj. Casual. Anto., pre- concerted. Accommodate, v. 1. Oblige, serve, assist. a. Fit, suit, adapt. 3. Reconcile, adjust. Anto., 1. Disoblige, impede, a. Spoil. 3. Embitter. Accomplish, v. Complete, perform, execute. Anto., fail. Accomplished, adj. 1. Educated, ex- perienced, practiced, adroit, talented, a. Polished, refined, polite. Anto., 1. Ignorant, awkward. 2. Boorish, ill-bred. Account, n. Narrative, recital, history. Anto., rebuttal, negation. Accrue, v. Result, issue, ensue. Anto., stop, delay, bar. Accumulate, v. 1. Collect, gather, a. Store, garner, hoard. 3. Increase, grow. Anto., 1. Dissipate, scatter, a. Spend. 3. Lessen, diminish. Accurate, adj. Correct, exact, precise. Anto., wrong, loose, erroneous. Accuse, v. Charge, criminate, arraign. Anto., exonerate. Accustom, v. Habituate, familiarize, addict. Anto., unused, undrilled. Achieve, v. See Accomplish. Acknowledge, v. Admit, concede, avow. Anto., deny. Acquaint, v. Tell, inform, notify. Anto., deceive. Acquire, v. Get, gain, secure, win, ob- tain. Ante., lose. Acquit, v. Clear, absolve, exonerate. Anto., convict, indict. Act. v. I. Work, move, execute. 2. Be- have, demean. 3. Operate. 4. Do, perform. e,. Personate, play, enact. Anto., 1. Idle, loaf. 2. Misbehave. 3. To be inert. 4. Re- fuse. 5. Verify. Act* n. 1. Deed, performance. 2. Statute, law. 3. Part of a play. Active, adj. 1. Brisk, alert, nimble, smart, a. Busy, diligent, enterprising. 3. Powerful, drastic. Anto., 1. Lazy. a. Lack- ing energy. 3. Weak. Actually, adv. Really, truly, verily. Anto. t falsely, deceptively. Acute, adj. 1. Keen, shrewd, sharp, discerning, knowing, quick, smart, bright, intelligent, ingenious, subtle, penetrating, piercing, clear-sighted, sharp-witted, long, headed. 2 Severe, violent, intense, exquis- ite, pungent. Anto., 1. Dull. a. Stupid. Add. v. 1. Join, annex, append, tag. a. Sum, cast up. Anto., 1. Disconnect, separate. 2. Subtract, take away. Address, n. 1. Appeal, petition, en- treaty. 2. Speech, discourse, oration. 3. Skill, art, tact. 4. Superscription, direction. 5. Manner. Anto., 3. Clumsiness, awkward- ness. Adhere, v. Cling, cleave, cohere. Anto., loosen. Adjacent, adj. Near, bordering, con- tiguous. Anto., far, asunder. Adjust, v. Arrange, trim, regulate, adapt, accommodate. Anto., disarrange, disorder, confuse. Admirable, adj. Excellent, fine, praise- worthy. Anto., blamable, execrable. Admire, v. Wonder, like, esteem, love. Anto., hate, despise, dislike. Admit, v. 1. Grant, concede, confess. 2. Let in. Anto., 1. Deny. 2. Keep out, ex- clude. Admonish, v. Advise, warn, reprove. Anto., recommend. Adulation, n. Flattery. Anto., blame, scolding. Advancement. «. Preferment, progres- sion. Anto., displacement, retrogression, receding. Adventure, n. 1. Stake, risk, chance. 2, Accident, danger, event. Anto., 1. Cer- tainty. 2. Quiet, safety. Adversity, n. Trouble, misfortune, sor- row, distress. Anto., prosperity, wealth, joy. Advertise, v. Announce, publish, pro- claim. Anto., conceal. Advice, «. 1. Counsel, caution. 2. In- formation. Affable, adj. Civil, sociable, easy. Anto., surly, discourteous. Affection. «. Partiality, fondness. Anto., dislike. Afflict, v. Trouble, annoy, torment, harass. Anto., please. Affront, v. Insult, abuse, condemn. Anto., respect. Agent, n. Factor, substitute. Anto., principal. Aggregate, n. Total, whole, lump, sum, mass. Anto., part. Agile, adj. See Active. Agitation, n. 1. Excitement, commo- tion, tumult. 2. Debate, discussion. Anto., tranquility. f 7=^ t 66 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. Agree, v. I. Concur, acquiesce, unite. 2. Engage, contract. ^«/*>., I, Differ, disagree, a. it c fuse. Aid. v. Assist, help. Anto., resist. Alarm. K, Fright, dismay, apprehension, Anto., confidence, courage. Alert, adj. See Active. Ailment. «. Food, sustinence, nourish- moot* Allay, v. Soften, lessen, quiet, ease. Aula., excite. Alleviate, v. See Allay. Alliance, n. League, confederacy, union. Anto. t disunion, discord. Allowance. .«. i. Salary, wages, pay. a. Permission. Anto., 2. Prohibition. Allure, v. Tempt, decoy, Anto., repel. Amass, v. See Accumulate. Amatory, adj. Tender, amorous, erotic. Anto., hateful. Amazement, «. Wonder, astonishment. Anto., anticipation. Ambiguous, adj. Doubtful, dubious. Anto., clear. Amicable, adj. Kind, friendly, pleasant. Anto., hostile. Ample, adj. 1. Spacious. 2. Plentiful, abundant. Anto., 1. Confined, narrow. 2. Scarce. Amuse, v. Divert, entertain. Anto., weary, tire. Analogy, v. Similarity. Anto., diver- sity, difference. Ancestors, n. Forefathers. Anto., pos- terity. Ancient, ad/. Old antique. Anto., modern. Anecdote. ». Tale, story. Anger. n. Resentment, wrath, ire, fury, rage, choler. Anto., peacefulness, amiability, calm, Anguish, n. Pain, distress, agony. Anto., bliss. Animal, n. Creature, beast, brute. Anto., things inanimate. Animate, v. Inspire, enliven, cheer, in- cite, urge. Anto., depress. Animation. «. Life, spirit, vivacity. Anto.. apathy. Animosity, w. Enmity, hostility, malig- nancy. Anto., Irking, friendliness. Annex, v. Attach, append, join. Anto., detach, separate. Announce, v. See Advertise. Annoy, v. Disturb, molest, trouble. Anto., convenience, please, accommodate. Annul, v. Rescind, abolish. Auto., af- firm. Answer. ». Reply, rejoinder. Anto., question. Anterior, adj. Prior, before, previous. Auto., posterior, subsequent. Anticipate, v. Foresee, forestall, pre- vent. Anto., surprise. Antipathy. ». Aversion, dislike, hatred. See Animosity. Antique, adj. Old, ancient, obsolete. Anto., modem, new, fresh. Anxiety. «. Care, solicitude, worry. Anto., certainty, repose. Any. adj. pron. I. Anyone. 2. Some. Anto., none. Apartment. ». Lodging, room, chamber. Apathy. ». Coldness, torpor, unconcern. Anto., animation, which see. Ape. v. Imitate. Apologize, v. Excuse, exculpate. Ante. in .ult, justify. Appal, .-. Scare, shock, frighten. Anto.. embolden, encourage. See Alarm. Apparel. n. Dress, clothing, attire. Anto., nudity. Apparent, adj. Visible, plain, obvious, evident. Anto., concealed, >mnhrn0lli wkjtM see. Apparition. «. An appearance, ghost, spirit, phantom. Appear, v. 1. Emerge, come into view. a. Seem, look. Anto., disappear. Appearance, n. 1. Coming, arriv.il. 2. Air, figure. », Scmblcncc. Anto., 1, Depart- im . \. Unlikeuess. Appease, v. Calm, pacify. Anto., In- flam*. Appellation. «; Name, title. Applaud, v. Cheer, praise, extol. Anto., hiss, blame, belittle. Application, n. Industry, persistency. Anto., idleness, fickleness. Apply, v. Use, appropriate, devote. Auto., misapply. Appoint, -v. 1. Fix, establish. 2. Name, constitute. Anto., 1. Change, Appraise, v. Value, estimate, rate. Appreciate, v. Estimate, value, appraise. Apprehend, v. 1. Catch, capture, arrest. 2. Understand, comprehend. 3. Fear, dread, alarm. Auto., 1. Escape. 2. Misunderstand. 3, Embolden. Apprise, v. See Admonish. Approach, v. Approximate, come near. Anto., depart. Approbation. n. Approval, sanction, consent. Auto., disapproval. Approximate, v. See Approach. Apt. adj. 1. Fit, meet, suitable, qualified. 2. Ready, quick, prompt. Anto., \ . Inn:. 2, Slow. Arbitrary, adj. Irresponsible, tyrannous. Anto., normal, regular, constitutional. Arbitrator. «, Judge, umpire, referee. Archives. «. Records, chronicles. .Ardent, adj. Zealous, fervid, hot, in- tense. Anto., calm, cool. Arduous, adj. Difficult, trying, labori- ous. Anto., easy, facile. Argue, v. 1. Evince, prove. 2. Reason, discuss, debate. Anto., disprove. Argument, n. Reason, proof, discussion, dispute. Anto., folly, mistake. Arise, v. Mount, ascend, get up. 2. Be- gin, originate. Anto., descend7go down. Aristocratic, adj. Haughty t proud, ar- rogant. Anto., democratic, plebeian. A this. «, Weapons. Army. n. Force, troops. Anto. t mob. Arraign, v. See Accuse. Anto., acquit. Arrange. :■. 1. Distribute, rank, classify. 2. Plan, devise, organize. Anto., disarrange. Arrogance. «, Pride, haughtiness, su- perciliousness. Anto. ; humility. Artful, adj. 1. Skilful. 2. Subtle, shrewd, crafty. Anto., simple, unaffected. Artifice. «. Cunning, trick, stratagem, Anto. t honesty, simplicity. Artist* n. 1. Designer. 2. Painter, sketcher. 3. Sculptor, modeller, Anto., dauber. Assay, n. Test, examination, chemical analysis of metals. Association, n. Society, guild, combin- ation. Anto., separation. Attic, adj. Classic, elegant, pure. Anto., stupid, modern, unclassicai. Attitude, n. Posture, phase, situation. Attorney. n. Lawyer, counsellor, agent. Anto., client. Attract, v. Allure, fascinate, captivate. Anto., repel. Attraction. ». Charm, fascination. Anto., repulsion. Audacity. n. Daring, hardihood, pre- sumption, insolence. Auto., timidity, meek- ness. Augment, v. Increase, enlarge, mag- nify. Anto.y decrease, diminish. Author, n. Writer, composer, maker. Authority, n. Liberty f permit, order, warrant. Anto., prohibition. Avarice, n. CJ IpkUty, covet- ousness. Anto., liberality, prodigality. Avow. v. Affirm, confess, declare. Anto., deny. Awake, adj. Watchful, vigilant Anto., sleepy, drowsy. V v • . n. Dread. Awkward. adj. Unskilful, unhandy, boorish, rough. Anto., accomplished, subtle, graceful. B Bubble, v. Prate, chatter. Anto., to be Baffle, v. Circumvent, foil. Anio., suc- cor, aid, nbct. Baggage. «. Luggage. Balance, v. Equalize, counteract, poise. Anto., preponderate. Band. «. 1. Company, crew, gang. 2. Chain, fetter, shackle. 3. Fillet, bandage. 4. Orchestra, company of musicians. Anto., in- dividual, one. Bunifth. v. Exile, send away, exclude. Anto., recall. Banter, v. Rally, twit, taunt. Bare. adj. Unclothed, naked. Anio., c'ad. Bargain, n. Agreement, contract, sale. Barter, v. Exchange, sell, commute. Anto., retain. Base. a dj. See Abject. Bear. -v. 1. Uphold. 2. Undergo, suffer. 3. Generate, bring forth. Beastly, adj. Brutal, sensual, bestial. Anto., humane, polite. Beat. v. 1. Knock, hit, strike. 2. Defeat, conquer, subdue. Beau. ». 1. Admirer, suitor. 2. Fop, dandy. Anto., betle. Beauty. ». Comeliness, grace, symmetry. Anto., ugliness. Becoming, adj. Appropriate, seemly, fit. Anto., unsuitable. Beg. v. Beseech, solicit, entreat Anto., grant. Beguile, v. Amuse, divert, delude. Behavior. ». Conduct, bearing, deport- ment Anto., misbehavior. Behold, inter/. See, look. Believe, v. Credit, assume, deem. Anto., doubt. Beloved, adj. Dear, darling. Anto,, hated. Below, prep. Under, beneath, Anto., over*, above. Benefaction, n. Gift, gratuity. Bequeath, v. Leave, devise, will. Anto., inherit. Bereave, v. Deprive, take away, strip. Anto., enrich. Beseech, v. See Beg. Botow. v. Confer, give, grant Anto., withhold. Hetler. v. Improve, amend, correct Anto., confuse, deteriorate. Bill. n. 1. Reckoning, statement, account. 2. Draft 3. Beak. 4. Pickaxe. Blame, n. Censure, reproof, reproach, Anto., praise. Blemish, n. Stain, spot, speck, flaw. A>:to., immaculate. Blind, adj. 1. Sightless. 2. Heedless. Anto., far-sighted. Bloody, adj. Sanguinary, gory. Boast, v. Brag, vaunt, glory. Boldness, n. 1. Courage, braverv, valor. 2. Effrontery, impudence. Anto., I. Coward- ice. 2. Bsshfalneoa, mod* llnmhnstic. adj. Inflated, pompous, grandiloquent. Anto., cor Border, n. Verge, brim, edge, frontier. Anto., middle, interior. Bore. n. 1. Nuisance, a prosy talker, a. Hole, calibre. Boundless, adj. Unlimited, immeasura- ble, infinite. Anto.. Limited, Bountiful, adj. Liberal, generous, boun- teous. Anto., niggardly, miserable. Bravery, w. See Boldness. Breeding, n. Nurture, training, manners. Ant^., impoliteness. Brief, adj. Short, concise. Anto., pro- tracted. Bright, adj. Shining, radiant Anto., dull. Brilliancy, n. Luster, radiance. Anto., dullness. Brittle, ad/. Fragile, frail, crumbling. Anto., tough. Broil, m. Quarrel, brawl, fight, affray. Anto., quiet, peace. Hrtital. adj. Cnicl. unfeeling, savage, ferocious. Anto., humane. Bud. v. Sprout, shoot, germinate. Buffoon. *. Harlequin, fool, idiot Anto., Build, r. Raise, erect Anto., destroy, pull down. ^ K~ SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. "71 & Bulk. n. Size, magnitude, body, gross. Anto., tenuity. Burial, n. Interment, sepulture. Anto., resurrection. Burst, v. Explode, break open. Business, n. Calling, employment, voca- tion. Auto., leisure. Bustle, n. Stir, tumult, fuss. Anto., quiet. Butt. k. i. Mark, object, target. 2. Cask. Buxom, adj. Healthy, brisk, cheerful, lively. Anto., spiritless. Buy. v. Purchase, cheapen, bargain for. Anto., sell. Cabal. n, 1. Clique, set, league. 2. Plot, intrigue, conspiracy. Cajole, v. Coax, flatter, wheedle. Anto., compel. Calamity, n. Mishap, misfortune, disas- ter. Anto., good fortune, luck. Calculate, v. Reckon, count, compute, rate, estimate. Call, v. 1. Cry, shout. 2. Invite, bid, summon. Anto., I, Whisper. 2. Order away, send. Calling. n. See Business. Callous, adj. Hard, unfeeling, dead. Anto., sensitive, nervous. Calm. adj. 1. Composed, collected. 2. Quiet, tranquil, placid. Anto., 1- Stormy. 2. Agitated. Candid, adj. Open, honest, sincere. Anto., deceitful, treacherous. Capacity. «. 1. Volume, amplitude. 2. Ability, competency, faculty, talent. 3. Char- acter, office. Anto. ,2. Incapacity, incompeten- cy, stupidity, inability. Caprice, n. Whim, freak, fancy, vagary. Anto,, settled purpose, conviction. Captious, adj. Peevish, petulant, fretful, cross. Anto., good-humored, facile, easy. Captivate, v. Fascinate, charm, enchant. Anto., disgust, displease. Careful, adj. 1, Heedful, attentive. 2. Watchful, cautious, circumspect, Anto., heedless, careless, rash. Caress, n. Kiss, embrace. Anto., buffet, spurn. Carousal. ». Feast, banquet, orgie. Anto., fast. Cash. n. Money, coin, specie. Casualty, n. Accident, mischance, con- tinge ncy. Cause. z». Produce, create, occasion. Cause. «. Reason, motive, inducement, incitement. Anto., effect. Cavity. ». Aperture, opening, hollow. Cautious, adj. Prudent, careful, watch- ful. See Careful. Anto., rash, headlong, heedless. Celebrate, v. r. Commemorate, keep, observe, honor, solemnize. 2. Praise, extol, glorify. Anto., 1. Forget, ignore. 2. Execrate! Censure, v. Blame, approve, chide, scold, berate. Anto. t praise, honor, congratulate, aj) prove. Certain, adj. 1. Sure, assured, confident. 2. Infallible, unfailing. 3. Plain, positive, absolute, indubitable. Anto., uncertain. 1. Dubious, doubtful. 2. Fallacious. 3. Dark, disputed, challenged. Chance. ». 1, Accident, fortune, fortuity, casualty. 2. Hazard, risk, peril, jeopardy. Anto.,1. Design. 2. Safety, certainty.security. Change, v. Alter, vary, turn. Character. «. Repute, reputation, stand- ing. , Charm, n. Grace, attraction. Anto., re- pulsion. Chastity. ». Purity, modesty, virtue, continence. Anto., impurity, lewdness, in- continence. Chattels. «.,//. Goods, effects, personal property. Anto., real estate. Chatter, v. See Babble. Cheat. v. Deceive, trick, defraud, swindle. Cheer, -v. 1. Applaud. 2. Comfort, con- sole, gladden, encourage. Anto., 1. Hiss. 2. Distress. Cheerful, adj. Lively, merry, sprightly, gay. Anto., sad, weary, downcast, mournful. Cherish, v. I. Nourish, nurse, nurture. 2. Encourage. 3. Harbor, protect, love. Anto., 1. Starve, famish. 2. Dishearten. 3. Expose, detest. Chief. «. Leader, commander. Anto., subordinate, subaltern. Chiefly, adv. Principally, mainly, mostly, eminently. Anto., secondarily, subsequently. Childhood, h. Minority, infancy. Anto., majority, manhood. Childish, adj. 1. Young, juvenile, in- fantile. 2. Weak, trifling, silly. Anto., 1. Manful, experienced. 2. Strong, earnest, wise, sapient. Choice, n. Selection, election, option, preference. Choke, v. 1, Suffocate, strangle, throttle. 2. Stop, block, obstruct. Anto., 1. Breathe, animate. 2. Assist, help. Choose, v. Prefer, pick, select, elect. Circulate.. v. Propagate, disseminate, diffuse, spread. Anto., confine, stop, bound, retard. Circumspect, adj. Judicious, discreet, prudent, cautious, wary. Anto., imprudent, rash, foolish. Circumstance, n. Incident, accident. Cite. v. 1. Quote, adduce. 2. Summon. Anto., 2. Discharge, release. Civil, adj. 1. Civic, municipal. 2. Ur- bane, obliging, courteous, polite, refined. Anto., 1. Rural, countrified. 2. Rude, boor, ish, impolite. Civility, n. 1. Courtesy, politeness, suavity. 2. Benefit, favor, kindness. Anto., 1. Discourtesy, asperity. 2. Unkindness, in- civility. Civilization, n. Culture, cultivation, re- finement. Anto., barbarism, savagery, ignor- ance. Clad, v., p. p. Dressed, clothed, attired. Anto., naked, bare. Clandestine, adj. Concealed, hidden, sly, private. Anto., open, prominent, con- spicuous, advertised. Clasp, v. Grasp, clutch, gripe. Anto., loosen, open, unclasp. Clean, adj. Unsoiled, spotless, pure, im- maculate. Anto., impure, dirty, filthy, soiled, nasty. Clear, adj. 1. Transparent, bright, limpid. 2. Fair, cloudless, serene. 3. Plain, lucid, perspicuous. 4. Patent, obvious, visible, evi- dent. Anto., 1. Opaque, dark. 2. Gloomy. 3. Ambiguous, dubious. 4. Occult, hidden, obscure. Clear, -v. Acquit, exonerate. A nto., con- vict. Clever, adj. I. Skillful, apt, smart, quick, able. 2. Kind. Anto,, stupid, clumsy, awk- ward, rgnorant. Climb, v. Ascend, clamber, scramble. Anto., descend, go down, fall. Cling, v. Adhere, stick. Anto., loosen. Close, v, 1. Shut. 2. End, finish. Anto., 1. Open. 2. Begin, commence. Clothes. «. Raiment, dress, attire, garb, costume, habiliments. Anto., nudity. Cloy. v. Surfeit, sate, satiate, glut. Anto., famish. Clumsy, adj. See Awkward. Coarse, adj. 1. Gross, vulgar. 2. Rude, uncivil, gruff. Anto., I, Nice, polite. 2. Re- fined. Coax, v Flatter, wheedle, cajole. Anto., command, compel, force. Cogent, adj. Forcible, powerful, potent, convincing. Anto., weak. Cold. adj. 1. Cool, frigid, wintry. 2. Un- feeling, stoical. Anto., u Warm, tropical, fervid, hot. 2. Sensitive. Cold. ». Catarrh, cough. Collect, v. 1. Gather. 2. Accumulate, amass. Anto., scatter, disperse. Collection, n. 1. Crowd, gathering. 2. Accumulation, store, aggregation. 3. Con- tribution. Color, n. 1. Shade, tinge, tint, hue. 2. Pigment, paint. Combination, n. 1. Union, conjunction, 2. Alliance. 3. Mixture. Anto., disunion, disconnection. Come. v. 1. Approach. 2. Arrive. Anto., 1. Go. 2. Depart. Comely, adj. Handsome, pretty, sym- metrical. Anto , ugly, homely, dispropor- tionate. Comfert. v. Solace, cheer, console. Anto., discomfort, disease. Comical, adj. Droll, funny, humorous, ludicrous. Anto., solemn, serious. Commanding, adj. Imperative, authori- tative. Commence, v. Begin, originate. Anto., end, finish. Commend, v. 1. Intrust, commit. 2. Praise, extol, laud, eulogize. Anto., 1. Take from, withdraw. 2. Blame, censure, disap- prove. Comment, n. I. Remark, observation. 2. Note, explanation. Commercial, adj. Trading, mercantile. Commission, v. 1. Empower, author- ize. 2. Depute, delegate. Commodious, adj. Fit, suitable, con- venient. Anto., unfit, inconvenient. Commodities. «., //, Wares, goods, merchandise, produce. Common, adj. 1. General. 2. Usual, habitual, customary, 3. Trite, stale. 4. Or- dinary, low. Anto., 1. Occasional, exceptional. 2. Unusual. 3. Fresh. 4. Peculiar, extraor- dinary. Communication. «. Conference, con- versation, letter. Community, n. I. Society, public, peo- ple. 2. Association, brotherhood. Companion. «. 1. Mate, comrade. 2. Partaker, sharer. Company, n. 1. Assembly, group, gather- ing. 2. Party. 3. Visitors. 4. Fellowship, society. 5. Corporation, firm. Anto,, indi- vidual, personality. Compassion, n. Pity, tenderness, clem- ency. Anto , severity, harshness, cruelty. Compatible, adj. Consistent, consonant. Anto., incompatible, inconsistent. Compel, v. Force, coerce, drive. Anto.. cajole, coax, lead. Compendium. ». Compend, abridg- ment. Anto., discourse, enlargement, aug- mentation. Compensation, n. Reward, recompense, satisfaction. Anto., loss, punishment, correc- tion. Competent, adj. I. Able, qualified. 2. Adequate, fit. Anto., I. Incompetent, feeble. 2. Inadequate. Competition, n. Rivalry, contest, emu- lation. Anto., monopoly, combination. Complain, v. Murmur, grumble, lament. Anto., rejoice, jubilate. Compliment. ;/. Praise, commendation, encomium. Ante,, insult, blame, detraction. Comply, v. Confirm, yield, submit. Anto., disobey, rebel. Compound, adj. Composite, complex. Anto., simple, uniform, plain. Compound, v. Mix, combine, intermin- gle. Anto., simplify, analyze, separate. Comprehend, v. 1. Comprise, include, embrace. 2. Grasp, see, understand, perceive. Anto., 1. Exclude. 2. Mistake, misapprehend. Comprise, v. Include, contain, embody, comprehend. Anto., exclude. Compulsion. «. Constraint, coercion. Anto., freedom, liberty. Compunction. «. Remorse, regret, sor> row, penitence. Anto., joy, gratulation, glad- ness, buoyancy. Compute, v. Reckon, calculate, estimate, count. Conceal, v. 1. Hide, secrete, cover, screen. 2. Disguise, dissemble. Anto., 1. Reveal, un- cover, display. Concede, v. 1. Yield, surrender. 2. Grant, admit Anto., 1. Rebel, repel. 2. Denv. Conceit, n. Vanity, egotism. Ante., humility, meekness. Concert, n. 1. Concord, harmony, 2. Musical entertainment. Anto., 1. Discord. k- I 1 N" 68 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 4 Concise, adj. Short, brief, curt, laconic, terse. Auto., verbose, discursive, lengthy. Conclude. >. i. Decide, determine, a. End, finish, terminate. Anto., I. Differ, dis- agree, a. Begin, commence. Concur, v. Agree, coincide, join. Anto., disagree. Concussion, n. Clash, shock. Condemu, v. Blame, censure, reprove, disapprove. Anto., acquit, exonerate, excul- pate, clear, justify. Conduct, n. i. Management, a. Behavior, deportment, demeanor. Confess, v. i. Admit, grant, concede, a. Acknowledge, avow. Anto., deny, traverse. Confidence, n. i. Faith, trust, belief.^ at Assurance, courage. Auto., i. Distrust, in- credulity, a. Timidity. Conflict, n. Contest, struggle, fight, battle. Confonnd. v. Amaze, perplex, bewilder, stupefy, dumbfound. Confusion, n. i. Jumble, disarray, dis- order. 2. Tumult, commotion. 3. Shame, abashment. Auto., 1. Order, array. 2. Quiet. 3. Pride, hauteur, self-possession. Congenial, adj. Suited, adapted, agree- able. Anto., unstated, uncongenial. Conjecture, n. Guess, supposition, sur- mise. Ant.)., demonstration, proof. Conjugal, adj. Matrimonial, nuptial, bridal, connubial. Anto.. celibate. Connoisseur, n. Critic, judge. Anto., Ignoramus. Connubial, adj. See Conjugal. Conquer, v. Overcome, vanquish, sub- slue, checkmate, master, subject, crush. Anto., fail, yield, give up, surrender. Consanguinity, n. Kindred, relation- ship. Consideration, n. 1. Cause, reason, ground, motive. 3. Attention, deliberation. Anto., 2. Inattention. Consistent, adj. Accordant, compatible. Anto., inconsistent, discordant. Conspicuous, adj. 1. Prominent, emi- nent. 3. Visible, apparent. Ante, 1. Un- known, lowly. 3. Obscure, hidden. Constrain, v. 1. Compel, coerce, force, s. Curb, restrain. Anto., 1. Cajole, coax. 2. Loosen, liberate. Construct, v* 1. Fabricate, erect, build, raise, a. Make, form, frame, institute. Anto., 1. Overturn, a. Destroy. Consume, v. Devour, expend, waste, destroy. Anto., build up, save, Keep. Contagious, adj. 1. Catching, infectious. a. Poisonous, deadly, pestilential. Anto., 2. Healthy, wholesome. Contaminate. v. Defile, sully, pollute. Anto., clean, whiten, clear. Contempt. ». Scorn, disregard, disdain. Anto., regard, liking, admiration. Contemptible, adj. Mean, base, despica- ble, abject. Anto., lofty, noble, honorable. Contentment. n. Ease, satisfaction. Anto., discontent, sorrow, melancholy. Contest, n. See Conflict. Contingent, adj. Uncertain, conditional. Anto., sure, certain, fixed. Continual, adj. Endless, unceasing, perpetual, eternal. Anto., intermittent, broken. Contract, n. Bargain, compact, agree- ment, stipulation. Contrary, adj. 1. Opposite, counter, ad- verse, a. Conflicting, repugnant. 3. Per- verse, stubborn, obstinate. Anto.,i. Similar. a. Unanimous. 3. Agreeable. Control, v. Direct, regulate, manage, govern. Convenient, adj. Suitable, appropriate, useful. Anto., unsuitable, wrong. Conversation. n. Talk, dialogue, collo- quy. Anto. , silence. Convertible. adj. Interchangeable. Anto., unchangeable, immovable. Conveyance, n. t. Transfer, alienation, deed. 3. Carriage. Convict, r. Condemn, find guilty. Anto., acquit, exculpate, exonerate. Convince, v. Satisfy, persuade. Anto., dissuade. Convivial, adj. Jovial, jolly, festive. Anto., gloomy, sad, thoughtful. Cool. adj. 1. Not warm. 2. Collected, calm, dispassionate. Anto., 1. Warm. 2. Excited, enthused. Copy. v. 1. Transcribe. 2. Imitate. Anto., originate. Cordial* adj. Sincere, warm, hearty, heartfelt, ardent. Anto., heartless, cold, de- ceitful. Correct, adj. Ryght, true, accurate, fault- less. Anto., wrong, erroneous, faulty. Correspondent, adj. Answerable, suit- able. Anto., unsuitable, unfit. Cost. n. Expense, charge, price. Counsel* n. 1. Counsellor, attorney, ad- vocate, barrister, lawyer. 3. Opinion, advice, admonition, recommendation. Counterfeit, adj. 1. Forged, spurious. 2. Sham, feigned, simulated. Anto., 1. Gen- uine, real. 2. Sincere, actual. Couple, n. Pair, brace. Courage, n. Bravery, spirit, valor, hero- ism, fearlessness. Anto., cowardice, timidity, fear. Courtesy, n. Civility, urbanity, polite- ness. Anto., rudeness, boorishness. Covenant, n. See Contract. Covert, adj. Secret, disguised, hidden, concealed. Anto., open, displayed, shown. Covetousness. n. Stinginess, avarice, f>arsimony, penunousness. Anto., generosity, iberality. Cowardice* n. Fear, timidity, poltroon- ery, pusillanimity. Anto., courage, bravery, valor. Coy. adj. Shy, bashful, reserved, demure, modest. Anto., bold, brazen, shameless. Crack, n. 1. Crevice, chink, cranny, opening, breach, fissure, a. Explosion, re- port. Crafty, adj. Shrewd, cunning, artful, astute, subtle, tricky. Anto., simple, artless, ingenuous. Cravat, n. Necktie, neck-cloth, necker- chief. Crave, v. 1. Beg, beseech, solicit, en- treat, implore. 2. Desire. Anto., 1. Give, of- fer, confer. 3. Disdain. Crazy, adj. I* Insane, mad, lunatic. 2. Ricketty, tottering. Anto., 1. Sane. 2. Strong, stalwart. Create, v. 1. Cause, produce, originate. 3. Make, constitute. Anto., destroy. Credit, n. 1. Trust, belief, faith, confi- dence. 2. Esteem, reputableness, regard. 3. Honor, merit. Anto., discredit, incredulity. Creditable* adj. Reputable, honorable. Anto., dishonorable, shameful. Credulous, adj. Unsuspecting, super- stitious, gullible. Anto., knowing, disbeliev- ing, doubtful. Creed, n. Belief, doctrines, dogmas. Anto., skepticism, heterodoxy. Crestfallen. adj. Discouraged, dis- heartened, depressed, dejected. Anto., en- couraged, emboldened, determined. Crisis, n. 1. Height, acme. 2. Emer- gency, exigency, strait, pinch* Criterion, n. Measure, test, standard. Croak, v. Murmur, grumble, complain. Anto., rejoice, congratulate. Crooked, adj. 1. Bent, curved, awry, distorted. 2. Dishonest, knavish, unfair, un- scrupulous. Anto., i. Straight. 2. Honest, fair, honorable. Cross, adj. Captious, peevish, petulant, fretful, snappish. Anto., agreeable, good- humored. Cruel, adj. Pitiless, unmerciful, Inhuman, barbarous, brutal, savage. Anto., Wind, piti- ful, merciful, human. Cube. n. Die, a regular solid with six equal square sides. Cultivation, n. I. Culture, civilisation, refinement, a. Tillage. Anto., desolation, desert. Cure. *>. 1. Rcmrdv, restorative, correc- tive. 2. Healing, restoration. Anto., 1. Poison, a. Relapse. Curious. oJf. 1. Prying, inquisitive, a. Rare, unique, queer. Anto.,\. Uninterested, careless, a. Common, ordinary, usual. Cnrrent. adj. 1. Present, existing, a. Common, general, rife. Anto., 1. Past. a. Rare, unique, singular. Curse, n. Imprecation, execration, male- diction. Anto., blessing, benison. Cursory, adj. Superficial, hasty, careless, desultory. Anto., thorough, careful, exact. Curtail* v. Retrench, reduce, shorten, abridge, decrease. Anto., increase, augment, lengthen. Custody, n. Care, keeping, watch, pro- tection. Custom, m. 1. Usage, practice, habit. 2. Tax, impost, duty, tribute. Cynical, adj. Morose, carping, sarcastic, snarling, satirical. Anto., agreeable, jovial, companionable. Dally, adj. Diurnal, quotidian. Anto., irregular, disordered. Dainty, adj. 1. Nice, delicate, savory, delicious. 2. Squeamish, fastidious. 3. Ele- gant, fine. Anto., 1. Nasty, tasteless, bitter. 2. Careless, slovenly. 3. Coarse. Dalliance, n. Fondling, caressing, en- dearment. Damage, v. Mar, harm, hurt, impair. Injure. Anto., help, strengthen, defend. Dampness, n. Moisture, humidity, damp. Anto., dryness, aridity. Damsel, n. Lass, miss, maid, maiden, girl. Anto., lad, boy, youth, young man. Danger, n. Risk, venture, hazard, peril, jeopardy. Anto., safety, security. Daring, adj. Courage, btavery. valor, Intrepidity. Anto., cowardice, fear, timidity. Dark. adj. 1. Cloudy, ray I ess, murky, shady, unlltuminated. 2. Gloomv, dismal. 3. Wicked, foul, atrocious, 4. Obscure, mys- tical, mysterious. Anto., bright, light. 3. Honest, fair. 4. Open, intelligible. Date. n. Time, period, age, era, epoch. Dead. adj. 1. Inanimate, lifeless, breath- less, defunct. 2. Dull, frigid, obtuse, callous. 3. Useless, unprofitable. Anto., 1. Live, breathing. 2. Attentive, active, sharp. 3. Useful. Deadly, adj. I. Deleterious, destructive, noxious, fatal, mortal. 2. Rancorous, im- placable. Anto., wholesome, healthy. Dear. adj. 1. Beloved, darling, precious. Anto., 1. "ow, 3. Costly, high-priced, expensive. Anto. Hated, despised, loathed. 2. Cheap, 1 common. Debase* v. See Abase. Debate, v. Discuss, canvass, argue, dis- pute, contest. Deceitful, adj. Deceptive, illusive, de- lusive, fallacious. Anto., truthful, platr, open, honest, correct. Deceive. v. Delude, over-reach, fool, trick, cheat, gull, dupe. Decide, v. Determine, conclude. Anto., differ, disagree. Declaration, n. Assertion, averment, avowal, affirmation, asseveration. Anto., de- nial, negative. Decorate, v. Deck, adorn, ornament, embellish, beautify. Anto., spoil, spot. Decorum, n. "Propriety, decency. Anto., impropriety, misbehavior. Decoy, v. Tempt, allure, entice, inveigle, •educe. Anto., repel, warn, ad\ isc. Decrease, r. Diminish, lessen. Anto., Increase, augment, replenish. Decree, m. Order, mandate, nat, edict. Deduct. Separate, subtract, take twav. Ante, add. increase, augment. Drfnme. r. Asperse, calumniate, slan- tWr.vOtfy. Anto., praise, glorify, celebrate, defend. Defeat, r. I. Beat, conquer, overcome, rout. a. Balk, disappoint, baffle, foil, frus- Defect, n. 1. Flaw, blemish, imperfec- tion, a. Fault, failing. Anto., perfection, improvement, heautv. Defend . :•. 1 . G* srd , shield , protect. 3. Uphold, maintain, vindicate. Anto., I. Ka- ft. Asperse, slander, defame. Defer, r. Adjourn, delay, postpone Anto., push, force, expedite. / -te SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. Deference. n. Regard, respect, rever- ence, homage. Anto., disrespect, irreverence, contumely. Definite, adj. Certain, determined, exact, precise. Anto., uncertain, indefinite, vague. Defraud, v. Cheat, gull, over-reach. Defy. v. Brave, dare, disregard, despise. Anto. t submit, humiliate, concede. Deity. n. Divinity, Godhead, God. Anto., Devil. Dejected, adj. Depressed, disheartened, despondent. Anto., joyous, mercurial, glad. Delay, -v. Linger, stop, procrastinate. Anto.t hasten, expedite. Delectable, adj. Pleasant, agreeable, de- lightful. Anto.t abominable, despicable, nasty. Delegate. n. Commissioner, represen- tative, deputy. Delicious, adj. Delicate, palatable, lus- cious. Ante, bitter, nauseous. Delightful, adj. Charming, enchanting, ravishing. Anto.t displeasing. Delinquent. «. Offender, wrong-doer, culprit, criminal. Delirium, n. Wandering, hallucination, derangement. Delude, v. See Deceive. Demand, v. Require, claim, exact. Anto.t give, offer, relinquish. Demolish, v. Destroy, overthrow, level, ruin. Anto.t build, construct, raise. Demonstrate. v. Show, establish, prove. Demonstration. «. Proof, manifesta- tion. Demoralize, -v. Corrupt, deprave, vitiate. Anto^ reform, rescue. Denote, v. Imply, signify, indicate, mark, designate. Deny. v. i. Contradict, gainsay. 2. Dis- own, disavow, abjure. 3, Withhold. Anto.t avow, admit, concede. Depart, v. 1. Go, start, leave, set out. 3. Vanish, disappear. Auto., I. Come, re- turn. 3. Emerge, appear. Dependence. n. Reliance, trust, confi- dence. Anto.t independence. Depict, v. 1. Describe. 2. Delineate, portray, pencil, paint. Deplore, v. Lament, mourn, bewail, bemoan. Anto., rejoice, congratulate, cele- brate. Deportment. «. Demeanor, behavior, carriage, conduct. Deprecate, v. Regret, Anto., desire, commend. Depreciate, v. 1. Underrate, undervalue, lessen the price of. 2. Censure, degrade, tra- duce, malign. Anto., 1. Overrate. 2. Praise, vindicate. Depress, v. 1. Lower, drop, sink. 2. Deject, dispirit, chill. 3. Debase, humiliate. Anto., 1. Elevate, raise. 2. Encourage, x. Exalt. ^ * Derange, v. Confuse, displace, unsettle, disorder. Anto., arrange. Descend, v. 1. Fall, drop, sink, go down. 3. Dismount. Anto., ascena. Design. «. 1. Sketch, outline, plan, draught. 2. Intent, aim, purpose, object, scheme. Designate, v. 1. Name, call, style, de- nominate. 2. Denote, indicate, show, specify. 3. Appoint. Desire, -v. 1. Ask, request. 2. Wish, want, fancy, covet, crave. Desolation. «. 1. Gloom, sadness, wretchedness, misery. 2. Ruin, destruction. Anta., joy, pleasure, happiness. Despair. ». Desperation, despondency, hopelessness. Anto. t hope, cheerfulness. Despicable, adj. Mean, pitiful, con- temptible, abject. Anto., elevated, generous, praiseworthy. Despotic, adj. Absolute, arbitrary, im- perious, tyrannical. Anto., free, democratic, constitutional. Destiny, n. 1. Fate, necessity. 2. Lot, doom, fortune, fate. Destroy, v. 1. Consume, waste, devour, desolate, a. Demolish, overthrow, subvert. 3. Annihilate, extirpate, eradicate, kill. Anto., create, build, call together, construct. Detach, v. Separate, sever, disjoin. Anto.t join. Detain, v. Restrain, confine, delay, re- tain. Anto., hasten, expedite, send away. Detect, v. Descry, discover, expose. Determine, v. 1. Settle^ end, decide, conclude. 2. Lead, influence, induce. 3. As- certain, verify. Anto., 1. Begin, commence, unsettle. 2. Follow. 3. Falsify, negative. Detraction. ». Censure, slander, calumny, defamation. Anto., praise, commendation. Develop, v. Untold, open, evolve, grow. Anto., close, end, wither, wilt, droop. DeviL n. 1. Satan, Belial, Lucifer, arch- enemy, the tempter, the adversary, the prince of darkness. 2. Demon. Anto., God, Deity. Devoid, adj. Empty, destitute, vacant, void. Anto., full, complete, overflowing. Dexterous* ad/. Adroit, skillful, handy, apt, clever. Anto., awkward, unskillful, boorish, rough. Diction. «. Expression, phraseology, language, style. Dictionary. n. I. Lexicon, glossary, vocabulary. 2. Encyclopaedia. Die. v. Expire, decease, wither, perish. Anto., live, breathe, flourish, grow. Different, adj. I. Various, manifold, unlike, diverse. 2. Separate, distinct. Anto. t similar, alike, homogeneous. Difficult, adj. Arduous, hard, herculean. Anto. f easy, facile. Digest, n. Compend, abstract, brief, epi- tome. Dilemma, n. Strait, predicament, quan- dary. Diligence. «. Activity, industry, perse- verance, assiduity. Anto., idleness, laziness, lassitude, languor. Diminish, v. See Decrease, Direction, n. 1. Order. 2. Address, su- perscription. 3. Course, bearing. Disaffection, n. Breach, disagreement, dissatisfaction, estrangement, alienation. Disagree, v. 1. Quarrel, wrangle, bicker. 3. Dissent, differ, vary. Anto., 1. Conciliate, pacify. 2. Agree, equate. Disappear, v. Vanish, pass, fade, dis- solve. Anto. t appear, emerge, come into view. Disapproval, n. Disapprobation, dis- like, displeasure. Anto. t approbation, liking, pleasure. Disarrange. v. Unsettle, derange. Anto.. order, marshal, fix. Disbelief, n. Incredulity, distrust, doubt, skepticism, infidelity. Anto., faith, belief, trust- .. ,. j. Discomfort, v. Annoy, trouble, disturb, molest. Ant:, comfort, ease, quiet, pacify, calm. Discontent, n. Uneasiness, disquietude, dissatisfaction. Anto., comfort, ease, quiet, peace, contentment. Discourtesy, n. Incivility, impoliteness, rudeness. Anto., courtesy, breeding, good manners, behavior. Discredit. ». 1. Distrust. 2. Disrepute, obloquy. Anto., I. Credit. 2. Reputation, standing. Discuss, v. Canvass, sift, argue, ventilate, debate. Disease, n. Ailment, complaint, illness, sickness, malady. Anto., health. Disgrace, v. Degrade, debase, sully, stain, dishonor. Anto., exonerate, exculpate, clear, release, justify, vindicate. Dishonest, adj. Unfair, false, knavish, fraudulent. Anto., honest, reputable, right, proper, trusty, sincere, candid. Dislike. «. Aversion, antipathy, repug- nance, disgust. Anto., 1 liking, admiration, love, regard. Dismiss, v. Discharge, discard, turn off. Anto., receive, take back. Disoblige, v. Discommode, offend, dis- please. Anto., oblige, favor. Dispassionate, adj. Sober, calm, tem- perate, composed, imperturbable. Anto., pas* sionate, stormy, disturbed. Display, v. 1. Exhibit, show. 3. Un- fold, open, spread. Anto., hide, conceal, cover, close. Displease, v. 1. Dissatisfv, offend, dis- gust. 2. Anger, irritate, affront. Anto., please, comfort, ease, quiet. Disregard, v. Overlook, slight, neglect, contemn, Anto., regard, favor, notice, watch, oversee. Dissembler, n. Feigner, hypocrite. Dissipate, v. 1. Lavish, squander, waste. 2. Dispel, scatter. Anto., 1. Save, economize. 2. Gather. Dissolute, adj. See Abandoned. Distant, adj. 1. Remote, far. 2. Re- served, coy, shy, cold. Anto., t. Near, close. 2. Bold, shameless, impudent. Distress, n. 1. Suffering, pain, anguish, agony. 2. Adversity, trouble. 3. Want, in- digence, poverty. Anto., x. Pleasure, ease, contentment. 2. Happiness. 3. Wealth, af- fluence. . Distrust, n. Mistrust, suspicion, dis- credit, disbelief. Anto.t trust, confidence, re- liance. ,„ Diversity, n. 1. Variation, unlikeness, difference. 2. Variety. Anto., sameness, likeness, homogeneity. Docile, aay. Apt, tractable, teachable. Anto., intractable, savage, untamable. Doleful, adj. 1. Melancholy, woeful, sad, sorrowful. 2. Dolorous, gloomy. Anto., joyous, bright, happy. Domestic, adj. Homely, tame. Anto., exoteric, extraneous, foreign, wild. Doubt. ». 1. Suspense, irresolution, un- certainty. 2. Suspicion, mistrust. # Anto., 1. Foreknowledge, resolution, certainty. 3. Confidence. Drag. z>. Draw, pull, haul, tug. Dread, w. Fear, awe, apprehension. Anto., courage, boldness, valor. Dreadful, adj. Awful, frightful, fearful, direful, horrible, terrible. Droll, adj. I. Odd, queer. 3. Comic, funny, farcical. Anto., 1. Usual, ordinary. 3. Solemn, funereal. Droop, v. 1. Decline, fail, languish. 3. Fade, wilt, wither. Anto., 1. Rise, succeed. 3. Bloom, blossom, grow, wax. Dull. adj. i. Stupid, shallow. 3. Inert, sluggish. 3. Blunt, obtuse. 4. Gloomy. Anto., 1. Knowing, deep. 3. Active. 3. Sharp, shrewd. 4, Bright. Dunce, n. Simpleton, fool, ninny, idiot, dolt, oaf, dullard. Anto., sage. Eager, adj. 1. Zealous, ardent, Irapetuout. 2. Impatient, longing, yearning. Anto., 1. Lukewarm. 3. Patient. Earn. v. 1. Gain, obtain, get, acquire, win. 2. Merit, deserve. Anto., squander. Easy. adj. Light, not difficult. 2. Quiet, comfortable. 3. Unconstrained. Anto., 1. Difficult. 2. Uneasy. 3. Confined. Eccentric, adj. Odd, peculiar, erratic, anomalous, aberrant. Anto., usual, ordinary, commonplace. Ecstacy. ». 1. Delight, rapture, trans, port. 2. Enthusiasm. Anto., despair, sorrow, torture. ..... . .. Educate, v. Train, discipline, instruct, school, teach. Anto., ignore. Efface, v. Cancel, blot, erase, expunge, obliterate. Anto.. rewrite, strengthen. Effective, adj. 1. Active, effectual. 3. Sufficient, cogent, energetic, forcible, potent. Anto., ineffectual, idle, slow, weak. Effectual, adj. See Effective. Egotistical, adj. Conceited, self-impor- tant, selfish. Anto., humble, lowly, gener. ous. _ . Elevate, v. 1. Exalt, promote. 2. Raise, lift 3. Improve, refine, ennoble. 4. Animate, cHeer, elate. Anto., depress, lower, vulgarize, deaden, sadden. _ Embarrass, v. 1. Disconcert, confuse, confound. 2. Distress, hamper, clog. 3. Perplex. Anto., assist, help, explain. Embolden, v. Inspirit, reassure, animate encourage. Anto., abash, confuse. N" 70 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. ~A ■¥ Emergency, n. Strait, difficulty, exi- gency, necessity, crisis. Eminent. adj. Kxalted, remarkable, prominent, conspicuous, distinguished. Anto., obscure, lowly, meek, humble. Emotion. «. Keeling, excitement, agita- tion, passion. Anto., calm, quiet, ease.- Employment, n. Engagement, occu. nation, pursuit, avocation, business. Auto., idleness, leisure. Encourage. Set Embolden. Endless, adj. 1. Unlimited, boundless, illimitable, infinite. 2. Eternal. Anto., lim- ited, ephemeral, 2. Finite, mortal. Energetic, adj. Active, forcible, strong, vigorous, powerful. Anto., feeble, weak, en- ervated. Enervate, v. Weaken, enfeeble, break, debilitate, paralyze. Anto., invigorate, nerve, strengthen. Engagement. ». 1. Employment. 2. Encounter, battle. 3. Promise, pledge, assur- ance, contract. Engross, v. Occupy, absorb, engage, monopolize, forestall. Auto., vacate, empty* Enhance, v. 1. Raise, heighten, swell, advance. 2. Augment, increase. Anto., lower, recede, reduce. Enjoyment, n. Gratification, delight, pleasure, happiness. Anto., sorrow, sadness, grief. Enlarge. See Augment. Enmity, n. Animosity, aversion, hostil- ity, hatred, malevolence. Anto., friendship, kindliness, love, admiration. Ennoble, v. See Elevate. Ennni. n. Listlessncss. irksomeness, tedium, languor, lassitude. Anto., liveliness, vigor, enjoyment, buoyancy. Enterprise, n. 1. Attempt, undertaking, endeavor, venture. 2. Energy. Entertain. v. Divert, amuse, please. Anto., sadden, make gloomy. Enthusiasm. ». Earnestness, devotion, teal, ardor, Anto., frivolity, ennui, luke- warmness. Entice, v. See Allure* Entreat, v. Petition, ask, beseech, im- plore, pray, supplicate. Enumerate. v. Number, count, reckon, numerate. Ephemeral, adj. Short-lived, transitory, living hut a day. Anto., eternal, endless. Kpieure. n. Gourmand, sybarite, sensu- alist, voluptuary. Anto., ascetic, stoic. Epithet. «. Name, designation, appel* latiou. Equable. adj. Even, regular, steady, equal, uniform. Anto., eccentric, unequal, rugged. Equestrian. *. 1. Rider, horseman. 2. Chevalier, chaSMUr, knight, cavalier. Auto., pedestrian, infantry, footman. Equitable, adj. 1. Fair, reasonable, justifiable, right. 2. Just, honest, impartial. Anto., unjust, unreasonable, wrong, dis- Equivocate. v quibble, prevaricat. . Kiror. n. 1. Oversight, mistake, blunder. 3. Tra nsgression, fault, offence, sin. Erudition. ,,. Learning, knowledge, lore, science, scholarship. Anto., ignorance. EtOhew. v. Avoid, shun. Anto., seek. Espouse, v. I. Marry, wed. 2. llctroth. Anto., divorce. EstahlUh. v. 1. Organize, found, instt- tute. fix, plant, settle. 2. Prove. 3. Confirm, ratify. Anto., i. Overthrow, destroy, unsettle. J. Disprove. 3, Deny, refuse. Esteem. //. 1. Honor, respect, reverence. 2. Valuation, opinion. Anto., contempt. Btern il. Set Endlrxx. Ev;wii>u. n. Quibble, shift, subterfuge, touivocation, Evening. n . Dusk, twilight, eve, even, nightfall, Anto., morning, dawn, aurora. Event. ». 1, Occurrence, Incident, acd* d' int, .-. t oil' In ion, result, cooaequa. B*er« adj. 1. Evermore, always, sve, perpetually, eternally. 2. At any time. Anto., never. Lie, shuffle, dodge, Evident, adj. Apparent, obvious, clear, palpable, manifest. Ante, obscure, hidden. Exalt, v. 1. Glorify, bless, praise, extol, magnify. 2. Raise, erect, elevate. 3. Dignify, ennoble. Anto., 1. Execrate. 2. Lower. 3. Abase. Exasperate, v. Irritate, vex, offend, pro- voke, incense, anger, enrage. Anto., soothe, mollify, pacify, please. Excellent, adj. 1. Choice, prime, ster- ling, matchless, superior. 2. Good, virtuous, worthy. Anto., bad, low. 2. Villainous, worthless. Excel, v. Surpass, beat, outdo, exceed. Anto., fail, fall behind. Excerpt. «. Citation, extract, quotation. Exculpate, v. Excuse, justify, pardon, clear, exonerate. Anto., convict, indict, ar- raign, blame. Excursion, n. Ramble, jaunt, trip, tour, journey. Excuse, n. 1. Plea, justification, apology. 2. Guise, color, pretext, pretence. Execute. See Accomplish. Exegesis, n. 1. Kxegetics, explanation, exposition, interpretation. Exercise. v. Practice, pursue. -2. Drill, train, discipline. 3. Exert, use, apply. Anto., rust, decay, degenerate, become sluggish, Exhale. v. Breathe, evaporate, emit. Anto., inhale, inspire. Exhilarate, -v. Animate, gladden, cheer, elate, inspirit. Anto., depress, discourage, deject, dampen, chill. Exigency. See Emergency . Exonerate. See Acquit and Exculpate. Expectation, n. Prospect, anticipation, confidence, hope, trust, reliance. Anto., sud- denness, abruptness, fear, dismay. Expedite, v. Quicken, hurry, hasten, accelerate, speed. Anto., delay, retard, clog, bar. Expense, n. Outlay, charge, expenditure, cost. Experience, n. I. Knowledge, wisdom. 2. Practice. Anto., 1. Ignorance. 2. Inexper- ience. Experiment, v. Proof, test, trial, ex- amination, assay. Explain, v. Expound, Illustrate, unfold, interpret, elucidate. Auto., confuse, muddle, darken. Expound. See Explain. Expression, n. r. Phrase, term, utter- ance, declaration. 2. Look, appearance, as- pect. Extend, v. I. Expand, augment, dilate, enlarge, protract, prolong,. 2. Yield, offer. Anto., 1, Abridge, shorten, lessen. 2. Take, receive. Extraordinary, adj. Uncommon, sig nal, rare, unusual, remarkable. Anto., com- mon, usual, customar\ . Extravagant. Adj. t. Wasteful, lavish, prodigal. 2. V reasonable, inordinate, preposterous. Anto. profuse, prodigal. 2. Wild, absurd. 3. Un- 1. Stingy, miserable, close. 2. Probable, credible. 3. Common, ordinarv, customary. Extricate, v. Relieve, elear, disentan- gle. Anto., involve, entangle. Exuberate. ,nij. Full, copiou s , liberal, lavish. Anto., empty, vacant, scarce. Fable, n. 1. Talc, novel, romance, myth. 2. Falsehood] fiction, fabrication, lie. Anto., history. 2. Truth, verity, fact. Facetious, adj. Sportive, waggish, }o- COSS, [ocular. Anto., serious, gloomy, sat- urnine. Fail. v. 1. Miss, misenrrv. 2. Omit, neg- lect. 3. Decay, wane, decline. 4. Rrcak. Anto., accomplish, succeed* 2. Perform. 3. Grow, strengthen. 4. Mend. Faithful, adj. 1. Constant, loyal, true. 1. Reliable, truthful. 3. ClOSe, stru l. Auto., faithless, deceitful. Faithless, adj. Perfidious, treacherous, fai-e. Anto., faithful. False, adf. t. Untrw. 2. Deceptive, fallacious, spurious, countrrfnt. 3. Incor- I, True. s. Ileal, genuine, act- ual. 3. Correct. Family, n. 1. Class, race, lineage, tribe. 2. Household. 3. Order. Anto., individual. Fascinate, v. Charm, catch, captivate, bewitch, a n am or. Anto., alarm, dismay, dis- enchant, intimidate. Fast. n. I. Abstinence, fasting. Anto., •orge. Fate. n. 1. Fatality, destiny, lot, doom. Anto., chance. Feast, m. 1. Festival, holiday, a. Enter- tainment, banquet, carousal. Anto., fast, abstinence. Feeble, adj. 1. Weak. a. Languid, sickly, frail, debilitated. Anto., strong, ener- getic, stalwart. Feeling, n. 1. Affectation, sensibility, emotion. 2. Sensation, touch. Anto., cal- lousness, hard-hcartedness. Feminine. adj. \. Delicate, soft, we-manly. 2. Effeminate. Anto., 1. Coarse, hard. 2. Masculine. Fervor, n. i. Eagerness, ardor, seal, a. W.tmth. Anto., laziness, apathy. Festival, n. See lea \t. I . oilal. adj. Feodal, military (tenure.) Anto., allodial, democratic. Fickle, adj. Changeable, unstable, vari- able , 1 apricious, inconstant. Anto., faithful, nit, immutable. final, adj. 1. Conclusive, decisive, a. Ultimate, la t. Anto., opening, beginning. Fitie. adj. 1. Nice, refined. 2. Little, small, minute. 3. Excellent. 4. Handsome, beautiful, elegant. 5. Delicate. 6. Light. Anto., coarse, large, mean, ugly. Finish, v. 1. Conclude, end, terminate. 2. I'ertorm, accomplish, complete, t. Per- fect. Anto., 1. Begin, open. 2 an 03. De- stroy, tear down. Firmness, n. 1. Strength, stability, a. Solidity, hardness. Auto., 1. Weakness. 2. is, penetrability. Flag. h. Standard, colors, ensign, ban- ner. Flashy, adj. Gay, airy, jauntv, showy, tawdry, ostentatious, Haunting. Anto., som- bre, solemn. Flattery, n. 1. Adulation, fawning, ser- vilitv, sycophancy, obsequiousness. 2. Com* plum nt. Anto., blame, objection, disap- proval, detraction. Flavor/ n. 1. Taste, smack, savor, a. Smell, odor, fragrance. Anto., taste lessness. Flaw. n. 1. I racture, crack, a. Speck, spot, fault. Imperfection, defect, bkmuh. Anto.,\. \> hole, solid. 2. Perfect, immacu- late, clear. Flimsy, adj. 1. Thin, slight, a. Trivial, feeble, weak, frivolous, shallow. Anto., 1. Strong, stalwart. 2. Worthy, good, earnest, deep. Fluctuate, v. 1. Waver, vacillate, a. Oscillate. Fluency, n. Flo%\ , glibness, volubility. Anto., silence, taciturnity. Koih1iic*>h. n. 1. Liking, partiality, a. Love, tenderness. Anto., hate, dislike. Food. w. Victual-., viands, fare, subsist- ence, aliment, nutriment. Fool. Set Dunce. Foppish, adj Dandified, coxcombical, dandyish. Anto., slovenly, untidy. Forcible, adj. 1. Vigorous, a. Strong, fiotent, cogent, powerful. 3. Violent. Anto., eeble, art ak, puny. Forego, r. Resign, yield, surrender, re- linquish, abandon. Anto., lake, receive, do mand. Foresight. a. Prudence, precaution, anticipation, forecast, prescience. imprudence, rashness. > M •'thitiight. m. See Forcxignt. Forgive. Excuse, al*s< acquit Anto., avenge, charge, indict, impli- cate, n< Formirinhle. adj. Dreadful, tremen- dona, terrible, shocking. Anto., small, ri- diculous, puny. Forsake. r. Abandon, quit, desert, re- nounce, forswear. Anto. cleave. For»w*»nr. t\ i. Renounce, forsake, de- sert. 2. Recant, abjure. Ante, subscribe. ^ K~ SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. tt 71 Fortitude. «. Resolution, firmness, en- durance. Anto., weakness. Fortune. «. 1. Chance, luck, fortuity. 2. Property, estate, riches, wealth. 3. Des- tiny, lot. late, doom. Anto., 2. Poverty. Fragile. adj. Weak, feeble, frail, frag- iblc. Anto., strong. Fragrance. «. Aroma, perfume, balmt- ncss, incense. Anto., stench, effluvia. F ra i 1 . adj. See Fragile. Frank, adj. Open, sincere, artless, can- did. Auto., artful. Fraud. «. Cheat, deception, collusion, guile. Anto., honesty. Freak. «. Fancy, humor, crotchet, va- gary, whim, caprice. Anto., purpose, res- olution. Free. adj. 1. Unrestrained, unobstruct- ed, a. Gratuitous, willing. 3. Frank, sin- cere, artless. 4. Generous, liberal. Anto., i. Slavish. 2. Costly. 3. Artful. 4. Stingy. Free. v. I. Clear, rid. 2. Release, lib- crate, emancipate. Anto., bind, enslave. Freeze* v. I. Congeal. 2. Chill, be- numb. Anto., melt. Fretful, adj. Captious, waspish, splen- etic, snappish, petulant. Anto. t equable, good-humored. Frivolous, adj. See Flimsy. Frugality. n. Carefulness, economy, thrift. Anlo. % extravagance, wastefulness. Fruitful, adj. 1. Fecund, prolific, pro- ductive. 2. Plenteous. Anto., sterile, fruit- less, unproductive. Fruitless, adj. Barren, sterile, unpro- ductive. 2. Futile, useless. Anto., fruitful. Frustrate, v. Balk, baffle, defeat, foil, disappoint* Anto., expedite. Fully, adj. Wholly, entirely, completely. Anto., partly. Furniture, n. I. Effects, goods, mov- ables, chattels. 2. Apparatus. 3. Decorations, ornaments. Futile, adj. 1. Useless, fruitless, vain, idle. 2. Frivolous, trifling. Anto., 1. Fruit- ful. 2. Earnest. Gage. n. 1. Challenge. 2. Pawn, secur- ity, pledge. Gain. n. Advantage, benefit, profit, emolument. Anto., loss. Gain. v. Get,secure,w!n, earn, achieve, obtain, procure. Anto., lose. Gang. n. Band, party, set, company, coterie. Anto., individual. Garb. «. Dress, habit, attire, apparel. Anto., nudity, nakedness. Garble, v. Falsify, misquote, mutilate. Anto. t restore, verifv. Garrulity, n. Babble, talkativeness, lo- quacity. Anto.f taciturnity. Gathering, n. Meeting, company, as- sembly, concourse. 2. Earning, acquisition. 3. Abscess. Gaudy, adj. See Flashy. Gawky, adj. See Awkward. Generous, adj. Liberal bountiful, mag- nificent, noble. Anto.t l. Stingy. 2. Mean. Gentle. adj. I. Bland, lenient, kind, mild, humane. 2. Docile, tame, quiet, tract- able. Affto. t rough. Genuine, atfj. 1. True, authentic, un- alloyed. 2. Unaffected, sincere. Anto., false. Giddiness, n. Dizziness, vertigo. Giddy, adj. 1. Dizzy. 2. Fickle, unsta- ble 3. Flighty, careless, heedless. Anto,, sedate, balanced. Gift. n. 1. Endowment, talent, faculty, genius. 2. Present, donation, offering, grat- u ty, contribution, subscription, douceur. Gigantic. adj. Huge, v^st, colossal. Anto., small, mean, little. Gingerly, adv. Dainty, careful, cau- tious, fastidious. Anto., rash, careless. Girdle. n. Band, cincture, belt, cestus, zone. Glad. adj. 1. Pleased, gratified, rejoiced. 2. Cheerful, joyous. 3. Gratifying. Anto., sad, sombre. Gloomy, adj. j. Dull, obscure, dismal, dusky, lowering. 2. Depressed, dejected, sad. Anto., bright, joyful. Go. v, 1. Move, advance, proceed. 3. Depart. 3. Extend. 4. Fare. 5. Lend, con- tribute. Anto. t come. Go. inter/. Avaunt, begone. God. «. Lord, Creator, Almighty, Omni- potence, Providence, Jehovah. Good Nature. «. Kindness, amiability, benevolence, benignity. Anto., malevolence, rudeness. Goods. «., //. 1, Wares, merchandise. 2. Chattels, furniture. Grandeur, n. Greatness, sublimity. 2. Dignity, st ...e, magnincenr -. majesty. Anto., humility. Grant, v. 1. Concede, admit. 2. Give, bestow, vouchsafe. 3. Transfer, convey, Anto., take. Grateful. adj. I- Obliged, beholden, thankful. 2. Palatable, cordial, delicious, refreshing. 3. Pleasaia, agreeable, delightful. Anto., ungrateful. Gratify, v. Indu.y^humorjdelight.sat- isfv, please. Anto., displease. Great, adj. 1. Bulky, big, large, huge, vast. 2. Noted, distinguished, eminent, ex- alted, illustrious. 3. Noble, magnanimous. 4. Numerous. Anto., small. Greedy, adj. Gluttonous, rapacious, in- satiate, ravenous, voracious. Anto., gener- ous, unselfish. Grief, n. Distress, sorrow, regret, afflic- tion, tribulation, woe, anguish, Anto., joy. Gruff, adj. Blunt, harsh, rough, rude, churlish. Auto., polite. Grumble, v. Croak, murmur, complain, growl. Anto., rejoice. Guard. 7. Protect, watch, shelter, shield, defend. Anto., attack, harass. Guarded, adj. Caieful, watchful, cau- tious, wary. Auto., unguarded. Guidance. ft. Lead, conduct, direction, government. Anto., following. Guile. «. Artifice, duplicity, deceit, sub- tlety, cunning, craft, fraud. Auto., honesty j simplicity. Guiltless, adj. Innocent, blameless, spot- less, pure, immaculate. Anto., guilty. Guilty, adj. Culpable, sinful, criminal, Anto., guiltless. Gyrate, f . Whirl, rotate, revolve. Hail. v. Greet, welcome, salute. Hale. adj. Sound, strong, healthy, hardy, hearty, robust. Anto., feeble. Handsome* adj. 1. Comely, fair, pretty, beautiful. 2. Ample, plentiful. 3. Generous, magnanimous, noble. Anto., ugly. Happiness, n. Enjoyment, bliss, beat- itude, felicity. Anto., sorrow. Harass, v. 1. Worry, vex, plague, tease, trouble, distress. 2. Fag, exhaust, jade. Anto., please, comfort, protect. Hard. ad;'. 1. Compact, solid, impene- trable. 2, Knotty, difficult. 3. Arduous, laborious. 4. Unfavorable. 5. Callous, cruel. Anto., soft. . Hasten, t>. Accelerate, dispatch, speed, quicken, expedite. Anto., hinder, delay. Hate. v. Detest, abominate, loathe, ab- hor. Anto., love. Hate. n. Enmity, antipathy, hostility, detestation, hatred. Anto., love. Haughty, adj. Lofty, proud supercil- ious, arrogant. Anto., modest. Head-strong, adj. Unruly.doggcd, stub- born, obstinate. Anto., reasonable*", judicious. Heal. v. I. Remedy, cure, restore. 2. Settle, reconcile. Anto., i. Hurt, wound. 2. Unsettle, disrupt. Healthy, adj. Well, sound, hale, vigor- ous. Anto., sickly. Hearken, v. Attend, listen, hear. Hearty, adj. See Hale. Heart-broken, adj. Desolate, wretched, disconsolate, inconsolable. Anto., joyous, happy. Heartless, adj. Unkind, cruel, coU, piti- less. Anto., cordial, kind. Heavenly, adj. 1. Angelic, divine, god- like. 2. Celestial. Anto., Mundane. Heedless, adj. Careless, thoughtless, inat- tentive, negligent. Anto., careful. Heighten, p. 1. Raise, elevate, exalt. 3. Increase, enhance. 3. Intensify. Anto., lower, decrease. Hell. «. Hades, purgatory, Gehenna. Anto.t heaven. Helpful, adj. Useful, bencfc.nt, con- venient. Anto., helpless. Helpless, adj. Weak, feeble, infir n, power- less, impotent, imbecile. Anto., strong, help ful. Herculean, adj. See Strong, Difficult. Heroic, adj. 1. Bold, valiant, brave, cour- ageous, noble, dauntless. 2. Epic. Anto., 1. Cowardly. Hesitation, n. Doubt, suspense, uncer- tainty, vacillation. Anto., determination. Hideous, adj. Dreadful, frightful, horrible, appalling, ghastly. Anto., beautiful. Highwayman, n. Robber, bandit, bri- gand, road-agent, marauder. Hinder, v. Stop, impede, retard, check, thwart. Anto., hasten. Hint. «. Allusion, suggestion, intimation, insinuation. Holiday, n. Festival, anniversary, cele- bration. Anto., fast-day. Holy. adj. 1. Good, pious, religious, de- vout, pure, saintly, godly. *. Hallowed, sacred. Anto., wicked, bad. Home. w. Abode, domicile, residence, dwelling. Homely, ad/. 1. Plain, coarse, uncomely. 2. Domestic, homelike, 3. Ugly. Anto., beautiful, handsome. Honest, adj. 1. Equitable, right, proper, honorable. 2. True, faithful, just, upright, trustworthy. 3. Candid, sincere. Anto., dis- honest, inequitable. Honor, n. Credit, esteem. 2. Respect, homage. 3. Distinction, dignity. 4. Integ- rity, nobility, probity. Anto., dishonor. Honor, v. Dignify, exalt. 2. Observe, celebrate. 3. Respect, reverence, venerate. Anto., abase. Hope. v. Believe, trust, desire, expect. Anto., despair. Hostile, adj. 1. Adverse, opposite, con- trary, repugnant. 2. Unfriendly. Anto., amicable, friendly. Hostility. n. See Hate. Hot, adj. 1. Fiery'- a - Pungent, biting, acrid. 3. Glowing, ardent, fervid. 4. Pas- sionate, irascible, impetuous. Anto. t cold, cool. Hue. h. Tint, tinge, shade, color. Huge. adj. See Gigantic. Humane, m. Kind, charitable, benevo- lent, gentle, tender. Anto., cruel. Humility, n. Modesty, meekness, lowli- ness, humbleness. Anto., grandeur. Humorous, adj. Funny, witty, jocular, jocose, facetious. Anto., serious. Hurry, v. See Hasten. Hurry, n. 1. Haste, dispatch, promp*'- tude, celerity. 2. Bustle, flutter, precipita- tion. Anto", hinder, delay. Hypocrisy, n. 1. Deceit, dissimulation, imposture. 2. Cant, pharisaism, sanctimo- niousness. Anto., openness, truth, candor. Hypocrite, n. 1. Cheat, pretender, im- postor, dissembler. 2. Pharisee, canter. Hypothesis. «. Theory, supposition. Ideal, adj. Fancied, unreal, shadowy, im- aginary. Anto., real. idleness, n. Inactivity, inertness, lazl* ness, sloth. Anto., labor. Ignorance, n. Darkness, blindness, nescience, illiteracy. Anto., knowledge. Ill-bred. adj. Uncourtly, uncouth, un- polished, impolite, rude. Anto., polite. Illustrious, adj. 1. Bright, glorious. 2. Famous, celebrated, eminent, renowned. Anto.. 1. Dim. 2. Unknown, infamous. Immoderate, a. Unreasonable, extrava- gant, inordinate, excessive. Anto., moder- ate. Imperious, adj. See Despotic. Impetuous, adj. Hasty, precipitate, pas- sionate, violent, vehement, furious. Anto., calm. 3* SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. / Moment, weight, con* consequence. Ante, Importance, n cern, signiiicance. frivolity. Impression, n. i. Stamp, impress. a. Idea, notion. 3. Effect, sensation, in* flue nee. Improve, v. 1. Mend. a. Progress. 3. Rise, increase. Ante, deteriorate, lessen. Imprudent, adj. Incautious, indiscreet, injudicious, careless, rash. Ante, cautious. Impure, adj. I. Unclean, dirty, foui, filthy. a. Coarse, gross, immodest, indecent, ob- scene, vulgar, lewd, Anto., pure. Inability, n. 1. Incompetency, inca- pacity, inefficiency, impotence. 2. Disabil • Sty. disqualification. Anto., ability. Inaccurate, adj. Inexact, incorrect, erro- neous. Anto., accurate. Inapt, adj. Unfit, unsuitable, inappropri- ate, inapposite. Anto., suitable, meet. Incapacity. n. See Inability. Incompatible, adj. Unadapted, incon- gruous, inconsistent, unsuitable. Anto. % compatible. Incompetent, adj. 1. Unable, incapable. a. Disqualified, incapacitated, unfit. 3. In- sufficient. Anto., able, fit, sufficient. Inconsistent, adj. 1. Contrary. See In- compatible. Incontinence, n. Unchasttty, wanton- ness, lechery, lewdness, lasciviousness. Anto., chastity. Inconvertible, adj. Unchangeable, un- alterable, not convertible. Anto., change- able. Incorrect, adj. 1. Faulty, a. Inaccurate, inexact, erroneous, false, untrue. Anto., correct. Indefinite, adj. Undefined, indistinct, unsettled, doubtful, uncertain, loose. Anto., definite. Independence. ». Liberty, freedom, self-direction. Ante, dependence. Individual, n. Being, person, character. Anto., band, community. Ineffectual, adj. 1. Feeble, weak, power* less. a. Inoperative, unavailing, useless, abortive. Anto., effectual. Inequitable, adj. Unfair, unjust, dis- honorable. Anto., equitable. Inexperience. «. Ignorance, greenness, rawness. Anto., experience. Ingenuous, adj. Honest, frank, candid, trtlcss, guileless. Anto., crafty. Inharmony. n. Discord, harshness, dis- sonance, discordance. Anto., concert. Innocent, adj. 1. Harmless, innocuous, a. Clean, guiltless, spotless, immaculate. Anto., Guilty. Insanity, n. See Lunacy. Inspire, v. t. Inhale, a. Infuse, instil. 3. Cheer, animate, Inspirit. Anto., 1. Respire. 3. Discourage. Instruction, n. 1. Direction, mandate. a. Discipline, teaching, training, education. 3. Counsel, precept. Insult, n. Affront, indignity, offence, outrage. Anto., apology, favor. Integrity. n. Honesty, honor, rectitude, probity, virtue, a. Completeness, entirety, Anto., dishonesty. Intellect, n. Mind, sense, brains, reason, understanding. Anto., body. Intemperance, h. Excess, dissipation. Anto., temperance. Intense, adj. 1. Extreme, excessive, a. Severe, close, strained. 3. Ardent, earnest. Anto., flight, frivolous. Intercede, v. Mediate, plead, arbitrate, interpose. Anto., »l. unand, require. Intermission. », Pause, rest, suspen- sion, stop, interruption. Anto., continuation. Intermit, v. Subside, abate, cease. Anto., continue, persist. Interpose, v. 1. Remark, a. Mediate, arbitrate, intercede. Interpret, v. Construe, reader, a. De- fine, explain, elucidate, decipher. Interrogate, v. Ask, examine, question, catechize. Anto., answer. Interval, u. Season, term ^pace, spell, period. Anto., continuation. Intervening, adj. Interjacent, interme- diate, interposed. Intimidate, v. Daunt, frighten, alarm, scare, terrify. Anto., embolden, encourage. Intoxication, n. Drunkenness, inebriety, inebriation. Anto., temperance, sobriety. Intrepid, adj. Brave, daring, valorous, bold, dauntless. Anto., cowardly. Intrinsic, adj. 1. True, genuine, essential, real. a. Inherent, inborn, native. Anto. 1. Counterfeit, a. Alien, foreign. Introductory, adj. Preliminary, prefa- tory. Intrude, v. 1. Obtrude, a. Trespass, infringe, encroach. Anto., eject, expel, pro- trude. Intrust, v. Consign, deliver, commit, confide. Anto., distrust. Invade, v. 1. Assault, attack, assail, a. Infringe. Anto., repel. Invalid, adj. 1. Weak. a. Null, void. Anto., valid. Invalid, n. Valetudinarian, sick person. Invective, n. 1. Abuse, contumely, a. Satire, sarcasm, lampoon. Anto., panegyric. Invent, z: 1. Devise, a. Fabricate. 3/Im* agine, originate, concoct. Anto., copy, fol- low. Invest, v. 1. Put at interest, a. Array, clothe, dress. Investigation, n. Scrutiny, examination, inquisition, inquiry. Invigorate, v. Animate, fortify, strength- en. Anto., weaken. Invincible, adj. Unconquerable, a. In- surmountable, insuperable. Anto., vincible. Invite, v. 1. Bid, summon, ask, request. 2. Attract, entice allure. Anto., reject, delay, provoke. Involve, v. Include, embrace, a. En- tangle, implicate. 3. Entwine, interweave. Anto., simplify, analyze. Irksome, adj. Wean*, tiresome, tedious, wearisome. Anto., pleasant. Irony, n. Banter, mockery, raillery, ridi- cule. Anto., praise. Irrational, adj. 1. Brutish, a. Unwise, silly, unreasonable, absurd. Anto., rational. Irrefragable, adj. L'ndeniaMc, irrefut- able, indubitable, incontestable. Anto., dubious. Irritate, -v. Fret, nettle, incense, pro- voke, exasperate. Anto., soothe. Irruption, n. Inroad, foray, raid, in • cursion. Issue, n. 1. Offspring, children, prog- eny, a. Conclusion, outcome, result. 3. Outlet, exit. Anto., return, inlet. Itinerant, adj. Wandering, nomadic, rov- ing, travelling. Anto., homely, settled. Jade. v. Fatigue, weary, tire, fag, ex- haust. Anto., invigorate. Jealousy, n. Suspicion, apprehension. Anto., confidence. Jest. «. Quip, crank, joke, sally, witti- cism. Jocose, adj. Droll, witty, comical, spor- tive, facetious. Anto., sajfjoua, Jocund, adj. Joyful, blithe, jolly, gay, buxom. Anto., sad, gloom v. Join. v. 1. Combine, unite, couple, a. Annex, add, attach. Anto., separate. Joke. n. See Jest. Jollity, n. Merriment, gayety, fun, frolic, hilarity. Journey, n. Excursion, trip, expedition, travel, tour. Joy, n. Happiness, bliss, a. Delight, gladness, glee, ccstacy, transport. Anto., sorrow. Joyous, adj. Glad, happy, gleeful, joyful, jolly. Anto.,s:u\. Judgment, n. 1. Opinion, decision, esti- mate, a. Sense, discernment, sagacity, wis- dom. Just. adj. 1, Exact, correct, true. 3. Merited, deserved. 3. Equitfthle. 4. Honest, fair, upright. Anto., Unjust, unfair, fraud- ulent. Justice, n. 1. Right, fairness, equity, s. Judge. Anto., iniu^t.c. Justify, v. Warrant, defend, exculpate, vindicate. Anto., criminate. Justness, n. 1. Fairness, right, equity. 2. Accuracy, propriety. Anto., 1. Criminality. 2. Impropriety. Juvenile, adj. Childish, puerile, young, youthful. Anto., manly. Keen. adj. 1. Shrewd, sagacious, astute. 2. Earnest, zealous. 3. Severe, poignant, caustic. 4. Sharp. Anto., dull. Keep. v. 1. Retain. 2. Fulfil, observe. 3. Support, maintain. 4. Preserve, con- tinue. 5. Celebrate. Anto., dispense, dis- tribute. Kind. adj. Good, clement, humane, gentle, sympathetic, tender, affectionate. Ante, cruel, unkind. Kingly, adj. Royal, august, imperial, re- gal. Anto., plebeian. Knowledge, n. 1. Learning, lore, scholarship, erudition, a. Notice. 3. Per- ception, judgment. Anto., ignorance. Labor, n. 1. Toil, work, effort, drud- fery. a. Child-birth, parturition. Ant: dlencss. Lack. «. Need, deficiency, scarcity, in- suflficiencv. Anto., plenty. Lament, v. Mourn, grieve, weep. Anto., rejoice. Lanclnate. v. Sever, mangle, tear, lacer- ate. Anto., heal, join. Land. u. Soil, ground, earth, real prop- erty. Landscape, n. Prospect, view, rural scene. Language, n. Speech, expression, ver- nacular, dialect, tongue. Languish, r. 1. Faint, wither, fade, droop, a. Look tender. Anto., invigorate, strengthen. Larceny, n. Theft, pilfering, thievery, stealing. Large, adj. 1. Bulky, big, great, a. Broad, extensive 3. Full, abundant. Anto., small. Lascivious, a. Loose, unchaste, lustful, lewd, lecherous. Anto., cha: u. pure. Last. adj. 1. Latent. 2. Ultimate, final. 3. Hindmost. 4. Extreme. Auto., first. Last. adv. The Ian time Last. v. Remain, continue, endure. Anto., perish, dissolve. Latent, adj. Secret, unseen, veiled, con- cealed. Anto., patent. Laugh. «. Laughter, cachinnation, roar, guffaw. Auto., sign. Lnughnble. adj. Droll, ridiculous, farci- cal, comical. Auto., solemn. Lavish, adj Extravagant, wasteful, pro- fuse. Anto., niggardly. Lavish. I-. Dissipate, waste, squander. Law. n. 1. Rule, regulation, statute, enact- ment, ordinance. 2. Formula. 3. Code. 4. Jurisprudence. Auto., lawlessness. Lawful, adj Legal, legitimate, constitu- tional. Auto., unlawful. Lawyer, u. Attorney, counsellor, advo- cate, counsel. . Laxy. adj. Idle, dronish, sluggish, inac- tive, slothful Auto.j active, mmblc Lead. u. Direction, guidance, leader- ship. Anto., following. League. *. Combination, alliance, con- federacy, union. Ante, disunion, separa- tion- -. Lean. r. Incline, a. Bear, recline, rest. 3- Tend. , . Leave, u. Allowance, permission, license, libertv. Auto., prohibition. Lecture, u. Lesson, discourse, prelec- tion. , , Legacy, u. Gift, bequest, devise. Legal, adj. See Lenrfnl. Legible, adj. Fair, readable, plain. Ante, Illegible. K_ AL SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 73 Leisure, n. Spare time. Anto. % occupa- tion Lengthen, v. I. Extend, protract, pro- long, continue. a. Stretch, elongate. Anto., shorten. Leniency, n. Tenderness, mercy, mild- ness, clemency. Anto., cruelty. Letter. n. Note, epistle, a. Alphabets cal character. . Levity. n. Frivolity, giddiness, flighti- ness. Anto., sobriety. Liberality. n. I. Bownty, generosity, beneficence, charity, a. Toleration, candor. Ante., closeness, meanness. Liberate, v. Discharge, emancipate, re- lease. Anto.. arrest. Lie. ». Fib, untruth, falsehood. Anto., truth. Lie. v. I. Falsify. 2. Recline. 3. Rest, remain. Anto., I. Verify. Life. n. 1. Vitality. a. Existence. 3. Memoir, biography. Anto., death. Light, n. I. Daylight, sunrise. 3. Illum- ination. 3. Instruction. 4. Window, Anto., darkness. Light, adj. 1. Buoyant. 2. Easy. 3. Por- ous. 4. Unburdened. 5. Trifling, small. 6. Flimsy, 7 Airy, gay. Anto., heavy. Like. adj. Resembling, same, similar. Anto., unlike. Like, v. Choose, prefer, list, elect. Anto., dislike. Liking, n. Choice, preference, par- tiality. Anto., impartiality. Limited, adj. Confined, bounded, restrain- ed, defined, restricted, circumscribed. Anto., unlimited. Lineage, n. Race, house, family, ances- try, line. Link. v. Conjoin, tie, bind, connect, unite. Anto., loosen. Liquidation, n. Adjustment, discharge, settlement, payment. Little, adj. 1. Small, diminutive, minute, tiny. 2. Scanty, inconsiderable. Anto., noble, large. Live. adj. 1. Existing, alive, living, a. Alert, enterprising. Anto., dead. Live. v. 1. Exist. 2. Endure, con- tinue. 3. Abide, dwell, reside. 4. Subsist. Anto., die. Lively, adj. 1. Agile, quick, nimble. 2. Sprightly, blithe, joyous. 3. Vigorous, pi- quant, strong-. 4. Vivid. Anto., slow, slug- gish, languid. Loathsome, adj. Offensive, disgusting, appalling, revolting. Anto., delectable, pleas- ant. Lofty. 1. High. a. Dignified, sublime. 3. Haughty, proud, arrogant. Anto., humble, modest. Lonely, adj. 1. Companion less, lone, solitary, a. Secluded, lonesome, isolated. Anto., crowded. Loosen, v. 1. Relax, a. Loose, release. Anto., tighten, tie, bind. Lordly, adj. Dignified, majestic, lofty* a. Proud, haughty. Anto., meek, lowly* humble. Lose. v. x. Miss, forfeit. 2. Waste, squan- der. Anto., 1. Find. 2. Gain, earn. Loss. ». Deprivation, privation, for- feiture, waste, damage, detriment, destruction. Anto.,%2.\T\, profit. Love. v. Like. Anto., hate. Love. n. Affection, attachment, fond- ness, liking. Anto., hate. Low. adj. 1. Depressed. 2. Mean, ab- ject, disreputable. 3. Cheap. Anto., 1. High. 2. Proud, worthy. 3. Dear. Loyal, adj. Faithful, true. Anto., dis- loyal, traitorous. Lucid, adj. 1. Clear, transparent, pel- lucid, distinct, plain, bright, shining. Anto., ambiguous, opaque, sombre. Lnck. ». Chance, hap, fortune, fate. Lunacy, n. Derangement, madness, in- sanity, craziness. Anto., sanity. Luxuriate, v. 1. Revel, wanton, a. Flour- ish. Anto., 1. Chasten, a- Wither. Maceration, n. Soaking, softening, stt £ping. Anto., drying. Machination, n. Plot, stratagem, in- trigue, conspiracy. Anto., artlessness. Mad. adj. 1. Crazy, delirious, insane. a. Enraged, frantic, violent. Anto., 1. Sane. a. Pacified. Magic, n. Enchantment, sorcery, necro- mancy. Magnanimous, adj. See Noble, Lofty. Magnificence, n. Grandeur, splendor, eclat. Anto., squalor, poverty. Main. adj. Principal, 1c Anto., subordinate, secondary. Main. adj. Principal, leading, chief. Majority, n. 1. Manhood, full age. a. Greater number. Anto., minority. Malefactor, n. Culprit, criminal, felon, convict. Malice, n. Spite, rancor, hate, venom, malignity. Anto., love, benevolence, benig- nity. Mammoth, adj. SeeLarge. Manly, adj. Manful, brave, stout, strong, bold, noble, heroic. Anto., effeminate. Manifest, adj. Clear, apparent, patient, obvious, plain, glaring. Anto., hidden, ob- scure, occult. Manners, n. Breeding, behavior, de- Sortment, habits, morals. Anto., misbe* avior, vulgarism. Marry, v. Espouse, wed, take for hus- band or wife. Anto., divorce. Mask. v. Disguise, shroud, screen, veil, hide, cliak. Anto., display. Matchless, adj. Excellent, inimitable, un- rivaled, peerless, incomparable. Anto., com- mon, ordinary. Matrimony. n. Wedlock, marriage, nuptial state. Anto., spinsterhood, bachelor- hood. Mean. v. 1. Purpose, intend, design, a. Denote, imply, signify. Mean. adj. 1. Average, middle, medium. a. Miserly, stingy, base, surly, jjrumbling, poor, petty, wretched. Anto., 1. Extreme, a. Noble, lofty. Meek. adj. Modest, humble, mild, gentle, submissive. Anto., bold. Meekness, n. Modesty, humility, gentle- ness, mildness, submissive ness. Anto., boldness, hardihood. Melancholy. «. Depression, gloom, sad- ness, dejection, despondency. Anto., joy, buoyancy. Memory. «. 1. Remembrance, recol- lection, a. Reputation, renown, fame. Anto., forgetful ness, oblivion. Mental, adj. Ideal, rational, intellect- ual, metaphysical. Anto., physical. Mercy, n. Mildness, compassion, clem- ency, lenity. Anto., harshness, implaca- bility. Meritorious, adj. Good, worthy, deserv- ing, excellent. AnCo., unworthy. Merry, adj. Gay, gleeful, mirthful, joyful, hilarious. Ant*., sad, sorrowful. Mighty, adj. 1. Able, strong, puissant. a. Effective, forcible. 3. Immense, vast, stupendous. Anto., feeble, small. Mind. «. 1. Reason, intellect, under- standing, a. Inclination, desire. Minority. ». 1. Nonage, infancy, pupil- age, childhood, a. Smaller number. Anto., majority. Misadventure, n. Misfortune, mishap, reverse, mischance. Anto., adventure. Mischief. ». 1. Trouble, a. Detriment, harm, hurt, evil, injury. Anto., benefit, ad- vantage, utility. Miserable, adj. 1. Depressed, unhappy, affected, forlorn. 2. Abject, mean, value- less. Anto., happy, lucky, lofty. Moderate, adj. 1. Mild, judicious, rea- sonable, a. Frugal, sparing. Anto., im- moderate, extravagrant. Modern, adj. Late, new, novel, recent. Anto., ancient, old. Modest, adj. 1. Humble, unpretend< 1 a. Moderate. 3. Chaste, pure. Anto., ng. bold, lofty, immodest. Morality. n. 1. Goodness, virtue, a. Ethics, morals. Anto., immorality. Morbid, adj. Unsound, sickly, unhealthy, vitiated. Anto., sound, healthy. Mornlag. «. Daybreak, dawn, forenoon. Anto.. evening. Mortal, adj. Deadly, fatal, a. Human, Anto., immortal. Mortal. ». Human, man. Anto., immor- tal. Mundane, adj. Worldly, earthly, ter- restrial. Anto., heavenly. Murmur, n. 1. Whisper, muttering, a. complaint. Anto. 1. Shout. 2. Commen- dation. Muse. v. Think, contemplate, reflect, ponder, meditate, brood. Music, m. Harmony, symphony, melody, science of harmonics. Mutual, adj. Interchanged, reciprocal, correlative. Anto , sole, solitary. Mystify, v. Puzzle, perplex, baffle, be- wilder, pose. Anto., clear, explain. N Naked, adj. 1. Nude, bare, undressed, a. Defenceless, unprotected. 3. Sheer, sim- ple. Anto., clad, covered. Natural. 1. Regular normal. 2. Native, original, characteristic. Anto., unnatural. Near. adj. Close nigh, adjacent a. Familiar, aliicd, intimate. 3. Impending, imminent. Anto. , far. Nerve, v. Biace, fortify, strengthen, invigorate. Anto., weaken. Never, adv. Net ever. Anto., ever, always. New. adj. Fresh, novel, a. Modern, recent. Anto., old, ancient. Nice. adj. 1. Precise, exact, critical, a. Subtle, fine. 3 Delicate, dainty, delicious. Anto., 1. Careless, a. Coarse 3. Unpleasant. Niggardly, adj. Mean, mercenary, stingy, miserly, illiberal, avaricious. Anto., gener- ous, open. Nimble, adj. Quick, agile, alert, spright- ly. Anto., slow, lazy. Noble, adj. 1. Dignified. worthy, superior, exalted, a. Grand, magnificent. Anto., ig- noble. Noise, n. Sound, din, clatter, uproar, clamor. Anto., silence. Nominate, a Name, propose, designate. Note. «. 1. Minute, memorandum. 2. Com- ment, remark. 3. Celebrity, renown. 4. Bill, promissory note. Note. v. 1. Record, a. Notice, observe, heed. 3. Denote, designate. Noted, adj. See liluttrious. Notion, n. See Idea. Notorious, adj. \. Conspicuous, a. Open, obvious, well-known. Anto., unknown. Novel, adj. See New. Novel. ». Tale, story, romance, fiction. Noxious, adj. Harmful, hurtful, dele- terious, baleful, deadly. Anto., wholesome. Number, n. 1. Numeral, figure, digit. 2. Multitude, many. Nuptials. ». Wedding, marriage. Anto., divorce. Nurture. «. Discipline, training, breed- ing, schooling, education. Nutriment. «. Food, diet, provision, sustenance, nutrition, nourishment. Anto., poison. Nutritious, adj. Sustaining. Nourishing:, adj. Wholesome, strengthen- ing. Anto., noxious. Obdurate, adj. Obstinate, stubborn, cal- lous, unfeeling. Anto., flexible. Object. w.TEnd, purpose, aim, design, a. Mark. Anto., subject. Oblige. 1. Please, favor, accommodate, serve. 2. Obligate. 3. Compel, coerce. Anto., disoblige. Oblivion. «. Forgetfulness, amnesty. Anto., remembrance. Obscure, adj. Dark, dim, vague, indis- tinct, a. Humble, unknown. Anto., 1. Light, plain, clear, a. Noted. A *fe 74 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. Obscure, v. Cloud, darken, shade, eclipse. Auto. , clear, illuminate. Ob#eqoiMi n. Funeral rites, exequies. Obsolete, adj. Disused, antiquated, neglected. Ante, new, fashionable. Obvious, adj. liain, clear, manifest, visible, apparent. Anto., hidden. Occasional, adj. Casual, irregular, inci- dental. Auto., regular. Occupation, n. i. Calling, business, pursuit, profession. 2. Use, possession. Anto. t 1. Idleness. 2. Forfeiture. Occupy, v. Hold, possess, use. Anto., vacate. Occurrence, n. Adventure, incident, con- tingency. Odor. ». Scent, perfume, fragrance. Offend, v. Displease, annoy, vex. Anto., please. Offence, n. Crime, indignity, injury, in suit, misdeed, transgression, trespass, out- rage. Anto,, favor, obligation. Offensive, adj. Abusive, impertinent, in- jurious, insulting, insolent, obnoxious, oppro- brious, rude, scurrilous. Anto., pleasant. Offering, n. 1. Oblation, presentation, gift. 2. Sacrifice. Office, n. 1. Charge, trust, duty, service. 2. Situation, berth, station. Officious, adj. Active, busy, forward, in- trusive, obtrusive. Anto., modest. Offspring, n. Children, issue, descend- ants, posterity. Anto., ancestry. Only. adj. Alone, adv. Barely, merely, simply, singly, solely. Opaque, adj. I. Dark, obscure. 2. Not transparent, impervious to light. Anto., transparent. Open. a. 1. Unclosed, extended. 2. Clear, Lublic. 3. Fair, candid, unreserved. 4. liberal. 5. Unsettled. Anto., closed. Opening. w. Aperture, cavity, hole, fissure. Anto., solid. Operation. n. Action, agency, surgical act, process. Opinion, n. Notion, view, judgment, belief. 2. Estimate. Opinionated, adj. Conceited, egotistical, obstinate. Anto., modest. Opponent. ». Adversary, antagonist, enemy, foe. Anto., friend, ally. Opposite, adj. Adverse, contrary, inimi- cal, repugnant. Anto., alike, congenial. Opprobrious, adj. Abusive, insulting, in- solent, offensive, scurrilous. Anto., eulogis- tic. Opprobrium, n. Disgrace, ignominy, infamy. Anto., eminence. Option, n. Choice, election. Oration. ». Address, speech, discourse, harangue. Ordain, v. Appoint, order, prescribe, invest. Order, n. 1. Class, degree, fraternity, method, rank, series, succession. 2. Com- mand, injunction, mandate, precept. Anto., disorder. Orderly, adj. 1. Methodical, systematic, regular, quiet, a. n. Soldier. Anto., irregu- lar. Ordinary, adj. 1. Usual, common, habit- ual. 2. Homely, plain, ugly. 3. Inferior, vulgar. Anto., extraordinary. Origin, n. 1. Cause, occasion. -a. Spring, beginning, source. Anto., end. Original, adj. First, primary, primitive, pristinei Anto., copied, Ornament, v. Adorn, embellish, beauti- fy, decorate. Anto., spoil, wreck, destroy. Ornate, adj. Adorned, bedecked, decorat- d, embellished, garnished. Anto., unadorn- ed. Ostensible, adj. Colorable, feasible, pro. fessed, plausible, specious, apparent, de- clared, manifest. Anto., real. Ostentation. n. Show, display, flourish, pomposity. Anto., plainness. Outlive, v. Srr Sm Outrage, v. Abuse, maltreat, offend, in- sult, shock. Anto., honor, praise. Outrage. ». Affront, offence, abuse, in- dignity, insult. Anto., favor, obligation. Outvrarc!. adj. Extraneous^ exterior, ex- ternal, extrinsic, outer. Anto., inward. OvoL adj. Egg-shaped, elliptical. Overbearing, adj. Haughty, arrogant, lordly, imperious, domineering, dictatorial. Anto., gentle. Overcome, v. Conquer, subdue, sur- mount, vanquish. Anto., burrender. Overflow, v. 1. Mow, deluge, inundate. 2. Overrun, overspread. Oversight. «. 1. Blunder, mistake, er- ror, inadvertency. 2. Management, super- vision, control. Anto., correction. Overthrow, v. 1. Defeat, overcome, conquer, vanquish, a. Upset, overturn, sub- vert. 3. Ruin, molest. Anto., surrender, yield. Overwhelm, v. 1. Overflow. 2. Defeat, conquer, vanquish, subdue. Owner. ». Holder, possessor, proprietor. Pacify, v. 1. Appease, conciliate. 2. Calm, still, compose, tranquilize, quiet, quell. Anto., excite. Pain. «. 1. Ache, distress, suffering, pang, anguish, agony. 2. Penalty. 3. Un- easiness, sorrow, grief, woe. Anto., pleasure. Paint, v. 1. Depict, delineate, portray, pencil, sketch. 2. Color. 3. Represent. Pair. n. Brace, couple. Anto., single. Pale. adj. 1. Colorless, wan, whitish, ashy, pallid. 2. Dim, sombre. Anto., florid. Palliate, v. Cover, extenuate, gloss, varnish. Anto., accuse, charge. Palpable, adj. Obvious, evident, mani- fest, plain, glaring. 2. Tangible. Anto., occult. Palpitate, v. Pulsate, throb, flutter, go pit-a-pat. Anto., QuSgL Paltry, adj. 1. Little, small, unimportant, petty, miserable, trivial. 2. Abject, base, mean, pitiful, contemptible. Anto., worthy, great, noble. Panegyric, n. Encomium, praise, eulogy. Anto., condemnation. Pang. n. See Pain. Parasite. «. Flatterer, sycophant, han- ger-on. Pardon, n. Grace, forgiveness, remis- sion, absolution, mercy, amnesty. Anto., im- placability. Parentage, n. Birth, lineage, pedigree, stock. Parody, n. Burlesque, travesty, carica- ture. Parsimonious, adj. Close, mean, stin- gy, miserly, penurious, covetous, sordid. Anto., generous. Partial, adj. 1. Incomplete, imperfect. 2. Unfair, warped, biased, prejudiced, un- just. Anto., complt r< . Part. n. 1. Piece, portion, fraction. 2. Element, ingredient. 3. Lot. 4. Charge, function. Particle. n. Grain, jot, tittle, iota, bit, atom, molecule. Anto., mass. Particular, adj. Appropriate, circum- stantial, distinct, exact, exclusive, nice, pecu- liar, punctual, specific. Anto., careless, in- appropriate. Particularly, adv. Chiefly, distinctly, especially, specifically, principally. Anto., generally. Partisan, n. Supporter, adherent, fol- lower, disciple, champion, votary. Anto., op- ponent. Partly, adv. In part. Anto., wholly. Partner. ». 1. Colleague, associate sharer, participator, partaker. 2. Member of a firm. Passion, n. 1. Ardor, emotion, fervor, seal. 2. Love, affection, fondness, attach- ment, devotion. 3. Anger, wrath, f Pathos. Anto., quietude, placidity, languor. Passive, adj. Calm, patient, n submissive, unresisting. Anto., rebclli Patent, adj. Open, plain, apparent, ob- vious. Anto., latent. Pnthetir. a dj. Touching, affecting, mnvinv, tender, melting, plaintive. Anto., Pntlenec. n. Resignation, endurance, fortitude, sufferance. Anto., impatience. Patient, adj. Composed, calm, enduring, . n. An invalid. Anto., fretful. l'utrician. n. Nobleman, aristocrat. Anto., plebeian. Patronize, v. Aid, favor, support, help, befriend. Anto., abuse, condemn. Pause, v. 1. Stop cease, desist, delay, rest, stay. 2. Waver, hesitate. Anto., con- tinue. Pay. n. Compensation, reward, requital, wages, salary, hire. Peaceable, adj. Calm, gentle, pacific, mild, quiet, serene, tranquil, undisturbed. Anto., turbulent. Peaceful, adj. 1. Still, quiet, undisturb- ed, calm, placid, tranquil, serene. 2. Mild, friendly. Auto., disturbed. Peculiar, adj. Particular, singular, spe- cial, characteristic, rare, exceptional. Peevish, adj. Captious, cross, fretful, irritable, petulant. Anto., patient. Penalty, n. Chastisement, fine, forfeiture, mulct, punishment. Anto., reward. Penetrating, adj. Discerning, intclli- §ent, sagacious, acute, keen, shrewd. Anto., ull. Penitence, n. Compunction, remorse, contrition, repentance. Anto., impenitence. Penniless, adj. Poor, destitute needy, indigent, reduced, pinched, distressed. Anto., rich, moneyed. Penurious, adj. Beggarly, miserly, nig- gardly, parsimonious, sparing'. Anto., gener- ous. Penary, n. Indigence, need, poverty, want. Anto., affluence. lVreeive. v. 1. Notice, see, discover, discern. 2. Feel. 3. Understand, know. Anto., miss. Perception, n. Conception, sensation, Idea, notion, sentiment. Peremptory, adj. Absolute, arbitrary, despotic, dogmatical, positive. Anto., vacil- lating. Perfect. adj. 1. Finished, complete, elaborate. 2. Blameless, pure, holy. Anto., imperfect. Perfidious, adj. Faithless, treacherous. Anto., faithful. Perforate, v. Bore, pierce, penetrate. Anto.^plug, fill. Perform, r. Accomplish, achieve, ef- fect, execute, fulfil, produce. Anto., fail. Perfume, «. Aroma, fragrance, balmi* ness, incense. Anto., stench. Peril, n. Venture, risk, danger, hazard, jeopardy. Anto., safety. Period, n. Circuit,' date, age, epoch, era. Perjure, v. Sr* Forr&tar. IVrmanent. adj. Fixed, abiding, last- ing, stable, enduring, steadfast, immutable. Anto., unstable. Permit, v. Allow, suffer, consent, ad- mit, tolerate, yield. Anto., refuse. Pernicious, adj. Destructive, hurtful, mischievous, noisome, noxious. Anto., healthful. lVrprtunl. adj. Continuous, constant, incessant, unceasing, uninterrupted. Anto., transient. Perplex, r. 1. Puzzle, embarrass, be- wilder, confound. 2. Involve, entangle, com- plicate. Anto., explain. Persevere. 7. Continue, in«i«t, persist, prosecute, pursue. Anto., unstable. Perspicuity, n. Transparency, clear- ness, transluccncy. Anto., obscurit\ . Persuade. 7." 1. Convince. 2. Infucnce, induce, lead, incite, impel. Anto., dissuade. Pertinent, adj. Apposite, appropriate. Anto., improper. Perverse, adj. Cross, crooked, forward, stubborn, untractablc. Antou, yielding. Pestilential, adj. Contagious, epidem- ical, infectious, mischievous. Anto., whole- some. IVHtlon. n. Application, appeal, prayer, suit, entreaty, supplication. Picture. ». Eftigy, likeness, representa- tion. Pious, adj. Religion*, devout, holy, saintly, godly. Anto., impious. YL ^ SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 75 ik- ~A Pique. ». Offence, resentment, umbrage, grudge. Anto., pleasure, friendliness. Pique, v. i. Urge, spur, incite, instigate. 2 Displease, offend, irritate, nettle, exasper- ate. Anto., please. Pitiless. adj. Unmerciful, relentless, ruthless, cruel, unfeeling, inexorable. Anio., merciful. Pity. n. Sympathy, corrpassion, fellow- feeling. Anio., cruelty. Place, i. «. Ground, post, position, seat, site, situation, space. 2. adj. Dispose, lay order, put, set. Anto., 2. Displace. Placid, adj. See Peaceful. Plague, v. Tease, vex, trouble, fret, bother. Anio., please. Pleasant, adj. 1. Agreeable, pleasing, delightful. 2. Witty, sportive, amusing. 3. Cheerful, lively, vivacious. Ante, disagree- able. Please, v. Delight, gratify, humor, sat- isfy. Anto., displease. Pleasure. «. 1. Comfort, enjoyment, gratification, joy. 2. Luxury, voluptuous- ness. 3. Choice, will, preference, Anto., pain. Plebeian, adj. Mean, base, vulgar, ig- noble. Anto., patrician. Pledge, n. Deposit, earnest, hostage, security, pawn. Plentiful, adj. Abundant, ample, copi- ous, exuberant, plenteous. Anto., scarcity. Pliable, adj. 1. Limber, flexible, supple, lithe. 2. Compliant, tractable. Anto., inflex- ible. Pliant, adj. Bending, flexible, pliable, lithe | limber, supple, yielding. Anto., stiff. Plight, v. Case, condition, predicament, situation, state. Plot. v. Scheme, concoct, project, devise, brew, hatch. Pluck. «. Resolution, courage, spirit, mettle, nerve, fortitude. Anto., cowardice. Polished, adj. 1. Refined, accomplished, polite, cultivated, elegant. 2. Burnished. 3. Attic, classic. Anto., rough, coarse. Polite, adj. Refined, accomplished, gen- teel, courteous, courtly, polished, urbane. Anto., impolite. Politeness. n. Affability, civility, cour- teousness, courtesy, good manners. Anto., impoliteness. Politic, adj. Artful, civil, cunning, pru- dent. Anto., impolitic. Pollute, n. Contaminate, corrupt, defile, infect, vitiate. Anto., purify. Pomp. «. Display, parade, skow, pa- geantry, state, ostentation. Pompous, adj. Dignified, lofty, magis- terial, magnificent, stately, showy, ostenta- tious. Anto., modest. Ponder, v. Consider, muse, reflect, think. Portion. «. Division, dower, fortune, part, quantity, share. Anto., whole. Position, n. Place, post, situation, sta- tion. Positive, adj. Certain, confident, dog- matical, real. Anto., doubtful. Possess, v. Have, hold, occupy. Anto., dispossess, distrain. Posterior, adj. 1. Hind, rear, back. 2. Following, succeeding, subsequent, ensuing. Anto., anterior. Postpone, v. Adjourn, defer, delay, pro- crastinate. Anto., expedite. Posture. «. Action, attitude, gesture, position. Potent, adj. Strong, influential, cogent, powerful, mighty, puissant. Anto., weak. Poverty, n. Indigence, need, penurv, want. Auto., wealth. Powerful, adj. Mighty, influential, po- tent, strong, vigorous. Anto., weak. Practicable, adj. Feasible, possible, practical. Anto., impracticable. Practice, n. Custom, habit, manner, use. Anto., prodigy. Praise. «, 1, Worship, homage. 2. Ap- proval, commendation, laudation, applause, encomium. 3. Eulogy, panegyric. Anto., blame. Praise, v. 1. Exalt, glorify. 2. Approve, applaud, commend. 3. Eulogize, extol. Ante., Censure. Prayer. «. Entreaty, petition, suit, re- quest, supplication. Anto., anathema. Precarious, adj. Doubtful, equivocal, dubious, uncertain. Anto., certain. Precedence, n. Pre-eminence, prefer- ence, priority. Anto., subsequence Precedent. 1 . n. Example. 2. Adj. Former, antecedent. Anto., 2. Subsequent. Preceding, adj. Antecedent, anterior, foregoing, former, previous, prior. Anto., following. Precept, n. Doctrine, law, rule, injunc- tion, mandate, maxim, principle. Precious, adj. Costly, uncommon, val- uable. Anto., common. Precise, adj. 1. Accurate, correct, exact. 2. Nice. 3. Stiff, strict. Anto., not exact. Preclude, v. Hinder, obviate, prevent. Anto., assist. Preconcerted, adj. Premeditated, pre- determined, considered beforehand. Anto., unconsidered. Precursor, n. Forerunner, harbinger, messenger. Anto., follower, disciple Predicament. «. 1. Condition, plight, situation. 2. Class, state. Predict, v. Foretell, prophesy, prognos- ticate. Predominate, adj. Overruling, supreme, prevalent, prevailing. Preface. ». Introduction, prelude, proem. Anto., conclusion, peroration. Prefer, v. Advance, choose, forward, encourage, promote. 2. Offer, present. Preference. «. Choice, precedence, priority. Preferment. «. Advancement, prefer* encc, promotion. Anto., abasement. Prejudice. «. 1. Bias, detriment, disad- vantage, hurt, injury. 2. Prepossession. Anto., justice. Preliminary, adj. 1. Antecedent, intro- ductory, preparatory, previous. 2. A first step. Prepare, v. Equip, make ready, fit, qualify, Anto., retard. Preponderate, v. ». Outweigh, over- balance. 2. Prevail. Proficiency, n. Advancement, progress, improvement. Anto., deficiency. Profit. «. Advantage, benefit, emolument, gain. Anto., loss. Profligate, adj. Set Abandoned. Profuse, adj. Extravagant, lavish, prod- igal. Anto., niggardly. Progeny, n. Issue, offspring, race. Progress. «, Advancement, gradation , motion, proficiency. Anto., retrogression. Project, n. Design, plan, scheme. Prolific, adj. Fertile, fruitful, produc- tive. Anto., barren, sterile. Prolix, adj. Diffuse, long, tedious. Anio., brief, laconic. Prolong, v. Belay, extend, postpone, procrastinate, protract, retard. Anto., shorten. Prominent, adj. Conspicuous, protuber- ant, eminent, projecting. Anto., unnotice- able. Promiscuous, adj. Mingled^ indiscrim- inate, common, confused. Anto., select. Promise. ». Word, assurance, engage- ment, pledge. Promote, v. Advance, encourage, for- ward, prefer. Anto., discourage. Prompt, adj. 1. Early, punctual, timely. 2. Apt, rcadv, quick. Anto., unready, dilatory. Pronounce, v. Affirm, articulate, declare, speak, utter. Proof. «.* 1. Argument. 2. Demonstra- tion, evidence, testimony. Propagate, v. Circulate, diffuse, dis- seminate, increase, multiply. Anto., diminish, prune. Propensity. «. Inclination, proneness, bias, tendency. Proper, adj. 1. Fitting, appropriate, suitable, becoming, seemly, right. 2. Partic- ular, specific, not common. Anto., wrong. Propitiate, v. Appease, reconcile, atone, conciliate. Anto., provoke. Propitious, adj. 1. Auspicious, favor- able. 2. Kind, merciful. Anto., unfavorable. Proportion, n. Form, rate, relation, ratio, size, symmetry. Proportionate, adj. Adequate, equal, commensurate. Anto., unequal. Propose, v. Bid, intend, offer, purpose, tender. Prosecute, v. 1. Arraign, accuse. 2. Continue, pursue. Anto., exculpate, pardon. Prospect, n. Landscape, survey, view. Prospective, adj. Foreseeing, forward, future. Prosperity, n. Welfare, success, thrift, luck, happiness. Anto., loss, poverty. Prosperous, adj. Flourishing, fortunate, lucky, successful. Anto., unsuccessful. Protect. v. Cherish, defend, foster, guard, patronize, shelter, shield. Anto., abandon. Protract, v. Defer, delay, postpone, prolong, retard. Anto., contract. Protracted, adj. Continued, extended, prolonged, drawn out. Anto., shortened. Proud, adj. Arrogant, assuming, con- ceited, haughty, vain. Anto., unassuming. Proverb, n. Adage, aphorism, maxim, apothegm, by-word, saw, saying. Provide, v. Furnish, prepare, procure, supply. Provident, adj. Careful, economical, cautious, frugal, far-sighted, prudent. Anto., prodigal. Provisions. «. Subsistence; food, vict- uals, viands, bread, provender. Proviso, k. Condition, stipulation. Provoke, v. 1. Irritate, anger, offend, affront, enrage, exasperate, infuriate. 2. Awaken, arouse, excite, stimulate, inflame. Anto., propitiate. Proxy. «. Deputy, representative, agent, substitute. Prudence, n. Carefulness, discretion, forethought, judgment, wisdom. Anto., in- discretion. Prudish, adj. Coy, demure, reserved, over-modest. Anto., brazen, immodest. Publish, v. 1. Announce, declare, pro- claim, herald, advertise. 2. Issue, emit. Anto., suppress. Puerile, adj. Boyish, childish, juvenile. Anto., manly. Pull. v. Drag, draw, gather, hale, haul, pluck, lug. Anto., push. Pulsation. », Beat, beating, throb, throb- bing. Pulverize, v. Bruise, grind, comminute, triturate. Punctual, adj. See Promft. Punish, v. Correct, discipline, chastise, castigate, whip, scourge. Anto., reward. Pure. adj. 1. Clear, clean, unsullied, un- defined, spotless, untarnished, immaculate. 2. True, innocent, sinless. 3. Chaste, modest. 4. Unmixed, genuine. Anto., impure. Purpose. ». Object, aim, intent, end, design. Pursue, v. Chase, continue, follow, pros- ecute, persist. Anto., escape. Puzzle, -v. See Perplex. Puzzle, n. 1. Mystery, riddle, enigma. 2. Embarrassment, perplexity, nonplus. Quack. ». Impostor, pretender, humbug, charlatan. Anto., savant. Quail, v. Shrink, blanch, quake, cower, tremble. Anto., brave. Qualified, adj. Adapted, competent, fitted, Anto., incompetent. Qualify, v. Adapt, equip, furnish, fit, modify, prepare, temper. Quality, n. Rank, property, distinction, accomplishment, attribute. Quandary, v.. Puzzle, difficulty, per- plexity, strait, nonplus, dilemma. Quarrel. n. Disagreement, wrangle, squabble, contention, dissension, strife, alter- cation, brawl. Anto., agreement. Queer, adj. Odd, singular, droll, strange, whimsical, unique, quaint. Anto., usual, or- dinary, customary. * •ife 76 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. ~A Query, n. Inquiry, question, interroga- tory. Ante., answer. Question, n. See Query. Question, v. 1. Ask, enquire, examine, Interrogate, catechize. 2. Doubt, dispute, controvert. Auto., reply. Questionable, adj. Doubtful, suspici- ous. Auto., authentic. Quick. adj. 1. Brisk, active, prompt, agile. 2. Rapid, swift. 3. Clever, sharp, shrewd, acute, keen, discerning. Anto., dull, slow. Quiet, adj. Still, renting, dormant, mo- tionless, quiescent. Anto., turbulent. Quit. v. 1. Leave, withdraw, vacate. 2. Resign, abandon, forsake. 3. Clear, acquit, absolve. Quiver, v. Shake, tremble, shudder, shiver, quake. Quota, n. Share, portion, allotment, contingent, proportion. Quotation, n. Extract, excerpt, selection, citation. Quote, v. Adduce, cite. Anto., originate. Babble, n* Mob, rout, herd. Race. n. Breed, course, family, genera- tion, lineage, progress. Anto.. mongrel. Radiance, n. Brightness, brilliancy, lus- tre, splendor, effulgence. Anto., gloom. Radical, adj. 1. Entire, complete, thor- ough, perfect. 2. Fundamental, original, organic. 3. Simple, primitive, underived. Anto., superficial. Rage. n. Anger, choler, fury, violence. Anto.. calm. Raise. v. Advance, collect, elevate, heighten, erect, exalt, propagate. Anto., lower. Rally, v. 1. Banter, deride, mock, ridi- cule, a. Collect. Anto., 1. Praise. 3. Scatter. Random, adj. Casual, chance, fortui- tous. Anto., chosen, destined. Rank. n. Class, degree, position. Ransom. ». Free, redeem, manumit. Anto., imprison. Rapacious, adj. Greedy, ravenous, vo- racious. Anto., generous. Rapidity, n. Agility, celerity, fleetness, speed, swiftness, velocity. Ante, sloth. Rapt. adj. Charmed, delighted, enrapt- ured, fascinated, entranced, transported, rav- ished. Anto., dejected. Rapture, n. Ecstacy, transport. Anto., dejection. Rare. adf. 1. Excellent, incomparable, a. Raw. 3. Thin. 4. Scarce, singular, uncom- mon. Anto., 1,4. Common. 3. Dense. Rash. adj. Impulsive, hasty, heedless, headlong, reckless, precipitate. Anto., cal- culating. Rate. n. Assessment, degree, proportion, price, quota, ratio, value. Rational, adj. 1. Sane. 3. Sensible, wise, intelligent. 3. Reasonable. Anto., irrational. Ravenous, adj. Greedy, rapacious, vo« racious. Anto., generous. Refer, v. 1. Allude, suggest, hint, inti- mate. 3. Appeal. 3. Bear, Dring. Refined, adj. 1. Accomplished, cultur- ed, polite, polished, elegant, courtly. 3. Puri- fied. 3. Pure, chaste, classic, exquisite, Attic. Anto., coarse. Reflect, v. Consider, censure, muse, pon- der, reproach, think. Reform, v. Amend, better, correct, im- prove, rectify. Anto., injure, mar. Refractory, adj. Contumacious, per. verse, ungovernable, unruly. Anto., obe- dient. Refrain, v. Abstain, forbear, spare. Refresh, v. Cool, renew, invigorate, revive. Anto., tire. Refute, v. Disprove, oppugn. Anto., accept. Regale, v. Entertain, feast, gratify, re- fresh. Regard, n. 1. Concern, esteem, respect, liking, affection, a. Relation, reference. 3. Consideration, heed. Ante, contempt. Regardless, adj. Heedless, indifferent, negligent, unconcerned, unobservant. Anto., Observant. Region, n. 1. District, clime, territory. 3. Portion, part. Regre t . v. Complain, grieve, lament, re • pent. Anto., rejoice. Regulate, v. Adjust, direct, rule, dis- pose, govern, plan. Anto., disorder. Reiterate, v. Repeat again, quote, re- cite. Anto., retract. Rehearse, v. 1. Recapitulate. 2. Recite, repeat. Reject, v. Refuse, repel, decline. 2. Discard. Anto., accept. Rejoice, v. Triumph, exult, glory. Anto., lament. Rejoinder. ». Answer, reply, replica- tion, response. Relevant, adj. Apposite, fit, pertinent, proper, suitable to the purpose. Anto., ir- relevant. Reliance, n. Confidence, dependence, repose, trust. Anto., suspicion. Relieve, v. Aid, alleviate, assist, help, mitigate, succor. Anto., injure, despoil. Religious, adj. Devout, holy, pious. An- to., profane. Reluctant, adj. Disinclined, unwilling, indisposed, loth, averse. Anto., willing. Remain, v. Abide, await, continue, so- journ, stay, tarry. Anto., depart. Remainder, n. Remnant, residue, rest. Remains. «. Leavings, relics, manes. Remark, n. Annotation, observation, note, comment. Reminiscence, n. Remembrance, recol- lection, memoir. Remiss, adj. 1. Careless, negligent, in- attentive. 2. Slow, slack, dilatory. Anto., careful. Remit, v. 1. Abate, relax. 2. Absolve, forgive, liberate, pardon. 3. Transmit. Remorse, n. Compunction, sorrow, penitence, conviction. Anto., callousness. Renegade, n. 1. Turncoat, apostate. Renew, v. Refresh, renovate, revive. Anto., wear out. Renounce, v. Abandon, abdicate, fore- go, quit, relinquish, resign. Anto., keep. Renovate, v. Restore, renew, revive, resuscitate. Renown, n. Celebrity, fame, reputation, distinction. Anto., infamy. Renunciation, n. 1. Abandonment, surrender. 2. Abnegation, rejection, repu- diation. Repair, v. Recover, restore, retrieve. Anto., destroy. Reparation, n. Anv.nds, restoration, restitution. Anto., injury. Repartee, n. Reply, retort. Repeal, v. Abolish, abrogate, annul, cancel, destroy, revoke. Anto., reenact. Repel, v. Repulse, drive back. 2. With- stand, resist, confront, oppose, check. Anto., attract. Repetition, adj. Recital, tautology. Replenish, v. Fill, refill, supply. Anto., empty. Repose, n. Ease, quiet, rest, sleep. Anto. % disquiet. Reprehensible, adj. Blamable, censur- able, culpable, rcprovable. iin/o., commend- able. Reproach, v. Blame, condemn, censure, reprove, upbraid. Anto., commend. Reproof, v. Blame, censure, reprehen- sion. Anto., praise. Reprove, v* Chide, rebuke, reprimand. Anto., praise. Repugnance, n. Antipathy, aversion, dislike, hatred. Anto., liking. Repugnant, adj. Adverse, contrary, li itw ■, inimical, opposite, distasteful. Anto., similar, homogeneous. Repulsion, n. Power of repelling, resist- ance. Anto., attraction. Reputation, n. Character, renown, cred- it, fame, honor, repute. Anto., notoriety. Request, v. Ask, beg, beseech, demand, entreat, implore, solicit. Anto., grant. Requisite. adj. Essential, expedient, necessary. Anto., unnecessary. Requite, v. 1. Compensate, reward, re- ciprocate. 2. Avenge. Research, n. Examination, enquiry, in- vestigation, careful scrutiny. Resemblance. 11. Likeness, similarity. Anto., unlikencss. Reservation, n. Reserve, retention. Anto., donation. Reside, v. Abide, inhabit, sojourn, dwell, live. Anto., alienate. Residence, n. Abode, domicile, dwell- ing. Residue. *. Remainder, remnant. Resign, v. Abdicate, forego, give up, relinquish, renounce. Anto., retain. Resignation, n. Acquiescence, endur- ance, patience, submission. Anto., rebellion, Resist, v. Confront, oppose, withstand, repel. Anto., assist, submit. Resolute, adj. Courageous, determined, fixed, steady. Anto., irresolute. Resolution, n. 1. Intention, resolve, a. Firmness, constancy, decision. Anto., a. Irresolution, weakness, vacillation. Resort, v. Frequent, haunt. Resource. n. Expedient, means, resort. Respect, n. l. Esteem, regard, rever- ence, veneration. 2. Favor, good will. j. Reference. Anto., irreverence. Respect, v. Honor, esteem, regard, venerate. Anto., dishonor, disgrace. Respectful, adj. Civil, dutiful, obedient. Anto., uncivil. Respite, n. 1. Interval. 2. Reprieve, suspension, delay. Anto., continuation. Response, n. Answer, reply, replication, rejoinder. Anto., question. Responsible, adj. Accountable, amen- able, answerable. Anto., irresponsible. Rest. at. l. Cessation, ease, intermis- sion, quiet, repose, stop, pause. 2. Remain- der, others. Anto., 1. Motion, unrest. Restless, adj. Unsettled, unquiet, roving. Anto., quirt. Restore, v. I. Heal, cure. 2. Give up, repay, return, render, replace. Anto., 2. Keep. Restoration, n. Amends, reparation, restitution. Anto., retention. Restrain, v. Coerce, constrain, limit, repress, restrict, curb. Anto., liberate. Restrict, v. Bound, restrain, limit, con- fine. Anto., free. Result, n. Consequence, effect, event. Issue. Resurrection, n. Rising again. Retain, v. Detain, hold, reserve, keep. Anto., yield. Retaliation, n. Reprisal, repayment. Anto., pardon. Retard, v. Hinder, obstruct, delay, check, impede. Anto., hasten. Retire, v. Recede, retreat, secede, witk- draw. ^Wo.,comc forward, approach. Retract, r. Abjure, recall, recant, re- voke. Anto., reiterate. Retrenchment. *. Diminution, reduc- tion, curtailment. Anto., increase. Retrieve. V, Regain, recover. Anfo.,\n*t. Retrogression, n. Rctrogradation, go- ingbackward. Anto., progression. Retrospect, n. Review, re -survey. Anto., forecast. , Reveal, v. Discover disclose, divulge, communicate, impart, publish. Anto., con- ceal. Revenge, n. Requital, retaliation. Anto., bfsivejMMi Revenue, n. Income, receipts. Anto., expenditure. Revere, v. Honor, venerate, adore, rev- erence. Anto., execrate. Reverse, r. Change, subvert, overturn, Anto., establish. Review v. Notice, revise, survey, recon- nect. Revision, n. Review, reconsideration, ■ Revive, v. 1. Refresh, quicken, rouse, chrrr. animate. 2. Revivify. Revoke, r. Abolish, abrogate, annul, cancel, repeal, retract. Anto., reiterate. /_ Hr SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. *fr 77 Reward. n. Compensation, recompense, remuneration, requital, satisfaction. Anto., punishment. Riches, n. Fortune, wealth, affluence, opulence. Ante, poverty. Ridicule, n. Mockery, derision, sneer, sarcasm, raillery, satire. Anto., sympathy. Ridiculous, adj. Absurd, preposterous, droll, ludicrous. Anto., solemn, funereal. Right, adj. True, straight, just, proper, Anto., wrong. Right. ». Privilege, claim, immunity. Anto., disadvantage. Righteous, adj. Good, honest, virtuous, upright, just, devout, religious, pious, holy, saintly. Anto., bad. Rigid* adj. i. Strict, stern, severe, harsh, rigorous. 2. Stiff , unpliant, inflexible. Anto., pliable. Rigorous, adj. 1. Rigid, severe, harsh, austere. 2. Precise, accurate, exact. Anto., lax. Ripe. adj. 1. Mature. 2. Finished, con- summate. 3. Ready, fit, prepared. Anto., green, raw, immature. Ripeness, n. Maturity, perfection, growth. Anto., immaturity. Rise. n. Increase, ascent, origin. Anto., subsidence. Rite. n. Ceremony, form, observance. Rivalry. ». Contention, emulation, com- petition. Anto., friendliness. Road. n. Course, path, way, route. Roam* v. Ramble, range, wander, rove, stroll. Robust, adj. Athletic, stout, strong, brawny, stalwart, hale, mighty, powerful. Anto., weak. Romance, n. Tale, story, novel, fiction. Anto., history. Room. n. Apartment, chamber, space. Room. v. Lodge. Rough, adj. 1. Coarse, 'rude, blunt, un- gentle, churlish. 2. Uneven. 3. Unpol- ished. Anto., smooth. Round, adj. Globular, circular. Anto., cubical. Round, n. 1. Circuit, tour, step. 2. Globe, orb, sphere. Anto., 2. Cube. Roundness, n. Rotundness, rotundity, circularity, sphericity. Route. n. Road, way, course, path. Rude. adj. See Hough. Rudeness, n. 1. Roughness. 2. Gruff- ness, coarseness, incivility, churlishness. 3. Inelegance. Anto., politeness, urbanity. Rugged. adj. 1. Uneven, irregular, rough. 2. Harsh. 3. Robust, vigorous. Anto. j smooth. Ruinous, adj. Baneful, noxious, des- tructive, calamitous. Anto., helpful. Rule. n. 1. Law, government, com- mand. 2. Maxim, method, precept. 3. Guide, regulation. Anto., lawlessness. Rule. v. 1, Govern, control. 2. Mark. Anto., rebel. Rumor. «. Talk, gossip, report, news, bruit. Rupture. «. 1. Altercation, quarrel, feud. 2. Hernia. 3. Fracture, breach. Rural, adj. Country, pastoral, rustic. Anto., urbane. Ruse. k. Artifice, fraud, trick, wile. Rustic, n. Clown, peasant, swain, boor, lout, bumpkin. Rustic, adj. 1. Uncouth,unpolished,aivk- wark, rude. 2. Country, rural. Anto., urban. Ruthless, adj. Cruel, pitiless, merciless, relentless, savage, inhuman. Anto., pitiful. s Sacred, adj. Divine, devoted, holy. Anto., profane. Sad. adj. 1. Depressed, sorrowful, cheer- less, disconsolate. 2. Dismal, gloomy, mournful. Anto., joyous. Safe, adj. 1. Guarded, protected. 2. Sound, secure. 3. Reliable. Anto.. dangerous. Sagacity. «. Acuteness, discernment, penetration. Anto., dulness. Sailor. 1*. Mariner, seaman. Anto., landsman. Salary, n. Hire, pay, stipend, wages. Sanction. ». 1. Countenance, support. 2. Ratification, confirmation. Anto., rejec- tion, prohibition. Sane. adj. Sober, lucid, sound. Anto., crazy. Sapient, adj. Sagacious, wise, discern- ing. Anto., foolish. Sarcasm, n. Irony, ridicule, sati^p. Satiate, v. 1. Cloy, glut. 2. Satisfy, gratify. Anto., hunger, starve. Satisfaction, n. 1. Atonement. 2. Con- tent. 3. Remuneration, reward. Anto., dis- satisfaction. Satisfy, v. Gratify, please. 2. Glut, satiate, cloy. Anto., displease. Saving, adj. Thrifty, economical, fru- gal, sparing. Anto., prodigal. Saying. ». 1. Remark, observation, statement. 2. Maxim, proverb, aphorism, adage, saw. Scandal, n. Discredit, disgrace, infamy, reproach, detraction. Anto., praise. Scarce, adj. Singular, rare, uncommon. Anto., common. Scarcity. n. Want, lack, deficiency, dearth. Anto., abundance. Search, v. Examine, investigate, en- quire, pursue, scrutinize, seek. Secede, v. Recede, retire, withdraw. Anto., return. Seclusion, n. Loneliness, retirement, privacy, solitude. Secondary, adj. Inferior, subordinate, second. Anto., primary. Secret, adj. Clandestine, covered, hid- den, concealed, latent, mysterious. Anto., open. Secular, adj. Temporal, worldly. Anio., religious. Secure, v. 1. Be certain, guard, make sure. 2. Guarantee. Anto., lose. Sedate, adj. Calm, composed, quiet, still, serene, unruffled. Anto., lively. Seduce, v. Allure, attract, decoy, Anto., repel. See. v. Behold, eye, look, observe, per- ceive, view. Seek. v. 1. Search for, ask for. 2. Strive, try, endeavor. Anto., lose. Sell. v. Vend, barter, dispose of. Anto., buy. Senile, adj. Aged, old, infirm. Anto., juvenile. Sensation, n. Perception, sentiment, feeling. Sense. «. Feeling, judgment, import, meaning, reason. Sensibility, n. Delicacy, feeling, sus- ceptibility. Sensitive, adj. 1. Impressible, easily af- fected. 2. Perceptive. Anto., callous. Sentence. «. Decision, judgment, period, phrase, proposition. Sentiment, n. Feeling, notion, opinion, sensation. Anto., insensibility. Sentimental, adj. Romantic. Anto., prosaic. Separate, v. disunite, isolate. join. 1. Disjoin, divide, detach, 2. Cleave, sever. Anto., Serious, adj. 1. Weighty, momentous. 2. Sober, grave, solemn, earnest. Anto., jo- cose. Servile, adj. Fawning, mean, slavish. Anto., free. Settle, v. Adjust, arrange, determine, establish, regulate, fix. Anto., unsettle. Settled, adj. Conclusive, confirmed, de- cisive, definitive, established. Anto., unset- tled. Sever, v. Detach, disjoin, divide, separ- ate. Anto., join. Several, adj. Different, distinct, diverse, sundry, various. Severe, adj. Austere, cruel, harsh, rigid, rigorous, rough, sharp, strict, unyielding, stern. Anto., mild. Severity. n. I. Austerity, rigor, stern- ness. 2. Keenness, causticity. 3. Violence, Anto., mildness. Shake, v. Agitate, quake, quiver, shiver, shudder, totter, tremble. Auto., steady. Shallow, adj. 1. Shoal. 2. Frivolous, flimsy, trivial. 3. Superficial, ignorant. Anto., deep. Shame. ». Disgrace, dishonor, ignominy, reproach . Anto. , honor. Shameless, adj. Immodest, impudent, indecent, indelicate. Anto., modest. Shape, v. Fashion, form, mould. Share, v. Apportion, distribute, divide, partake, participate. Share, n. Dividend, part. Anto., whole. Sharpness. n. Acrimony, acuteness, penetration, shrewdness, sagacity. Anto., dulness. Shelter, n. Asylum, refuge, retreat. Shelter, v. Cover, defend, harbor, lodge, protect, screen. Anto., cast forth. Shine, v. Gleam, glare, glisten, glitter, Anto., darken. Shining, adj. I, Brilliant, glittering, radiant, sparkling. 2. Bright, splendid, re- splendent. Anto., dark, dim. Shock, v. 1. Affright, terrify. 3. Appal, disturb, dismay. 3. Offend, disgust. Anto., encourage, inspirit. Shocking, adj. Dreadful, disgusting, terrible. Anto., pleasant. Short, adj. 1. Defective, scanty, want- ing. 2. Brief, concise, compendious, laconic, succinct, summary. Anto., long. Shorten, v. 1. Abridge, abbreviate, re- trench. 2. Diminish. Anto., extend. Show. n. 1. Display, parade, pomp. 2. Exhibition, representation, sight, spectacle. Show. v. Display, exhibit, parade. Anto., hide, cover. Showy, adj. Gay, gorgeous, gaudy, flaunting, garisn. 2. Pompous, ostentatious, magnificent. Anto., simple, plain. Shrewd, adj. Acute, keen, penetrating, artful, sly, sagacious. Anto., dull. Shudder, v. Shrink, shake, quake, quiver. Shun, v. Avoid, elude, evade, eschew. Anto., seek. Sickly, adj. Diseased, ill, indisposed, morbid, sick, unwell. Anto., healthy. Sign. x. 1. Mark, note, symptom, prog- nostic, presage, signal. 2. Omen, token, sym- bol. Signify, v. 1. Betoken, declare, express, intimate, testify, utter. 2. Denote, imply. Significant, adj. 1. Indicative, ex'pres- sive, betokening. 2. Momentous. Anto., common, usual. Silence, n. Stilness, taciturnity, mute- ness, oblivion. Anto., sound, noise. Silence, v. Still, stop, appease. Silent, adj. 1. Dumb, mute, speechless. a. Still, quiet. Anto., noisy. Silly, adj. Absurd, foolish, simple, stupid, weak, dull. Anto., sedate. Similarity, n. Likeness, resemblance, similitude. Anto., unlikencss. Simile, n. Comparison, similitude. Simple, adj. I. Elementary, single, not complex. 2. Open, artless, sincere. 3. Plain. 4. Silly. Anto., complex, artful. Simplicity. «. Artlessness, plainness, singleness. 2. Folly. Anto., artfulness. Simply, adv. I. Merely, only, solely. 2. Artlessly. Since, conj. As, because, for, insomuch as. Sincere, adj. 1. Frank, honest, plain, ?;enuine. 2. True, upright, incorrupt. Anto., alse. Sinewy, adj. See Robust. Single, adj. 1. Unmarried. 2. Alone, solitary. 3. Particular, individual. Anto., married, double, several. Singular, adj. 1. Odd, strange, uncom- mon, rare. 2. Peculiar, exceptional. Anto., customary, usual. Situation, n. 1. Case, plight, predica- ment, condition, 2. Locality, place, position, site. Skilful, adj. Clever, skilled, knowing, intelligent, ready, adroit, quick. Anto., un- skilful. ^i*r 78 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. "7[ 1& Slander, v. Asperse, blacken, defame, traduce, libel. Auto., praise. Slavery, n. Bondage, captivity, scrvi- tiidc, drudgery. Auto., freedom. Slender, adj. I, Fragile, slight. a. Slim, thin. 3. Limited. Auto., thick. Slight, adj. i. Cursory, desultory, super- ficial, a. SJim, weak. Anto., i. careful. 2. solid. Slight, v. Neglect, scorn. Anto., notice, commend. Slow. adj. i. Deliberate. 2. Heavy, dull, stupid. 3. Sluggish. Anto., quick. Small, adj. 1. Little, diminutive, stunted, tiny. 2. Minute, microscopic. 3. Narrow, illiberal. Anto., large, great. Smell, n. Fragrance, odor, perfume, scent, stench. Smooth, adj. 1. Bland, mild, easy. 2. Even, level. Anto., rough. Smother, v. 1. Stifle, suffocate. 2. Sup- press. Snarling, adj. Cynical, snappish, wasp- Sober, adj. 1. Abstemious, abstinent, temperate, moderate. 2. Grave. Anto., in temperate, gay. Sobriety. ». 1. Abstinence, temperance. 2. Coolness, soberness, gravity. Anto., in- temperance, intoxication. Social, v. Companionable, conversable, familiar, sociable, convivial. Anto., unsocial. Society, adj. 1. Company, association, fellowship, corporation. 2. The public. Soft. adj. I. Compliant, ductile flexible, tractable, pliant, yielding. 2. Mild, docile, gentle. Anto., hard. Soiled, adj. Stained, spotted, tarnished, defiled, polluted. Anto., clean, pure. Solicit, v. 1. Ask, request. 2. Beg, en. treat, implore. 3. Beseech, supplicate. Anto., give. Solicitation. «. 1. Importunity, entreaty. 2. Invitation. Anto., offering. Solicitude, n. Anxiety, carefulness, trou- ble. Anto., carelessness. Solid, adj. Firm, hard, stable, substan- tial. Anto., unstable. Solitary, adj. 1. Alone, retired, sole. 2. Desolate, deserted, remote. 3. Lonely, only. Anto., crowded. Sombre, adj. 1. Dark, shadv, dusky, sunless. 2. Sad, doleful, mournful'. Anto.. gay, bright. Soothe, v. 1. Allay, lessen, mitigate, ease. a. Quiet, compose, pacify, appease. Anto., irritate. .• —rw Sorrow. «. j. Grief, affliction, trouble, sadness. 2. Regret. Auto., Joy, Sort. n. 1. Kind, species. 2. Order, rank. 3, Manner. Sound, adj. 1. Heartv, healthy, sane. 2. intirc, perfect, unhurt. Anto., ill. 1 Sound, (i. 1. Tone, noise, report. 2. Strait. Anlo. f silence. Sour. adj. Acid, acrimonious, acctose. acetous, sharp, tart. Auto., sweet. Source. «. Cause, fountain, origin, rea- son, spring. ° Spacious, adj. Ample, capacious. Anto.. •mul, ' Sparkle, v. 1. Twinkle, glitter, glisten, scintillate, corruscate. 2. Bubble, effervesce! Anto., darken. Speak. v. Articulate, converse, dis- course, pronounce, say, talk, tell, utter. Anto., silence. Speaking, n. 1. Elocution.dcclamation. oratory, a. Discourse, talk. Species. tt . Class, kind, sort, race. Specific, adj. Particular, special, definite. Anto., indefinite. Specimen. ». Model, pattern, sample, example. ' ' Specious, adj. Colorable, feasible, ostens. lolj, plausible, showv. Anto., real, genuine. Spectator, n. Bcholdcr.'bystandcr, ob- server. * ' Speculation. ». Conjecture, scheme, theory. Speech. ». 1. Talk. a. Language, dia- lect. 3. Address, discourse, harangue, ora- tion. k. Speechless, adj. Dumb, mute, silent Spend, v. Dissipate, exhaust, lay out. expend, squander, waste, consume. Anto., save. Sphere. n. Circle, globe, orb. Anto., cube. Spill, v. Pour, shed, waste. Anto., nil, gather. Spirit, n. \. Ardor, breath, courage, temper. 3. Ghost, soul. Auto., mortal. Spirited, adj. Active, animated, ardent, lively, vivacious. Anto., stupid. Spiritless, adj. I. Dull, cold, apathetic, feeble, soulless. 2. Dejected, downcast, x. Stupid, heavy, prosy, insipid. Anto., spirited. Spirits, n. Animation, courage, life, vi- vacity. Anto., dullness. Spiritual, adj. Ecclesiastical, Imma- terial, incorporeal, unearthly, heavenly. Anto., worldly, terrestrial. Spite, n. Grudge, malice, malignity, malevolence, pique, rancor. Anto., forgive- ness. Spite, v. Anger, vex, thwart. Anlo. x pardon, please. Splendid, adj. 1. Showy, sumptuous, gorgeous, magnificent, superb, a. Beaming, radiant, glowing, effulgent, brilliant. 3. No- ble, heroic. 4. Glorious, eminent. Anto., mean, dull, low. Splendor. ». Brightness, brilliancy, lus- tre, magnificence, pomp, pageantry. Anto., dullness, poverty. Splenetic, adj. 1. Fretful, peevish. 3, Gloomy, morose, sullen. Anto., amicable. Sport, n. 1. Amusement, game, pastime, play. 2. Diversion, recreation. Anto., work. Spotless, adj. 1. Blameless, faultless, stainless. 2. Unblemished, unspotted. 3. Innocent. Anto., stained. Spread, v. 1. Circulate, disseminate, distribute, scatter. 2. Disperse, dispense. 3. Propagate, diffuse. Anto., collect. Spring* v. 1. Emanate, flow, proceed, issue. 2. Arise, start, leap. Sprinkle, v. Bedew, scatter, besprinkle. Sprout, v. Bud, germinate, shoot out. Squander. :■. Expend, spend, lose, lavish, dissipate, waste. Anto., cArn, husband. Stability. ». Firmness, steadiness, fixed- ness. Anto., instability, unstableness, incon- stancy, fickleness. Stain, v. I. Foul, soil, sully, tarnish, blot, spot. 2. Color, tinge. Anto., clean. Stain. n. 1. Color, discolor. 2. Dye, tinge. 3. Flaw, speck, spot, blemish, blot. Stale, adj. 1. Old, faded. 2. Common, trite. 3. Vapid, flat, musty, insipid. Anto., new, fresh. Stammer, v. Falter, hesitate, stutter. Stamp, n. Print, mark, impression. Standard, n. Criterion, rule, test. Standard, adj. 1. Legal, usual, ap- proved. 2. Banner. Anto., unusual. .state, n. Condition, position, situation, predicament, plight. Station, n. Post, place, position, situ- ation. Stay. v. 1. Prop, support, a. Abide, continue, remain. 3. Delay, hinder, stop. 4. Support. Steadfast, adj. Firm, constant, resolute. Anto., shaky. Steal, v. 1. Pilfer, purloin, poach, em- bezzle. 2. Win, grain, allure. Anto., lose. Stench, n. Bad smell, stink. Anto., frurraaoe, perfume. Sterling, adj. Real, genuine, true, pure. Anto., false, counterfeit. Sterility, «. Barrenness, unfruitfulness, ar litv. Anto., fnntfulncss. Stern, adj. Austere, rigid, rigorous, sc- not. Anfo.,mi)i\. Sticking, adj. Adherent, adhesive, ten- acious. Stil!. n. 1. Allay, appease, assuage, a. Calm, lull, quiet, silence, pacify. Anto., en- rage, move, disturb. stimulate, v. Animate, excite, inci'c, IIOQNi knulle, fire. Anto,, dtfM Stingy. ,1.7, Close, mean, miserlv, nig- gardly, penurious, sordid. Anto.. get Stork, n. 1. Accumulation, fund, hoard, provisions, store, 4upply. 2. Cattle. Stole, n. Follower of Zeno. Anto., epi- curean. Stoop, v. Bend, condescend, submit. Anto., straighten. Stop. n. Cessation, intermission, rest. Anto., continuance. Stop. v. Check, hinder, impede. Antc.zld. Stormy, adj. 1. Gusty, squally, tem- pestuous, boisterous. 2. Rough, passionate. Anto., calm. Story, n. Anecdote, incident, memoir, tale. Stout, adj. See Strong, Robust. Strait, adj. 1. Close, narrow. 2. Strict. Anto., wide, loose. Strange. Adj. Curious, eccentric, odd. lin- gular, surprising, wonderful, foreign, unusu- al. Anto., usual. Stratagem, n. Device, artifice, ruse, dodge, trick. Anto., simplicity. Strength, n. 1. Authority. 2. Force, might, power, potency. Anto., weakness. Strenuously, adv. Ardently, realously, earnestly, vigorously. Anto., weakly, feebly. Strict, adj. Accurate, exact, nice, par- ticular, precise, rigorous, scvere,stern. Anto., lenient. Stricture, n. Animadversion, censure, contraction, criticism. Anto., commendation, Strife, n. Contention, contest, dissension, discord. Anto., peace. Strong, adj. 1. Efficient, powerful, po- tent, rnightv. 2. Athletic, stalwart, robust, stout. 3. Forcible, cogent. 4. Tough, tena- cious. Anto., feeble, weak. Structure, n. t. Make, construction, textare. 2. Building, pile, edifice. Stubborn, adj. Wilful, obstinate, mulish, perverse, obdurate, cantankerous, Anto., docile. Stupid, adj. 1. Sleepy, drowsy, torpid. 2. Flat, heavv, insipid, humdrum. 3. Dull, obtuse, foolish, witless, daft. Anto., shrewd. Style, n. Manner, mode, phraseology, diction. Style, v. Characterize, designate, de- nominate, entitle, name. Subdue, t. 1. Defeat, conquer, van* quish, overwhelm. 2. Subject, control. Anto., submit. Subject, adj. Exposed, liable, subser- vient. ^w*V.,shicUled, secured. Subject. «. Object, matter, material. Subject, v. Subdue, subjugate. Sublime adj. Elevated, exalted, grand, great, lofty, majestic, high. Anto., mean, low, base. Submissive, adj. Compliant, obedient, humble, yielding. Anto., rebellious. Submission, n. 1. Compliance, obedi- ence, meekness, humility, a. Forbearance, endurance. Anto., revolt. Subordinate. ». Inferior, dependent. Anto., superior; Suborn, r. Forswear, perjure. Anto., verify. Subsequent, ad/. 1. After, following. rior. consequent. Anto., preceding. Subservient, adj. 1. Inferior, subordin- ate. 2. Subject, Anto., superior. Subside, v. 1. Abate, sink. 2. Intermit. Anto., rise. Subsistence. *. See Sustenance. Substantial, adj. 1. Responsible. 2. Solid, stout, strong. Anto,, unstable. Substantiate, r. Ptot*. establish, cor ite, verify. Anto., dispro\ e. >.ibMitiitc. ;. Change, exchange. Anto., subterfuge. *. 1. Evasion, shift. 2. Quirk, trick. subtile, adj. 1. Fine, delicate, nice. a. Thin, rare, ethereal. Anto., coarse, rough. Subtle mdf, 1 Keen, sagacious, pro» found. 2. Artful, sly, astute, crafty. Anto., 1. Dull. 2. Open. subtract, v. Deduct, withdraw. Anto., add. Subvert, r. 1. Invert, reverse, a. Over- turn, overthrow. Anto., maintain, build. Successful, adj. Fortunate, lucky, pros- perous. Anto., unsuccessful. sin-cession, n. Order, scries. Anto., disorder. ^ «e ^ TT SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 7? 79 £ 1 Succinct, oc^'. Brief, concise, terse, com- pact. Auto., verbose. Succor, v. Aid, help, assist, relieve. Auto., injure, harry, mar. Sudden, adj. Hasty, unanticipated, un- expected, unlooked-for. Anto., slow. Suffor. v. i. Allow, permit, tolerate. 2. Endure, bear. S-.iifjcate. v. Choke, smother, stifle. Sufficient, adj. 1. Adequate, enough. 2. Competent. Auto., want. Suffrage. n. 1. Aid, voice. 2. Vote. S.i^rgest. v. Allude, hint, insinuate, in- timate. < Suggestion, «. Hint, allusion, intima- tion, insinuation. Suitable, adj. 1. Agreeable, becoming. 2. Apt, (it, expedient. Anto., unfit. Suitor, n. 1, Lover, wooer. 2. Peti- tioner. Summary. «. Abstract, compendium, digest, synopsis, epitome. Summon, v. Bid, call, cite, invite. Anto., send. Sundry, adj. 1. Different, diverse. 2. Several, various. Anto., single. Superficial, adj. Flimsy, shallow, slight. Anto., thorough. Supersede, v. 1. Supplant, displace. 2. Annul t suspend. Supplicate, v. Ask, beg, beseech, en- treat, implore, solicit. Anto., command. Support. v. Assist, cherish, defend, en- dure, encourage, favor, forward, maintain, nurture, patronize, 'protect, prop, sustain, stay, second, uphold. Anto., destroy, injure. Suppose, v. Consider, imagine, appre- hend, presume, think, believe. Supreme, adj. Paramount, first, prin- cipal, chief, highest, greatest. Anto., sec- ondary. Sure. adj. Certain, confident, infallible. Anto., uncertain. Surface, n. Outside, superficies. Anto., interior. Surly, adj. Morose, touchy, cross, fret- ful, peevish, cynical, rude. Anto., amiable. Surmise, v. Believe, conjecture, pre- sume, suppose, suspect, think. Anto., coubt. Surmour/t. v. Conquer, overcome, rise above, subdue, vanquish. Anto., yield. Surpass, v. Excel, exceed, outdo, out- strip. Anto., fall short. Surprise, n. Admiration, amazement, as- tonishment, wonder. Anto., habit, use. Surrender, v. Cede, deliver, give up, .resign, yield. Anto., taket Surround, v. Beset, encircle, encompass, environ, enclose, invest. Survey, n. Prospect, retrospect, review. Suspense, n. Doubt, in determination, hesitation. Anto., certainty. Suspicion. «. Distrust, jealousy. Anto. trust. Sustain, v. See Support. Sustenance. «. Living, maintenance, livelihood, subsistence, support. Swarm, n. Crowd, throng, multitude, concourse. Anto., few. Sweetheart, n. Admirer, beau, lover, wooer. 2. Flame, lady-love. Sweetness. ». 1. Beauty, loveliness. 2. Agreeableness. 3. Mildness, gentleness, amiability. Anto. % bitterness, sourness. Swiftness, w. 1. Celerity, rapiditv, fleet- ness, speed, velocity. Anto., slowness. Swiftly, adv. Speedily, post-haste, quick- ly, apace. Auto., slowly. Sycophant. ». Toady, fawner, parasite. Symbol. «. Token, sign, figure, emblem. Symmotry. «. Harmony, proportion. Aito., mharmony. Sympathy. ». 1. Pity, kindness, com- passion, condolence, commiseration, fellow- feeling. 2. Harmony, affinitv, correlation. 3. Agreement. Anto., apathy, mercilessness, cruelty. Symptom. ». Indication, mark, note. Sign, token. Synopsis. n. See Summary. System. «. Method 'order, scheme. Anto., confusion. Systematize. Arrange, order, regulate, methodize. Anto., disarrange. Table. ». 1. Board. 2. Repast, food, fare. ^. List, index, catalogue. Tacit, adj. Implied, silent, inferred, un- derstood. Anto., spoken, expressed. Taciturnity. ;/. Reserve, reticence, close- ness. Anto., loquacity. Tact. «. Adroitness, skill, quickness, judgment. Anto., awkwardness, gaucherie. 'Talent. ». Ability, capability, faculty, endowment, gift. Talk. n. Chat, -ommunication, confer- ence, colloquy, conversation, dialogue, dis- course. Anto., silence. ■ Talk. v. Chat, converse, discourse, speak, state, tell. Anto., silence. Talkativeness. ». Loquacity, garrulity. Anto., taciturnity. Tally, v. Accord, agree, match, com- port, harmonize. Tantalize, v. 1. Aggravate, irritate, pro- voke, tease, torment. 2. Taunt. Anto., p*lcase, harmonize, gladden. Taste, n. 1. Discernment, judgment, per- ception. 2. Flavor, relish, savor. Tattler. ». Gossip, prattler, babbler, gadabout. Taunt, v. Deride, mock, ridicule, jeer, flout. Anto., praise, commend. Tax. ». 1, Assessment, custom, duty, toll, rate. 2. Contribution, tribute. Teacher. ». See Schoolmaster, Tedious, adj. Dilatory, slow, tiresome, tardy, wearisome. Anto., prompt- Tell. v. Acquaint, communicate, dis- close, impart, inform, mention, make known, report, reveal, talk. Anto., listen. Temerity, n. Heedlessness, rashness, precipitancy. Anto., caution. Temper, n. Disposition, temperament. 2. Humor, mood. 3. Frame. Temperate, adj. Abstinent, abstemious, moderate, sober. Anto., immoderate. Tempest, n. 1. Storm, gale, squall, hur- ricane, tornado. 2. Tumult, disturbance. Anto., calm. Tempt, v. 1. Allure, entice, induce, de- coy, seduce, inveigle. 2. Incline, provoke. 3. Test, try, prove. Temporal, adj. 1. Secular, worldly. 2. Sublunary. Anto., spiritual, eternal. Temporary, adj. 1. Transient, transi- tory. 2. Fleeting. Anto., permanent. Tendency, n. \. Inclination, propensity, pronencss. 2. Drift, scope. 3. Aim. Anto. t disinclination. Tender, adj. 1. Kind, compassionate, miid, lenient, sympathetic, 2. Delicate, soft. 3. Womanly, effeminate. 4. Feeble, infantile. <. Pathetic. 6. Sensitive. Anto., tough, cal- lous, brutal. Tenderness. ». Affection, benignity, fondness, humanity. Anto., roughness. Tenet, n. Doctrine, dogma, opinion, position, principle. Term. n. 1. Boundary, limit. 2. Condi- tion, stipulation. 3. Expression, word. Terminate, v. Complete, finish, end, close. Anto., commence, begin. Terrible, adj. Dreadful, fearful, fright- ful, terrific, horrible, shocking. Anto., de- lightful. Territory. ». Country, domain, land. Terror, n. Alarm apprehension, conster- nation, dread, fear, fright. Anto., confidence. Tnrse. adj. Compact, concise, pithy, sententious. Anto., verbose. Test. n. Criterion, experiment, trial, ex- perience, proof, standard. Testify. v. Declare, prove, signify, wit- ness, affirm. Testimony, n. Evidence, proof. Text. «. Verse, passage, sentence, para- graph. 2. Topic, subject, theme. 3. Body. Thankful, adj. Grateful. AHto.,iin- grnteful. Theory, n. Speculation. Anto,, practice. Therefore, adv. Accordingly, hence, so, th^n, consequently, thence, wherefore. Thick, adj. Dense, close. Anto.,\k\r\ % Think, v. Cogitate, conceive, consider, contemplate, deliberate, imagine, opine, med- itate, ponder, surmise. Thirsty, adj. 1. Dry, parched, a. Eager, longing, craving, greedy. Though, conj. Although, while. Thought. n. Cogitation, conception, conceit, contemplation, deliberation, fancy, idea, imagination, meditation, notion, re- jection, supposition. Thoughtful. adj. Anxious, attentive, careful, circumspect, considerate, contem- plative, deliberate, discreet, reflective, solici- tous, wary. Anto., thoughtless. Thoughtless, adj. Careless, gay, incon- siderate, foolish, hasty, indiscreet, unrefiec- tive. Anto., thoughtful. Thrive, v. 1. Succeed, prosper, 2. Im- prove, flourish, grow, advance. Anto., decay. Throng, n. Multitude, crowd, horde, host. Through, prep. By, with. Throw, v. Cast, fling, hurl, toss. Anto., catch. Thwart, v. I. Balk, defeat, oppose, ob- struct, frustrate, 2. Cross, traverse. Anto., aid. Time. n. Age, date, duration, epoch, era, period, season. Timely, adj. Prompt, punctual, oppor- tune, seasonable. Anto., untimely. Timidity, n. 1. Bashfulness, coyness, diffidence, sheepishness. 2. Timorousness, cowardice, pusillanimity. Anto., audacity. Tiny, adj. Small, little, puny, diminutive. Anto., great, large. Tirea, adj. Fatigued, harassed, jaded, wearied. Anto., buoyant, eager. Tiresome, adj. Tedious, wearisome. Anto., interesting. Title. «. 1. Name, appellation, designa- tion, cognomen. 2. Right. 3. Inscription. Toast. », r. Toasted bread. 2. Tltdge, health. 3. Sentiment. Token. n. Indication, mark, note, sign, symptom. Tolerate, v. Admit, allow, suffer, per- mit. Anto., prohibit, decline. Tolerance, n. Toleration, sufferance, endurance. Anto., intolerance. Too. adv. 1. Over, more than enough. 2, Also, besides. Torment, v. 1. Tease, plague, provoke, worry, harass, tantalize. 2. Distress, agon- ize, torture, rack. Anto., appease. Torture. See Torment. Tortuous, adj. Tormenting, twisting, winding. Anto., easy, straight. Total. adj. Complete, entire, whole, gross. Anto., part. Touch. «. Contact, proof, test, feeling. Touching, adj. Tender, moving, pa- thetic, melting, affecting. Anto., ridiculous, prosy. Tough, adj. 1. Cohesive, tenacious. *, Hardy, strong, firm. 3. Stubborn, obdurate, refractory. Anto., tender, brittle. Tour. m. Circuit, excursion, ramble, jaunt, round, trip. Toy. n. Bubble, trifle, bagatelle. 2, Play- thing, trinket, gimcrack. Trace, v, 1. Deduce, derive. 2. Sketch, follow. Trace, n. Mark, track, vestige, footstep. Trade, ft. Avocation, business, calling, dealing, employment, occupation, traffic. Traduce, -v. I* Calumniate, vilify, de- fame, decry, degrade, depreciate, detract, disparage. " 2. Censure, condemn. Anto., eulogize. Tranquility, n. Calmness, quiet, re- pose, peace, placidity, sereneity. Anto., turmoil, tumult. . Transact, v. Conduct, negotiate, man- age. Transcend, v. Pass, excel, exceed, sur- pass, out*do. Transient, v. Fleeting, short, moment- ary. Anto., permanent. Transparent, adj. Clear, peliucid, per- vious, translucent, transpicuous. Anto., opaque. Transpire, v. 1. Occur, happen. 2. Come out, be disclosed. 3. Exhale, evaporate, Transport, n. 1. Carriage, conveyance, transport at i on . 2 . Ecstacy, rapture. 3. Rage. Anto., depression, melancholy. *? 8o SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. "Tfl E Traveller. ». Tourist, passenger, itiner- ant, voyager, pilgrim. Treacherous, adj. Faithless, perfidious, insidious, false. Anto., faithful. Treachery. n. Treason, perfidy, disloy. alty, pcrfidiousness. Anto., loyalty. Treasonable, adj. Traitorous, treach- erous. Anto., loyal. Treat, v. Entertain, negotiate, feast. Tremendous. adj. Dreadful, terrible, horrible, frightful, alarming, awful, appal- ling. Anto., small, mean. Trepidation. n. Agitation, emotion, tremor, trembling. Anto., calm. Trespass, v. I. Offend, transgress, sin. a. Intrude, infringe, encroach. Trial, n. i. Attempt, effort, endeavor, ex- periment, examination, proof, test. a. Temp- tation. Tribunal, n. i. Court, bar, judicatory. a. Bench. Trick, st. Artifice, cheat, deception, fraud, finesse, imposture, sleight, stratagem. Trifling, adj. Futile, frivolous, incon- siderable, light, petty, unimportant. Anto., important. Trim. v. I. Lop, clip, shear. a. Ar- range, adjust. 3. Deck, decorate, adorn, ;arnish, ornament, embellish. Anto., 1. ncrease, add. a. Disarrange. Trip. st. Excursion, jaunt, tour, ramble. Triumphant, adj. Victorious, success- ful, conquering. Anto., subdued. Troth, n. 1. Faith, fidelity, belief, a. Truth. Anto., falsehood, lie. Trouble, n. Adversity, affliction, anx- iety, distress, sorrow, vexation. Anto., hap- ptMMi Trouble, v. Disturb, grieve. Troublesome, adj. Annoying, disturb- ing, harassing, importunate, irksome, per- plexing, teasing. Anto., pleasant. True. adj. Honest, plain, upright, sin- cere. Anto., treacherous. Truce, n. 1. Cessation, intermission, a. Armistice. Anto., continuance. Trust, n. Belief, credit, confidence, faith, hope. Anto., suspicion. Trustee. n. Agent, depositary, fiduciary. Truth, n. Faitnfalncss, fidelity, honesty, veracity. Anto., falsehood. Try. v. Attempt, endeavor, essay, test, examine. Tug. v. Hale, haul, pluck, pull. Tuition, n. Schooling, instruction, teach- ing, education. Anto., ignorance. Tumble, v. Drop, fall, rumple, sink, turn over. Anto., rise. Tune. ». 1. Air, strain, melody, a. Con- cord, harmony. Turbid, adj. Roily, unsettled, thick, muddy, foul. Anto., clear. Turbulent* adj. Mutinous, riotous, se- ditious, tumultuous, violent. Anto,, quiet. Turmoil, n. Disturbance, uproar, com- motion, tumult. Anto., peace. Turn. n. Bent, cast, gyration, meander. Anto., disinclination. Turn. v. Bend, circulate, contort, dis- tort, gyrate^ revolve, twist, wind, wheel, whirl. Anto., straighten, still, quiet. Turncoat, n. See Renegade. Turpitude, n. Wickedness, baseness, depravity, vileness. Anto., goodness. Tutor. 11. Instructor, governess, gover- nante. Twaddle, n. Stuff, nonsense, tattle, gos- sip, balderdash, moonshine. Anto., sense. Twilight. ». Dusk. Anto., daylight. Twine, n. Encircle, embrace, entwine, Anto.. untwine. Twinge, v. Pinch, pull, twitch, tweak. Twinge, n. Pang, grip, twitch, spasm. Twit. v. Taunt, blame, reproach. Anto., commend. Type. n. 1. Printing character, a. Kind, form, sort. 3. Exemplar, original, model. 4. Mark, symbol, sign, token, emblem. Tyro. n. Beginner, learner, novice. Anto., licentiate. Ugliness. ». Homeliness, plainness, a Hidcousness, {rightfulness. Anto., beauty. Ugly, adj. 1. Plain, homely, ordinary, unsightly. a. Horrid, hideous, shocking. Anto.. pretty. Ultimate, adj. Final, last, eventual, ex- treme. Anto., first. Umpire, n. Judge, referee, arbitrator, arbiter. Unacceptable, adj. Unwelcome, dis- pleasing, unpalatable. Anto., acceptable. Unadorned, adj. Undecorated, untar- nished, not embellished, not bedecked. Anto., ornate. Unbecoming, adj. Improper, unsuita- ble, indecorous, unseemly. Anto., becoming. Unbelief, n. Disbelief, infidelity, skep- ticism, incredulity, distrust. Anto., "belief. Unblemished, adj. Pure, clean, spot- less, sinless, guileless, immaculate. Anto., blemished. Unbounded, adj. Boundless, illimitable, infinite, interminable, unlimited. Anto., lim- ited. Unceasingly, adv. Always, constantly, continually, ever, perpetually. Anto., inter- mittently. Uncertain, adj. Doubtful, precarious, dubious, equivocal. Anto., certain. Unchangeable, adj. Immutable, un- alterable. Anto., fickle. Uncivil, n. Impolite, ungracious, un- courteous, rude. Anto. , polite. Uncommon, adj. Choice, unfrequent, rare , scarce , singular , unique. Anto. , usual. Uncongenial, adj. 1. Unsuited, disa- greeable, a. Dissimilar. Anto., congenial. Unconcerned, adj. Cool, unaffected, in- different, careless, apathetic nonchalant. Anto., concernea, excited, vexed. Uncover, v. 1. Discover, reveal, dis- close, a. Strip, lay bare. Anto., conceal. Undaunted, adj. Fearless, brave, bold, manful, resolute, intrepid. Anto., weak. Undeniable, adj. Evident, obvious f In- disputable, incontrovertible, irrefragiblc, Anto., disputable. Under, prep. Below, beneath. Inferior, lower, subjacent, subject. Understanding, n. x. Mind, intellect, reason, sense, a. Notion, idea, judgment, knowledge. 3. Agreement. Undetermined, adj. Doubtful, fluctu- ating, hesitating, irresolute, unsteady, vacil- lating, wavering. Anto., resolute. Unfaithful, adj. False, treacherous, faithless, recreant, perfidious, dishonest, dis- loyal. Anto.. faithful. Unfit, adj. 1. Inapt, inappropriate, un- suitable, a. Incapable, unqualified. Ante, competent, convenient. Unfold, v. Develop, display, open, di- vulge, expand, reveal, unravel. Anto., hide. Unguarded, adj. 1. Thoughtless, care- less, a. Undefended, naked, unprotected. Anto., guarded. Ungrateful, adj. Unplcasing, thankless. Anto., thankful. Unhandy, adj. 1. Inconvenient, a. Clum- sy, bungling, awkward, maladroit. Anto., skilful. ** Unhappy, adj. 1. Afflicted, distressed, wretched, miseranle. a. Disastrous, hard, severe. Anto., happy. Unhealthy, adj. Diseased, sickly, infirm, invalid. Anto., healthy. Uniform, adj. 1. Begnlar, unvarying, alike, undeviating. a. Consonant. Anto., ir- regular. Unkind, adj. Harsh, unamiablc, un- fricndlv,- cruel . Anto., kind. Unimportant, adj. Inconsidrrable, Im- material, insignificant, trifling, petty, trivial. Anto., weighty. Unison, n. Accordance, agreement, con- cord, harmony, melody. Anto., discord. Unlawful, adj. Illegal, unlicensed, illicit. Anto., legal, lawful. Unlearned, adj. Ignorant, illiterate, un- educated, unlettered. Anto., learned. Unlike, adj. Different, dissimilar, dis- tinct. Anto., similar. Unlimited, adj. Boundless, illimitable, Infinite, unbounded. Anto., limited. Unmerciful, adj. Callous, cruel, hard- hearted, merciless, severe. Anto., merciful. Unquestionable, adj. Indisputable, un- deniable, certain, obvious, incontestable, in- dubitable, irrefragiblc. Anto., questionable. Unravel, v. Develop, disentangle, extri- cate, unfold. Anto.. tangle. Unreal, adj. Shadowy, imaginary. In* substantial, visionary, ghostly, spectral. Unrelenting, adj. Unpitying, relentless, rigorous, inexorable, harsh, cruel, merciless. Anto., tender. Unruly, adj. Ungovernable, mutinous, seditious, insubordinate, turbulent. Ante, obedient. Unseen. adj. Invisible, undiscovered, hidden. Anto., visible. Unsettled, adj. 1. Vacillating, uncer- tain, unsteady, wavering, restless, a. Turbid. 3. Undetermined. Anto., resolute. Unspeakable, adj. Unutterable, inex- pressible, ineffable. Unskilful, adj. Ignorant, wanting art or knowledge. Anto., skilful. Unsocial, adj. Unsociable, unkind. An* to., sociable. Unstable, adj. 1. Fickle, inconstant, mut- able, vacillating, a. Fluctuating. Untimely, adj. Premature, inopportune, unseasonable. Anto., timely. Unsuccessful, adj. Unfortunate, un- lucky. Anto., successful. Untwine, v. Untwist, unwind. Unwearied, adj. Indefatigable, restless, fresh. Anto., tired. Unwilling, adj. Reluctant, loath, indis- posed, disinclined. Anto., willing. Upbraid, v. Blame, censure, reprove, condemn, stigmatize, taunt. Upright, adj. 1. Erect, a. Honest, bold. Anto., prone. Uproar. 11. Commotion, hubbub, disturb- ance, clamor, tumult. Anto., calm. Urbanity. St. Civility, courtesy, polite- ness, suavity. Anto., incivility. Urge. v. 1. Instigate, incite, stimulate, spur. a. Solicit, entreat. 3. Impel, push, drive. Anto., hinder. Urgent, adj. Importunate, pressing, co- gent. Anto., unimportant. Usage, n. 1. Habit, practice, custom. 2. Treatment. Use. v. l. Employ, a. Consume, exhaust, expend. 3. Exercise,' practice. 4. Accustom, inure. Anto., abuse. Useful, adj. Helpful, serviceable, good, convenient, profitable. Anto., futile. Usually, adz: Regularly, ordinarily, gen- erally, habitually. Anto., seldom. Useless, adj. Fruitless, ineffectual, vain. Utility, n. "Use, service, usefulness, avail, benefit, profit. Ante, wortnlessness. Utterly, adv. Wholly, completely, fully, totally. Anto., partly. Uttermost, adj. ' 1. Utmost, greatest, a. Extreme, farthest. Anto., nearest, next. Unusual, adj. Rare, uncommon. Unwelcome, adj. 1. Unacceptable, a. Displeasing. Anto., welcome. Vacant, adj. t. Emntv, unfilled, Void. a. Thoughtless. Anto., filled. Vacancy, n. 1. Chasm, a. Empti nes s, vacuity. Anto., fulness, plethora. Vacate. :. 1. Make empty, void, annul, a. Leave. Anto., occupv. Vague, adj. Indefinite, uncertain, dim, doubtful, obscure. Anto., definite. Vain. adj. 1. Inflated, concrited, over- weening, ostentatious, a. Useless, fruitless. Anto., modest. Valediction, a. Taking leave, farewell. Anto., welcome. Valid, adj. Sound, lust, logical, sum- cicnt, grave. Anto,, invalid. Valuable, adj. Costlv, precious, worthy, estimable. Anto., worthless. VrtMie. n. Account, appreciation, esti- mation, price, rate, worth. Value, r. Appraise, assess, calculate, appreciate, compute, esteem, estimate, regard, respect. Vanity, n. Arrogance, conceit, pnde, haughtiness. Anto., modesty, humility. ST SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 8l # Vanquish, v. Beat, overcome, quell, conquer f subdue, confuse, defeat, subjugate. Anto., yield. Vapid, adj. i. Insipid, flat, spiritless. 2. Dull, tame, prosy. Anto., spirited. Variable, adj. Changeable, capricious, fickle, unsteady, versatile, wavering. Anto., unchangeable. Variance. ». Discord, strife, discussion. Anto., unison. Variation. «. 1. Difference, deviation, diversity. 2. Change, mutation. Anto. , per- manence. Variety, n. 1. Difference, diversity. 2. Multiplicity. Anto., simplicity. Various, adj. 1. Different, several, sun* dry, many. 2. Diversified. Anto., simple. Veer, v. Turn, shift, change course. Vegetate, v. Spring, grow, shoot, ger- minate. Vehement, adj. 1. Passionate, violent, furious. 2. Earnest, fervid. 3. Forcible, strong. Anto., gentle. Velocity. «. Speed, rapidity, swiftness, fieetness. Anto., sloth. Venerate, v. Honor, respect, revere, adore. Anto., despise. Veracity, n. Candor, truthfulness, hon- esty, ingenuousness. Anto., mendacity. Verbal, adj. 1. Literal. 2. Unwritten, oral, spoken, parole. Anto., written. Verbose, adj. Diffuse, wordy, windy, prolix. Anto., succinct, terse, concise. Vestige, n. Mark, trace, track, footstep. Vexation, n. 1 . Annoyance, trouble, tor ■ ment. 2. Displeasure. Anto., pleasure. Vice. n. wickedness, crime, sin, moral ill. Anto., virtue. Vicinity. «. 1. Neighborhood. 2. Prox- imity, nearness. View. n. 1. Scene, vista, prospect. 2. Picture, sketch. 3. Sight, inspection. 4. Opinion. Vigilant, adj. Watchful, circumspect. Anto., heedless. Vigorous, adj. 1. Strong, energetic. 2. Healthy, sound. 3. Racy, pointed. Anto., weak. Violent, adj. 1. Fierce, hot. 2. Vehe- ment, boisterouSj furious, impetuous, turbu- lent 3. Sharp, intense. Anto., gentle. Vile. adj. 1. Wicked, knavish. 2. Low, base, mean, foul. Anto., noble lofty. Vindicate. v. Clear, defend, protect, justify. Anto., implicate, criminate. Virtue, n. 1. Goodness, integrity, worth. 2. Power, efficacy. Anto., vice. Virtuous, adj. 1. Pure, chaste. 2. Good, righteous, exemplary. Anto., bad. Visible, adj. 1. Patent, apparent, evi- dent, obvious. 2. Perceptible. Anto., unseen. Visionary, adj. Enthusiastic, fantastic, fanatical, imaginary. Anto., cautious, sensible. Visitation, n. 1. Affliction, trouble, dis- pensation. 2. Inspection. Vital, adj. Necessary, essential, indis- pensable. Anto., unnecessary. Vitiate, v. Contaminate, pollute, defile, infect, sophisticate, taint. Anto., cleanse. Vivid, adj. Active, bright, clear, lively, lucid, quick, sprightly, striking, Anto., dull. Volatility. «. Fhghtiness, giddiness, lev- *ty, lightness, liveliness. Anto., steadiness. Voluptuous, adj. Sensual, epicurean, luxurious. Anto., stoical, harsh. Voluptuary. «. Epicure, sensualist. Anto., ascetic. Vouch, v. 1. Attest, warrant, avouch. 2. Back, support. Anto., deny. Vulgarity, v. Coarseness, grossness, meanness, rudeness, vileness. Anto.. refine- ment. w Wag. «. Humorist, joker, jester, wit. Anto., dullard, butt. Wages. n.,pl. Pay, salary, hire, com- pensation, stipend, earnings. Wakeful, adj. Sleepless, vigilant, watch, ful, wary, Anto., drowsy. Walk. «. Carriage, gait, path* Walk. v. Perambulate. Wander, v. 1. Stray, swerve, digress, deviate. 2. Stroll, ramble, roam. Anto., run. Want. n. 1. Need. 2. Poverty, indigence. 3. Lack, dearth, scarcity. Anto., plenty. Wares, n. Commodities, goods, mer- chandise. Wariness, n. Care, caution, circumspec- tion, forethought, prudence. Anto., heed- lessness. Warlike, adj. 1. Hostile, inimical. 2. Military, bellicose. Anto., peaceful. Warm. adj. \. Genial, pleasant, sunny. 2. Not cold. 3. Fervent. 4. Excited. Anto , cool. Warmth, n. 1. Glow. 2. Zeal, vehe- mence, ardor, fervor. Anto., coolness. Warning, n. 1. Monition, admonition. 2. Notice. 3. Caution. Wary. adj. Vigilant, cautious, discreet, guarded. Anto., heedless. Waste, n. 1. Loss, consumption. 2. Refuse. 3. Pillage, ruin, destruction, devas- tation. Anto., replenishment, frugality. Wasteful, adj. 1. Destructive. 2, Pro- fuse, lavish, extravagant. Anto., frugal. Watchful, adj. Vigilant, careful, wary, circumspect, alert. Anto., careless. Wave. n. Ripple, undulation, swell, surge, billow, breaker. Waver, v. 1. Fluctuate, vacillate. 2. Flicker, wave. Anto., steadfast. Way. n. 1. Path, route, course, road. 2. Mode, method. Wayward, adj. Forward, perverse, ob- stinate, willful, headstrong, stubborn. Anto., docile. Weak. adj. 1. Feeble, languid, weakly. 2, Frail, sickly. Anto., strong. Weaken, v. Debilitate, unnerve, enfee- ble. 2. Lower, reduce. Anto., invigorate. Weakness, n. Debility, effeminacy. An* to. y 1 strength. Wealth. n. Abundance, fortune, afflu- ence, riches, opulence. Anto., poverty. Weariness. n. Exhaustion, languor, lassitude, fatigue. Anto., buoyancy, vigor. Weary, adj. Annoy, fatigue, harass, jade, subdue, tire, vex. Anto., fresh, un- wearied. Wedding. «. Bridal, espousal, mar- riage, nuptials. Anto., divorce. Wedlock, n. Marriage, matrimony. Wee. adj. Small, little, diminutive, pigmy, tiny. Anto., large. Weight, n. 1. Gravity, ponderosity. 2. Burden, load. 3. Influence, importance. An~ to., lightness. Weighty, adj. Momentous, important. Anto., unimportant, light, trifling. Welcome, adj. 1. Pleasing, acceptable, agreeable, gratifying. 2. Admitted with pleasure. Anto., unwelcome. Welfare, n. Weal, well-being, success, prosperity. Anto., failure, poverty. Wnet. v. 1. Stimulate, quicken, excite, arouse, kindle. 2. Sharpen. Anto., dull. Whimsical, adj. Capricious, fantastic, fanciful. Anto., commonplace. Whiten, v. Bleach, fade, blanch. Anto., blacken. Whole, adj. All, sum, total. Anto.,parU Wicked, adj, 1. Bad, ill, evil, iniquitous. 2. Sinful, vicious, impious. Anto., virtuous. Willingly, adj. Spontaneously, volun* tarily, readily. Anto., unwillingly. Wily. adj. Crafty, artful, sly, cunning, insidious, subtle, snaky. Anto., ingenuous. Win. v. 1. Gain, get, obtain, acquire, earn, achieve. 2. Gain over. Anto., lose. Wince, v. Shrink, flinch, startle. Winding, adj. Meandering, serpentine, flexuous, sinuous. Anto., straight. Windy, adj. Breezy, stormy, gusty, tem- pestuous, blustering. Anto., calm. Wisdom, n. 1. Sagacity, sense, judg- ment. 2. Learning, knowledge. 3. Reason- ableness. Anto., ignorance. Wise. adj. 1. Sage, sensible, judicious. 2. Erudite. 3. Sly, subtle, knowing. Anto. % ignorant. Wit. n. Burlesque, contrivance, humor, irony, ingenuity, stratagem. Anto., dulness. With. prep. By, through. Withdraw, v. 1. Recant, disavow. 2. Remove. 3. Disengage, wean, go back, re- cede, retire, retreat, retrograde, take back. Anto., 1. Endorse, come forward. Withhold, v. 1. Retain. 2. Restrain. Anto., release. Withstand, v. Oppose, thwart, resist. Witness. «. Deponent, evidence, tcsti- 111 °"y* Wonder, n. 1. Marvel, prodigy, miracle. 2. Surprise, amazement. 3. Curiosity. Anto., commonplace. Wonderful, adj. Admirable, astonish- ing, curious, marvellous, strange, surprising. Anto., usual, customary. Wood. «. 1. Copse, grove, forest. 2. Timber. Word. n. Expression, promise, term. Worker. ». 1. Performer. 2. Operative t labortr, workman, artificer. Anto., idler. Worship, n. Adore, honor, revere. Anto., execrate. Worth, n. Desert, excellence, merit, price, rate, value. Anto., worth less n ess. Worthless, adj. Valueless, degraded. Anto., valuable. Worthy, adj. 1. Good, excellent, estim- able, virtuous. 2. Deserving. Anto., un- worthy. Wretched, adj. 1. Poor, bad, vile, piti- ful. 2. Calamitous. 3. Forlorn, unhappy, miserable. Anto., happy. Written, adj. Penned, inscribed, tran- scribed. Anto., verbal. Writer, n. \. Author. 2. Scribe, clerk, secretary, amanuensis. 3. Penman. Wrong, v. Maltreat, injure, abuse, op- press. Anto., right. Wrong, adj. Untrue, faulty, not fit, un- suitable, unjust. Anto., right. Wrong. n. Inj ustice, error, inj ury, Anto., right, justice. Wrongly, adv. Erroneously. Wrought, v. Done, performed, effected. Wry. adj. Crooked, askew, distorted, twisted* Anto., straight. Xeres. ». Sherry. Xiphoid, adj. Swordlike, ensiform. Xylography, a. Wood-engraving. Yearly, adj. Annually, per annum. Yeoman, n. Farmer, freeholder, com* moner. Anto., gentleman. Yet. conj. or adv. But, however, never- theless, notwithstanding, still, hitherto, fur. ther, besides. Yield, v. Allow, cede, communicate, comply, conform, concede, give, produce, permit, resign, surrender. Anto., take. Yield, n. Crop, product. Yielding, adj. Compliant, submissive, facile, unresisting, accommodating. Anto., stubborn. Yoke. n. 1. Link, chain, tie, bond. 3. Servitude, dependence, bondage, subjection, thraldom. Yoke. v. Associate, join, link, couple, conjoin. Anto., sever. Youth, n. 1. Lad, boy, stripling, a. Young men, young women. 3. Juniority, minority, juvenility, adolescence. Anto., age. Zany. adj. Clown, buffoon, harlequin, Punch, fool. Zeal. n. Earnestness, fervor, cordiality, ardor, passion. Zealot, «. Enthusiast, bigot, fanatic, visionary. Zealous, adj. Earnest, fervid, glowing, burning, passionate. Anto., lukewarm. Zenith, ». Top, apex, summit, pinnacle, climax. Anto., nadir. Zephyr. ». 1. Breeze, a. West wind. Anto., calm. Zero. n. Cipher, naught, nothing. Zest. n. Flavor, taste, savor, relish. Zone. *. 1. Girdle, belt a* Clime, r«. gioa. K" »£, 82 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. ~? A Self-Instructors IN THE ^German Language. BY THE NEW SYSTEM OF OBJECT-TEACHING, THE SIMPLEST METHOD KNOWN. bTUDENTS will readily con- cede that of all foreign lan- guages the one which best deserves their attention is the German. The influence of the Teuton stock on American civilization and commerce is all-important, and as each year continues to bring thou- sands of German immigrants to our shores, it will be more and more felt. A practical illustration of this fact is shown in the cry for 1 German in the public schools" which is heard in the leading cities of the country at the present day. Eventu- ally a knowledge of the language will become so essential in the spheres of commer- cial and professional life that the business or professional man who cannot conduct conversa- tion and correspondence in German will find himself at a decided disadvantage compared with him who has acquired the language. Those who wish to do so will find in the following sys- tem of self-tuition a means of grounding them- selves so thoroughly in the principles of the lan- guage that, with its lessons well learned, they will have no difficulty in convening and corre- sponding intelligibly with Germans whom they may meet in the way of business or social con- verse. And, having accomplished so much, all that will be needed to gain a mastery of the **% /_ language is careful reading of the standard works of German literature, which in time will bring fluency of both written and spoken expres- sion. THE ALPHABET. The German alphabet consists of the following twenty-six letters : - * IP sg si < X < PRONUNCIATION. ■ * H < a < S X X u B A 91 a ah as a in part. I SB b bay as in English. C tsay as c in cape if before a, o t * or a consonant, or when final. n 7)b day as in English. i as a in Fame when long. E Q ( »y t as / in /'/■//when short. r SH cf as in English. H S| E» like A in horse. i at e as 1 in sit. vi\ Vol kah us_y in jr ear. 1. e 1 •1 M SD?m cm N O Do en ■ as in English* P Q l\ nay koo K » r err s S4( cs as / In sit. T St t tav as in I-.ngHsh. U U u 00 as 00 in pool. V SO » fow w*f\nftei. w SB 10 vay as fin vary. X 3E \ Iks as jr in box. Y I ypsllon as y in system. Z tsct as ts in 'sits. VOWELS. The simple vowels are a, «, t, 0, u. Their sounds are gives abore. COMPOUND TOWELS. 6, aie dair hahzay the bush tet SBuf$ dair boosh the roe tat Hcb das ray the heath tie ftalte dee hiday the ox tetC*fe dair ocksay the hill tet ijuget dair hecugel the cow tie Sub dee koo the mill tie Siubte dee meeullay the calf bat ftalb das kalb the corn tat iletn das korn the sheep tat Etfaaf das shahf the straw tat Strob das shtro the lamb the fox tat Samra tet J>u*t das lam dair f ooka TRADES AND PROFESSION'S. the wolf bet Belt dair volf The baker tet ajftcTet dair becker the bear ter ¥ar dair baer the bookbinder tet 9?ud)binber dair bookbinder the elephant tet Qierbant dair elcfahnt the book tat S? lid) das hooch the camel tat Sameel das cahmail the doctor tet Tcttot dair iloktor the swan ter Stbiran dair shvan the hat tet i>ut dair hoot the falcon tergalle dair falkay the hatter tet ftulmaitei dair hootmafAer the goose tie nn das tsin Monday SRontag monetae the steel bad Stahl das shtahl Tuesday Dtenftag deensta^" the zinc bad 3tnf das tsink Wednesday 3Ritttcoa> mittvocA the bronze bie SBtonje dee bronsay Thursday !£onnetftag donnersta^ the diamond bet liamant dair deeamahnt Friday Sreitag freitah^" the pearl bie ¥etle dee pairlay Saturday t Samftag I Sonnabenb sahmstah^ sunnahbend the coral the marble bie ftotalle dee corallay bad uTZatmot das marmor The holiday Christmas ber {Jfeiertag SBeitinadjten dair fireta^ YinarAten the gypsum berfflopd dair gyps Easter DfietK ohstern the clay the chalk the coal bet Sepnt dair lame bet flair dair calk bie R o$ le dee coalay Whitsuntide the morning * noon fPfinglten bet Sffiorgen SHtttag pflngsten dair morgen mitta^ dair narAmitta^ dair abend the earth the sand bie Ctbe dee airday berSanb dairsahnd the afternoon the evening the night ber SRad)mtttag bet Stbenb the stone ber Stein dairstine bie 9Jad)t dee nar/;t SHIPS AND SHIPPING. midnight SDiittetnacbt mitternarAt The ship bad Sd)iff das shift THE HOME. the boat bad Soot das boat the ship-of-the-Ilne bad 2inienfa)i|f das leenyenshiff The bell bie ©lode dee gluckay the flsherboat bad Sifajer&oot das flsherboat the knocker bet Stopfer dair klupfer the anchor bet Stnfet dair anker to open bffnen oeffnen the deck bad Ted das deck the servant bie 9Ragb dee ma^d the flag bie Jlagge dee flaggay the staircase bie Xreppe dee treppay the mast bet 2Raft dair mast the room bad 3immer das tsimmer the foremast bet SBotbermajt dair fordermast the drawing-room bad ¥u v Stmmer das pootstsimmer the sail bad Seget das saygel the sitting-room bad SBobnjtmmet das vohntsimmer the strand betSttanb dairshtrand the dining-room bad QSjtmmet das esstsimmer the rudder bad Subei das rooder the sleeping-room bad Sajlafjimraei das shlahftsimmer the net bad 5Re v das netz the kitchen bie flu*e dee keeurZiay the lading (freight) bie Sabung dee lahdung the cellar bet ReUet dair keller the freight bie Jtacit dee tncit the window bad genflet das fenster the coast bie Jtufte dee kistay the stove bet Ofea dair oh fen the cliff bie fllippe dee klippay the chimney bet flarain dair kameen the downs bie Dunen dee deeunen the looking-glass ber Spiegel dair shpeegel the ground bet Orunb dair groond the table bet Ztfdj dair tish the storm bet Sturm dair shtoorm the chair ber Stub; t dair shtool the fleet bie Jiotte dee flottay the arm-chair ber Hrmftubl dair arm shtool the frigate bie Stegatte dee fregattay the carpet the chest of drawers bet Seppid) bie flommobe dair teppicA dee ommohday TIME AND SEASONS. the sofa bad Sop v a das sofa The century bad 3abt$unbett das yarhoondert the candlestick ber Seud)tet dair loytAter the year bad 3ab> das yar the candle bad Sid)t das lirAt the month bet SRonat dair mortat the lamp bie £ampe dee lam pay the week bie 25od)e dee vocv&ay the wick ber Sod)t dair dor At the day bet Sag dair ta^ the oil bad Del das eel the hour bie Stunbe dee shtoonday to light anjunben antsinden half-an-hour erne baibe Stunbe Inay halbay shtoonday the bed bad Sett das bet the minute bie Minute dee minoohtay thj counterpane bie Settberfe dee betdeckay the second bie Sefunbe dee secoonday the sheets bie iBetttudjet dee betteeiAer the seasons bie Jalitedsetten dee yarestsiten the pillow bad ffopfltffen das kupfkissen spring Stuping freeling the basin bad aBafajbeien das vashbecken J summer Scmnter summer the soap bie Seife dee sifay I — _* autumn £ ftetbft hairbst the towe* bad §anbtua} das handtootrA \ L ■ —• — » 1 «r «4 R .. -. — -1 If. 1 \ ■ / 86 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. \ 1 ■ NGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PR OHVX CIATIO K. warm water trarmeS SBaflet varmes vasser the petticoat bet Untrue* dair oonterruck cold water falttS JBaRet kaltes vaster the stays bat esjnurletb der shneerlipc hot water vttfcet iffiaffei hyses vasser the veil bet edjletet dair shlire to wash irafAen vashen the powder bat SBnbet das pooder the comb 1 1 r Jfamm dair kamm the soap Me getfe dee sifay to comb fammen kemmen the tooth-powder bat 3abntulrn das tsahnpoolfer FRUITS, TREES AND FLOWERS. TRAVEL. The apple bet Hpfttl dair apfel The voyage Me Strife dee rizay the apple-tree bet aipfdbaum dair apfclbowm the traveller bet Wetfente dair rizendsy the pear bie Sitne dee becrnay the road bte Saitbfhafct dee lahnd&htrahsay the pear* tree bet SBunbaum dair beernbowm the railroad bte Ciimbabn dee isenbahn the plum tie ?>flaume dee pflowmay the station bte etaticn dee stahtzione the plum-tree bet ipflaumeniaunt dair pflowmenbowm the train betS«8 dair tsoo/ the cherry bie flirfAe dee keershay the engine bie 2Raf*t»e dee mash ten ay the chestnut bie flafianie dee kastanyay the carriage bte Rutfdte dee kootshay the peach bet sphrficb. dair pfeersirA the wagon bet SSaaen dair vahgen the apricot bie Mpttccfe dee apreecohsay the departure bie rlbtcife dee abrizay the orange bie Slpfelfine dee apfelseenay the arrival bte Slnfunft dee ankoonft the lemon bte Citrone dee tsitronay the pass-port bet t-afc dair pass the grape bie SBelntiatlSe dee vinetrowbay the inn (hotel) bet (Safibof dair ga&thof the nut bie Wufe dee nooss the landlord bet JT-ittb dair vetrt the walnut bie ffiaUnud dee vallnooss the waiter bet fletlnet dair k finer the currant bie 3o6anni8beete dee yohanisbairay the bill bie 9ied>nunoi dee ree/moong the gooseberry bie ©tadjelbeete dee shtat/jelbairay the interpreter bet Xcltnetfciet dair dulltnctsher the raspberry bie Qimbeere dee himbairay the luggage bat C'rrad das geptek the blackberry bie iBtcmbeetc dee brombairay the trunk bet Reflet dair cuff er the strawberry bie Qtbbeete dee airdbairay the carpetbag bet Stiff tad dair rizaysack the oak the beech bie (Sicbe bte SPucte dee ir/jay dee boor/ray AT THE WRITING-DESK. the poplar bie SPapptl deepappei The paper bat Racier das papeer the lime bie Binbe dee linday the writing-paper bat £*ittbpaptet das shrihepapeer the ash bie e dee eshay the writing bie Bchiiit dee shrift the fir bie lanne dee tannay the sheet bet iBcaen dair bogeo the willow bie SBetbe dee viday the pen bie g-etet dee fayder the rose bie Wcfe dee rosay the steel-pen kte etoblfetet dec stahlfaydcr the pink bie 3!elfe dee nelkay the penknife bat gtbetmeflet das fay derm esse* the tulip bie Xulpe dee toolpay the inkstand bat lintentafj das tinttnfass the lily bit Stile dee leeleay the ink bte Xinte dee tintay the violet bat Beildjeit das nlerAen the pencil ket Sletfitft dair blystift the lilac bet glleber dair feeder the scissors bie Bcbeett dec shayray the lily of the valley bat SD!aibIumd)en das mybleumchen the date bet Tatura der dahtoom THE TOILET. the direction the mail bie abttfle bte T>pft dee ahdressay dec pust The clothes bie JHelbet dee klider the seal bat 4?eH*aft das pctshaft • the coat bet Mod dair ruck the sealing-wax bet Eteatnad dair seegcllac the trowsers bie $ofen dee hozen the wafer bte Cblate dee oblahtay the pocket bie aafebe dee tashay the ruler bat SMntal das lecnayabj the buttons bte flnopfe dee knoepfay the letter bet SJtief dair brcef the dressing-gown bet Sdjlattp* dair shlahfruck the note bat Strict das bilyet the slippers the drawers bie iPantoffetit bie Unterbofen dee pantuffeln dee oonterhosen LANDS AND PEOPLES. the stockings bie 2 trumpfe dee streeumpfay The country bat f!anb das lahnd das f ahtcrlahnd the shirt bat JJemb das hemt the native land bat SSatrrlanb the braces bie ftofenttigei dee hosentrayger the state bet etaat dair shtaht the waistcoat bie SBefie dee vestay the empire bat »ei* das ririe the boot bet Sltctel dair shteefel the kingdom bat Jtbntatttcb das kn \\\gnetm the boot-jack bet ettefelfnedjt dair shtecfelknefAt Europe Oureva otropa the cap tie OJJufce dee mitsay the European bet Gntcpaet dair oiropayer the gloves bie $anbfd)ube dee bandshooay America amenta amayricah the handkerchief bat lafdjentudj daS I.I.Oii'nMi n h Ike American bet amettfanet dair amayrikahncr the watch bie Ubt dee i >i t A-i.i afien axicn the umbrella bet Me aenfdjltm. dair raygensheerm Africa Bfttfa afrika the purse bte Scrfe dee hrersay the East Indies rrtintten oj^tindicn the brush bte (Bfirfie dee birstay the West Indies BrfMMM vestindien the comb bet Ramra dair kamm the United States tie rminijten eiaaten dee verint/ten it ah tea the apron bte e*fltje ' dee shecurtsay Brazil *rafilten brahr.ee. lien - the fan bet gadjet dair facta Englfhil Gnalanb englahnd . the dress bat ftletb das klite the Englishman bet Onglantet dair Kngiendcr f / ^ 1 ■ • -. * J*. « \ r~ 1 THE GERMAls LANGUAGE. 87 1 ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. Ireland 3rlanb eerlahnd rich rela) ricAe the Irishman bet 3r[anber der eerlender cold fait kalt Scotland ed)ott[anb shutlahnd warm natnt varm the Scotchman bet Sdjotle dair shuttay long lang lahng France grantreia) frankricAe high bod) hoarA the Frenchman bet Jranjofe dair frantsosay full Ml foil Germany Xeutfd)Ianb doylshlahnd cool tubl keel the German bet Deutfdje daii doytshay near nabe nan Holland £oQanb hullahnd hard bar! hart the Dutchman bet ^olianbet dair hullender light Ietdjt lycAt Austria Deftetteid) eceterricAe wild Btlb villd the Austrian bet Deftetteidjer dair ecetcrric/ier fat feu fet Prussia ipreufjen proyssen fine feln fine the Prussian bet $teu$e dair proyssay mild mllb milld Russia SRufslanb rbossland deep tlef teef the Russian bet 9iuffe dair roossay fresh frlf* frish Sweden ©cbneben shvayden ripe teif rife the Swede bet ©d)»ebe dair shvayday unripe nntetf oonrife Denmark Xanemart danemark bitter bitter bitter the Dane bet Xdne dair daynay small . fdjmal shmahl Switzerland bie ©cbrceitj dee shvyts wide Belt vite the Swiss bet 3d)roei§er dair shvytser open often uffen Italy 3'alien eetalyen loud Iaut lout the Italian bet ^toltenet dair ectaleeayner right tecbt recAt Spain Spanifn shpanyen wise Btlfe visay the Spaniard bet Spanter dair shpaneeyare blind bltnb blinnd Greece (gtierbenlanb greetAenlahnd unwell untrcb,! oonvole the Greek bet (SrteAje deir greecAay hot 6«16 hice Turkey bie Stuttel dee teerki thick bid dick the Turk bet Jutfe dair teerkay neat nett net the Jew bet 3"be ' dair yooday thin bunn din i the Persian bet 3Ptrfier dair perzier broad bteit brite THE ADJECTIVE. round false ml falfs) roond fahlsh The German adjective is placed before the substantive. sour faun sour With the definite article it takes the termination in e; with the in- hollow bobl hole sharf fl«A kline engay needrig schcen hibsch hesslicA shlecAt definite article or without the article, it takes the termination of its gender ; as : Der gute SJater, the good father; guter Slater, good father; ein gutet Satet, a good father. Die gute Sffiuttet, the good mother ; gute SKutter, good mother ; tine gute Wuttit, a good mother. • D«« gute Stint, the good child ; gute« fttnb, good child ; ein gute8 Uinb, a good child. sharp flat small narrow low beautiful handsome ugly bad fa)arf Pad) tletn enge niettlg fd)6n bubfd) bafilta) fd)Ied)t COMPARISON OF ADJECTTVES. easy Ietdjt leieAt The comparative of a German adjective is formed by adding et to heavy fdjoei shvair the positive, the superlative by adding fie; as: soft Beta) vycAe vahr Rletn, little — [[finer, smaller — fleinfie, smallest. true ltOyt Welti, riqh — reldjet, richer — teltbfle, richest. short furj koorts The *' than" following the comparative is translated by „aI8". far Belt vite Sr i(l tleinet al§ id); he is smaller than I. VOCABULARY OF ADJECTIVES. sweet hollow blunt fuB bob! ftumpf seess hole shtoompf White n>et& vice delicious leftlia) ksstlifA red tot, rote disagreeable unangenebm oonahngenaym blue blau blou honest ebtltd) ayrlifA brown braun brown polite bofltd) hsnirA gray gtau grou obliging gefattig gefell^f green gtin green kind gutig geeti^ yellow gelb gelb prudent Hug kloo^ orange orange orahn^e stupid butnm doomm Purple Umpire poorpoor ridiculous lacbetlid) lecAerlicA violet Diolett veeolet reasonable eernunftig ferninfti^ old alt ahlt happy gludlid) glicklicA young Jung yoong unhappy unglutflia) oonglickUVA new neu noi glad frob fro 1 great 8 io(i gross satisfied juftleben tsoofreeden i good gut goot active tbattg taitif f , ' s I, [fs w -^ 1 sr* K" 88 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. ENGLISH. GERMAN. rRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. proud grot shtults a million etne 2Hifiicn inay milleeone rude grope one thousand eight ein taufenb ao>t bunbert ine towsend arAt hoon- bold (u v n keen hundred and fifty- neununtfunfjtg dert noyn oond nnf- strong flat. shtark nine. Uig weak attentive fd)ma$ aufmcrtjaa shvach owfmerksahm THE ORTONAL NUMBERS. clever gefebtett geshickt the first ber erfte dalr ayrstsy sick frant krahnk the second ber (nette dair uviuy pale Ha| blahss the third ber brtlte dair drittay healthy «-tut.b gezoond the fourth ber Bierte dair feertay poor arm arm the fifth ber funfte dair finftay empty Iter lair the sixth ber fed)8fte dair sextag light bell hell the seventh ber ficbente dair seebentay dark bunfet doonkel the eighth ber acbte dair ar/uay dry tro-fen trocken the ninth bet neunte dair noyntay wet naf) nahss the tenth ber jebnte dair tsanetay dirty fdjmuttg shmootsi^ the eleventh ber elfte dair elftay cheap Mm Mill/ the twelfth ber jrcolfte dair tsvelfUy clean rein rine the thirteenth ber breijebnte dair drytsanetEy tired mube meeday the fourteenth bet Bierjebnte dair feertsanetay angry bofe bossay the fifteenth ber funfjebnte dair finfuanetay merry lufltg loosti^ the sixteenth ber fetbsiebnte dair sc<-*tsanetay CARDINAL NUMBERS. the seventeenth the eighteenth ber fiebenjebnte ber aettjebnte dair secbentsanctay dair arAtsanetay One tin, etnS Ine, ines the nineteenth ter neunjebnte dair noyntsanetay two greet tsvi the twentieth ber jrcanjigfte dair tsvanzi^stay three tret dri the twenty-first bet einunbjtBaniigfle dair ineoondtsvantsig- four Bier feer stay five ffinf flat twenty -second ber itBetunbjn-anitjiie dair tsvioondtsvantsi/"- six f.*« sex stay seven fiebeu seeben the twenty-third ber breiuxtjiranjtgfte dair drioonduvants!/- eight M|l ■dt stay nine neun noyn the thirtieth ber breifi.gfte dair drysi/stay ten je»n tsane the thirty -first ber elnuubbreiblgfte dair ineoonddrysijfltay eleven HI elf the thirty-second ber •n-etunbbrclbtgfte dair tsvioonddrysij*stay twelve jmaif tsvelf the fortieth ber Blerjigfle dair fecrtsi^stay thirteen breljebn drytsane the fiftieth ber funfjigfte dair finttsijs.ay fourteen «lerje y n feertsane the sixtieth ber fecbe-jlgfie dair sechfi /stay fifteen funfjebn finftsane the seventieth ber ftebenjlgfle daii seebentsi^sur sixteen fee,«je y n scxtsane the eightieth ber oebtjigfte daii arAtsi/stay seventeen Peben'e y a seebentsane the ninetieth ber neuniigfte dair noyntsi/slay eighteen «d)tje v n a<7/ttsane the one hundredth ber bunbertfle dair hoonderstay nineteen neun>e v n noyntsane the one hundred and bet buntertunterfle dair hoondcrtoondayr- twenty lisanitg tsvantzi^ first stay twenty-one ttnunb>n>anjlg Incoondtsvantz!/ the two hundredth ter )ireibuntertfte dairuvihoondertstay twenty* two jroelunbiroanjlg zvloondtsvantzi^ the three hundredth ber brelbuntertfte dairdrihoondenstay twenty-threo breiunb)nan)ig dryoondtsvantzy the one thousandth ber laufentfte dair towsendsuy thirty bretfilg drysi^ forty Bierjlg tceruig COLLECTIVE NUMBERS. fifty fftnfjtg tataig A pair ein 9aar Ine pahr sixty fe-v«ji9 MCklz\g a dozen ein XuBenb ine doolaend seventy (lebenjig secbenzi^" a score jteanilg Uvanlslf eighty oebtjlg ac/ilzijr firstly crftenS ayrstens ninety neunjtg noyntzl^ secondly jtreilen* tsvitens one hundred bunbert hoondcrt thirdly britlenl driltens one hundred and one bunbert unb etnJ hoondert oond incs the first time bae erfte JRal das ayrslay msi one hundred and two bunbert unfe jn>el hoondert oond tsvl the second time baft ltBeite SRal das tsvitay mal two hundred jroei bunbert tsvl hoondcrt once einnal inemal three hundred brel bunbert dry hoondert twice •n-eimat tsvimal four hundred bier buntert feer hoondert thrice breimal drymal five hundred funf bunbert tinf hoondert single etnfad) lncfar* six hundred fed)< bunbert sex hoondert double tcrrelt duppclt seven hundred (ieben bunbert seeben hoondert threefold brelfaeb dryfaol eight hundred bc, lu babeft, er babe, nit baben, 3bt babet, fie baben, I had thou hadst he had we had you had they had Imperfect. ich batte, In battefi, er b. atte, Bir batten, 3vt battel, fte batten, I may have thou mayst have he may have we may have you may have they may have I might have thou mightest have he might have we might have you might have they might have I have had. td) babe gebabt CDu baft gebabt er bat gebabt Bit baben gebabt 3bt babt gebabt fie baben gebabt I had had. id) (atte gebabt Hu battefi gebabt er batte gebabt Btr batten gebabt 3bt battel gebabt fie batten gebabt I shall have. id) Berbe baben Du Birfi baben er Birb baben Btr Berben baben 3*r Berbet baben fte Berben baben Perfect. Pluperfect. First Future. I may have had. id) babe gebabt Du babeft gebabt er babe gebabt Bit baben gebabt 3br babet gebabt fte baben gebabt I might have had. id) batte gebabt CDu battefi gebabt er batte gebabt Btr batten gebabt 3br battel gebabt fte batten gebabt If I shall have, id) Berbe baben Du Berbefl baben er Berbe baben Bit Berben baben 3bt Berbet baben fie tuerten, baben INDICATIVE. Second Future. I shall have had. id) Berbe gebabt baben lu Birfi gebabt baben er Birb gebabt baben Bir Berben gebabt baben 3br Berbet gebabt baben fie wetben gebabt baben FIRST CONDITIONAL. I should have. id) rcurbe baben Du Bftrbeft baben er Biirbe baben Btr Btirben baben 3bt Burbet baben fie Btirben baben SUBJUNCTIVE. If I shall have had. id) Berbe gebabt baben la Berbefl gebabt baben er Berbe gebabt baben Btr Berben gebabt baben 3br Berbet gebabt baben fie Berben gebabt baben SECOND CONDITIONAL. I should have had. id) Biirte gebebt baben 3>u Burbefi gebabt baben er Blirfee gebabt baben Btr Burben gebabt baben 3br Bitrtet gebabt baben fie Btirben gebabt baben babe er, IMPERATIVE. have I baben Bir, let him have fjabt (3Sr), baben fte, let us have have ye let them have Sein — to be. INFINITIVE. Present. fein, to be. Perfect. geBefen fetn, to have been. Future. fein Berben, to be about to be. Participles: Present, fetenb, being. Perfect. geBefen, been. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. td) Sin, I am id) fei I may be 5)ubijt, thou art SDu fetft, thoumayestbe er ift, he is er fei, he is Bit ftnb, we are Bir feien, we may be 3bt feib, you are 3v* feiet, you may be fte fmb, they are fte feien, they may be Imperfect. id) Bat, I was id) Bare, I might be ®u Barft, thou wert CDu Bareft, thou mightest be er Bat, he was «t Bare, he might be Bit Baren, we were Bir Bdren, we might be 3bt Batet, you were 35* Batet, you might be fie Baren, they were fte Baren, they might be Perfect. I may have been, td) fei geBefen CDu feift geBefen et fei geBefen Bit feien geBefen 3bt feiet geBefen fte feien geBefen I have been. •' 4) bin geBefen Su Sifi geBefen et Ifi geBefen Bit ftnb geBefen 3(r feib geBefen fie ftnb geBefen I had been. td) Bar geBefen CDu Barft geBefen er Bar geBefen Bir Baren geBefen 3br Baret geroefen fie Baren geBefen I shall be. id) »etbe fetn CDu Bitft fein et Bitb fein Bit Berben fein 3bt Berbet fein fie aetben fein Pluperfect. First Future. I might have been. td) Bate geBefen CDu Bareft geBefen er Bare geBefen Bir Baren geBefen 3br Baret geBefen fte Baren geBefen If I shall be. id) Berbe fein CDu Berbefl fein et Berbe fein Bir Berben fein 3bt aetbet fein fie Berben fein /* ** 1 -V ... Em m => •» SI \ P* 1 go THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. Second Future. Bit reetben Betben Bit Betben reetben 1 I shall have been. If I shall have been. 3yt reetbel Betben 36t Betbet Betben 1* rente gereefen fern id) Betbe gereefen fein fie Betben reetben fie setten Betbca Da reltft gereefen fein Du Betbeft geBtfen fein Second Future. tt reitb gereefen (tin et Betbe gereefen fein I shall have become. If I shall have become. Bit reetben gereefen fein 3yt reetbet gereefen f'in fit reetben gereefen fein Bit reetben gereefen fein 3,t Betbet gereefen fein fie reetben gereefen fein id) Bttbe gereotben fein Da reitfl gereotben fein et reitb gereotben fein 14 reetbe geBotben fell Da reetteft gereetbtn fela et Bttbe geBotben fein FIRST CONDITIONAL. SECOND CONDITIONAL. Bit Betben gereotben fein Btt Betben gereotben feta I should be. I should have been. 3yt reetbet geBotben (tin 3vt Betbet gereotten fela 14 Bfitbe fein td) Biitbe geBefen fein fie Betben geBotben fein fie reetben geBotben feta lu reatbeft fein Da reatbeft geBefen fein FIRST CONDITIONAL. SECOND CONDITIONAL. et Bitbe fein et reatbe geBefen fein I should become. I should have become. Bit Batben fein 3bjr reutbet fein fie reuiten fein Bit Batben gereefen fein 3vt reatbet geBefen fein fie Batben gereefen fein td) reutbe reetben Da reatbeft reetben et reatbe reetben 14 Butbe geBotben fela Da Batbefl gereotten fetn et reatbe gereotten fela IMPERATIVE. Btt Batben Betben Bit Butben gttrnten feta fet be feien Bit let us be 3 v t reatbet Betben 3bt reuttet gereotten feta fei et let him be. fetb 3bt be ye fie Batben reetben fie Batten gereotten feta leten fie let them be IMPERATIVE. SBetben— to become. Bttbe (Dn; become thou Betben Bit let us become INFINITIVE. Betbe et let him become reetbet 3*t become ye reetben fte let them become Present. Betben, to become. Perfect, geBotben, geBotben fein, to have become. SKcgen— to may, to like. Future. Betben reetben, to be about to become. Participles: Present. Betbenb, becoming. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Perfect. geBotben, become. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. I may. I may. Present. Id) ntag 14 m6ge 14 Betbe I become id) reetbe I may become Da magfi Da mogeft ctmege Bit megea 3bt meget Tu Bitft thou becomest et Bith he becomes Bit Betben we become Dareetbeft thou mayest become et rcetbe he may become Bit Betben we may become Bit mogen 3yt m6gt 3yt Betbet you become 3yt Betbet you may become fie mogen fie Betben they become fie reetben they may become Imperfect. 14) mo4)te 14 mttie Perfect. in) babe gemo4)t 14 babe aemcd>t Imperfect. Pluperfect. 14) baile gemod)t 14 bine gemo4t 14 Butbe I became td) Batbe I might become ist Future. 14) Betbe mogen 14 reetbe rccjen Da Batbefl thou becamest Da Batbefl thou mightest become ad Future. 14 Betbe gemo4)t$a&en 14 Betbe gtmo4t bcita (t Batbe he became et reatbe he might become First Conditional. 14 Butbe mrgen. Bit Bntben we became Bit Batben we might become Second Conditional. 14 Butbc gemo4t boben. 3yt Bntbet you became 3yt reatbet you might become fie Batben they became fie Batben they might become SBellen— to be willing. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Perfect. Present. I have become. I may have become. I am willing. I may be willing. 14 bin geBotben td) fet geBotben 14 BID 14 BoOc Da bifi geBotben Da feifl gereotben Dn Btnfl Du itctlefl (t 1ft geBotben et fei geBotben ctretS eiBolIe Bit finb gereotben Bit feien gereotben Bit Botlen Bit reoflcn 3vt feib gereotben 3vt feiet gereotben 3btBoUet 3»t recllet fie finb gereotben fie feien gereotben fie ircHen fie BoUca Pluperfect. Imperfect. 14 tooDte 14 BoOte I had become. I might have become. Perfect. 14 babe geBoBt 14 babe gereoSt 14 reat gereetben td) redte gereotben Pluperfect. 14 baite gtBellt 14 yalle gereoDt Da reatft gereotben Da Bated gereetben 1st Future. 14 reetbe ret- lien 14 reetbe BoHtm et reat geBotben et Bate gereotben ad Future. 14 reette gtreotlt $aoen 14 Betbe geBoUt ya*tJ Bit Baten gereotben Bit Boten gereotben First Conditional. 14 Butbe Bollen. 3v' reatet gereotben 3bt reSvet gereotben Second Conditional. 14 Batbe gcBcOl babfu. fie reoten gereotben fie reaten gereotben Eellen— to be obliged: I shall, I ought. First Future. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. I shall become. If I shall become. Present. 16) Betbe Betben 14) reetbe reetben I shall. I shall. J Da Bitfl reetben Dn reetteft reeiben 14 foO 14 f»I< I et reitb Betben et Betbe reetben Da foUfl D« feneff J y N w 1 r- -"» i i o -- ■ "1 % / a 1 THE GERMAIs LANGUAGE. 9 I > cr foil erfotte Saffen— to let. trit fotten Bit foOen INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCnVT. 3*' foDet 3Bt iottet Present. fie foUen fie foUen I let. I may be let. Imperfect, td) foUie tc^ fotlte ttBIaffe UBIaffe Perfect. id; B<>oe gefoUt id) babe gefottt Xu Iaffefl Xu Iaffefl Pluperfect, id) ^atte gefoDt id) batte gefoUt er lafit ' er Hit «« Future, icf) Berbe f ouen id) Berbe fotten Bir laffen Bir laffen ad Future, td) Berbe gefoEt BaBen id) merbe gefoUt Baben 36r Iaffet 3*» lofld fie laffen fie laffen /VW/ Conditional. id) Bilrbe foDen. Second Conditional, id) Burbe gefoflt baben. Imperfect, id) lief) Perfect. id) Babe gelaffen id) Itefie td) Bate gelaffen Jtonnen— to be able. Pluperfect, id) Batte gelaffen ist Future, id) Bette laffen id) Batte gelaffen id) Berbe laffen INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. ad Future, id) Berbe gelaffen Baten id) Berbe gelaffen BaBen I am able, I can. I mav be able. First Conditional. id) Burbe laffen. 1* fann id) fSnne Second Conditional, id) Butte gelaffen b, aben. I« fannft Xu fonneft IMPERATIVE. ec faun er tonne lafi Xu laffen Bit »it fonnen Bir fonnen lafet Iaffet 3bt 3Br fonnet 3br fonnet laffen Re fie fonnen fie fonnen Imperfect. id) tonnte id) tonnte THE REGULAR VERB. Perfect. id) Babe gefonnt id) b,abt gefonnt The rule for the formation of the regular verb is very simple. It Pluperfect, id) tiatie gefonnt id) Batte gefonnt .runs : The present tense is formed by dropping the n of the infinitive ; 1st Future, id) Berbe fonnen id) nerbe fonnen . file imperfect by dropping the final e of the present and adding te ; the 21/ Future. Id) Berbe gefonnt Baben id) Berbe gefonnt Ittet past participle by dropping the final e of the imperfect and prefixing J^/Vse Conditional. id) Burbe fonnen. ge. For example: Infinitive, leben, to live; present, id) lebe, I live; Second Conditional, id) Burbe gefonnt baben. imperfect, id) lebte, I lived; past participle, gelebt, lived. Active Voice. Xurfen— to be allowed, to dare. SeBen— to live. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. INFINITIVE. I am allowed. I mav be allowed. Present, leben, to live. . Perfect, gelebt Baben, to have lived. id) barf id; burfe Future. leBen Berben, to be about to live. Xu barf ft Xu bfirfeft Participles: Present, febenb, living. er barf er burfe Perfect, gelebt, lived. Bit burfen Bir burfen 3br burfet 3B.r burfet INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. fie burfen fie burfen id) tebe I live td) lebe I may live Imperfect, id) burfte idi burfte Xu lebft thou livest In leBeft thou mayest live Perfect. Id) Babe geburft id) Babe geburft et lebt he lives er leBe he may live Pluperfect, id) Batte geburft id) Batte geburft Bir leben we live Bir leben we may live «/ Future, id) Berbe burfen id) Berbe burfen 3B* lebt you live 3B* Iebet you may live id Future, id) Berbe geburft B>6en id) Berbe geburft baben fie IeBen they live fie leben they may live /Yrjr Conditional. id) Burbe burfen. Imperfect. Second Conditional, id) Butte geburft f)aben. id) lebte I lived id) lebte I might live SMuffen— to be obliged. Xu lebteft thou livedst er lebte he lived Xu lebteft thou mightest live er lebte he might live INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Bir Iebten we lived Bir Iebten we might live 3B* leBtet you lived 3B» lebtet you might live I am obliged, I must. I may be obliged. fte Iebten they lived fit Iebten they might live id) mug id) muffe Xu muftt Xu miffeft Perfect. er mufj er muffe I have lived. I may have lived. Bir muffen Bir muffen id) BaBe gelebt id) babe gelebt 3btniufjt 3Br miiffet Xu Baft gelebt Xu BaBeft gelebt fie muffen fie muffen er Bat gelebt er hate gelebt Imperfect, id) muflte Perfect. id) babe gemufjt Pluperfect, id) batte gemufjt id) mufite id) babe gemufit id) Batte gemufit Bit Baben gelebt 3Br babt gelebt fie Baben gelebt Btr Baben gelebt 3Br babet gelebt fie BaBen gelebt 1st Future, td) Betbe muffen id) Berbe muffen Pluperfect. ad Future, td) Berbe gemufit $aBen id) Berbe gemufit Baien I had lived. I might have lived. i jrtfetf Conditional. id) Burbe muffen. td) Batte gelebt id) batte gelebt I J Second Conditional, id) Butte gemufit baben. Xu Batteft gelebt Xu Batteft gelebt \ A r- "* e 1 K 92 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. S et batte gtiebt tsit fatten gelebt 3br battet gelebt fie fallen gelebt I shall live. 14 netbe leben In nitft leben ct trirb leben lrir netben leben 3btnetbet leben fit netben leben I shall have lived. 14 Bribe gelebt baben 53u nttjt gelebt baben et nlrb gelebt baben nit rcerben gelebt baben 3bt netbet gelebt baben fie netben gel'bt baben FIRST CONDITIONAL. I should live. Id) nutbe Iebcn Iii routbeft leben et luutte leben nit nutben leben 3btnutbet leben (ie nutben leben First Future. et batte gelebt nit batten gelebt 3bt battel gelebt fie batten gelebt If I shall live. t* netbe leben Xu netbeft leben et netbe leben nit nerten leben 3bt netbet leben fie netben leben Second Future. If I shall have lived. tdi netbe gelebt baben In netbeft gelebt baben ct netbe gelebt boben nit netben gelebt baben 3b» netbet gelebt baben fie netben gelebt baben SECOND CONDITIONAL. I should have lived, id) nutbe gelebt baben !Eu nurbeft gelebt baben et nutbe gelebt baben nit nutben gelebt baben 3bt rcutbet gelebt b«ben fie nutben gelebt baben lebe (Du) tebe et To eat to drink to dream to wash to comb to go to speak to laugh to think to learn to bathe to break to bite to cost to hear to help to give to make to do to ride to say to S< I1<1 to seek to breakfast to dine to sup to arrive to depart to meet to be tired to be sleepy to excuse to understand IMPERATIVE. live (thou) let him live leben nit lebet (3bt) leben fie let us live live (ye) let them live VOCABULARY OF VKKHS. effen ttinfen ttaumen naldjen lamina geben fptedjen Iadjen benfen letnen baben bted)en belfien foftea biren b«if« geben madjen t|SI tettcn fiva fenben fuc^en fru^flutfea fveiffn ju Slbeab effen anfommca a&rclfen trtffen mute fela fdjMfrtg Uin fittf*ultiflcn vrrflctjrn MM trinken troy men vashen kemmen gayen shprerAen lac/; en denken lairnea bahden brecAen bisen custen haeren helfen gayben macAen toon riten sahgen ■enden soocAen frceshticken shpeyzen tsoo ahbend essen ankummen abrizen treffen meeude teyn shlayfri^scyn entshooldigcn fairshUycn to believe to know to write to read to pronounce to translate to recollect to forget to promise to expect to converse to express to explain to tell to call to weep to recommend to receive to send to buy to pay to order to furnish to sell to reply Yes Indeed truly certainly surely only some nothing much quite very so thus how no not but enough scarcely all almost here there where in out then now soon till seldom since ever never oft already to-day yesterday late why? because gtanben glowben niflen vusen fd)teibra shriben lefen layzen ouSfptefben owsshpreceen fib .#— —+ «l \ / g> 1 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 93 > ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. if rcenn vcn I say it is not. 34) fage eS ifl nid)t. Ich saagay es ist nicAt perhaps »teu"eld)t feellyeAt It is not so. It is not true. (58 ift nid)t fo. Es ist tiicht so. QS ifl nidjt rea v t. Es ist nirAt var. PREPOSITIONS. I say nothing. 3d) fage nid)t8. LA saagay nirAts. Above Jbet eeuber He is not here. St ifl nld)t yiet. Air ist nicAt heer. about urn oom I have it not. 3d) §abe e8 n>4)'„ ich haabay es nicAt. after nad) nock He has it not. IS* ,at e8 nl4)t. Air hat es nirAt. against gegen gaygen We have it not. SBir baben e8 nid)t. Veer haaben es nicAt. before Dot fore You have it not. 3bt babt e« nid)t. Eer haabt es nicht. of vcn fun He said no. Qx fagte nein. Air saa^tay nine. over Abet eeuber Has he said no? £at et nein gefagt ? Hat air nine gesaa^t? since feit site Has he said nothing? £at et nid)t8 gefagt ? Hat air nirAts gesaa^t? for far feeur I have not heard it. 3d) t)abe e8 nid)t gebort. LA haabay es nicAt ge- from son fun hoert. in in in You are quite wrong. ©ie baben tutdjaul Un= See haaben doorrfouse near nab> nahay red)t. oonrecAt. under unlet oonter up auf owf with mil mit PHRASES OF INTERROGATION. CONJUNCTIONS. Who? SEer ? Vair? And unb oont Who was it? SSet mat e8 ? Vair var es ? but abet ahber What is it? SBaStft e8? Vas ist es? also aud) . oucA Who is it? SBet ifl e8 ? Vait ist es ? even fogar sogar Did you say it? ©agten ©ie e8 ? Saajten seees? or obet oder What are you doing? 2Ba8 tbun ©ie ? Vas toon see? nor nod) nuch What is he doing? 8Ba« t$ut et ? Vas toot air? yet bod) duck Tell me. ©agen ©ie mit* Saagen see meer. because Beit vile Will you tell me? SBoflen ©ie mit fagen ? Vollen see meer saa- that lab das gen? therefore babet dahair How are you? How is he? What for? SEte geb.t'« ? Vee gates? Eie gebt'S Ibm ? Vee gates eem? SBefut ? Vofeer? Why? Why do you ask? SBarum ? Varoom? 9Sarum ftagten ©ie ? Varoom fraagen see? Jfl «|f CONVER Why shall I go? SEatum foil id) geb.en ? Varoom sull ifAgayen? What do you say? Do you hear? 2Ba8 fagen ©ie ? Vas saagen see? §cren ©ie ? Hrerdnsee? PHRASES OF AFFIRMATION. I don't speak to you. 3d) fpred)e mtl 3$nen Ich shprecAay mit eenen nicbt. nicAt. ENGLISH. It is true. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. G8 ifl n>a$t. Es ist var. Do you understand? SBerfteben Ste t Fershtayen see? It is so, I believe it. I think so, I say yes, I say it is. I am certain, I am certain of it. (S3 i{i fo. Es ist so. 3d) glaube e8. Ich glowbay es. 3d) bente eS. Ich denkay es. Listen 1 Come here. What is that? Answer. £6renEiel Hoir.nsee! Slcmmen ©ie bierber. Kummen see heerhsir. 5E-aS ifl ba8 ? Vas ist das? SInttootten ©ie. Antvorten see. 3d) fage fa. Ich sahgay yah. 3d) fage eS ifl. Ich sahgay es ist, 3d) bin getsifj. Ich bin gayviss. 3d) bin beffen genif. Ich bin dessen gayviss. Why don't you an. SEBarum antrcorten ©ie Varoom antvorten see swer? ntdjt ? nicAt? What do you mean by fflaS metnen ©ie bamit ? Vas minen see damit? You are right. Sic baben SRcdit. See haaben recht. that? You are quite right. I know it. ©ie $aben ganj Wed)t. See haaben gantzreo&t. 3d) meif! eS. Ich vice es. You speak German, suppose? I 3d) oetmutbe ©ie f»re= IcA fermootay see d)en 3)eutfd). shpret-Aen doytsh. I know it well. I know him. I know it positively. 3d) toeifj c§ genou. Ich vice es genow. 3d) lenne Ibn. Ich kenne een. 3d) toeijj e8 fid)et. Ich vice es sicAer. Very little, sir. Do you know Mr. H. I know him by sight. ©ebr toenig, mein §ett. Sair vani^, mine hair. ' ffenncn ©ie §crrn jj. ? Kennen see hairn ha? 3d) lenne ibn ton an: LA kennay een fun an- fe§en. sane. 3d) fenne ibn bel SRas IcA kennay een by nah- men. men. I promise it. I promise it to you. 3d) Derf»red)e eS. Ich vershprerAay es. 3d) eerftred)e e« 3 v nen. I ch vershprecAay es I know him by name. I give it. eenen. 3d) gebe e8. Ich gaybay es. I know him well. (St ifl mit toofcl befannt. Air ist meer vole bay- Irnnt I give it to you. I will give it to you. You are wrong. He is wrong, I believe him. Very well. 3d) gebe e8 3&nen. Ich gaybay es eenen. 34) toilt eS 3§nen geben. LA villes eenen gayben. Eie baben llnted)t. See haaben oonrefAt. Qt I;at Unted)t. Air hat oonrerAt. 3d) glaube ibm. Ich glowbay eem. J ©ebr mobL Sare vole. 1 ©e$r gut. Sare goot. What do you call that? SBte nennen ©ie ba8 ? Vee nennen see das ? What is that in Ger- SBie v elfst ba8 auf Vee histe das owf man? ■Xeutfd) ? doytsh? What does that mean? SBaS $eifit baS ? Vas histe das? Why do ydu speak? Sarum fcted)en Sit ? Varoom shprefAen see? Why are you silent? Saturn fdjweigen ©ie ? Varoom shvigen see? Why did you go? SBatum gingen 6ie ? Varoom gingen see? PHRASES OF NEGATION. Is it ready ? 3fl e8 fettig ? Ist es f airt^? < No. SRein. Nine. Have you heard? ijaben ©ie geb&it ? Haaben see grhoert? i I say no. 3d) fage nein. Ich saagay nine. Do you hear? ftoten ©ie ? Hosren see? - a / ^, <9 -. -" e 1 \ <5_ N" 94 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. "7f Where U she? Where are you ? Where are you going? Where do you come from? Where were you? What? What is that? What o'clock Is it? What have you? What do you say? What do you want? What will you do? GERMAN. SBo tft fie ? SBo finti Sie ? 23o gcben Sie bin ? SBo toramen Sie f)tx ? IBo troren Sie ? Wait SBae 1ft ta8 ? iffiic sic! Ubr 1ft el ? BaS baben Ste ? 23al fagen Ste ? SffiaS molten Ste ? SEJa8 tooUen Sie tbun ? PRONUNCIATION. Voistsee? Vo sind see? Vo gayen see hin? Vo kummen see hair? Vo varen see? Vas? Vas ist das? Veefeel oor ist es? Vas haaben see? Vas saagen see? Vas vullen see? Vas vullen see toon? PHRASES OF COMMAND. Come away I Come here I Go there I Come backl Go on ! Sit downt Stand still ! Wait ! Wait for me ! Wait a little I Make haste 1 Be quick 1 Follow me I Tell, him ! Call him! Speak 1 Eat I Drink I Hear! Hear me 1 Look at me! Begin ! Continue! Stop! Tell me ! Tell it to him ! Speak to him! Be quiet! Go! Go to him! Go to bed I Fetch it! Bring it! Bring it to me! Let it be ! ftommen Sie fort! ftommen Sie bicrfier. ffleben Sie tonbiii! ftommen (Sie jutuef I Welii'ii Sie unmet! Sejjen Sie fid) ! Steben Sie ittlll !E>arten Sie! SBarten Sie auf ml4! Kummen see fort! Kummen see heerhair! Gayen see dort-hin ! Kummen see tsoorick! Gayen see viter! Setsen see sickf Shtayen see shtill! Varten see ! Varten see owf mickl SBarten Sie ein loentg I Varten see ine vaynigt Smarten Ste fdjnell! iBeeilen Ste fid)! Jolgen Ste mitl Sagen Ste ttim! StufenSteibnl Sorcdjen Ste! (Sffen Ste! Irtnten Sie! i&oren Stel jjoren Sie mid;! Seben Ste mid) an! gangen Ste an! ga y ren Sie fort! Salt! Sagen Sie rairl Sagen Sie e* tbm! Sprcdjen Ste mtt t$ml Eelen Sie rubig! (Wolu'ii Sie! <9«ytn Sie ill ihm! ©eb>n Ste ju iBette! Stolen Steel! iBrlngen Sie (II IBrtngen Sie e« mir! CaffenSieelfetn! Mac/ten see shnel ! Bay-ilen see sick/ Fulgen see meer! Saagen see cem ! Roofcn see een 1 Shprcc/ien see! Essen see! Trinken see ! Haren see! Hoeren see mick! Sayen see mick an! Fangen sec an ! Faaren see fort ! Halt! Saagen see meer! Saagen see es eem ! Shprec/icn see mit cem ! Syen see rooi^/ Gayen see ! Gayen see tsoo cem ! Gayen see tsoo bettay ! Holen see es ! Bringcn seees! Bringcn see es meer! Lassen see es sine ! EVEBY-DAY UTTERANCES. Saagen see meer. Gceti^st — gayf ell i^st. Haaben see dee geetay. Yah, mine hair. Yah, madam. Nine, mine hair. Nine, madam. Nine, mine froyline. Tell me! Sagen Sie mir. If you please. fflutigft— gefaulgft. Have the goodness. Qaben Sie tie Bute. Yes, sir. 3a, metn fterr. Yes, madam. 3a, SDjabam. No, sir. ffleln, mein fterr. No, madam. 9!etn, SRabam. No, miss. Jtetn, metn gtauieln. Do you speak German Spre4en Ste Deutfd) Shpre. Uk shprerAc cnglish. I speak French a little. 34 fprete ein usemg If* shprct-Ac ine vayni^ Sranjififd). franUaetish. ENGLISH. Do you understand? Can you understand? Speak slower. You speak too fast. Give me some bread. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. SJerfteben Ste ? Fershtayen see? ftonnen Ste perfteben ? Kanncn see ferstayen! Spird>en Stelangfamet. ShprcfAen see lang. samer. Sie fpred>en ju idjnell. See shprerAen tsoo shnell. ©eben Ste mir Stob. Gayben see meer brote. Give me something to ©eben Ste mil Gtiral Gayben see meer etvas eat. iu effen. tsoo essen. Something to drink. Gtiral ju tttnfen. Etvas tsoo trinken. Bring me some coffee. iBrlngen Ste mtr Jtaffee. Bringcn see meer kaaf • fay. 3d) bante 3$»en. ©uten SKotgen. ©uten lag. HBte gebt'S ? SBie befinben Sie fid) ? 2ebr toobl. I thank you. Good morning. Good day. How do you do? How are you? Very well.' I am very well. Pretty well. Tolerably. How is your father? How is your mother? I am not well. I am unwell. She is ill. He is very ill. She has a cold. I have a toothache. I must go. It is time to go. Farewell. Good-by. I wish you morning. Good evening Good night. Ick daankay eenen. Gooten morgen. Gooten taa^. Vee gates? Vee bayfinden see ski? Sair vole. 34 befinbe mid) febr Ick bayftnday mick fair Botl. vole. 3tem!ia> mobL TseemlirA vole. So jtemltd). So tsccmlirA. SBIe befinbet fid) 3$r Vee bayfindet tick eer ajerr SJater ? hair faatcr? SBie befinbet ft* 3bre VeebayfrndetsarAeeray grau SKutter ? 34 bin ni4t moyL 34 bin untrobl. Sie ift fianf. Or ift feb> Itanf. Sie bat fid) erlaltet. 34 babe jjabnioeb. 34 muS ge v en. SI tfl Sett ju ge,en. Seben Sie mobl. ■Mm. frow mootter? Ick bin nickt vole. Ick bin oonvole. See ist krank. Air ist sair krank. See hat sick airkeltet. Ick haabay tsahnvay. Ick mooss gayen. Es ist tsite tsoo gayen. Layben sec vole. Adyce. good 3d) irunfAe 3bnen einen Ick vinshay eenen inen guten HRorgen. gooten morgen. Outen Hbcnt. Gooten ahbend. ©ate Ka4t. Gootay nacAt. I wish you goodnight. 3d) munf4e 3v"«n flute Ic* vinshay eenen goo- Sa4t. tay na* At. at OTelne Qmpfeblungen Minay empfayloongen ben 3brigrn. den eeri^cn. A MORNING i III.. Es klupft. Es ist hair ah. Es 1st frow bay. ju Ick froyay micA see tsoo saven. ■ My compliments home. There is a knock. It is Mr. A. It is Mrs. B. I am glad to see you. Pray be seated. What news is there? Good news. Do you believe It? dt tlopft. 08 Ift $rrr 91. S« ift grau ». 34 freue mt4 Sie feben. Sitte fe«en Sie ft*. 2Ba« gtbt's fteue« ? (Sule3!a4rt4ten. Olauben Sie (( ? Bittay setsen see tick, Vas geepts noyes? Gootay narArif Atcn. Glowbcn see es? I don't believe a word 3d) glaube tein SBort LA glowbay kine vort of it. baton. I think so. 34 bente (glaube) fo. I think not. 34 bcntc nl4t. Who told you? SBer bat e« 3bnen gc- fagt? It is true. Si Ift nabr. I doubt it. 34 bejmelfte el. Have you heard from £aben Sie son ^aufe Haaben see fun how home? geb.6rt? say gayhorrt? The postman brought Tet Brlefttiget bra4te Dair brcef trayger me a letter to-day. mtr beute etnen SStief. brarAtay meer hoytay inen breef. Sad news. S4Ie4te SEa4rt4ten. ShlccAtay na<-AricAten. daafun. [so, LA denkay (glowbay) LA denkay nirAt. Vair hat ei Mfjytl Es 1st var. LA baytsviflay es. 4*= ^=^r ,-v a i v - - _.. y (0 ] THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 95 I ^ ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. Will you dine with us > SBotlen Sie mtt un8 Vullen see mit oons fpeifen? shpisen? I shall soon be thirty. 3d) metbe Balb bteifjtg Ich vairday bald drysi/ fein. sine. No, thank you. 9iein, id) banfe 36nen. Nine, i^Adaanke eenen. He looks older. Or fiebt alter au8. Air scet elter owse. I cannot stay. 3$ tann nldjt 6let6en. Ich kann nkAt blyben. She is younger. Sie ift j linger. See ist yingcr. You are in a great ©ie fmb in gtofcer Gtle. See sind in grosserilay. She cannot be so Eie tann nid)t fo jung SeekannnitAtsoyoong hurry. young. fein. sine. I have a great deal tc 3d) $abe Diet ju t6un. \ch haabay feel tsoo He must be older. Qt tnufj fitter fein. Air moos elter sine. do. toon. I did not think you 3$ glaubte nldjt bafc Ich glowptay nicAt das PLEASURE AND REGRET. were so old. Sie fo alt feien. see so alt syen. He is at least sixty. Or ift rcenigftcnS fed)8* Air ist vani^stens serA- What! SBaS ! Vas ! jig. tsig. Is it possible ! 3fi e8 moglid) ! Ist es ma8 Bringen see meer etras It gives me pleasure. 63 m«d)t mit 23«rgnu = Es macAtmeerfergnee- gen. gen. water. BeifjeS SBaffer. hises vasser. Some dinking-water. 6troa8 Sttintoaffet. Etvas trinkvasser. Make haste. 2Wad)en Sie fdjnell. MaxrAen see shnell. It gives me great joy. 63 madjt mit gtofje Es marAt meer grossay greube. froyday. There is no towel. 63 Ift [ein $anbtud) ba. Es ist kdne haandtoorA d^h. Bring me some soap. IBringen Sie mlr Selfe. Bringen see meer sif ay. I want to wash myself. 3d) ttunfd)e mid) ju IcA vinshay micA tsoo IvafcBen. vashen. I am happy. How happy I am ! I wish you joy. 3d) bin gtueftldj. Xch bin gleeklicA. SBie glficflid) id) Bin ! Vee gleeklicA ich bin ! 3d) BiunfcBe 3 Men \ch vinshay eenen I congratulate you. @[ud\ glick. 3d) gratultre 3$nen. Ich gratooleeray eenen. How have you slept? SBie BaBen Sie gefdjla: Vee haaben see ge- fen ? shlaafen/ Did you sleep well? $aBen Sie gut gefd)la= Haaben see goot ge- ANGER AND BLAME. fen? shlaafen? I am angry. 3d) Bin argetlid). Iar fo mube »on bet IcA var so meeday fun Why don't you do it? 2Barum ibun Sie e8 Varoom toon see es nidjt? nicAt? travelling. Weife. dair risay. Be quiet! Seien Sie tuBig I Syen see roo\g! AT THE BREAKFAST TABLE. What a shame! 2Beld)e Sdjanbe! VelcAay shanday! Breakfast is ready. aS gtu v ftucf ift fettig. Das freeshtick ist fair- How could you do it? SBie fonnten Sie e8 Vee kunten see es toon? tBun? Come to breakfast. Sommen Eie jum JruBs Kummen see tsoom I am ashamed of you 3d)fd)amemid)36,tet! Ich sham ay roicA eerer ! fturf. freeshtick. Letus breakfast. Saffen Sie un8 ftuB.s Lassen see oons free- You are very much to ©ie finb fe$r ju tabeln. See sind sair tsoo taa- ftuifen. shticken. blame. deln. Does the water boil? flocbt ba8 iBaffer? KucAt das vasser? Be patient! (Sebulben Sie Sid) ! Gaydoolden see sick! Is the tea made ? 3ft bet Zbet fettig ? Ist dair tay f alrtio? I will improve. 3d) merbe mid) Beffetn. Ich vairday mit. rAay shmcckt meer Is my room ready? 3fl mein Jlmmet fettig? Ist mine ttimmcr fair- nicAt. tigr Do you take pepper? Jletmen Bte qSfeffet I Naymen see pfeffer? Sheets. Tie Safen. Dee laaken. No, thank you. Wetn, ie> tante. Nine, i<-A dankay. A blanket. Sine noOene Seltbetfe. Inay vullcnay b«tt- Ves, If you please. 3a, id) bitte. Yah, It- A bittty. deckay. i Give me th, mustard. (Seben Ble mit ben Gayben tee meer dane Good -night. 9ute S«4I. Gootay nat-At. i J Bcnf. icnf. * Are you sleepy? Blnb Bit 14iaftlg ? Sind see shlayfrl/' \e, "7 i # - w -» ■ 6 ^r At V THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. "71 97 THE HOUR OP THE DAT. ENGLISH. What o'clock is It? My watch has stopped, It does not go. I forgot to wind it up. My watch is too fast. It is too slow. It is five minutes too slow. It goes right. One o'clock. Five minutes past two. A quarter past three. Half-past four. A quarter to five. Just six o'clock. Twenty minutes to seven. It has just struck eight. Noon. Midnight. SBaS (ft bie U v t ? SKclne Uf)t fte§t. Sie ger>t nt4)t. 3$ tergal fie auf}U= jteben. SKeine Ut> ge$t oor. Sie gett nad;. Sieiftfunf2Rimiten ju fpat. Sie ge$t ri4)ttg. din ll$r. gunf SDHnuten nad) jaei. Qtn Siertet auf sift. §ali funf. Dtei tiertet auf funf. (Setate fe4)8 U$r. ijBanjtg Sffiinuten sot fieten. 08 fjat eben a4)t gef4)Ias gen. SRittag. SKitternad)t. PRONUNCIATION. Vas ist dee oor? Minay oor shtate. See gayt nicAt. Ich vairgaass see owf- tsootseen. Minay oor gayt fore. See gayt nacA. See ist finf minooten tsoo shpate. See gayt ricAti^. Ine oor. Finf minooten nacA tsvi. Ine feertel owf feer. Haalb finf. Dry feertel owf finf. Gayraaday sex oor. Tsvaantsi^ 1 minooten • fore seeben. Es hat ayben a^-Al ge- shlaagen. Mittaa^. MittemacAt. Yes, let us walk. Where shall we go? On the high road. Let us take a into the town THE PROMENADE. Shall we take a walk? 2BotIen Bit einen Spa* Vullen veer inen Jietgang mad)en ? shpaatseergang ma- cAen? 3a, Bit BoHen au8ge= Yah, veer vullen ows- ten. gayen. SBo Botten Bit Singe* Vo vullen veer hin- ten ? gayen? Huf tie GSauffee. Owf dee shossay. There is a good deal 08 ifi bort fet>r ftaubig. Es ist dort sairshtou- of dust. bio". Into the fields. 8tuf bie Setter. Owf dee felder. They are reaping. 2Ban erntet. Man airntet. They are making hay. 08 ift §euetnte. Es ist hoyairntay. What a pleasant scent 1 SffiaS fur ein angene$mer Vas feer ine ange- © eru 4) ! naymer gayroocA / walk SKadjen loir eine!)!romej MacAen veer inay nabe in bie Stabt. prummenahday in dee shtadt. What street is that? SBaS ijl ba8 fir eine Vas ist das feer may Strafce ? shtraassay? Where does it lead to? SBo fu$tt fie ^(n ? Vo feert see hin? Handsome shops. Sdjone 85ben. Shcenay laden. Bad pavement. Sd)te4)te8 ipftafter. ShleIbe SIHeite. Inay halbay milay. PERSONAL INQUIRIES. Do you know Mr. F.? ftennen Sie §ertn g. ? Kennen see hairn F? I do not know any- 34) tenne SRiemanb tte* LA kennay neemaand body of that name. fe8 31amen8. deeses nahmens. Does he live here? SBo$nt er $let ? Vohnt air here? ENGLISH. He lives in this house. Where? On the first floor. I know him. Intimately. I am very Intimate with him. He is my friend. I have known him a long time. Where does he live? He lives in Broad street, No. 3. PRONUNCIATION. St »o$nt In ttefem $aufe. ffio ? 3m erflen etc*. 3*) fenne ib>. Oenau. 34) tin mil i$m fe$r tn* tim. Or ift metn greunb. 3*) ^ate tbn Iange ge= fannt. SBo Bo$nt er ? Or Bo^nt In ter treiten Strafe, Kuraero tret. When is he at home? SJBann tft er |« fiaufe ? In the morning. In the evening. He lives close by. Is it far? Can you direct me to his house? I will show you where he lives. That is the market. This is the street. The square. This is his house. Here he lives. £e« SDlorgenS. Te8 Stents. Or Betnt naS e Set. 3ft e8 Belt ? Ronnen Sle mlr fetn $au8 jeigen ? 34) Berte 3bnen jeigen bo cr Botnt. •I:a8 ifi ter SHatlt. Xie8 1ft bie Strafe. fEeripiaJ. !Cie8 tft fetn $au8. J&ier Botnt er. Air vohnt in deesem howsay. Vo? Im airsten shtuck. Ich kennay een. Gaynow. Ich bin mlt eera sair intecm. Air ist mine froind. LA haabay een laangay gekant. Vo vohnt air? Air vohnt in dair bry- ten shtraassay noo> mero dry. Van ist air tsoo how- say? Des morgens. Des ahbends. Air vohnt nahay by. Ist es vite? Kttnnen see meer sine house tsigen ? LA vairday eenen tsi- gen vo air vohnt. Das ist dair markt. Dees ist dee shtraassay. Dair plats. Dees ist sine house. Heer vohnt air. THE TALK OF TRAVEL. Are you goingto Ger- ®e$en Sle nad) Deutfd): many? Iant ? I intend to go to the 3d) gelenfe an ben Rhine. iRpetn ju ge v en. When do you think of fflann gebenfen Sle ju going? reifen ? How long shall you SESie Iange Berben Sie stay? f t 4) aaf batten ? About a month. Ungefabr einen STConat. I set out to-morrow. Have you made all your preparations ? Everything is ready. I shall go by railway to Dover. The train starts ia ten minutes. I want a ticket for Co. logne. First-class. The express train. The ordinary train. 34) reife morgen at. §aben Sie atte 3§*e SSorfe$rungen gettof* fen? StUeS ift fertig. 34) Berte mil ber Often = ba v n na4) iDoeer fobs ren. tn 3«9 S«v' tn Jft> SKinuten at. 34) Bfinfo)e eln BtOet na4) Roln. Orfle Utaffe. Eer S4)neHjug. Xet g(B6tnlio)e 3ug. Where is your bag. SBo ifi 3$r fflepai ? gage? Here it 1». ftier ifi eS. The train Is just going CCer jjjug Birt fogteid) to start. atge v en. It does not go very 08 ge$t nt4)t fe$r f4)neH. fast. Not so fast as in En- 3»a)t fo f4)netl aI8 tn gland. Onglanb. YL Gayen see nacA doytsh- land? Ich gaydenkay an den Rhine tsoo gayen. Van gedenken see tsoo risen ? Vee langay vairden see s\ck owfhalten? Oongayf air inen moh- nat. Ich risay morgen ap. Haaben see allay eeray forkayrungen getruf- fen? Alles ist fairti^. Ich vairday mit dair isenbahn nach Dover fahren. D air tsoo^gayt in tsane minooten ab. Ich vinshay ine bilyet nacA Kceln. Airstay klassay. Pair shneltsoo^. Dair ge v ce hnl ich ay tsoog. Vo ist eer gepeck? Heer 1st es. Dair tsoog veert so* gliche abgayen. Es yate nicAtsairshnel. "Sicht so shnel als In England. ^ K rr 98 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. ENGLISH. Here is a station. Do we stop here? They stop at every sta- tion. It is a long journey. Yes, fom ten to twelve hours. Very pretty country. Arrived at last. The steamer. When do you start? With the tide. Let us go down into the cabin. The tide is strong. The sea is rough. The wind is against us. So much the worse. We shall have a long passage. §let ifl tine Station, ftalten roir biet an ? ORan halt auf jefcer 3ta^ Hon an. G3 ift tine lange SRetfe. 3a, ton je6n 618 jroblf Stunben. Sebt fcionc Segenb. GntliCy angetommen. Sa8 Xampfboot. SBann geben Zie at ? SDiit bet jjlutp. fiaffen Sic unS binab in bleRajflte geben. Hie glutb ifl ftatf. Die See ifl ftutmtfa). Set 8Blnb ifl gegen un8. Urn fo fcbllmmet. SEBir rcerben etne lange Ueberfabtt baben. I feel sea-sick. The sea calmer. I see land. It is the harbor of Ost- end. We have arrived. 3*) f able mid) feeftanf. getting SaS 2H«t roirb tublget, PRONUNCIATION. Heer is inay shtatstone. Halten veer heer an? Man hclt owf yaydalr shtatsione an. Es ist inay langay risay. Yah, fun tsane bis tsvelf shtoonden. Sair shcenay gaygend. Endlir A angekummen. Das dampfboat. Van gayen see ab ? Mit dair floot. Lassen see oons hinab in dee kahyeetay gayen. Dee floot ist shtark. Dee say ist shteermish. , Dair vind ist gaygen oons. Oom so shlimmer. Veervairden inay lan- gay eeberfahrt haa- ben. Ich feelay mteA say- krank. Das mair veert rooiger. 34) febe Sanb. Ich sayay lant. 08 (ft bet $ofeu Von Es ist dair haafen fun Dftenbe. Ustenday. ©It finb angetommen. Veer sind angekum- ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. It Is the most useful 09 Ift ble nfi»Ii*fle nnb Es ist dee nitslirAstay and interesting Ian- inteteflonlefle Sptaeie oont intereasantestay guageforanAmeri- bie ein Slmerilanet shpraarAay dee ine can to learn. letnen tann. Amayrikahner lair- nen kann. THE WEATHER AND THE SEASONS. Spring has come. Set gtu&llna Ift ba. Dair freeiing ist dah. DISCUSSING THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. Can you read German? ftbnnen Ste Seutfa) le= fen? Gin roenlg. 34) lefe e8 ganj jut, abet 14) fann e8 ni4>t fpte* d)en. Sptecien Sle Seutf4) ? doytsh A little. I read it very well, but : I cannot speak it. Do you speak Ger- man? I do not understand it. People speak so fast. You have had but lit- tle practice. You have a good pro- nunciation. Your sister speaks it perfectly. It !• a difficult lan- guage. You will learn it soon. Where do they speak the best German? In the North of Ger- many. I find the pronuncla* tion easy. It la very much like English. Yws, the German lan- guage Is the mother of the English. 34} petftepe eS nldjt. Wan fptlcit fo f4)nelt. Sle baben nut rcertig Uebung gebabt. Sle baben etne gute WuSfpradie. 36tt S4)roeftet fptlcit e8 gelaufig. G8 Ift elne f4)nete Spta> «e. Sle metben tt balb lets nen. SSo fptlcit man ba8 be= fie Seutfib ? 3n Morbbeulfdjlanb. 34) ftnbe ble Wu8fpra*e lel*i. (58 Ift bem (Sng(lf4)en febr abnlia>. 3a, ble beutfetc 6pra> tie Ift ble SKu!let bet Cngllfd)en. Kcennen see laysen? Ine vani^-. IrA laysay es gants goot, aber ich kann es nicht shprec Aen. ShprecAen see doytsh ? Ich fershtayay es nif At. Man shprirAt so shnel. See haaben noor vayni^ eeboong gchaabt. See haaben inaygootay owsshpraacAay. Eeray shvester shpricAt es geloyfy. Es 1st inay shvayray shpraarAay. See vairden es bald lairnen. Vo shprlrAt man das bestay doytsh ? In norddoytshland. Ich finday dee ows- shpraarAay lio-At. Es ist daim englishen sair ainlurA. Yah, dee doytshay shpraafAay 1st dee mootter dair en • glishen. Set gtub'ing fangt gat Dairfreelingfengtgoot an. an. S8 ift Jiemlici gellnbe. Es ist tseemlirA gtlin- day. 08 Ifl gra&llngSlrettet. Es ist frcelingsvetter. Sle Bourne fangen an Dee boymay fangen an au8iufcb[agcn. owstsooshlaagcn. The season is very for- Sle 3abte8jelt ifl febt Dee yahrestsite ist »air ward. BOtgetudt. forgayrickt. It is so pleasant. 08 Ift fo angenebm. Es ist so angenaym. The sun is so warm. Sle S onne ift f warm. Dee sunnay ist so vara. There are some flow- 08 gtebt etnlge SJlumen. Es geebt inigay bloo- Spring begins well. It Is rather mild. It is spring-feather. The trees are begin- ning to hud. men. Shnayg^crckfAen. Toolpen. Hccahtsih.en. Pflicken see velrAay. So feel eenen beleebt. ers. Snowdrops. Scbneeglbelcitn. Tulips. Stulpen. Hyacinths. ftpactnt&en. Gather some. inet Es is ine voonderehce. lag. ner t*g. Sle fti,e Ifl gtofc. Dee hitsay 1st gross. SlefiHetflunerttaglicv. Dee hitsay 1st ooner- tray^iirA. 08 Ift febt bludenb. Es ist saire drickend. Summer is coming. It is becoming warm. It is too warm. It is almost hot. It is a splendid day. The heat is great. The heat is unbeara- ble. It is very close. Summer Is over. The heat is past. The leaves arc begin- ning to fall. A I think we shall have 3* glaube n>it roetben I<:A glowbay veer vair- a storm. einen Sturm baben. deninenshtoormhaa* I ben. The clouds are gather- Sle SBolfen jle&en fid) Dec vulken tsee-ensUA ing. jufammen. tsoosammen. I hear thunder. 34) bote Sonnet. Ich haeray dunner. It thunders fearfully. 08 bonnet! fdjtecTUci. Es dunnert shrecklirA. It lightens. 08 blttt. Es blitst. How it rains! ffiie e8 tegnet ! Vee es rayj net. The sky begins to Set j>tmmel flirt fla) Dair himmel klairt sir* clear. auf. owf. The rain ceases. Set SRtgtn pott «nf. Dair raygen horrt owf. There is a rainbow. Sa tft ein Begcnbogen. Da ist ine raygenbogen. The sun breaks out. Sle Sonne brldjt bcto). Dee sunnay brirAt doorrA. Set Sommtt Ift totfti Dair summer ist foree- bet. ber. Sle a}t v e Iflootbel. Dee hitsay is forbya. Sit SJlattet fangen an Dee blctttr fangen an abjufaflen. abtsoofallcn. Tha eTaya are sUU fine. Sle lage fmb noo> fd)bn. Dee tahgay sind nurA shorn. The days are closing. Sle Stage nepmen ab. Dee tahgay naymen ab. Autumn Is Interesting Set ftetbft Ift tnteteffanl Dair hairtwt istmtercs- on the Rhine. am Sbeln. sant am Rhine. It la the time of the 08 Ifl tie 3elt bet TOeln. Es ist dee tsite dair vintage. lefe. vinrlavsav. How happy the peo- Site gtuoTIie, bte Seute Vee glicklirA dee loytay pie are. flnb. sind. We must soon begin SBtt mnffen balb bte Veer mlssen bald dew fires. Oefcn belaen. acfen hitcsen. ^1 1 -, s 3 ^ p £* 1 \ 7' (O \ THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 99 » ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. We have had a fire al 2Bit Ijaben (d)on ein Veer haabcn shone ine It thaws. (SS tfjaut. Es tovrt. ready. geucr ge!)a&t. foyer gchaabt. It is slippery. Q8 tji fdjlupfrlg. Es ist shlipfri^-. It is soon dark. (S8 (fl baib bunfet. Es ist bald doonkel. The ice is thawing. 5Da8 Si8 gebt auf. Das ice gayt owf. It is a fine night. 153 ijt eiue ftt)6ne 92ad)t. Es ist inay shcenay na. Noiyahr. New moon. Sfteumonb. Noymohnt. New Year's day. iReujabrStag. Noiyahrsta^. Do you think it will ©lau&en ©te ba§ eS tegs Glowben see das es A new year. (Sin neue8 3«&'' In « noyes yahr. rain? nen trsirb ? ray^nen veert? I am afraid so. 34) befftrdjte e8. Ich befeercAtay es. RELATING TO CORRESPONDENCE. It hails. (S3 b>gelt. Es hahgelt. It rains. (S3 tejnet. Es ray^net. Ink. Sinte. Tintay. It is very windy. (53 ijl iebr rctnfci j. Es ist sair vindlg. Pens. Jrebettt. Faydern. It is winter. (5* ift SBtnter. Es ist vinter. Have you any envel- £«ben Sie SouuertS ? Haaben see coovalrts? The days are so short Dte Stage (tub fo tut). Dee tahgay sind so koorts. opes? Postage stamps. SJJofrmarfen. Postmarken. It is very cold. R3 tit fchr fait. Es ist sair kalt. I want a sheet of writ- 3$ braudje einen fBogen Ich browtAay inen bo- There is a cold wind. (S3 gefjt etn falter SEtnt. Es gayt ine kaltervind. ing-paper. ©djretbpapier. gen shribepapeer. It is bad weather. (58 t(t fd)tea)te8 iBetter. Es ist shlerftes vetter. Blotting-paper. Cofdjpapier. Lceshpahpeer. It is foggy. (S3 tjt nefceiig. Es is naybeli^. [ have a letter to write. 3d) babe einen Brief ju Ich haabay inen breef The sky is overcast. SDer jjlmmet t(t bebetft. Dair himmel ist be- deckt. fdjreiben. tsoo shryben. A pen-knife. (Sin Sjcfeetmeffer. Ine faydermesser. It will snow. (58 niirb fdjneten. Es vird shnyen. Now I will write. 3*6' nil id) fdjretben. Yetst vill ich shryben. It freezes very hard. (S3 fdert ftarf. Es freert shtark. What is the day of the !£en toteoielften fjaben Den veefeelsten haaben Can you skate? Sfonncn Ste Sdjltttt&iuf) Kasnnen see shlitshoo laufen ? lowfen? month? ttir f)eute ? veerhoytay? It is the sixteenth. (58 t(l ber (ed)8jef)nte. Es ist dair sextsanetay. The ice does not bear !Da8 ffii« ttagt nid)t. Das ice travel nicht. Where is the post-of- SBo tft ble $0(1 ? Vo ist dee pust? The ice is thick 35a8 Gi3 tft bicf genug. Das ice ist dick genoo^, fice? enough. Close by. 9Jaf)e Set. Nahay by. It is healthy weather. *sMf— 4§-B**J- 'A~SVT/Z^9' pRENGH WITH0U T a Master. Jfe.,^Ff™~-r- A Simple System of Self-Instruction in the French Language. MATTER of vital impor- tance to all is the study of the French language. Not to mention the rich- ness of French literature and the vast pleasures which arise from an in- telligent perusal of the pages of the great authors who have built it up, the practical advantages to be derived from a knowledge of " the language of diplomacy " are too patent to require explanation. No one can be a perfect master of the English language who does not possess a certain amount of familiarity with the French tongue, through which so many of our strongest expressions have been filtered after leaving the more ancient parent stock. The traveller making the tour of the conti- nent of Europe will find a knowledge of the French language indispensable. In all parts of that continent this language provides the com- mon ground upon which men of all tongues meet in conversation, and the traveller, having simply made himself sufficiently familiar with the language to ask for what he wants, will have done much towards making his trip thoroughly enjoyable and instructive. The following sys- tem of self-instruction has been formulated with a view to providing a simple yet thorough means of studying French. The student who masters its details with care will, within the space of a very few days, find himself able to converse in that language, and begin to enjoy thoroughly the beauties of its literature. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. FRENCH NAME. PRONUNCIATION. ALPHABET. A ah like a in the English word arm. B bay as in English. C say before e and /", is pronounced like s; before a t o t u and before a consonant c sounds like k; is soft before a, o t u In certain instances, when a mark beneath it called a cedilla is used, thus : c. D day as in English. E ai f, 4 1 ai, ei, are pronounced like a in the English word c are. T eff as in English. G j»y before e and /sounds like/. H aash is generally silent. I ec like ** in the English word w. 7 j« like f in the English word measure. K kah as in English. L el as in English. M em as in English. N en as in English. O o o t in stock; au, earn, are pron. like o in no. P p*y like the English, but is often mute at the end of words. 4 ku like ft, R air like the English r in run. s (*-s like the English s, sometimes like i. T t»r like / in the English word tent. U eeyu like m in the English word smite. V vay like the English v. X ceks as in English. r egrcc like e in the English word w. z led like a soft .<. There are combinations of letters which are sometimes called compound vowels, viz. : an, in, oh, tu, ou, which are pro- nounced as follows : 4!f= A THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 101 ■* L The compound vowel an as an in the word want. " " /« as an M " anchor, ** " on as on " " wrong. " " u» has no correspondent in English, •* " eu as i in the word bird. " " ou as ou " " you. Ch is pronounced generally as *// in the word share* Gn like ni in the word minion. Gu is pronounced generally likeginget* Ph as ph in philosophy. Qu is generally pronounced like k in king. Th like M in Thames. ACCENTS AND OTHER MARKS. The French make a frequent use of certain signs called ortho- graphic signs. They are the accents, the apostrophe, the trait cVun- ion (hyphen), the trima (diaeresis), the cidille (cedilla), the parenthise (parenthesis), and the different marks of punctuation. There are three accents, the accent aigu (acute '), which is never used except over the vowel e ; the accent grave ( * ) , which is used over the vowels a, e, u, and the accent circonflexe (*) , which is used with any of the vowels huty. The apostrophe (') is used to point out the elision of a vowel at the end of a word before another word beginning with a vowel or an h mute, as in Vdme, the soul; Vhomme, the man, instead of la dme, le homme. A, e, i, are the only vowels liable to be thus cut off, and this last one in the single word si before /'/; s'il for si it. The trait d'union (-) is used principally to connect compound words, as in arc-en-ciel (rainbow), or to join the pronoun to the verb, in the interrogative conjugation. The trema ( •• ) is the same sign as the diaresis and used for the same purpose in French as in English. The cidille is a little mark put under the c ($) whenever it is required to give to that letter the articulation produced by the letter *, before the letters a, o t u; as, Franqais , garqon, re$u. NUMBER AND GENDER. There are two numbers in French as in English, the singular and the plural. The French language has only two genders, the masculine and the feminine. The gender of animate objects is the same as in English ; but practice, close attention to the harmony of the language, and very often derivation, can alone teach the gender of inanimate objects. PARTS OF SPEECH. These are ten in number : article, noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, participle, conjunction, preposition, interjection. THE ARTICLE. There are two articles, the definite and the indefinite. The definite article is rendered by "le" before a masculine noun, and by "la " before a feminine noun ; as, le pire, the father ; la mire, the mother. The plural for both genders is "les;" as, lesplres, the fathers; les mires, the mothers. The articles are declined as follows : Masculine, Singular. Nora, le (leh) fire, the father Gen. du (du) pire, of the father Dat. au (o) pire, to the father Ace. le (leh) pire, the father Plural. les (lay) plres, the fathers des (day) plres, of the fathers aux (o) plres, to the fathers les (lay) plres, the fathers Feminine. Nom. la mire, the mother Gen. de la mire, of the mother Dat. & la mire, to the mother Ace la mire, the mother les mires, des mires, aux mires, les mires. the mothers of the mothers to the mothers the mothers DECLENSION Of a word beginning with a vowel or a silent "k." Singular. Plural. Nom. Vhomme, the man le s^" homme s, the men Gen. de Vhomme, of the man des*^hommes, of the men Dat. d Vhomme, to the man aux^hommes. to the men Ace. Vhomme, the man les*~*hommes, the men INDEFINITE ARTICLE. Masculine. Feminine. Nom. un jar din, a garden une vitte, a town Gen. cVunjardin, of a garden cVune vitle, of a town Dat. a unjardin. to a garden a une ville. to a town Ace. un jar din, a garden une ville, a town DECLENSION OF PROPER NAMES. Nom. Parts, Paris Louise, Louisa Gen. de Paris, of Paris de Louise, of Louisa Dat. d Paris, to Paris d Louise, to Louisa Ace. Paris, Paris Louise, Louisa EXERCISES IN THE USE OF THE ARTICLE. Having mastered the declensions, the student will thoroughly familiarize himself with the use of the articles by memorizing the following vocabulary : THE UMIVKKSE. ENGLISH. FRENCH God Dieu the world le monde the sky leciet the sun le soleil the moon - la tune a star une itoiU the air Voir the earth la terre the water Veau the fire lefeu the sea tamer an island une He a lake un lac a stream unjleuve a river une rivitre the animals les animaux the metals les mi t aux the gold for the silver Vargent the iron lefer the steel Vacier the copper le cuivre the tin Vetain THE HUMAN Man Vhomme the body le corps the head la ate the face le visage the forehead tefront the eye Vail the eyes lef~yeux the nose tenet the .ears les oret'ttes the chin le menton the beard la bar be- the mouth ta bouche the lips les llvte* the tooth la dent the tongue ta tongue the neck leeon PRONUNCIATION. Deeyu leh maund leh seeyel leh sohleyl Iah lune une aitoahl Pair lah tayr l'o leh feuh lah mare une eel ung Iahc nng fleuhv une reeveeare laiz aneemo Ial maito l'orr l'arjang leh f ayr l'asseay leh cweevr 1'aitang l'omm leh cor lah tait leh veesaje leh frong Pile laiz eeyeu leh nay laiz ohraill leh mauntong lah barb lah boosh iai layvr lah dong lah laungh leh coo /_ ■T . . s «= m j- 1 \ - . / » 103 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. f 1 EMOLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION, the shoulders les^ifiaults laiz aipole the umbrella It Parapluit leh paraplwee the arm Is bras leh brah the parasol It parasol leh parassl the hand la main lah mang the fingers Its doigts Jai donah THE HOME. the nails ItsT^onglts laiz aungl The house la maison lah maysong the chest la poitrint lah pouahtreen the door la ports lah port the heart It carur leh keuhr the key la clef lah clay the knee Itgtnou leh jenoo the bell la sonnet te lah sonnet the leg la jamb t lah jahmb the staircase Ptscalier l'cscallysi the foot It pied leh peeay the drawing-room la sails lah sal the bone* IttT^os laizo the dining-room the room la salle-h- manger la chamhrt lah sal-ah-maunjal lah shaumbr FOOD. the bed -room la chamhre-ix-couchef lahihaumbr-ah-cushal Bread le pain leh pang the window lafenUrt lah fennaitr flour lafarint lah fareen the wall la parol lah pahrouah meat dt la viandt de la veeaund the kitchen la cuisint laheweezeen roast meat du rdti du rotce the roof It toil leh touah beef dm baeuf du beuhf the cellar la cavt lah caav veal du vtau du vo the garden le jar din leh jardang mutton du m out on du mootong a table unt tab It une tahbl lamb i dt Vagntan deh 1'anyo a chair unt chaist une shayse pork du pore du pork an arm-chair unfautcuil ung fotayle bacon du lard du lar a looking-glass un miroir ung meerouahr ham dujambon du jahmbons* a clock une horlogt une orloje soup la toupt lah soup a trunk un coffrt ung cofr rice du ri* duree a boa unt bo'Ut une houaht eggs dts^-aufs daiz euh the bed It lit leh lee salad dt la saladt deh lah salade the counterpane la couvtrturt lah cooTalrtyure mustard dt la moutards deh lah mootard a pillow un oreiller un oraylyai salt du stl dusel the sheets Its drops dt lit lai drah deh lee oil 4t r hulls deh l'weel the mattress It matelms leh mailah vinegar du vinaigrt du veenaigr the plate Vassiette l'assyet pepper dupoivrt du pouahvr a candlestick un chandelier ungshsundelysi butter du beurrt du beuhr the lamp unt lampt unelaump cheese dufromagt du from ah je a spoon unt cutiler une cweelyal breakfast It di jt-uner leh dayjeuhnai a fork unt fourchettt une foorshet dinner It diner leh deenai a knife un couteau ung cooto supper It touptr leh soopai a cup unt tasst une lass hunger la/aim lah fahng the saucer la soucoupt lah sooccoop thirst la soif lah souaf the tablecloth la nappt lah nap water dt ttau deh l'o the towel un essuie-main ung esswee-mang wine du vin du vang a glass un verrt ung vair beer dt la bikrs deh lah beealr the tea-pot la theiere lah taij are milk dulait du lay TRADES. tea gin duthi du tay An occupation un mttitr ung maytysi dugtnikvrs du jenyavr a workman un artisan ung arteesong brandy dt Vtau dt vi* deh lo d«h vee a baker un boulangtr ungboolonjal DRESS. a miller un meunier ung meuhnysi A coat a cloak a waistcoat the trowsera un surtout un manttau ungiltt la culottt ting sy uretoo ung maunto ung jeelay lah kyulot lai bretell a butcher a brewer a tailor a shoemaker un bouchtr un brass tur un tailltur un cordonnitr ung booshai ung brasseuhr ung talyeur ung cordonyal the braces Its brtttllts a smith unforgrron ung forjehrong the cap It bonnet leh bonnay leh shapo leh patne dai gang a saddler un se flier ung sclyal the hat It chapeau a carpenter un menuist'er ung menweesymt the comb gloves le P eigne des gants a mason a bookbinder un matron un relieur ung massong ung rellyeuhr a ring une bagut une baag THE TOWN. a watch unt montrt une mongtre The town la villt lahveel the stocking It bat leh bah the bridge leponi leh pong the boots Its bottts lai bot the tower la tour lah toor the bootjack It tirt-bottt leh tccr-bot the gate la ports lah port the slippers Its pantoujlts lai pauntoofl the street la rut lah ru the shoes let soulters lai soolyai the market It ma re hi » leh marsh sy a shirt unt chemist une shemeeze the building It bdttment leh hahUcmong the necktie la cravat t lah cr. iv. ilit the town-house tkdttl dt rills 1'otel deh vcel < a pockct>handkerchic i un mouckoir ung mooshouah the theatre It thldtrt leh tsyahtr a the clothes-brush la brosst lah bross the post-office lapostt Uft B* vt - *y f m s^ L, *7 • ^ — H y THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 103 ENGLISH. the church the cathedral the school the prison the exchange the palace the hotel the inn the public house the coffee-room FRENCH. Viglise la caihidrale Vccole la prison la bourse I e palais Vhotel Vauberge le cabaret le cafi BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES An animal un animal a horse un cheval a donkey un arte the dog le ehien the cat le chat the rat /* rat the mouse la souris an ox un bceuf a cow une vache a calf un veau a sheep une brebis a lamb un agneau a pig un cochon the hare lelievre a monkey un singe a wolf un loup a bear un ours a Hon un lion an elephant un iliphant a tiger un tigre a bird un oiseau a cock un coq a hen une poule a chicken unpoulet a swan un eigne a goose une oie a duck un canard a lark une alouette a nightingale un rossignol the swallow Vhirondelle the sparrow lemoineau the raven le corbeau the crow la cornet'lle the parrot le perroquet the eagle Paigle a fish unpoisson a pike un brocket a salmon un saumon a carp une carpe an eel une anguille a trout unetruite a herring un hareng oysters des kultres a crab une icrevisse a whmle une baleine a serpent un serpent a frog une grenouille a worm un ver an insect un insecte a spider une aratgnie a moth une teigne a fly une tnoucke a gnat un moucheron a bee une abeille the honey le miel a wasp uneguipe a butterfly une papillon PRONUNCIATION. 1'aygleeze lah cataydral l'aycol lah preesong lah boorse leh pall ay l'otel l'obayrje leh cabbaray leh caffay , ETC. ung aneemal ung sheval ung ahn leh sheeang leh shah leh rah lah sooree ung beuh une vash ung vo une brebbee un anyo un coshong leh leeayvr ung sangj ung loo ung oor ung leeong un aylayfong ung teegr un woiso un cock une pool ung poolay ung seen une ouah ungcanar une allooet ung rosseenyol l'eenrongdel leh mouano leh corbo lah cornayl leh perokay l'aygl ung pouassong ungbroshay ungsomong une carp une ongghee une trweet ung harrong daiz weetr une aycreveece une ballayn ung sairpong une grenooeel un vair un angsect une arraynyax ung taine une moosh ung moosherong une abbail leh meeyel une gape ung pappillyong TREES, FRUITS, FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES. ENGLISH. A tree a branch a leaf an apple a pear a plum a cherry a nut a currant a gooseberry a strawberry a chestnut the oak-tree the fir- tree the birch the willow a flower arose a pink a tulip a lily a violet a bouquet beans peas cabbage cauliflower carrots asparagus spinach radishes celery a melon cucumber A school the teacher the book the paper a pen an inkstand the ink the pencil a letter an envelope FRENCH. un arbre une branche unefeuille une pomme une poire une prune une cerise une not'x 4e la groseille de la groseille verte une /raise un marron le chine le pin le bouleau le saule unejteur une rot* un ceil let une tulip e un lis une violette un bouquet desfevtt despots des choux des choux-Jleurs des betteraves des asperges des tpinards des radis du cileri un melon des concombres PRONUNCIATION. ung arbr une braungsh une file unepomm une pouar une pryun une serreeze une nouah de lah grozale deh lah grozale verte une fraize ung marrong leh shane leh pang leh boolo leh sole une fleuhr une rose un ileyai une tyuleep ung lee une veeolet ung bookay dai f aive dai pouah dai shoo dai shoo-fleuhr dai betrahve daiz aspairj daiz aipeenar dai raddee du selree ung mellong dai congcongbr THE SCHOOL. Vicole le txaitre le livre le papier une plume un encrier Vencre It crayon une lettre une enveloppe l'aycol leh maytr leh leevr leh papyal une plyume un ongcreeal Tongkr leh crayong une lettr une o.^gvellope TIME AND SEASONS. The time a minute an hour a quarter of an hour half an hour the day the morning noon the afternoon the evening the night a year a month J anuary February March April May June le temps une minute une heure un quart-d'heure une demie-heure lej'our le matin le midi rapris-midi le soir la nuit un an un mot's 'Janvier Fivrier Man Avril Mai Juin Juillet leh tong une meenyute une eur ungkar d'eur une demi eur leh joor leh mattang leh meedee Papray meedee leh souahr lah nwee un ong ung mouah Jongveeay fayvreeay marse avreel may jyuang jweelyai ^ST* •if? 104 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. — » $t August September October November December a, week a fortnight Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday spring summer autumn winter The country the village the hut the soil the meadow the barn the mill the cattle the hero* the shepherd the mountain the hill the dale the wood the forest the road the high* road the railroad a mile the waterfall the fisherman the huntsman The family the husband the wife the father the mother the child the son the daughter the brother the sister the uncle the aunt the cousin the marriage An American a German Germany a Dutchman Holland a Belgian Belgium a Swiss Switzerland a Hungarian AaiU Septembrt Octobrt Novembre Dicetnbrt une semaine quinsejourt Lundi Mardi Mercredi yeudi Vtndredi Samedi Dimancht le printemp* tm fautomne Vhiver THE COUNTRY. la cam pa gut le village la cabane It sol Upri la grange le moulin le bitail le troupeau le berger la montagnt la colline la vallie le bois lafortt le ciumin le grand -chem in le chemin defer une mille la cascade lepicheur le chasseur THE FAMILY. la fa mille le marl la/emms lepere la mere renfant lejils la file Itfrkrt la sa>ur tonclt la taut* It cousin It mariage NATIONALITIES. un America in un Allemand VAllemagnt f. un Hollandait la Hollandt un Beige la Belgiqut un Suits* la Suisse un Hongrois 00 septaumbr octobr novaumbr daysaumbr une semmane kanze joor lungdee mardee may re re dee jeuhdee vondredee s am dee deemaunshe leh prangtong l'aytay l'otonn 1'eevare lah caumpahna leh Teelaj lah caban leh sol lah pray leh graunj leh moolang leh bay tale leh troopo leh bayrjay lah montaine lah colleen lah vail ay leh bouah lah forray leh shemmang leh grong shemmang leh shemmang deh fare une meet lah cascad leh paysheur leh shasseuhr lah famed leh maree lah f am leh pare lah mare 1'ongfong leh fecss lah feel leh frare lah seuhr l'oncle lah taunte leh coosang leh mareeahje un amayrcecang un almaung l'almalne ung hollaunday lah hollaund une belj lah bcljeck ung swecss lah swecss ung hongrwah Hungary an Englishman England an Irishman Ireland a Scotchman Scotland a Dane Denmark a Swede Sweden a Russian Russia a Spaniard Spain a Frenchman France an Italian Italy la Hongrie un Anglais PAngteterrt f . un Irlandais PIrlandt I. un Ecossais VEcosse I. un Dmnois It Danemarc un Suldois la Suede un Russt la Russu un Espagnol PEspagnt f. un Francais la Franct un Italien ritalie f. THE NOUN. lah hongrec un aunglay l'aungltare un eerlaunday 1'ecrlaund un aycossay l'aycoss ung danoaah leh danroark ung swayd wah lah sway de ungrusae lah russee un espanyol l'espaine ung f raungsay lah fraungse un eetalyang l'eetalee To form the plural of French nouns, add s to the singular ; as/<>rt*, father, pires, fathers. Nouns ending in f, x or s, in the singular, do not vary In the plural ; &s,j!ls, son ; Jlls, sons. Nouns ending in au or eu add x to form the plural; as, emu, water; eaux, waters. Nounsan ou form their plural regularly, by the addition of s. But the following nouns in ou take x to the plural, viz.: bijou ,caillou, ckottygenouy hibou, joujou, pou. Nouns ending in al change this termination into aux to form the plural ; as, cheval, horse ; ckevaux, horses. But bal, carnaval, regal, and a few others, form their plural reg- ularly, by the addition of s to the singular. Nouns in ail form their plural regularly, by adding s to the singular. The following seven nouns in ail form their plural by changing ail into aux , viz. : bail, lease ; imail, enamel ; corail, coral ; soupirail, air-hole ; travail, work ; vantail, leaf of the folding-door; ventail, the part of a helmet which admits air; vitrail, glass-window. del, heaven, has cicux in the plural. (Eil, eye, has yeu x. Aleul, ancestor, has ateux. THE ADJECTIVE. The French adjectives are placed either before or after the nouns ; as : Itbon fire, the good father la bonne mire, the food mother un bongarqon, a good boy une jeune file, a young girl une table ronde, a round table dm lait chauJ, warm milk. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Grand, great plus grand, greater petit, small plus petit, smaller ban, good meilleur, better mauz'ais, bad pire, worse petit, little moindre, less " Than " following the comparative is'always translated by " que: PI est plus poli que sonfrire— tic is more polite than his brother. le plus grand, the greatest le plus petit, the smallest /* meilleur, the belt lepire, the worst le moindre, the least NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. I un ung 1 deux deuh J trot's trouah ♦ quatre kahtr s cinq sahnk 6 six seece 7 sept act s kuit wheet 1 neuf neuf di* deece 11 ome ongx 1 1 douse doore M treise traya H qualorse katora '5 quinse kanga m seise saya '7 dixsepl dee-set iS dix-kuit deez- wheet i» dix-neuf decs- neuf 2C vimgl vahng -M THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. / I°5 21 vingt-un vahnt-ung aa vtngt-deux 23 vingt- trois 24 vingt- quatre 25 vingt-cinq 26 vingt- six 27 vingt- sept 28 vingt 'knit 29 vingt -neuf 30 trente traunt qua rant e karaunt cinquante sahnkaunt soixante soassaunt soixante-dix soixante-onxe soixante- douxe soi xante -treixe soixante- quatorxe soixante- quints soixante- seize soixante-dix • sept soixante-dix -huit soixante-dix • neuf 80 quatre-vingt katr-vahng Si quatre-vingt -un katr-vahnt-ung quatre-vingt - deux quatre - vingt -trois quatre • vingt- quatre quatre-vingt-cinq 86 quatre-vingt- six 87 quatre-vingt- sept 82 83 84 8S 88 quatre-vtngt -huit 89 quatre -vingt- neuf 00 quatre-vingt- dix 91 quatre-vingt- onxe 92 quatre - vingt • douxe 93 quatre- vingt- treixe 94 quatre - vingt - quatorxe 95 quatre-vingt- quinxe 96 quatre - vingt - seixe 97 quatre-vingt- dix- sept 98 quatre- vingt - dix -huit 99 quatre- vingt -dix -neuf 100 ct>«/ saung 101 cent-un saunt-ung 1 10 tvrt/ saung- deece 120 cent vingt saung-vahng 130 cent trente 200 deux cents 300 trois cents 400 quatre cents 500 «' wy r^n/f 600 six cents 700 «// h "' h "- I had had ftustu Jeusew thou hadst had lu eus tu tu eus ew noire (notr) our " no$ (no) our he had had il eut m eel eut ew voire (votr) your " vol (vo) your we had had nous eumes eu nooz euma ew leur (leur) their " leurt (leur) their you had had vous tiUts tu vooz cuts ew they had had Us turtnt tu eelseurtew RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Future. %ul (kee) who, which, that I shall have faurai joray ouot (couah) what, that thou shalt have tu auras tu orah ouel (kel), lequelT which? que (keh) what? he shall have il aura eel orah we shall have nous aurons nooz orong THE VERB. you shall have vous aurts vooz oray they shall have Us auront eel* orong Before proceeding to study the conjugations of the regular Futurt Anttrior. verbs, the student must ground himself thoroughly in the irreg- I shall have had faurai tu Joray ew ular verbs avoir, to have, and it re, to be, which are designated thou shalt have had tu auras tu tu orah* ew auxiliary verbs because they assist in the conjugation of the he shall have had il aura tu eel orah ew others. we shall have had nous aurons tu noos orongz ew you shall have had vous aurts tu vooz orayz ew THE AUXILIARY VERB "AVOIR"— TO HAVE. they shall have had Us auront tu eel* orontew INFIHITIVS MOOD. Conditional Present, Present. Past. I should have f aurais Joray Avoir, to have, Avoir eu, to have had. thou shouldst have tu aurais tu oray PARTICIPLES. he should have il aurait eel oray Ajranl, having-. .*;«, had we should have nous aurions nooz oreeong Ayanl eu, having had. you should have vous aurit* vooz oreeay INDICATIVE MOOD. they should have Us aura ient eels oray . . Present, Conditional Past. I have jal j ay thou hart mm at tu ah he ha » Hm eel ah - » h « •>*» elle a el ah I should have had f aurais tu Joray* ew thou shouldst have had tu aurais tu tu oray* ew he should have had il aurait tu eel orait ew we have nous mvens nooz avong you have VO us avet vooz aval they have Us (elles) enl eeUong we should have had you should have had they should have had nous aurions tu vous auries tu Us aura ient eu nooz areeonga ew vooz oreeaya ew eel* orait ew Imperfect. IMPERATIVE. MOOD. 1 nad f avals Javay Have ait »y thou hadrt tu avals tu avay he had il avail eel avay let us have ajfons •yona; have (ye) mjfts «yay we had nous avions vooz aveeong you had vou , aviso nooz aveeay *hey had //, avaienl eels avay SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD • Prtstnt. Past Definite. 1 h » d feus Jew thouhadit tueus tu ew That I may have gut fait keh Jal that thou mayest have our tu aits keh to at he had ,/,«/ eelew that he may have gu'il ait kcelal w « had noirj pAmm nooz eum that we may have gut nous ay ens keh nooz ayong you had vous eitet yooz eut that you may have gut vous ajfts keh vooa ayay they had lit turenl eelt eur that they may have gu'il* aient keel* al Perfect. fmferfect. I have had fat en Jay ew That I might have gueftusst keh Jeus* thou hast had tu as en tu ahz ew that thou mightesthave an* tu eusses keh tu eus* he has had 11 a eu eel ah ew that he might have gu'il t%\t keel en she has had elle a en el ah ew that we might have gut nous tusstons keh noos eutsyong we have had nous avons eu nooz avongz ew that you might have gut vous eussies keh vooz cuwyay you have had vous avet tu voozavayzew that they might have gu'Us tusstnt keels eus* they have had its out eu eel* ont ew Perfttt. Pluperfect. That I may have had gut fait tu keh Jal ew i I had had favais en Javayz ew that thou mayest have gut tn aits tu kchtu aiaew \ I thou hast had tu avals en tu avayz ew had J c \ I, "*7 * ■ » *■ » =r* i 1 •i S _- \h 8| \ . / p 1 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. IO7 • that he may have had qu'ilaiteu keel ait ew we had been nous eumes Hi nooz eums ettay that we may have had que nous ayons eu keh nooz ayongz ew you had been vous eutcs iti vooz euts ettay that you may have had que vous ayex eu keh vooz ayayz ew they had been U eurent ite eels eurt ettay that they may have had qu'ils aient eu keels ait ew Future, Pluperfect. I shall be je serai je serray That I might have had quefeusseeu keh jeuss ew thoushalt be tu seras tu serrah that thou mightest have que tu eusses eu keh tu euss ew he shall be il sera eel serrah had we shall be nous serons nooserrong that he might have had qu'il eut eu keel eut ew you shall be vous serez voo serray that we might have que nous eussions eu keh nooz eussyongs they shall be ils seront eel serong had ew Future Anterior, that you might have que vous eussiez eu keh vooz eussyaz ew had I shall have been faurai iti joray ettay that they might have qu'ils eussent eu keels eusst ew thou shalthave been tu auras iti tu orahs ettay had he shall have been we shall have been il aura iti nous aurons iti eel orah ettay nooz orongz ettay THE AUXILIARY VERB "ETRE"— TO JE. you shall have been vous aurez iti vooz orayz ettay they shall have been ils auront iti eels oront ettay INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Past; Conditional Present Eire (eta), to be. Avoir iti (avoahr ettay), to have been. I should be je serais je serray PARTICIPLES. thou shouldst be tu serais tu serray Etant (ettaung), being. Eti (ettay), been. Ayantiti (ayaunt ettay) having been. he should be we should be you should be il serait nous serions vous seriez eel serray nooserreeong voo serreeay INDICATIVE MOOD. they should be Us seraient eel serray Present. Conditional Past. I am je suis jeh swee I should have been faurais iti jorays ettay thou art tu es tu ay thou shouldst have tu aurais iti tu orays ettay he is ilest eel ay been she is tile est el ay he should have been il aurait iti eel orait ettay we are nous sommes noo som we should have been nous aurions iti nooz oreeongz ettay you are vous ites vooz ait you should have been vous auriez iti vooz oreeayz ettay they are ils (elles) sont eel song they should have been ils auraient iti eels orait ettay Imperfect. IMPERATIVE MOOD I was fitais j ettay thou wert tu itais tu ettay Be soi sou ah he was illtait il ettay let us be soyons swoiyong we were nous (lions nooz ettyong be (ye) soyez swoiyay you were vous Hiez vooz ettyay SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. they were ils itaient eels ettay Present. Past Definite. m That I may be gueje sot's keh jeh sou ah I was j'efus je fu that thou mayestbe que tu sot's keh tu souah thou wert tufus tufu that he may be qu't'l soil keel souah he was ilfut eel fu that we may be que nous soyons keh noo swoiyong we were nous fumes noo fume that you may be que vous soyex keh voo swoiyay you were vous files voo fute that they maybe qu'ils soient keel souah they were ilsfurent eel fure Imperfect. Perfect. That I might be que je fusse keh jeh fusse I have been fai He jai ettay that thou mightest be que tu fusses keh tu fusse thou hast been tu as cti tu ah ettay that he might be qu' ilfut keel fu he has been Ha iti eel ah ettay that we might be que nous fussions keh noofussyong she has been elleaiti el ah ettay that you might be que vousfussiex keh voo fussyay we have been nous avons He nooz avongz ettay that they might be qu'ilsfussent keel fusse you have been vous avez Hi vooz avayz ettay Perfect. que f aie iti they have been ils (elles) ont Hi eels ont ettay That I may have been keh jai ettay Pluperfect. that , in in fint'r, to finish, ot'r, as in reqevoir, to receive, re, as in vendre, to sell. All that precedes this infinitive termination is called the "root " of the verb. Verbs which only change their terminations and not their roots are called "Regular Verbs; " those which change their roots, "Irregular Verbs." The verbs ending in'Wr" are all irregular, and the French language therefore, has in reality only three regular conjugations. The First Conjugation ends in "er." The Second Conjugation ends in *'/>." The Third Conjugation ends in "oir. u The Fourth Conjugation ends in'V*." The past participle is formed by adding to the root of the First Con- jugation an "4," to that of the second an "/," to the fourth a "«/" as: Parl-er, to speak; parti, spoken Fin-ir, to finish; fini* finished. Ventre, to sell ; vendu, sold. The student may now proceed to the mastery of THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. FIRST CONJUGATION. Present. Parler (parlay), to speak. INFINITIVE MOOD. Past. Avoir parli, to have spoken. PARTICIPLES. Partant (parlong), speaking. Parli, spoken. Ay ant parU t having spoken. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. SIMPLE TENSES. Absolu. I speak. ye parts tu paries it parte nous partons vous partes Us portent Imperfect. I spoke. yepartais tu parlais it partat't nous portions vous parties its partaient jeh pari tu pari eel pari noo parlong voo parlay eel pari Descriptive. jch parlay tu parlay eel parlay nooparlyong voo parly ay eel parlay COMPOUND TENSES. AnUrieur. I have spoken. y*ai parti tu as parti it a parti nous avons parti vous aves parti Us ont parti Ptuperfect. I had spoken. y*avais parti tu aval's parti H avail parti nous avions parti vous avies parti Us avaient parti Past Definite. I spoke. yeparlai tu par las ilparta nous parldmes vous par hit es Us par lire nt Future. I shall speak. ye parlerai tu parler as ilpartera nous parlerons vous par teres Us parleront Present. I should speak. ye parler ais tu parlerais U parler ait nous parlerions vous parleries Us parleraient Present. That I may speak. Que je parte que tu partes qu'il parts que nous portions que vous parties qu'ils portent Imperfect. That I might speak. Que fe parlasse que tu Parlasses qu'il parldt que nous partassions que vous par lassies qu'ils parlassent Narrative. jeh parlay tuparla eel pari a noo parlahme voo parlahte eel pari aire Future. jeh parlerai tu parler a eel parlera noo parlerong voo parleray eel parlerong Conditional. jeh parleray tu parleray eel parleray noo parlerceong voo parlereeay eel parleray SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. keh jeh pari keh tu pari keel pari keh nooparlyong keh voo parlyay keel pari keh jeh parlaas keh tu parlaas keel pariah keh noo pari assyong keh voo parlassyay keel parlass Past Anterior. I had spoken. y*eusforli tu eus parti • it eut parti nous eumes parti vous cities parti Us eurent parti Future Anterior. I shall have spoken. y* auras' parti tu auras parti it aura parti nous aurons parti vous mures parti Us auront parts Past. I should have spoken. jTaurais parti tu aurais parti it aurait parli nous aurions parti vous auries parti its auraient parti Past. That I may have spoken. $$ue f aie parti que tu aies parti qu'il ait parli que nous ay ons parli que vous my es parli qu'ils aient parti Pluperfect. That I might have spoken. Quefeusse parli que tn eusses parti qufl eut parli que nous eussions parli que vous eussies parti qu'ils eussent parti IMPERATIVE MOOD. Parle (pari), speak thou parlous (parlong), let us speak qu'il parte (keel pari), let him speak paries (parlay), speak jn qu'ils portent (keel pari), let them speak. SECOND CONJUGATION. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Finir (feeneer), to finish. Past. Avoir fini (teeuce), to have finished. PARTICirLES. Finissant (feeneesong), finishing. Fini, finished. Ayantfini, havingfinished. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. SIMPLE TENSES. Absolu. I finish. yefinis tu finis jch feenec tu feence COMPOUND TENSES. Antirieur. I have finished. y*aifini tn as fini V- i •> - •— - •'*- \ 1 - A THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 109 i i ilfinit eel feenee il afini THIRD CONJUGATION. nous finissonz noo feeneessong nous avonsfini INFINITIVE MOOD vousfinissez voo feeneessay vous aviexfini Present. Past. ils finissent eel feeneess ils ontfini Recevoir (ressevouahr), t Descriptive. Imperfect. Pluperfect. PARTICIPLES. I finished. I had finished. Recevant (ressevong) receiving, 7?^ck (ressu), received. Ay ant requ t having received. yefinissais jeh feeneessay y* avals fini tufinissais tu feeneessay tu avaisfini INDICATIVE MOOD. il Jinissait eel feeneessay il avait fins' Present. nous finissions noo feeneessyong nous avionsfini SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. vousjinissiex voo feeneessyay vous aviexfini Absolu. Antirieur. ils finissaient eel feeneessay Narrattve. ils avaientfini I receive. I have received. Past Definite. Past Anterior. ye reqois jehressouah y'ai requ I finished. I had finished. tu reqois il reqot't tu ressouah eel ressouah tu as requ il a requ *Je finis j«h feenee y eus fini nous recevons noo ressevong nous avons requ tu finis tu feenee tu eusfint vous recevez voo ressevay vous avex requ ilfinit eel feenee il eutfini its reqoivent eel ressouahve ils ont requ nous finlmes noo feeneem nous eumesfini vous finite s ilsfinirent voo feeneet eel feeneer Future. vous exitesfini ils eurentfini Imperfect. I received. Descriptive. Pluperfect. I had received. Future. Future Anterior. ye recevais jeh ressevay y'avat's requ I shall finish. I shall have finished. tu recevais tu ressevay tu avals requ yefinirai jehfeeneeray y'auraifini il recevait nous recevions eel ressevay noo ressevyong il avait requ nous avions requ tufiniras tu feeneera tu auras fini vous receviez voo ressevyay vous aviez requ ilfinira eelfeeneera il aura fini ils recevaient eel ressevay ils avaient requ nousfinirons noo feeneerong nous auronsfini vousfinirez voofeeneeray vous aurezfini Narrative. ilsfiniront eel feeneerong Conditional. ils aurontfint Past Definite. I received. Past Anterior. I had received. Present. Past. ye requs jeh ressu yeus requ I should finish. I should have finished. tu requs tu ressu tu eus requ ye finirais jehfeeneeray y* aura is fini il requt eel ressu il eut requ tufimrais tu feeneeray tu auraisfini nous regimes noo ressume nous dimes requ ilfinirait eel feeneeray il auraitfini vous refutes voo ressute vous eutes requ nous finirions noo feeneereeong nous aurhns fini ils requrent eel ressure ils eurent requ vous finiriez voo feeneereeay vous auriez fini Future. ils finiraient eel feeneeray SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Us auraient fini Future. I shall receive. Future Anterior. I shall have received. Present. Past. That I may finish. That I may have finished. ye recevrai tu recevras jeh ressvray tu ressvrah jFaurairequ tu auras recti Quejefinisse kehjeh feeneess Que f aie fini il recevra eel ressvrah il aura requ que tufinisses keh tu feeneess que tu aiesfini nous recevrons noo ressvrong nous aurons requ qu'il finisse keel feeneess qu'il ait fini vous recevrez voo ressvray vous aurez requ que nous finissions keh noo feeneessee-y«r nous ayonsfini ils recevront eel ressvrong ils auront requ que vous finis siex ong keh voo feeneesseeay que vous ayezfini Conditional. Past. q'uil finis sent keel feeneess qu'ils ayentfini Present. I should receive. I should have received. Imperfect. Pluperfect. That I might finish. That I might have finished. ye recevrais tu recevrais jeh ressvray tu ressvray yaurais requ tu aurais requ Que je finisse keh jeh feeneess $htef eussefini il recevrait eel ressvray ilaurait requ que tufinisses keh tu feeneess que tu eussefini nous recevrions noo ressvreeong nous aurions requ qu'ilfinit keel feenee qu'il eutfini vous recevrt'ex voo ressvreeay vous auriez requ que nous finissions keh noo feeneess- que nous eussions fini Us recevraient eel ressvray ils auraient requ que vousfinissiex yong keh voo feeneessyay que vous eussiezfini Present. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Past. qu'ils finissent keel feeneess qu'ils eussentfini That I may receive. That I may have received. IMPERATIVE MOOD Quej'e reqoive keh jeh ressouahve $$uejaie requ Finis (feenee), finish finissons (feeneessong), let us que tu revives keh tu ressouahve que tu ales requ finish qu'ilreqoive keel ressouahve qui! ait requ qu'il finisse (keel feeneess), finissex (feeneessay), finish y» que nous recevions keh noo rcssvyong que nous ayons requ i let him finish qu'ils finissent (keel feeneess), que vous receviez keh voo ressvyay que eus ay ex requ \ l let them finish qu'ils reqoivent keel ressouahve qu'ils aient requ (9 \ / r* i no THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. » Imperfect, Pluperfect. Present. Conditional. Past. That I might receive. That I might nave received. I should sell. I should have sold. Queje requsse keh jeh ressuce quetu requsses keh tu ressuce qu'il recfkt keel ressu ^uejeusse requ que tu eusses requ qu'il exit requ ye vendrais tu vendrais U vendrait jeh vaundray tu vaundray eel vaundray noo vaundrccong y*aurais vendu tu auraiz vendu il amrait vendu que nous remissions keh noo ressussyong que nous eussions requ nous vendrionz nous aurions vendu que vous recusst'ez keh voo ressussyay qu'ils recussent keelressusse que vous eussiex requ qu'ils eussent requ vons vendriez Us vendraient voo vaundrecay eel vaundray vous aurit-z vendu Us auraient vendu IMPERATIVE MOOD. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. fieqois (ressouah), receive thou recevons (ressevong), let ui receive Present. Past. recevez (ressevay), receive ye That I may sell. That I may have solo. y«'i7r*Cff/"iv/(keelressouahve), qu'ils resolvent (keel rcssouahve), Queje vende keh jeh vaund &uefaie vendu let him receive let them receive que tu vendes qu'il vende keh tu vaund keel vaund keh noo vaundyong que tu aies vendu qu'il ait vendu que nous ayons vendu que nous vendions que vous vendiez keh voo vaundyay que vous ayes vendu FOURTH CONJUGATION. qu'ils vendent keel vaund qu'ils aient vendu INFINITIVE MOOD. Imperfect. Pluperfect. Present. Past. That I might sell. Queje vendisse keh jeh vaundeess That I might have sold Quefeusse vendu Vendre (vaundr), to sell. Avoir vendu, to have sold. que tu vendissez keh tu vaundeess que tu eusses vendu Participles* qu'il vend'U que nous vendissions keel vaundee keh noo vaundeess qu'il eut vendil oue nous eussions ven- Vendant (vaundong), selling. Vendu (vaundu), sold. Aymnt vendu, having sold. que vous vendissiez yong dm keh voo vaundeessyay que vons euzsiez rendu INDICATIVE MOOD. qu'ils vendisseni keel vaundeess qu'ils eussent vendu Present. IMPERATIVE MOOD. SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. Vends (vong), sell thou vendons (vaundong), let us sell Absolu. Antirieur. vendez (vaunday), sell ye qu'il vende (keel vaunde), qu'ils vendent (keel vaund), I sell. I have sold. let him sell let them sell ye vends Je vong y*ai vendu tu vends tu vong tu as vendu VOCABULARY OF TKRBS. it vend eel vong il a vendu nous vendons noo vaundong nous avons vendu To eat manger maunjay vous vendez voo vaunday vous avez vendu to drink voire bouahr Us vendent eel vaund Us ont vendu to be thirsty avoir soif avouahr souaf Descriptive. Imperfect. Pluperfect. to be hungry to breakfast to dine avoir faim dijeikner diner avouahr fans; dayjeunai decnai I sold. ' I had sold. to sup souper soopai ye vendais Jeh vaunday y*avais vendu to serve servir sareveer tu vendais tu vaunday tu avals z>cndu to carve t rancher traunshal ilvendait eel vaunday il avail vendu to smoke fumer f urn si nous vendions noo vaundyong nous ai'ions vendu to sneeze iteruuer aytairnual vous vendien voo vaundyal vous aviez vendu to cough tousser toaMd Us vtndaient eel vaunday Us avaient vendu to think Penser paungsal Narrative. Past Definite. Past Anterior. to reflect to speak to say to repeat Hftickir purler dire rayflsysheer pari si deer I sold. I had sold. riplter raypaytsi ye vendis Jeh vaundee yens vendu to explain declarer dayclarral tu vendis tu vaundee tu eus vendu to be quiet se taire sch tare ii vendit eel vaundee il eut vendu to chut causer cosay nous vendlmes noo vaundcem nous e&mes vendu to tell raconter raccongtai vous vendltes voo vaundeet vous elites vendu to Bjfe demander dcmaundal Us vendirent eel vaundeer Us eurent vendu to answer rf'pondre raypon^dr Future. to reply rtpliqmer rayplcckal Future Past. to be mistaken to object se tromper objtcter sch trompal objectal I shall sell. I shall have sold. to doubt douter dootal ye vendrai Jeh vaundray y'aural vendu to affirm aJSrmer affeennal tu vendras tu vaundrah tu auras vendu to prove Prouvtr prooval it vendra eel vaundrah ilaura vendu to assure assurer assurai nous vendrons noo vaundrong nous aurons vendu to deny nier nccai < vous vendres voo vaundray vous aurez vendu to maintain soutenir sooteneer i Us vendront eel vaundrong Us auront vend* to dispute disputer disputai n s • ^7 * *• * ■■■ e V • S . - i ] ^ Q £* r- \ / (0 \ THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. III ' ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION". ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. to consent consentir congsaunteer to dress s'habiller s'abbeelyai to approve approuver approovai to draw tirer teerai to praise iouer looai to show montrer % mongtrai to admire admirer admeerai to present presenter praysauntai to blame bldmer blahmai to take prendre praundr to believe croire crouahr to accept accepter acceptai to know s avoir savouahr to refuse refuser reffusai not to know ignorer eenyorai to receive recevoir ressevouahr to imagine tmaginer eemajeenai to spoil g&ter gahtat to compare comparer compahrai to throw jeter jettai to imitate imiter eemeetai to lose perdre pairdr * to forget oublier oobleeai to look for chercher shairshai to remember se souvenir seh soovenneer to find trouver troovai to wish, to will vou/oir voulouahr to hide cacker cashai to desire disirer dayseerai to cover couvrir coovreer to wish souhaiter sooaytai to uncover dicouvrir dayeoovreer to love aimer aimai to roast rbtir roteer to natter flatter flattai to boil bouillir booeelyeer to embrace embrasser aumbrassai to ■weigh Peser pezai to hope espirer espayrai to build bdtir bahteer to rejoice rijouir rayjooeer to sow semer semmai to give donner donnai to pluck cueillir kileyeer to thank. remercier remmairceeai to plant Planter plauntai to esteem estimer , esteemai to reap ntoissonner mouahssonnat to honor honor er onorai to despise mip riser maypreezai VOCABULARY OF ADVERBS. to hate hair haeer At first cTabord d'abor to offend offenser offongsai previously auparavant oparravang to tnsult insulter angsuhltai afterwards en suite aunsweet to quarrel quereller kerrellai together ensemble aunsaumbl to swear jurer jurai at last enfln aunfang to punish Punir puneer where oil oo to beat battre batre here id eesee to weep pleurer pleuhrai there Id lah to sigh soupirer sooperai elsewhere ailleurs aeellyure to regret regretter regrettai above dessus dessu to repent se repentir seh repaunteer below dessous dessoo to excuse excuser excusai within dedans deddong * to pardon pardonner pardonnai without dehors dehor to revenge venger vaungjai everywhere par tout partoo to joke railler raeelyai nowhere nulle part nule par to laugh rire reer up en haut aung ho to live vivre veevr down enbas aung bah to feel sentir saunteer anywhere quelque part kelkeh par to touch toucher tooshai already dejd, dayjah to taste gouter gootal often sou vent souvong to see voir vouahr sometimes quelquefois kelcahfouah to hear entendre auntaundr in future & Vavenir ah l'avneer to grow croUre crouahtr always toujours toojoor to go alter allai never jamais jammay to go out sortir sorteer soon bientdt beeangto tc return retourner retoornat , immediately aussitot osito to meet rencontrer rauncongtrai late tard tar to follow suivre sweevr early tot to to run courir cooreer at present h present ah praysong to jump tauter sotai quickly vite veet to fall t amber tombai at once tout de suite too deh sweet to dance danser daungsai afterwards Puis pwee to play to ascend Jouer monter jooai mongtai yesterday yesterday evening hier hier au sot'r yare yare o souahr to descend to ait down descend re dessaundr to-day aujourd*hui ojoordwee s*asseoir sassouahr to-morrow demain , demmang to lie down se coucher seh cooshai to-morrow morning demain matin demraang mattang to rest se reposer seh repozai to-morrow evening demain soir demmang souahr to sleep dormir dormeeer day after to-morrow apris' demain appray demmang to dream river rayvai enough asset assay I to awake s'dveiller sayvailyai too much trap tro 1 1 1 to get up se lever seh lewai little Peu peuh 1 J a — s k i r~~ "■ a K 112 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. ENGLISH. much very more less at least thus nearly about all altogether only well better so much the better bad worse rather without doubt indeed on the contrary scarcely perhaps all at once not at all not yet nothing nothing at all FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. beaucoup irks , fort plus mains au mot'ns si presque environ tout t out -d.- fait settlement hi en mieux taut -mi tux mat pis p/utdt sans doute en tffet au contraire & Peine peut-tlre tout- d- coup Point du tout fas encore rien rien du tout VOCABULARY OF Or with, near near in, within before behind below over against far from on the side of opposite round about Instead of In the midstof on thisside on the opposite side out of after with since between without for through, by against during PU chei ) aupris pris dans, en avant derriere sous sur vers loin de A c6U d* vis -*.- vts autour de au lieu de au milieu de en- dec A de au-Jeld de hors aprks avec depuis entre—parmt sans Pour par contre Pendant bocoo tray, fore • plu mouang o mouang see pressk aungveerong too toot-ah-fay seuhlmong beeang meyew tong meyew mal pee pluto song doot aun effay o con gt rare ah pane put-aitr toot-ah-coo pouangdu too pazauncore reeang reeang du too PREPOSITIONS. oo shay, opray pray dong, aung avvong derreeare too vare louang deh ah cotay deh veez-ah-vee otoor deh o leeyu deh o millyu deh aung-dessah de o-dellah-deh hor appray awec deppwee aungtr — parmee song poor par congtr paundong VOCABULARY OF CONJUNCTIONS. either.. or neither, .nor also but however yet if If not if only even if 0U..OU ni..ni aussi ma is ce pendant Pourtant si si non Pourvu que ouand mime 00..00 nee.. nee ossi may seppaundong poortong tee see nong poorvu keh kaung mcym although that is as except that for because why and therefore consequently FRENCH. quoique c* est -h- dire com me outre que ear parceqne Pourquoi et am si par consequent PJIOXUKCIATION. couak sait-ah-deet comm ootrkeh car parsk poorkouah ai angsee par congsaycong CONVERSATION IN FRENCH. HAVING by study of the foregoing made himself familiar with the salient features of the French gram- mar, the student will require to learn those niceties and elegancies of expression which make the French language the most graceful of ail spoken tongues. These can be largely acquired by learning by heart the following vacabu- lary of phrases, which have been collated under different heads and thus will be the more readily memorized and more certainly retained. CONSTANTLY OCCURRING EXPRESSIONS. Tell me. If you please. Have the goodness. Yes, sir. Yes, Madam. Yes, Miss. No, sir. Will you tell me? I thank you. Do you speak English ? French? I do not speak French. I understand. I do not understand. Do you understand? Give me some bread. Bring me some coffee. Thank you. Good morning. How do you do? Very well. I am very well. How Is your father? Dites-moi. S* it vous plait. Ayes la bonti. Out', Monsieur. Oui % Madame. Out, Mademoiselle. Non, Monsieur, Voules voux me dire ? ye vous remercie. Paries vous anglais ? francais ? ye ne parte pas /ran - cats? ye comprends. ye ne comprends pas. Comprenes- vous ? Donnes moidm pain. Apportes-moi du ca/d, Merci. Bon jour. Comment vous portes vous? Tres-bien. ye me Porte fort bien. Comment se ports monsieur voire pere? Deet mouah. Seel voo play. Aiyai lah bongtal. Wee, mosseeu. Wee, madamm. Wee, madmouazet. Nong, mosseeu* Voolai voo men deer. Jeh voo remmairsee. Parlal-voo aunglai? fraunsai ? Jeh nch pari pah fraunsai. Jeh comprong. Jeh nch comprongpah. Comprennai-voo. Donnai mouah du pang. Apportai-mouah du caffay. Mairsee. Bong joor. Comroong voo por* tai voo? Tray beeang. Jeh meh port fore bee- ang. Comroong seh port mosseeu voir pare? How is your mother? Comment ss ports Commong sch port madams voire mere? mad dam votr mare? She Is not well. £tle ne se ports pas El nch seh port pah She is ill. He U very 111. She has a cold. I must go. Good* by. Farewell. bien. £tle est matade. It est bien malade. £tte est enrkumis. fl/aut partir. Auplaisir. Adieu. beeang. EI al mallad. Eel ai beeang mallad. El ait aunrccmay. Eel fo parteer. O playzeer. Adieu. /_ ^^^ AI t*r K: ~ THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. "3 ENGLISH. Your servant. I wish you a good morning. Good evening. Good night. I wish you good night. My compliments to your father. I will not fail. What! Is it possible? Who would have be* lieved it I Indeed 1 It is impossible. That cannot be. I am astonished at it. It is incredible. I am sorry for it. It is a great pity. It is £. oreat misfor- tune. I am very glad. I am very glad of it. It gives me great joy. Votrt servileur, jfe vous souhaite le bon jour. Bon soir. Bonne nuit. Je vous souhaite une bonne nuit* Saluez monsieur vo- ire pere de ma part, ye n'y manquerai pas. SPECULATORY. Comment I Sera it • it possible I Qui Vaurait crut En viritil Cela est impossible. Cela ne sepeutpas. ye' suis bien itonni. PRONUNCIATION. Votr sairveetur. Jeh voo sooate leh bong joor. Bong souar. Bon nwee. Jeh voo sooate une bon nwee. Salluai mossieu votr pare deh mah par. Jeh nee naaunkrai pah. I wish you joy. I congratulate on it. you C'est incroj/able. yen suisf&ehi. C'est bien dommage, C'est un grand mal- neur, ye suis bien aise. y'en suis fort aise. y'en at bien de la j'oie. ye vousfdlicite. ye vous en fat's mon compliment. AGE. Commong! Serrait-eel posseebl? Kee loray crul Ong vereetay. Slah ait amposseebl. Slah neh seh peu pah. Jong swee beean ai- tonnai. Sait angcrwoyable. Jong swee fashah Say beeang dommaje. Sait ung grong mal- tear. Jeh swee beean aze. Jong swee fort aze. Jon ay beeang deh lah jouah. Jeh voo faileeseet. J eh vooze ong fay mong compleemong. How old areyou? Quel age avez-vous t Kel ahje avai voo? I am twenty-two. faivingt-deux ans. Jay vang-deuh ong. I shall soon be thirty, j'ai bientot trente Jay beeangto traunt ans. ong. He looks older. Uparait plus dgi. Eel paray pluze ahjai. I did not think you ye ne vous croyaispas Jeh neh voo crwoyai were so old. stage", pah see ahjai. TO ASK QUESTIONS. What do you say? Quedites-vous t Keh deet voo? Do you hear me? M'entendez-vous t Mauntaundai-voo? I don't sfleak to you. Ce n'est pas a vous Snay paz ah voo keh queje parle, jeh pari. Do you understand Me comprenez-vous T Men comprennay voo? me? Lis ten. Eeoutez. Aicootai. Come here. Approchez—vencz ici. Aproshai — Vennaiz eessee. What is that? Qu'est-ceque cela t Case keh sla? Why don'tyou answer? Bourquoi uerepondez- Poorcouah neh raipon- vous pas t dai voo pah? What do you mean? Que voulez-vous diret Keh voolai-voo deer? Don't you speak Ne parlez • vous pas Neh parlai voo pah French? francaist fraunsay? Very little, s!r. Bienpeu, Monsieur, Beeang peuh, mossieu. Do you know Mr. H.? Connaissez-vous M»n- Connaissai voo mos- sieur H.t sieu H.? I know him by sight, ye le connmis de vue. Jeh leh connay deh vu. I know him by name, ye le connais de nom. Jeh leh connay deh nong. vVhat doyou call that? Comment appelet-vous Comment applai voo cela T sla ? / What o'clock is it? It is near eight. Light the fire. I am going to get up. Ge t me s ome water. Make haste. How have you slept? Did you sleep well? ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. What does that mean? Qu' est -ce que cela veut Case keh sla veuh deer? direT What is that goodfor? A quoicela esl-t'l bont Ah couah sla ait eel bong? MORNING CHAT. Quelle keure est- UT Kel eur ait-eel? // est pres de knit Eel ai pray deh weet heures. eur. Faites dufeu. Fate du feuh. ye vais me lever. Jeh vay meh levvai. hot AUez me chercher de Allai meh shairshai Veatt ckaude. deh lo shode. Ne soyez pas long- Neh swoyai pah long- te**ps. tong. Comment avez • vous Commont aval • voo J: i- mi t dorm ee ? Avez-vous bien dormi T Avai*voo beeang dor- mee? Very well, thank you. Tres-bt'en, je vous re- Tray beeang, jeh voo mercie. remmairsee. Not very well. Pas tres-bien. Pah tray beeang. I neverwoke all night. jTai dormit tout d'un Jay dormee too dung somme. som. I could not sleep. ye n'ai pas pu dormir. Jeh nai pah pu dor- meer. I never closed my eyes, ye n'ai pas ftrmi Tail. Jeh nai pah fairmay Hie. I have been up this II y a une keure que jr Eel ee ah une eur keh hour. me suis lev4. jeh meh swee levai. You are an early riser. Vous ttes matinal. Vooz ait matteenal. I generally rise early, ye me lev e ordinaire- Jeh meh lave ordee- ment de bonne heure. naremong deh bon eur. Le dejeuner est prtt. Leh daijeunay a* pray- Le dejeuner est •ilpritf'L.eh daijeunay ait eel pray? Venez dejeuner, Vennay daijeunay. Cela est assez. Sla ait assay. Bes pet its pains. Day pettee pang. Do you drink tea or Prenez-vous du thiou Prennay-voo du tay oo coffee? ducafit ducaffay? This cream is sour. Cette crime s'est agrie. Set crame sait agree. Will you take an egg? Veulez - vous manger Voolay • voo maunjay un ceuft un uf? These eggs are hard. Ces ceufs son durs. Saze euf son dure. Pass me the butter. Passes - mot le beurre. Passay mouahlehbeur. Is the coffee strong Le caf& est - il assez Leh caff ay ait eel assay enough? fort f fore? We want more cups. // nous manque desr Eel noo tasses, tass. Take some more sugar. Prenez encore du sucre. Prenaze sucr. Une rdlie. Be la viandefroide. La nappe. Le sucrier, Bu ckocolat. Un couteau, Ce couteau ne coupe Seh cooto neh coop pas. Pas. We have done break- Nous avonsftni de di- Nooz avongfeenee «eh fast. jeuuer. daijeunay. AT THE DINNKK-TAHLK. Show me the bill of Montrez-moi la carte. Mongtray mouah lah fare. carte. What soup will you Quelle soupe vous ser- Kel soup voo sairvee- have? virai-j'e t raije. Breakfast Is ready. Is breakfast ready? Come to breakfast. That is enough. Some rolls. A piece of toast. Cold meat* The table-cloth. The sugar-bowl. Chocolate. A knife. This knife is blunt. maunk day auncore du Une rotee. De lah veeaund frouad. Lah nap. Leh sucreeay. Du shocolah. Ung cooto. ENGLISH. Maccaronl soup. Have you any roast- beef? Not to-day. We have very fine fish. What wines will you have? Let us see. Here is the list. We shall dine at six o'clock. Be punctual. What shall I help you to? Will you take some soup? No, thank you. Willingly. Help yourself. Do you take pepper? Potatoes. The mustard pot. Give me a clean fork. Are you hungry? I am hungry. You don't eat. Are you thirsty? I am very thirsty. I am dying of thirst. Take a glass of wine. Give me something to drink. A cork -screw. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. De la soup* an muca- Deh lah soup o mac* roni. aroni. Av*z ■ vous du btxuf Avay-voo du beuf to- roll t tee ? Pas aujourcThui. Paz ojoordwee. Nous avons de tris -ban Nooz avong deh tray* poisson. bong pouahssong. Quels vhts Monsieur Kcl vang mossieu day* dislre-t-il t zeer-t-eel? Voyons. Vwoiyong. En void la lists. Ong vwoysee lah ft sat, Nous dinerons 6 six Noo deenerons ah heures. scece eur. Soyez exact*. Swoyaiz exact. <%ue vous serviraije T Keh vos sairveeraije? Voulez-vous un feu de soupe t Merci bien. Trbs-volontiers. Servez-vous. Mangez • vous le poivre f Des pommes de terre. Le ittoutardier. Donnez-moi une four- chette propre. A vet - vous /aim t y'ai/aim . Vous ne mangez pas. Avez-vous soif* y'ai bien soif. ye meurs de soif. Prenez an verre de vin. Donnez-moi & bot're. Un tire-bouchon. Voolai-vooz ung pcu deh soup? Mairsee beeang. Tray volontyai. Sairvai voo. Maunjai voo leh pou- ahvr. Day pom deh tare. Leh mootardyai. Donnay mouah une foorshet propr. Avay-voo fang? Jay fang. Voo neh maunjay pah. Avay voo souaf? Jay beeang souaf. Jemeurdeh souaf. Prennaze ung vair de vang. Donnay mouah ah bouahr. Ung teer booshong. TALK AT THE TKA-TABLK. Tea Is quite ready. Le t/ti est tout prlt. They are waiting for On vous attend* you. I am coming. Me void. Pour out the tea. Verses le thi. Bring a saucer. Apportez un* soucoupe. Ring, If you please. A little more milk. What will you take? A slice of bread and butter. H;nul the plate. Will you take some cake? A small piece. Make some toast. Make haste. This is excellent tea. The tea-tray. The milk jug. A set of tea-things. Brown bread. White bread. Stale bread. New bread. Sonnez, s'il vous plait. Encore un peu d* /ait. &ue prendret-vous t Une beurrie — une tar- tine de beurrt. Passtz Fassiette. Voulez • vous du gft • teaut Un petit moretau. Faites encore des rd- ties. Deptchet-vous. Voilii d excellent (hi. L* cabaret. L* pot au /ait. Un service* Du pain bis. Du fain blanc. Du pain rassis, Du pain f rat's. Leh tay al too pray. Ong vooz attong. Meh vwoysee. Vairsay leh tay. Apportaze une soo- coop, Sounay seel voo play. Auncore ung peu deh lay. Keh praundray voo? Une beurray — une tar- teen deh beur. Passay lassyett. Voolay voo du gahto? Ung pettee morso. Fates auncore day ro- tee. Daypayshay voo. Vwoyla dexcellongtay. Leh cabbaray. Leh potc o lay. Ung sairvecce. Du pang bee. Du pang blong. Du pang rassee. Du pang fray. BED-TIME. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. Itesttard. Eel al tar. // n' est pa* tard. Eel nay pah tar. // est encore de bonne Eel ait auncore deh keure. bon eur. Etes-vousfaiigut. Ait voo fateegar ? Point du tout. Pouang du too. Pas beaucoup. Pa bocoo. // n'est que dix heures. Eel nay keh deeze eur. It is time to go to bed. II est Vheur* de secou- Eel al leur deh aeh cher. cooshay. Ma chambre est - ell* M a shaumbr ait e prltef prate? Allez voir. Allay vouahr. Un* couverture d* Une coovairture deh lain*. lane. Bon soir. Bongsouahr. a good y* vous souhaite une J eh -voo sooate unebon bonne nuit. nwee. jTaisommeil. Jay sommail. ENGLISH It is late. It is not late. It is still early. Are you tired? Not at all. Not much. It is only ten. Is my room ready? Go and see. A blanket. Good night. I wish you night. I am sleepy. Avez-vous sommeilT Avay-voo sommail? THE TIME OF DAT. What o'clock is it by Quelle keure *st-il & Kel eur ait-eel a voti your watch? voir* montr* t mauntr? Ell* s'est arrlUe. El sait arraytai. y'ai oublU d* la man- J ay oobleeay deh la ter. mauntay. Ma montr* est *n Ma mauntr ait an avance. avaunce. ElUavanc*. EI avaunce. Elle est en retard. El ait ong retard. Are you sleepy? It has stopped. I forgot to wind it up. My watch is too fast. It gains. It is too slow. It is a quarter of an Ell* retard* d 'un quart EI retard dung kar hour too slow. It goes right. A quarter to eight. Midnight. Noon, A quarter past one. II;tlf past four. d* keure. deur. Elle N bien. El ra beeang. If uil heures mains un Wheet eur mouansung quart. kar. Minuit. Meemvee. Midi. Meedee. Une heure et quart. Une eur ai kar. guatre heures et demie. K atr cur ai demmee. Twenty minutes to six. Six heures mains vingt. Seece eur mouang vang. It has just struck nine. Neuf heures vi*nntnt Ncuv eur veeyen deh de sonner. sonnay. Ten minutes past Sept heures dix mi- Set eur dee meenute. seven. nutes. Exactly three o'clock. Trois heures juste. Trouaz eur juste. The clock is striking. Voild Vhor/oge qui Vwoylalorlojekce son. tonne. THE PROMENADE. Shall we take a little Irons - nous fair* un Eerong noo fare ung walk? petit tour T pettee BMrl Willingly. D* tout man ea>ur. Deh too mong keur. Where shall we go? Par oit irons-nous t Par oo eerong noo? On the highroad. Sur la grand* rout*. Sure la graunde root. There is a good deal II jr fait beaucoup d* Eel ec fay bocoo deh of dust. poussier*. poossyare. Into the fields. Dans la campagne. Dong la caumpaine. They are reaping. On moissonne. Ong mwoysson. They are making hay. On fauck* rkerb*. On foshe lairbe. What a pleasant scent! Quelle odeur dt'ti- Kcl odeur daileeaee- cieustl ycusa. An abundant harvest. Une moisson (une re"- Une mwoyasong (une colt*) abondante. raicolt) abaundaunte. Let us cross this field. Trover sons ct champ. Travairsongsehshong, Which isthewayloA. ?*w-7 est techemin pour Kel at leh shemmang al/er d A. T pour allay ah A? -•5=-^ ^k «-* <9 fh » • A \ " / f 1 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 115 ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. i Where does this road Oil conduit cette route t Oo condwee set root? We must soon begin // faudra que nous Eel fodrah keh nooz lead? fires. ayon s du feu sous peu. ayong du feu soo peu. Which way am I to go? De quel cotifaut-it que Deh kel cotay fot eel We have had a fire al- Nous avons dej'a fait Nooz avong dayjahfay f aillet keh j'aeel? ready. dufeu. du feu. Straight before you. A 11 'e x d > o i 't devant Allay drouah devong It is soon dark. II fait bientot nuit. Eel fay beeangtonwee. Z'OUS. voo. It is a fine night. 21 fait une belle nuit. Eel fait une bel nwee. To the left. A gauche. Ah goshe. A dark night. Une nuit obscure. Une nwee obscure. To the right. A droite. Ahdrouate. Is it moonlight? Fail • it ctair de tune t Fait-eel dare dehlune. About a mile. Environ un mille. Ongveerong ung meel. Do you think it will Croyez * vous q u'il Crwoiyai • voo keel Hardly a mile. A peine un mille. Ah pane ung meel. rain? pteuvet pleuv? Let us go in. Rentrons. Rauntrong. I am afraid so. yen aipeur. Jon ai peur. It rains. II phut. Eel pleu. It drizzles. // bruine. Eel brueene. PERSONAL ENQUIRIES. Do you know Mr. F. ? Connaissex-vous Mon- Connassay voo mos> It pours. 21 phut it verse. Eel pleut a vairse. sieur F.f sieu F.? It is very windy. It fait bien du vent. Eel fay beeang du vong. I don't know anybody Je ne connais personne Jeh neh connay pairson It is winter. JVous voila dans Noo vwoila dong lee* of that name. de ce nom. deh seh nong. Phiver. vair. I know him. ye le connais. Jeh leh connay. It is very cold. // fait excessivement Eel faitexcesseevmong Intimately. Inlimement. Angteememong. froid. frouah. I am very intimate Je suis tris-lii avec Jeh swee tray leeay It is bad weather, 21 fait mauvais temps. Eel fay movay tong. with him. lui, avec lwee. Cloudy weather. Un temps gris. Ung tong gree. He is a friend of mine. II est un de mes amis. Eel ait ung deh maze It is foggy, 21 fait du brouillard. Eel fay du brooillar. amee. The sky is overcast, Le cielest pris de tous Leh seeyel ai pree deh I have known him a Je le connais depuis Jeh leh connay depwee cote's. too cotay. • ; long time. longtemps. longtong. It snows. 2lneige. Eel naje. He is my brother-in- C'est mon beau-frire. Sai mong bo-frare. It freezes, II gelt. Eeljale. law. Can you skater Savez-vous patiner. Savay voo pateenay? ■ Do you know him? Le connaissex-vous f Leh connaissay-voo. It thaws. lldigele. Eel daijaie. I know him very well, Je le connais parfaite- Jeh leh connay parfate- Christmas. Noel. Noel. ment. mong. New Year's day, Lej'our de ran. Le joor deh long. Where does he live? Ok demeure-t-il t Oo demmeur-t-eel? Light the fire. Allumez lefeu. Allumay leh feu. Close by. Icipres. \- Eessee pray. I am looking for the je chercht les //*• Jeshairshelay pangset. A step or two from A deux pas d'ici. Ah deu pa deessee. tongs. cettes. here. Are there any coals? T-a-t-it du charbon t Ee at eel du sharbong. Is it far? Est-celoint Ai-ce iouang. Tell the servant to Difes a la servante Deets ah lah sairvaun Can you direct me to Pouvex • vous m'indi- Poovayvoo mandee • bring some. d'en a/ Sorter. don opportay. his house? quer samaisonT kay sah maisong? I will show you where Je vous monlrerai oil Jeh voo mauntrerai oo GENERAL CONVERSATION. he lives. // demeure. eel demmeur. Cin you read French? Pouvez-vous tire le Poovay voo leer leh THE SEASONS. francais t f raunsay ? You read very well. Vous lisez tres*bien. Voo leesay tray beeang. Spring has come. Voilti. le printemps ar. Vwoila leh prangtongs Do youspeakFrench? Partez-vous francais T Parlay voo fraunsay? ; rivi. arreevay. I speak it a little. Je le parte un peu. Jeh leh pari ung peu. ■ It is still cool. // fait tonjours un peu Eel fay toojoors ung I do not understand it, je ne le comprends pas. Jeh neh leh compcong ■ frais. peu fray. pah The trees are begin- Les arbres commencent Laiz arbr commaunse How long have you Depuis quand Pap' Depwee kong lappre- ning to bud. & boutonner. ah bootonnnay. learned? prenez voust nay voo? The season is very for- La saison est Hen Lah saizon ai beeang A short time only, Depuis peu de temps. Depwee peu deh tong. ward. avancie. avaunsay. You pronounce very Vous prononcez tris Vooz pronongsay tray The season is very La saison est bien re- Lah saizon ai beeang well. bien. beeang. backward. tardee. retarday. You have a very good Vous aver Vacoent Vooz avay lacsong tray Summer is coming. L'iti approche. Lettay approshe. accent. tr'es-pur. pure. It is becoming warm. // commence & /aire Eel commaunse a fare Do you understand? Comprenez-voust Comprenay voo? chaud. sho. It is no matter. Ce n*est rien. Snay reeang. I am very warm. J'ai bien chaud. Jay beeangsho. I am come to tell you. ye viens vous dire. Jeh veeang voo deer. It is very warm. Ilfait tres-chaud. Eel fay tray sho. I don't think much of ye n*en fat's pas grand Jeh nong fay pah grong It is a fine day. C est un beau jour. Sait ung bo joor. it. cis. cah. The heat is unbearable. La chaleur est insup- Lah shalleur ait ang- No sooner said than Aussitot dit, aussitot Osseeto dee, osseeto portable. supportabl. done. fait. fay. .Let us go Into the Allons dans V ombre. Allong dong lombr. I can bear It no longer, ye n*en puis plus. Jeh nong pwee plu. shade. She took it in bad part. £11* Pa pris en mau- El lah preez on movaze I think we are going Je crois que nous Jeh croah keh nooz vaise part. par. to have a storm. aurons de Forage. orong de Iorahje. I like being here. ye me plat's t'ci. Jeh me plaze eessee. Summer is over. Voilnriti passi. Vwoila lettay passay. I have been told. On m*a dit. Ong mah dee. The leaves are begin. Lesfeuilles commenccnfLay file commaunst a As much as I can. Autant qu*il est en mot. Otong keel ait ong ning to fall. itomber. taumbay. mouah. \ The days are still fine. Les jours sont encore Lay joor sont auncore So much the more. A plus forte raison. Ah plu fort raisoag. k , fort beaux. fore bo. I value it very much. y\y tie us bcaucoup. Jee teeang bocoo. [ V • " "-J— e> T" i u6 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. ~ ;F the importance to all classes of a legi- ble, easy and rapid handwriting, we scarcely need speak. No other one attainment assists an equal number of young ladies and gentlemen to positions of profit and advancement, or affords more satisfaction as an accomplishment ; and we believe it to be an acquirement within the reach of all persons having common sense and one good hand. It has been the determination of the publish- ers of this work to spare no pains or expense to place before the student the very best instruction and examples in every department of Penman- ship. They accordingly employed Prof. D. T. Ames, of New York, the famed pen artist, and editor of the Penman's Art Journal, to prepare, specially for this work, the following pages of instruction and examples. It is their belief that the instruction embodies the best thought of the times, while the copies and specimens are certainly the product of the highest order of artistic skill. All the copies and specimens have been photo- engraved directly from the original pen-and-ink copy, and therefore may be said to be actual pen-work, and not the result of the engraver's skill, as is generally the case with what has heretofore been presented to the public as repro- ductions of penmanship. The learner will, therefore, know that the copies before him, having once been executed with a pen, may be exactly reproduced by the same simple process. If, in some instances, the forms are less rigidly correct, or the lines less delicate than are fine plate engravings, we are fully convinced that the more easy, flowing and natural lines of the actual pen-work will more than compensate for such lack, if so it may be termed. The publishers are confident that no equally practical and useful exposition of teaching and practicing the art of Penmanship has ever been presented to the public. 4£ \ IV PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 117 ^P0SITI0HS.4^ 1 IRST in importance to the pupil in writing is a CORRECT Position. As in logic an error in the premises must lead to false conclusions, so a bad position while learn- ing to write must lead to failure. It is only when in a correct position that the pen, even in the hand of its skillful master, is capable of producing the smooth, graceful line, shade and curve so essential to good writing. If such is the fact when in a master's hand, how doubly so it is in the undisciplined and struggling hand of the learner ! It is also important that a proper position be maintained at the table or desk, as well as the relative positions of the pen, hand, paper, desk and body. Each of three posi- tions at the desk has more or less advo- cates, and each, in our opinion, is com- mendable, according to the circumstances of the writer. We give each position, with the reasons urged in their favor. Right Position. — Turn the right side near to the desk, but not in contact with it. Keep the body erect, the feet level on the floor. Place the right arm parallel to the edge of the desk, rest- ing on the muscles just forward of the elbow, and rest the hand on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, not permitting the wrist to touch the paper. Let the hands be at right angles to each other, and rest on the book, keeping the book parallel to the side of the desk. This position is advocated as furnishing the best support for the hand and arm while writing, and we think not without jus- tice in school or class rooms, where the desk is often sloping and narrow. Front Position. — In this, the same relative position of hand, pen and paper should be maintained as described in the former one. In commercial col- leges and writing academies, where more spacious desks, or tables, are used than in the common school room, this posi- tion is permissible and is fre- quently adopted. fmokt fu^hion RIGHT POSITION. Left Position. — Without illustrating this position, we would say that the left side is presented to the desk, and the same rela- tive positions maintained as in the right and front. This position is advocated on the ground of its relieving the right arm from being burdened with any support of the body while writing, and thus "giving a more free, rapid and less tiresom - action to the hand and arm. This argument has considerab 3 force where the fore-arm or muscular movement is practiced. It is also the most convenient, if not a necessity, in the count- ing-room, where numerous and large books are required to remain in a position at right angles with the desk, and also in the execution of large drawings or specimens of penmanship, which necessarily, or most conveniently, occupy positions directly in front of the artist. Right Oblique Position. — Another position at the desk, sometimes advocated by authors and teachers, is the right oblique, which is a position between the front and side, as illustrated below. In our opinion, the question which of these positions is to be adopted is not of such vital importance as that the prop- er relative posi- tion of pen % hand and paper should be maintained, and thatthearm should be perfectly free from the weight of the body while writing. Position of Pen and Arm. — Take the pen between the first and second fingers and thumb, letting it cross the forefinger just forward of the knuckle, and the second finger at the root of the nail, three-fourths of an inch from the pen's point. Bring the point squarely to the paper and let the tip of the holder point toward the right shoulder. The thumb should be bent outward at the first joint, and touch the holder opposite the first joint of the forefinger. The first and second fingers should touch each other as far as the first joint of the first finger; the third and fourth must be slightly curved and separate from the others at the middle joint, and rest upon the paper at the tips of the nails. The wrist must always be elevated a little above the desk. This position of the pen is undoubtedly the best for all writers using the finger movement, as it admits of the greatest freedom and facil- ity of action of the fingers. But among writers using the muscular movement, where less depends upon the action of the fingers, it is common, and we think well, to allow the holder to RIGHT OBLIQUE POSITION. 7laS) The result of study properly combined with practice: Undoubtedly, many of our readers will see forcibly illustrated in one of these examples their own experience. So manifest is the effect of these different modes of practice that we have only to glance at a piece of writing to discern the extent to which a writer has combined study with practice while learning to write. UNITY AND- SIMPLICITY OF FORM. It is an old but true saying that " a jack of all trades is master of none." This is so from the fact that, working at many things, neither the hand nor brain can attain to a high order of proficiency or skill. It is the specialist that advances the standard of progress in all the directions of human discovery. Concentration of thought and action makes the great masters of the world, while by a diffusion of the same the greatest genius is dissipated and fails to attain to a marked degree of eminence. So, in learning to write, the pupil who vacillates between many systems and multitudinous forms of letters must inevitably fail of becoming an expert and skilful writer. It is a matter of frequent observation that persons learning or practicing writing vacillate between from two to six different forms of the capitals, and as many as are possible in the small letters, apparently in the belief that variety is the chief element of good writing, which is a double mistake, as it detracts from the good appearance of the writing at the same time that it enhances the difficulty of learning and of executing it. For example, we have known writers who, in executing a short piece of writing, would for many of the letters make use of forms as varied and numerous as follows: and use more or less variety in all of the letters, thus requiring study and practice upon about one hundred different and unnec- essarily complicated forms for the alphabet, in place of twenty- six. Thus the labor and uncertainty of becoming a skillful writer is magnified fourfold. A single and simple form for each letter, capital and small, should be adopted, and, with a few exceptions, which we shall hereafter explain, should be invaria- bly practiced. The frequent and uniform repetition will impart that accuracy of form, grace and facility of execution which constitute good writing. The simple forms are not only more easily acquired and more rapidly executed, but they are more easily read than the more ornate styles ; in fact, those forms that cost the most are worth the least. It is as if a merchant should constantly pur- chase an inferior class of merchandise and pay the high price of the best; his chances for success certainly would not be very promising. ECONOMY OF FORM. Labor, whether of the clerk or mechanic, is rewarded accord- ing to the results it can produce. The copyist or clerk who can write one hundred words equally as well in the same time that another writes fifty will certainly, other things being equal, command twice as much pay. The rapidity with which writing can be executed depends largely upon the simplicity of the forms of letters used and the si/o of the writing. A medium or small hand is written with much more ease and rapidity than a large hand, from the fact that the pen can be carried over short spaces in less time and with greater ease than over long ones', and can execute simple ■ .- 120 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. ~7 forms more easily and rapidly than complicated ones. To illus- trate : Suppose one writer were to habitually make the capital R thus : Which requires eleven motions of the hand to execute ; and that another were to uniformly make it thus: /-~y Requiring only four motions of the hand. It is / J/ apparent that the difference of time required to make \^y L eacn cannot be less than the proportion of eleven to four. That is not all. The complicated form consists of many lines, some of which are required to run parallel to each other, and all made with reference to balancing or harmonizing with some other line, and requires to be made with much greater care and skill than the more simple form, so that the disadvantage is even greater than indicated by the simple proportion between eleven and four. The practice of these complex forms of the alphabet will be fatal to rapid and legible business writing. These remarks are intended to apply more especially to busi- ness and unprofessional writing. Where show and beauty are of greater consideration than dispatch, variety ar.1 complexity of forms are quite proper, and even necessary. We give here the entire alphabet of capitals such as we would recommend for all business purposes, as combining sim- plicity of form and ease of construction : at ' @ ' J>US cf o# of o (? a Of- a, y. g. We would add as not objectionable the following: CORRECT PROPORTION ESSENTIAL TO GOOD WRITING. One might be able to execute faultlessly each single letter of the alphabet, and yet be a most miseraUe writer. Writing, to lly good, must be harmonious in all its ports; tetter* must portlonat* to each other, properly connected, ipaced, have D uniform slope and degree of pen-pressure, etc., as well at an easy and graceful movement. The following example will illustrate the bad effect of disproportion of letters : It will be seen that each letter, taken by itself, is creditably accurate in form, and yet, when associated with each other in a word, they present an appearance as ungainly as would an ox yoked with an elephant. We have often seen writing in which the letters were really badly formed, yet so harmonious in their combinations, and easy in their construction, as to present an attractive, not to say an elegant, effect; while, upon the other hand, we have often seen writing in which the letters were well formed, and yet so awkward in their combinations, and labored in their execution, as to be really painful to the sight of persons having a refined and correct taste regarding writing. CORRECT AND INCORRECT SPACING. Another important factor of good writing is the proper spac- ing and connecting of letters and words. Upon these very much depends, as in many instances the connecting lines alone impart the distinctive character to letters. In determining the proper spacing of writing, the distance between the straight lines of the small u may be taken as a space in width. The distance between the parts of letters hav- ing more than one downward stroke should be one space ; between the letters one and one-fourth spaces, measured at the head line, except a, d, g and f, which should occupy two spaces, measuring from the preceding letter to the point of the ovals; between words there should be two spaces. Example of correct spacing : Incorrect spacing: 'T (jlltt^Mt^U&s&fs* % SLANT OF WRITING. The degree of slant now adopted by the leading authors, and one which we approve, is at an angle of 52 from the horizon- tal, as per diagram in a preceding column. The relative effects of incorrect and correct slope may be seen in the following examples: The variation in the slope of different letters and their parts will be rendered much more perceptible by drawing straight extended lines through their parts, thus : / _M -• a ~A PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 121 One of the most common faults in slope occurs on the last part of letters m, n, u, h and /, which are made thus : Example of correct slant, space, proportion, etc. : SIZE OF WRITING. In its practical application to the affairs of life, writing must be greatly varied in its size, according to place and purpose. It would be obviously bad taste to use the same size and style of writing for the headings of a ledger and other books of account or record that would be employed on the body of a page. In the address of a letter and superscription upon the envelope much greater license, as regards size and style, may be taken than in the body of the writing. Nor is it practical at all times to maintain a uniform size for body writing. It may, with propriety, be written larger upon wide than narrow-ruled paper. Care should always be taken to gauge the size of the writing according to the space in and the purpose for which it is to be written. This should be done by varying the scale rather than the proportions of the writing. When writing upon ruled paper we should always imagine the space between the lines to be divided into four equal spaces, three of which may be occupied by the writing ; the fourth must not be touched, save by the downward extended letters from the line above. This open space between' the lines separates them, and enables the eye more readily to follow and distinguish between the lines when reading. A small or medium hand is the best, both as regards the readiness with which it is read and the ease and rapidity of its execution. In a large hand, the writing is apt to be more or less inter- mingled and confused, the loops of one line often cutting into and obscuring the writing upon other lines, while the more extended sweeps of the pen in the large writing are proportion- ately slow and tedious. For legibility, ease and rapidity of execution, small, unshaded writing is decidedly the best. HOW TO LEARN ANE TEACH WRITING. CONSPICUOUS FAULTS. To note and indicate all the faults liable to occur in writing, or to prescribe a cure-all remedy, is more than we presume to undertake. They are as numerous and varied as are the cir- cumstances, habits, tastes and accomplishments of the writers; but it is quite safe to say that a very large proportion of all the "unpleasantness" in writing comes from sheer carelessness on the part of the writers, which is manifest in the awkward, non- descript or uncertain forms which are employed — forms often most easy and graceful, but which, taken separately, represent no intelligible character, and, apart from the context, are liable to be mistaken for any one of the several letters that are similar in their construction. This fault is specially grievous where it occurs in an initial letter, in short names, abbreviations and cipher writing, as in such cases the context furnishes the reader little or no aid. Another prolific source of annoyance, and not unfrequently illegibility, arises from the inexcusable use of flourishes and superfluous lines. We say inexcusable, because, at best, they mix and confuse the writing, and, when hurriedly and carelessly made, they frequently take forms which are liable to be mis- taken by the reader for letters or parts of letters, and thereby puzzle and annoy, if not entirely change the intent of the writer. Another frequent fault is the personal eccentricity which leads writers to adopt, as their style, forms for letters, and especially capitals and in autographs, which are entirely outside the pale of any known system of writing, and whose identity can only be guessed at by those unfamiliar with the peculiarity. While, as we have stated, it is quite impossible to name all the sources of bad writing, or to formulate rules for its pre- vention or correction, we do believe that there are many of the most common faults — among which are those enumerated above— that with a little thought and care may be avoided. To aid the student, as far as possible by negative instruction, to avoid some of the more common and inexcusable faults, we have formulated a few rules, with examples illustrative, which we here present. Rule First. — All unnecessary, superfluous or flourished lines must be omitted ; as : Rule Second. — No capital letters or words should be joined together; as : tor .. £—Jt y* arl 122 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. A'ult Third. — Capital letters should not be joined to the smaller letters; as: ^L&J&riy for ^U/dn/ Rule Four. — The capital T should never be looped at the top; as: Several expensive litigations have grown out of the delivery of messages having the latter combination, as Seventy when it was written for Twenty, or vice versa, by the sender of the dispatch. We are not informed respecting the precise circum- stances of any of the cases, but, supposing the error to have been in orders to buy twenty thousand bushels of grain, shares of stock, or other thing of similar value, the consequence might have been serious. Rule Five. — A capital // should never be so made as to be mistaken for an A or other combination ; as : Rule Six. — Cross all /'s with a single horizontal line at the top. A telegraph dispatch addressed as above was taken down and sent to Ha-Hi-E, who was not known at the street and number to which it was directed, and it was consequently returned ; and when the error was discovered, and traced to the operator who made it, he was asked how he came to make such a mistake, and whom he supposed lla-Hi-E to be. The operator replied, " Some Indian Chief or Chinese " — a very natural supposition in such a city of all peoples as is New York. Rule Set en. — The capital /should always be made above the line, while the J should extend below. Otherwise, when used as initials or in cipher-writing, they cannot be distinguished with certainty. Rule Eight. — The small .t should never be made with the loop below the line, as it is liable to be mistaken for a/ or f; as : fbrMrft/ VL Rule A'ine. — Letters should be connected in their parts, and with other letters, by the proper and characteristic curved or straight lines. It is a common and grievous fault in writing that a straight line or the wrong curve is employed in the construc- tion and connection of letters, thus leaving them without dis-* tinctive character, or imparting one which is false and misleading. For instance, a form made thus y/^^ may be taken for an /7^/,* ^4/- and, possibly, for a sC& . Incases where the context docs not determine, its identity becomes a mere matter of guess, and when extended thus /fsfiff^ its significance, as will be seen, is still more vague and uncertain, as it might be intended for either of the following seven combinations : With a pro|>crly trained hand no more time or effort is required to impart the true and unmistakable characteristics to each letter than to make forms whose identity is open to doubt ami conjecture. *. — © "71 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 123 Rule Ten. — No letter should have a doubtful form, such as may be mistaken for one of several letters ; as : r - # . of' or Or . fad* J*/Sr/0^a/; ^Cfif. Rule Eleven. — All eccentric form6 and conspicuous personal oddities, which so often render writing, and especially auto- graphs, illegible, should be avoided; as: for cfir ^rt This example was used as an initial letter in f*~tr a communication recently received. In address- ing the author we could only do as we are often obliged to do with doubtful initials — make a facsimile, and leave it to the postmaster to decipher at the office of delivery. Writers should remember that short names and initial letters, when carelessly written, are very liable to be misread, from the fact that no aid can be derived from the context. A large proportion of letters which miscarry through the mails do so from the careless manner in which they are super- scribed. As an example, let us suppose that a writer desires to address an important communication to but he hurriedly and carelessly superscribes it thus : ^^^^^c^^^^r J&0 u^^^^^^<^^k^^^< Lc \ K- 128 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. " SCALE OF SLANT. -I . • » // / r PRINCIPLES. ZZL ■s — 1 — / * / *— • SCALE OF PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS. ZZ33 ^ 1 r, W& rf^rf^y^:/r/ \jj;//r ;js /j y sw/js'~W- •te PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. I29 STANDARD ALPHABETS. / d f ^ / /OS* >«%>^^4^^^ /£<$4te/s4Me'sv's* Jr^/is^m sprr /^fe^^ r ^tw y?n£dfUif . SI S) SI // SI * SI Si rt/f Y- \a^- 9 «- -» 9 > N A 130 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. C^W%5z£z^%^> (^M^ca^zZ^ L^rmfifims ^^J^Utana^n^ (O/? ♦ A 9. 4k. PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. '3» V';V.-^; WHOLE-ARM CAPITALS.— PLAIN. /0F~ /^ ^ WHOLE-ARM CAPITALS.— FLOURISHED. / St ! 132 PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. M *f^um V- =7f €uO€€M> /0. / z4/.Q?sc4s yO^ny^n^ P s44^/2WZcd^s/i>t04i$g^ 4/ ^jlpmEN embellishment is one of the oldest and : j-/ most useful of the arts. In ancient times, 2_ [*a m -■<-*' Wm& •SttSBRJZ U .' - >)- 4*- - — > # aftrfofgljtjMronajtqrsftt - > PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 147 Z 5 >^ -^-<- r- 1 148 ~7ff SHORT-HANL, ANI) TYPE-WRITING. pSoit* to Require cmb p^otu to practice ttjese ^rts. -i-f*^^*^ HORT-HAND is the general term applied to all styles of brief or rapid writing, as dis- tinguished from the ordinary writing, or long-hand. Numerous systems of abbre- viated writing under various names, the principal of which were "Short-hand" and "Sten- ography," have been used and recommended by prominent men from the times of Socrates and Cicero down to the present day. It is commonly conceded that we are indebted for the first system of short-hand which has been preserved to the invention of Tiro, a freedman of Cicero, in the year 65 B.C., although it is recorded that Xenophon, the Greek philosopher and historian, used abbreviated charac- ters for noting down the sayings of Socrates, and that these characters were adopted by the Romans and reduced by Ennius to a methodical scheme, about 150 B.C. Herodotus also informs us that traces of abbreviated writing were found among the Persians 480 B.C., at the time of the expedition of Xerxes into Greece. The Tironian characters were used for the preservation of speeches as delivered in the Roman Senate. Plutarch says that the oration of young Cato of Utica, delivered in the Roman Senate on December 5th, 63 B.C., was reported at Cicero's request. In the year 52 B.C., professional short-hand writers in Rome are mentioned for the first time. Besides the use of short-hand by Tiro and his pupils in the Roman Senate, Cicero was accompanied by Tiro, as short-hand writer, in many of his travels, and many of his letters were written from dictation. Pliny is represented as never being abroad without a short-hand writer at his elbow ; and St. Paul dic- tated to Tychicus, his amanuensis, some of his epistles. Under the Emperor Constantine, imperial or official reporters were among the court attaches. Mention is also made of them in other courts, and references to the quality of their work and the inci- dents connected with it, such as severe punishments for betrayal of professional secrets, and misreporting. All the facts collected from history clearly indicate the practical uses of short-hand as at the present time. From the verses of the Latin poet Ausonius, written about the year 380, we learn something of the manner of writing, in the following words: " Fly, young and famous reporter ; prepare the tablets on which you express, with small dots, whole speeches as rapidly as others would trace one single word." These early characters were called notte non literce, and the short-hand writers were called notarii. They were a numerous and respectable profession, including many of the well known names of hi-' such as Cicero, Augustus, Vespasian. Julius Caesar and Cassienus. Tracing short-hand from these earliest times, we find it under the titles of Brachygraphy, Charactcrie, Tuc hygraphy, Semigraphy, Criptographv. Bodio- graphy, Zeiglography, Polygraph)-, Zeitography, / ^ V SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. 149 ~7[ L Radiography, Thoography and Stenography. The last name is still applied to nearly all systems of short-hand writing in use on the continent of Eu- rope. By a careful study of the history and characters of the systems of short-hand, we find that they were based upon the common spelling, or ordinar^ alphabet, fol- lowing the ABC order, until 1837, when Isaac Pit- man, of Bath, England, invented a system of sound- writing based upon an analysis and philosophical arrangement of the different sounds of the English language, and in the year 1840 issued a small sheet entitled " J'honography ; or, Writing by Sound: a New and Natural System of Short-hand," which sold for a penny a copy. One of these original sheets is in the possession of Brown & Holland, of Chicago, who have had pho- tographic copies made of it. The system of Isaac Pitman has passed through many editions, undergone frequent changes and improvements, and is now used more than any other system in England, although several others have been invented and published there. In the United States, Mr. Pitman's system was republished as early as 1845. ^ n I ^53> Mr- Benn Pitman, a brother of Isaac Pitman, who had been teaching phonography in England for ten years, came to this country and commenced the publica- tion of phonographic works, which he has carried on ever since, at Cincinnati, Ohio. The early and continued dissemination of Pitman's phonography in the United States has given to that system the advantage of having the largest number of practition- ers in this country, although many other systems of short-hand have been published. Those, however, having a phonetic basis have all been derived from, or, rather, are imitations of, Pitman's system. The changes made by Isaac Pitman in the various edi- tions of his phonographic works in England, and by Benn Pitman in the various editions of his system in the United States, hive caused these two systems to differ. Benn Pitman's system, although the oldest phonographic system in this country, has kept pace with all the recent improvements in the art. In illustrating the principles of phonography and its uses, in this article, we have selected this system, the alphabet of which will be found on this page. SHORT-HAND OR PHONOGRAPHIC ALPHABET. CHAR- ACTER. SOUND. \ p as in up. \ b I t I d / ch / ) k g be. it. do. each. joy- oak. g°- if. V. v " vie. ( th " oath. ( th " thy. me. day. alms. all. no. boot. ice. oil. CHAR- ACTER. or O or o > J J r r *-" j Ai J SOUND. s as in us. sh zh 1 y wish, azure, ale. ye. no. sing. he. it. pet. at. up. foot. owl. By a careful examination of this alphabet it will be seen that the forty sounds of the English language are represented in a philosophical arrangement, con- sisting of twenty-four consonants, twelve vowels and four diphthongs. The simplest geometric signs, a straight line and a curved line about one-sixth of an inch in length, written in -four different directions, and made light and heavy, furnish sufficiently dis- tinct characters for the representation of all the consonants. A small dot and dash are used to rep- resent the vowels, being placed in three relative / A T> V K~ '5° ;•■■ SHORT-HAND AND TYPEWRITING. positions to the consonant strokes, and, made light and heavy, are adequate for all practical purposes. A small angle placed in two positions to the conso- nants represents the diphthongs. The signs for the " / > "P. ? v^. V, ^ 2cc, V \ n<- s C \ ^ftf" \ St C /O \ £'<> oi HV - S NN-» 6 /, vowels and diphthongs may be written on either side of the consonant stroke. For example, write the vertical shaded line d and make the second vowel, a heavy dot, on the left-hand side near the middle of the letter, for a, which will be read a-d, and represents the word aid. Make the same sign d and place the second-place vowel a on the opposite of right-hand side of the letter near the centre, and you have d-a, representing the word day. Write the horizontal consonant stroke «, and make a short dash above the centre of it, thus representing o-n, and spelling the word own. Write n and put the dash for the vowel o be- neath it, and you spell the word know. This illustrates one of the principal features of phonographic writing or sound-writing, repre- senting only the sounds in words as spoken. By the use of the above alphabet any word in the English language, and, indeed, in almost any other language, may be written much more briefly than in ordinary long-hand. By the combination of letters, writing all the conso- nants of a word without lifting the pen, and by the use of abbreviating principles, such as hooks and circles on the consonants and the combining of words into phrases, a sjx;ed in writing sufficient to keep pace with a rapid speaker may be attained. This is termed the " reporting style " of short-hand, in which the appended letter is written. TYPE-WRITING. It is not probable that any system of short- hand writing will ever be brought into common use and supplant the ordinary handwriting. The attainment of this end has been the fond delusion of many authors of short-hand systems, but years of labor and thought have as yet failed to produce such a system. The opinion held by some, that no short-hand writer can read the writing of another, is not a corre< t one, as there are, at the present time, hundreds of short- hand writers who read each other's writing in correspondence and in actual work, so that it is altogether ]>ossible that short-hand may be so written by one person as to be read by ■ others. However, in the practical use of the art, this question is of little important nearly all short-hand writing is transcribed, that is, written in onlinar ■ long-hand, by the writer, in order to adapt it to the various uses now made of it. This transcribing has, in past years, been done by the tedious method of long-hand writing. VL • K — 9 A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. I " way. ef Vs. ' ' if. em •^ " me. ve V* ' ' vote. en x-/ " no. eth ( ' ' oath. ing >^ " sing. the ( ■ ' they. he j*s " hat. ee *1 ' ' me. i • 1 " sit. ay •1 ' aim. e .j " let. ah J ' ' car. a " cat. aw -1 ' ' all. o -. " not. oh -j ' old. u _l «' nut. ooh J ' ' boot. oo " foot. eye VI ( ' pile. ow A! " now. oi fit ' ' toy. ew J " you. LEARN the names, by repeating them over several times, tracing the signs with a dry pen as you pro- nounce each name. Trace the short-hand signs several times, naming each as you trace it, according to the following directions: The signs pe, be, ef, ve, ar, we, slope from left to right, and are written downward ; the signs te, de, elh, the, es, ze (stroke form), are upright, and are always written downward; the signs che, jay, esh, zhe, ye, slope from right to left, and are written down- ward ; the signs el, he, slope from right to left, and are written upward, commencing at the line; the signs kay, gay, em, en, ing, are horizontal, and are written from left to right, the lower part of the letter touching the line. WRITING EXERCISE I. Write the consonant signs ten times on double-ruled paper, the lower part of each sign touching the line, according to the alphabetical arrangement — pe, be, te, de, che, jay, giy, ef, ve, elh, the, es, ze, esh, zhe, el, ye, ar, we, em, en, ing, he. The shaded straight letters are made heavy throughout. The shaded curve letters are made heavy in the center, tapering toward each end. The vowels and diphthongs are written in three posi- tions, beginning, middle and end of the consonant, and are called first-place, second-place, third-place. When written on the left hand of upright or sloping consonants, they are read before the consonant. Write before the letter te the first-place vowels ee, i, aw, o, eye, oi ; also write them before pe, che. When vowels are written above a horizontal letter they are read first. Write the first place vowels before the letter kay. Write before the letters/^, te,che and kay the four second-place vowels, ay, e, oh, u. Write before these four consonants the six third-place vowels — ah, a, ooh, oo, consonant, it must be written on the lelV hand side of upright and sloping letters, and above horizontal letters. When it is — desired to represent a vowel after a consonant, it must be — placed on the right-hand side of upright and sloping letters, _ and beldw horizontal letters. All dash vowels are made at _ii right angles with the direction of the consonant to which they are placed. "ii; When vowels are inserted in words, the writing is called " vocalized," or "corresponding style; " when the vowels are — omitted, it is called "unvocalized," or " reporting style." In the short-hand lesson words are placed in three positions, according to the vowel used. Read aloud lines i to 8 in- 21 elusive, tracing each word with a dry pen as you read it. Consonants which are written upward — el, ray, he — are "15 vocalized from the bottom, which is the beginning of the let- ter. The first word in line 9 is eel. Read aloud and trace — lines 9, 10, II and 12. — The object of writing words in three positions, according to the accented vowel, is to indicate the vowels in unvocalized words. Each of the letters in lines 13, 14 and 15 represents a word. Read these lines aloud, using one of the vowels indi- cated by the position of the letter, making a common word, and tracing each character as read. For example, the first word in line 13 may be read air, ore, or err. When words are grouped together in sentences, there is no difficulty in determining what word is intended to be represented by the consonant outlines, as the context will indicate the same. When vowels alone are used to represent words, they are called vowel word signs. The vowel word signs in line 16 represent the following words : The, of, all, or, already, on, aught, and, to, two, but, before, should, who, how, you, ah, oh, I. !£ 4-t 1 r / ^ v v ''v. 'V •>, -) •) A. \ \ \ 1 -I Z2L 4- ^ *J v *\ A ' ** 7\ ^ At T^-V -fr ^r JZ A- IZ V ^ r -A -^ a^ f- YZ£ -Vr ZZE -^r^- =HV r(^-f=- -f- rF- rr /: c r. ZK. -7^ ZZL ~K / y X ^f -**: 32 ^r IZI 2L -tt- S* s* IK -7^ -6- y_"_ -7f=- 7^ is: f- "r x -f- -f- \ \ / — — ^^ -H- -v=- -v-f -j- -J- -^ w 1 1 — 7—r- WRITING EXERCISE II. Copy lines 1 to 16 inclusive ten times, and transcribe the lines into long-hand. Write the following words in short-hand : Ate, at, awed, ape, Abe, ache, aid, add, are, am, an, all, air, aim, ale, age, ago, allow, alloy, allay, airy, arrow, away, Annie, annoy, anew, Anno, aha. Be, by, boy, bough, bow, bay. Cow, cue, coy, chew, chaw. Die, do, due, day, dough. Eat, each, eve, eel, car, ebb, Edd, etch, edge, err, eyes, ell, echo. Era, era, easy, Erie, Emma. Foe, fay, few, fee, fie. Go, gay, gnaw. .High, hue, how, he, hay. It, itch, if, ill, ice, icy, in, issue. Jaw, jew, Joe. Key, knee. Lay, low, lee, law, lieu, lie. May, me, mew, mow. New, now, nay, no. Ought, oat, out, odd, off, of, or, oath, ope, ode, oak, ooze, oil, oily, owl, own, owes, obey, our. Pew, pea, paw, pie, pay, pshaw. Row, row, raw, rue, rye, ray. Say, so, show, see, sigh, shoe, she, sue, saw, shy. Tie, toe, toy, tea, to, the, they, though, thaw, thigh, thy, thou. Up, use, use. View, vow. Way, woe, we, woo, who. Yea, your, youth, ye, you. A \tm K" v A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. '53 k ~n "^ -S 3i /CV v^_ LESSON III— WORDS CONTAINING ONE OR MORE CONSONANTS. the direction. When el begins a word followed by kay or em, use the upward /// when a vowel precedes it, use the downward el; when el is the last letter in a word, write the el downward, if it joins conveniently ; when there is a final vowel after it, write el upward, if it joins conveniently. See lines 5 and 6. The curved sign ar is written downward, and should al- ways be used before em. The straight sign for ar (called ray) is always written upward, and should be used before ef, ve, ith, en, ing. In other cases, when preceded by a vowel, use ar; when followed by a vowel, use ray. When it is the last letter of a word, use ar; when followed by a final vowel, use ray. See lines 8 and 9. When words contain more than one vowel, the primary or accented vowel determines the position. When any doubt exists, write the word in the second position, it being the most convenient. In the alphabet there is no shaded letter corresponding to em. This sign represents the double consonant mp or ml/, Called emp. The reporting style of short-hand is writing consonant out- lines in three positions, without vowels (or "unvocalized"), and the use of word-signs and phrases. Each of the conso- 1 nants in lines 11, 12, 13, represents a common word. A word-sign is one or more letters written in other than the position of the leading vowel, or a contraction represent- ing the word. The single consonant word signs, lines 15 and 16, represent the following words; Party, dollar, do, had, be, to be, time, it, which, much, advantage, large, com- mon, come, give, together, for, ever, have, however, think, thank, them, was, shall, issue, usual, will, are, thing, language, your, important, improvement. Read and copy exercise 3 ten times, and transcribe it into long-hand, numbering each line of transcript. TN combining consonants to form words, they are written in *■ the same direction as when standing alone, the second begin- ning where the first ends, the third where the second ends, etc. First-place vowels occurring between two stroke consonants must be placed after the first consonant, and third-place vowels before the second consonant. The first upright or sloping letter in a combination determines the position of the word. In first-place words this upright or sloping letter is written halfway through the upper line (see line 1) ; second place words between the lines (see line 2) ; third-place words through the lower line (see line 3). In combinations con- taining two upright or sloping letters the first one determines the position of a word, as in line 4. When the letter el is joined to other letters, it may be written either upward or downward, convenience in joining determining WRITING EXERCISE III. Write the following words three times vocalized, and three times unvocalized : Acute, arm, ask, alum, arrive, abode, abide, ambush, am- ple, advantage, are, army. Beam, bought, babe, bell, bale, bellow, body, bump, bit, bite, bait, boat, bet, body, boot, bat, beauty, be, book, bake, become. Cheek, coat, code, cage, cud, cash, copy, camp, common, come, chalk. Date, dolly, dare, dish, dash, duly, decay, damp, dairy, dollar, do. Elm, error, earth, embark, embellish, ever, early Fame, full, feed, foot, fill, folly, fully, fair, fairy, fish, fob, fire, far, fury, for. Genuine, give, hourly, have, however, half, had. Into, it, issue, improve- ment, important. Keep, kneel. Like, love, look, lamb, long, lamp, lump, large, language. Mouth, mule, male, meal, Mary, many, money, manual, much. Nail, namely. Occupy. Peak, pick, peep, pope, pure, pale, page, pull, purely, pump, party, pout, pile, pale, pier. Room, roam, roof, rainy, rebuke, revoke, redeem, repair, romp, ring, rosy. Shame, shade, shape, sheep, shore, sheer, share, shall. Talk, team, time, tame, take, took, taught, toad, tool, tide, to be, together, think, thank, them, thing. Vowel, very. Usual. Which, was, will. Your. V =k\. 9 *» KT i54 A SELF INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. *fr LESSON IV.-THE HALVING PRINCIPLE. in T>y the mastery of lessons :, 2 and 3 the student has al- ** ready learned short-hand sufficiently to write any word in the English language, and has made all the progress that is claimed for any of the " shortest, easiest-to-be-learned " systems which have ever been invented. A study and prac- tice in writing of what has al»eady been learned equal to that which is devoted to learning long-hind writing, would enable the pupil to write sixty words a minute, or three times as fast as ordinary long-hand writing. This, however, would not be sufficient for reporting speeches in which the speed varies from 100 to 200 words a minute. In order to attain this higher rate of speed in writing it is necessary to use abbreviating principles. The simplicity of the primary principles of short-hand, as already given, allows the applica- tion of a variety of abbreviating principles, by the employ- ment of which the highest possible rate of speed in writing may be attained. These principles will be introduced ac- cording to our own arrangement in this and subsequent lessons. The halving principle is used as frequently as any other, and is always difficult to learn. We, therefore, give it as the first principle of abbreviation. Each stroke consonant may be made half its usual length to add / or d. When a vowel is written after a half-length letter it is read between the consonant and the added / or d, as in "pet," first word line I. When a vowel is written before a half-length letter it is read first, as in " apt," first word line 2. The first position for half-length letters is im- mediately under the upper line, second position resting on the lower line, third position below the lower line. As either t or d is added by the halving principle, the half length letter pe, followed by the vowel ay, may repre- sent either pale or paid, and similarly with many other simple words. Read aloud and trace lines I to 4, inclusive. In consonant combinations either one or all of the conso- nants may be made half-length. When a half-length letter is followed by another consonant the / or d is read before the additional consonant. See first word in line 13, "intellect." Read aloud and trace lines 6 to 13, inclusive. The halving principle can be used only in combinations where a distinct angle is formed at the joining of letters. In some words it is better to write the half-length letter disjoined, as in line 14, the first word in which is " doubted." In other cases it is necessary to write the full consonant outline, as in line 15. Read aloud and trace lines 14 and 15. The half-length word signs given in line 16 represent the fol- lowing words: Could, good, feature, after, fact, that, without, astonish, establish, wished, immediate, nature, under, read. Read aloud and trace line 16. WRITING EXERCISE IV. Copy short-hand lesson IV. ten times, and transcribe it in long- hand. Write the following words in short-hand : Art, apt, about, aged, added, ached, arrived, acted, avoided. -K_^ 1;, .1 TT T- u ].; TT VT J Jd. r> ^L 17 ~ ^T "cr v v /- _it. C j' e* v- -A_ -=s= 6- V V 31 V L- J2±- Y*~. -**=- -e- v* ^i- -7^ 4- ^VfV -^ H ^ v- -£- ^ — "ET -^—^ ± JEL -^T^V -tp- ZZCZZ^I J±3_ ^ ^L -**- ==V "ST J&. .^fc. ^ 21 "«-— I z±t -zr 11 r -*p- ^ Li A>\ -V, ■" ^>l '' '•>! ^ xrrv 7T -**=!- -*=* lb < '( 2 -Z7~ alphabet, assert, awaited, affect, after, astonish. Bet, boat, bait, bad, boot, begged, belt, backed, better. Chat, cut, cat, coat, cot, caged, captivate, could. Date, dead, doubted, dated, deeded, dotted. East, end, ended, editor, evident, effect, evoked, estab- lish. Fight, foot, failed, filed, fold, fitted, faded, feature, future. Get, got, gate, good. Hate, height, hat, hot, hated, hunted, habit. Invite, induct, indeed, individual, imitated, intellect, intend, intended, immediate. Knocked, kicked, l.ct, light, lot, lit, load, laid, loved, laughed, lived, lighted, legitimate, little, lately, locate, locked, looked. Met, meat, mode, moved, mailed, mold, mild, mended, middle, model, mutual, meditated. Not, night, note, noted, nature. Oft. Pet, pad, paid, port, paged. Rout, robbed, relieved, removed, repeated, radiated, read. Shut, sheet, shot. That, talked, toiled. Used, un- packed, untold, under. Vote, viewed. Wait, weighed, written, writing, without. Yacht. Al •r V A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. '55 rr LESSON V.-THE CIRCLE "S" AND "Z. -T^-j-nr y- TJGi q •) J" *. 6 i 1 IN. • ' t xr ^y )• L k ■J <* « b O ^ \ \ p * (^ ^ ff^ 1^ /^5>_ n •■ -r -r*- £. ~^L ^ ~aT \ n J y - > j> J :£ R" HOOKS. letters are therefore reversed to bring the hook on the left side and inside the curve. These forms will not be mis- taken for the similar letters r, we, s and z, as the initial r, hook is not used on these four letters. The stem of the letter is shaded in mer and nerto distinguish them from wem and wen. Read lines I and 2. IS "^VV 31 -'g^r ^_,_ _5_ "^ _ ~^r «!J A SMALL initial hook on the left-hand side of upright and sloping and below horizontal straight consonants represents r. This is called the per series of double consonants. When speaking of them we use the one-syllable name per to distinguish them from the single consonants pe-ar etc. Vowels are written either before or after double consonants of the per series, or may be expressed between the two consonants, the same as in the pel series, as follows : For the long dot vowels make a small circle in the position of the vowel before the double consonant ; for the short dot vowels a small circle in the position of the vowel after the double consonant. Write the first-place dash vowels just off the beginning of the consonant ; the second-place dash vowels through the consonant, and the third-place dash vowels just off the end of the consonant. The student will soon become familiar with the outlines of words, and full vocalization will not be necessary. It would not be convenient to make a hook on the back of the curved letters /, v, ith, the. These On eight straight consonants of the per series the hook is made into a circle on the left side to represent the sir series of treble consonants. Read line 3. When the circle is used on the curved letters of the per \ ^i series it is made inside the r hook, and is always read first. Read line 4. When j occurs before the double consonant in the middle of a word, both the circle and the hook must be made. Read line 5. When ker and ger follow Is and ds, the circle only is used and is written on the right side of / and d and below the k and gay. Read line 6. After p and b the circle and hook cannot be distinctly made, but there will be no difficulty in reading this class of words. Read line 7. The prefixes in and «« before the spr series of conso- nants is represented by a small backward hook; also before ser, set and sent. Read line 8. When double consonants of the per series are made half- length, the added t or d is read after both consonants. Observe that although the hook representing r is initial, it is always read after the consonant on which it is used. Read lines 9 to 13 inclusive. The word-signs in line 14 are : Principle, practice, ex- perience, surprise, express, suppress, particular, opportunity, liberty, remember, number, truth. Inline 15; Strength, external, instruct, doctor, during, consider, charity, danger, larger, according, accurate, Christian. In line 16: Correct; character, from, over, virtue, other, short, sure, pleasure, measure, Mr. or remark. WRITING EXERCISE IX. Copy exercise IX. ten times, and transcribe either in long- hand or on the type-writer. Write the following words in short-hand : Archer, azure. Brow. Cedar, charming, charity, cheerful, christian, character, color, court, comprise, consider, correct, criminal, cry, culture. Danger, destroy, descry, discried, disgrace, disagree, describer, disagreeable, discursive, dear, doctor, dray, during. Either, energy, every, everywhere, extra, extreme, examiner, expert, express, expressive. Farmer, figures, former, forgot, from, fraternal, free, further. Greet, grow. Honor, humor. Instruct, instructor, inscribe, insert.insult, inseparable, invulnerable. Labor, larger, learner, lover, liberty. Masterly, Mr. measure, more, maternal, minor, murder. Number. Obscure, occurs, opportunity, over, other, owner. Pray, present, prescribe, practice, particular, prosper, proscribe, principle pleasure. Remember, roller, rumor. Saber, sadder, seeker, surely, sober, spray, strew, striver screw, suitor, supper, suffer, swimmer, sooner, sever, sinner, sailor, seizure, safer, suffering, subscribe, subscriber, scribe, severed, secure, short-hand, spry, strong, strength, sure, strung, spring, separate, suppress, surprise. Try, treasure, true, there, truth, through, toward. Unscrupulous, un- seemly, unsalable, unsociable. Virtue. Wager, wager, westerly, writer, wrestler. 3!= < 6 »" A " 1 60 A SELF INSIRTCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. =7? c 10 LESSON X.-"F," A SMALL final hook on the right hand side of upright •**■ and sloping and alx>ve horizontal and straight letters represenst either/or v. On ray and he, which are written upward, this hook is made above. The / and v hook is only on straight letters. Read line I. S may be added after the /or v hook by making .the circle inside the hook. Read line 2. The /and v hooks may 1« used in the middle of words. Read lines 3 and 4. A large final hook made on the right hand side of upright and sloping and above horizontal straight letters (the same side as the / and v hook) represents Hon or sion. This hook is also used on the inside of curved letters. Read lines 5 and 6. To represent lions and sion; make the small circle s inside the hook. Read line 7. The syllable Hon is represented after the circle s and loops st and sir by a small hook made on the opposite side of a consonant. This s-lion hook is vocalized by writing first place vowels before the end of the consonant, and second place vowels after it. Read line 8. When s follows this s-Hon hook the circle is made inside the small hook. Read lines 9 and 10. The prefixes inter, intro, and enter, are represented by half- length n joined to the remainder of the word. Read line II. The prefixes contra, contro, counter, are represented by a disjoined che tick ; that is a short tick made downward in the direction of che at the beginning of a word. Read line 1 2. The prefixes Magni and Magna are represented by a dis- joined m, the remainder of the word being commenced under and near the center of the m. Read line 13. The/ and v hook word signs in line 14 are: Perfea, whatever, divine, difference, advance, whichever, Jehovah, M descriptive, careful, government, reverend. The Hon hook word signs in line 15 are: Option, objec- tion, contribution, tuition, condition, generation, imagination, description. The word signs in line 16 are: Correction, glorification signification, revelation, revolution, information, justification, jurisdiction, investigation. Read lines 14, 15 and 16. WRITING EXERCISE X. Achieves, approve?, adventure, advocate, advocacy, advent, addition, ambition, aversion, actions, acquisitions, UTCSUtloM, accusations, annexation, attestation, advance. Beef, braves, brevity, briefest, bravest. Cessation, cuff, craft, cover, contriv- ance, contrive, confusion, consummation, constitution, consecra- tion, conclusion, confessions, centralization, civilization, connec- tions, contradict, counterfeit, counterfeited, controversy, contra- distinction, contravention, counteraction, counter-irritation, counterpart, countersign, creative, construction, condition, cor- rection, chief. Dive, drove, drives, derives, differ, descriptive. ^F sz -^m^ t~ 13 U -af 3SZ3^ ^3r "t^ ~k ■^n s? ^ -k-^L-C * "L v 1- -**- H ^w 3: ^v 3 Tk? 07 V ^ZEI C3 -^ -V T~L ZL At v v tr 1. I> 6- ■& 11 _z>_ T?- -a- -kS- 77^ directions, description. Kdition, exhibition, emulation, exception enterprise. Fashion. Gave, gifts, govern, generation, glorifica- tion. Hive, half, hallucination, heaven. Intervention, intro- duce, interline, introduction, intercept, interfered, intercourse, interview, intercede, interest, imagination, investigation, informa- tion, illustration. Jove, Jehovah, jurisdiction. Mission, mani- festations, molestations, moralization, magnify, Magna Charta, magnitude, magnetic, magnificent, magnanimous, magnetize, mention. Notions. Oration, obligation, omissions, occasion!, oppositions. Pave, proves, prefix, profanity, prevent, position, possession, procession, persuasion, physician. Reverend, reve- lation, revolutions. Strives session, stations, suggestion, sym- bolization. Tough, tuition, twelve. Version, vision. What- ever, whichever. JS .M K A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAND. -« 9 161 LESSON. XI —THE "N" HOOK. f ^ t j J / *" af- c ^ ^ ,y <" ^ -b- E ^ *° v z: -r - T^ "7*" ^U ^5" « ^ W I ^ r» ?s 4 £ ^ ^ ZZZHI 6 ^ V*. (S fl/ ^L gg. "^ ■fe-V " t; =^ TV -^^A ^ ' r— y , L ^ 1^ s: Vir V-V ^~^ ■ 8 v *• -1 *v V * > • * ^-^ ^s ^v T71 r F~7T io — V — T*^ £r •■ *-^ ' £=\3? ^-X- II V ^v- \y >y" ->y* -^ The « hook is used to advantage in the middle of many words. Read line 6. On straight letters, the « hook may be followed by the st and the sir loops by making the hook into a small or large loop. Read line 7. The ns circle on straight letters may be followed by the back hook Hon. Read line 6. A large final hook on the « side of straight letters repre- sents the termination n-tion. The first word in line 9 is "pension." Read lines 9, 10 and II. The n hook and halving principle are conveniently used to represent not in phrases. The phrases in line 12 are: Will-not, was-not, did-not, do-not, had-not, have-not, are-not, shall-not, may-not, am-not, cannot. The final n hook logographs in line 13 are : Upon, pun- ish, been, at-length, eternal, circumstance, denomination, providential, denominations, audience, providence. The logographs in line 14 are : Darken, darkens, religion, general, imagine, religionist, generalized, generalization, gentlemen, gentleman, imagined. Those in line 15 are: Question, signify, significance, begin, begun, began, organize, organization. Those in line 16 are: Often, phonography, philanthropy, herein, alone, men, man, human, women, woman, opinion. WRITING EXERCISE XI. 12 ^L. nzx: ■v \ p a j 1 u -3-J-: ^ i -i-t -Jl -J- ss -*—r j/- ~7~ IS 1C -ts- HZE ^r JZL ~Zrsr rrrs A SMALL final hook on the left-hand side of upright and **■ sloping and below horizontal straight letters and on the inside of curved letters, represents n. Read lines 1 and 2. When the » hook is used on half-length letters, the added / or d is read after the hook. The first word in line 3 is "point." Read line 3. The hook being on the opposite side from the circle s, it is made into a circle on the left-hand side of upright and sloping and below horizontal straight letters to represent ns. Read line 4. When the « hook is followed by the circle s on curved letters the s is made inside of the hook. In order to do this, do not enlarge the hook, but flatten the circle. Read line 5. Copy short-hand Exercise XI. ten times and transcribe it once. Write the words in Exercise XI. in position, unvocal- — ized. — Write the following words in short-hand : Abandoned, ab- scond, adamant, against, alone, am-not, around, are-not, — argument, apprehansion, attends, attention, at-length, audi- — ence, assign, assigns, assistant. Balanced, been, beans, begin, begun, began, bound, bonds, bounced, brain, brown. Cane, 5~ canst, canister, carbon, cannot, chain, circumstance, circum- — stances, chant, chance, chanced, counts, conscience, com- pensation, condensation, condensations, combinations, con- 3?" sequence, consequential, comprehension, consternation, — Danced, darken, darkness, denomination, denominations, dine, dined, dispensation, dispensations, did-not, donations, dunce. Earn, eternal, event, extend, extension. Fan, find, finds, finish, finance, financial, furnish. Gained, general, generalization, gentlemen, gentleman, gone. Had-not, hence, have-not, hen, heathen, herein, hints, Holland. Imagine, imagined, infant, infantry, irons. Joints, joined, June. Kind, known. Land, line. Man, may-not, men, mind, mine, minds, monument. Nouns. Often, one, ocean, opinion, organize, organization, ordination, outline. Pain, pens, paints, pension, phonography, philanthropy, point, providence, providential, punish, punster, punsters, question. Rain, return, returned, runs, religion, religionist. Shall-not, shown, spinster, spinsters, suspicion, swoon. Then, thin, tent, tendency, thence, town, towns, torment, turn, transition, transitions, transitional. Upon. Vagrancy, vanish, veins, vine. Was-not, will-not, women, 11 N^ K 162 A SELF-INSTRUCTOR IN SHORT-HAXD. ~ LESSON XII. z I g id AS in long-hand contractions are often used, so it is found that principles of contraction can be employed in short- hand writing, which will materially increase the speed of writing, without sacrificing legibility. These principles need to be understood. As a general rule, many derivatives may be represented by the short-hand form adopted for the root of the word. As derivatives usually form different parts ot speed), there is no difficulty to the experienced phonog- rapher in readily deciphering them. A few special direc- tions in regard to abbreviations is all that will be found necessary in this connection. The letter or letters representing the portion of the prefix preceding con, com, cog, may be joined to the remainder of the word. The words in lines I and 2 are: accommodate, accommodation, accompany, incomplete, incompatible, inconceivable, recommend; recommendation, unconcern, unconditional, unconscious, magnanimous, magnificent. Read lines I and 2. The letter A following ing may be omitted in many words. The words in line 3 are : Anxious, anxiety, bank, bank- able, banking, bankrupt, sanction. Read line 3. The letter k may be omitted in many words commencing with ex. The words in line 4 are : Expression, expressive, explain, explicit, explore, explode, explanation, expiration, extension. Read line 4. The prefixes con, com, are frequently omitted. The words in line 5 are : Condition, condensation, combine, combination, contend, comprehend, consideration, incon- sideration, construction, instruction, completion. Read line 5. The dot for the affix ing is generally omitted. The words in line 6 are : Doing, trying, combining, compound- ing, craving, crossing, explaining, banking, recommending, buying. Read line 6. Many words which would make lengthy and difficult forms, if written in full, are represented by two or more consonants of the word. Word signs may lie joined either as prefixes or as affixes. The words in line 7 are: Acknowledge, acknowledged, assemble, auspicious, become, to become, cabinet, captain. Line 8 : Change, common-sense, dignity, downward, hereto- fore, hereafter, knowledge, legible, illegible. Line 9 : Peculiar, especially, examination, cross-examination, rc-t\amination, direct -examination, mistake. Word* and phrases in line 10: Nevertheless, notwithstanding, temperance-society, humane-society, in-reply-to-yours, inreply- to-your favor, in-refcrence. Line 1 1 : In-rcference-to-your, inherit, inheritance, in-reccipt, in-receipt of-your, I-am-in-receipt-of-your, short-hand, short- hand-writer. CONTRACTIONS, ETC. X u V ^=^= -y^=T~^T =F zs: sr J Hr n_ — 7 x V :zr ^r izs: ■hr -P- ^x 0^^ *7= ■V _T-_ "^ ^ U^ ' -*-* ^V =T » ^ M M M' H S ~r. c 1- z: / — v ? r/\A .? i;t ■V- t~t; =^=E > v -v . r n .->' J — ^4- ^ ^ r\ u , r ~7^ ^ZL x^: Line 12: What is your name, age, and occupation? Where do you reside ? Line 13: This finishes a course of 12 lessons in short-hand, giving the Line 14: Benn Pitman system at a glance, arranged by Brown & Holland, Line 15 : Chicago, and successfully taught by them for more than ten years, with the result of Line 16: educating hundreds of short-hand writers, who are now occupying good, paying positions. Read lines 7 to 16. * V THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM. 163 $M*}-Jk l J^J^:S,:JJ^'^ lOISETTE ]V(EMORYj^YSTEM. I **<|&e: • Qrt • of ® Eleuer • f^raettiner.** f^s^prw^j^^r^E k. M ^g^O MUCH has been said about the Loisette memory system, the art has been so widely advertised, and so carefully guarded from all the pro- fane who do not send five or many dollars to the Professor, that a few pages showing . how every man may be his own Loisette, may be both interesting and valuable. In the first place, the system is a good one, and well worth the labor of mastering, and if the directions are implicitly followed there can be no doubt that the memory will be greatly strengthened and improved, and that mnemonic feats otherwise impossible may be easily per- formed. Loisette, however, is not an inventor but an introducer. He stands in the same rela- tion to Dr. Pick that the retail dealer holds to the manufacturer : the one produced the article ; the other brings it to the public. Even this statement is not quite fair to Loisette, for he has brought much practical common sense to bear upon Pick's system, and, in preparing the new art of mnemonics for the market, in many ways he has made it his own. If each man would reflect upon the method by which he himself remembers things, he would find his hand upon the key of the whole mys- tery. For instance, the author was once trying to remember the word blythe. There occurred to my mind the words " Bellman," " Belle," and then the verse : " the peasant upward climbing Hears the bells of Buloss chiming." " Barcarole, " " Barrack," and so on until finally the word "blythe" presented itself with a strange insistance, long after I had ceased try- ing to recall it. On another occasion when trying to recall the name " Richardson " I got the words " hay- rick," " Robertson," "Randallstown," and finally "wealthy," from which, naturally, I got "rich" and " Richardson " almost in a breath. Still another example : trying to recall the name of an old schoolmate, " Grady," I got "Brady," "grave," "gaseous," "gastronome," " gracious," and I finally abandoned the attempt, simply saying to myself that it began with a " G," and there was an " a " sound after it. The next morning, when thinking of something en- tirely different, this name "Grady" came up in my mind with as much distinctness as though someone had whispered it in my ear. This re- membering was done without any conscious effort on my part, and was evidently the result of the exertion made the day before when the mnemonic processes were put to work. Every reader must have had a similar experience fv 164 THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM. -" which he can recall, and which will fall in line with the examples given. It follows, then, that when we endeavor, with- out the aid of any system, to recall a forgotten fact or name, our memory presents to us words of similar sound or meaning in its journey toward the goal to which we have started it. This goes to show that our ideas are arranged in groups in whatever secret cavity or recess of the brain they occupy, and that the arrange- ment is one not alphabetical exactly, and not entirely by meaning, but after some fashion partaking of both. If you are looking for the word " meadow " you may reach " middle " before you come to it, or " Mexico," or many words beginning with the " m " sound, or containing the " dow," as " window," or " dough," or you may get " field " or " farm " — but you are on the right track, and if you do not interfere with your intellectual process you will finally come to the idea which you are seeking. How often have you heard people say, " I forgot his name, it is something like Beadle or Beagle — at any rate it begins with a B." Every one of these were unconscious Loisettians, and they were practicing blindly, and without proper method or direction, the excellent system which he teaches. The thing, then, to do — and it is the final and simple truth which Loisette teaches — is to travel over this ground in the other direc- tion — to cement the fact which you wish to remember to some other fact or word which you know will be brought out by the implied con- ditions — and thus you will always be able to travel from your given starting point to the thing which you wish to call to mind. To illustrate : let the broken line in the annexed dia- gram represent a train of thought. If we connect the idea "« " with "e" through the steps b, c and d. the tendency of the mind ever afterwards will be to get to e from a that way, or from any of the intermediates that way. It seems as though a channel were cut in our mind- stuff along which the memory flows. How to make it flow this way will be seen later on. Loisette, in common with all the mnemonic teachers, uses the old device of representing numbers by letters — and as this is the first and easiest step in the art, this seems to be the most logical place to introduce the ac- cepted equivalents of the Arabic numerals : is always represented by j, rort soft. 1 is always represented by /, th or d. 2 is always represented by n. 3 is always represented by m. 4 is always represented by r. 5 is always represented by /. is always represented by sh,j, eh soft or^- soft. 7 is always represented by g hard, t, c hard, q or final ng. 8 is always represented by f or v. 9 is always represented by / or b. All the other letters are used simply to fill up. Double letters in a word count only as one. In fact the system goes by sound, not by spelling — for instance " this " or "dizzy" would stand for ten; "catch" or "gush" would stand for 76, and the only difficulty is to make some word or phrase which will contain only the significant letters in the proper order, filled out with non-significant into some guise of meaning or intelligibility.* Suppose you wished to get some phrase or word that would express the num- ber 3685, you arrange the letters this way: 3 0*. 6 ^* 8 ^"» 5 a m a sh a f a 1 e e J e V e i i ch 1 i K u u u u h h h h w w w w X X X X V y y y You can make out "image of law,'' "my shuffle," " matchville," etc., etc., as far as you like to work it out. Now, suppose you wish to memorize the fact that $1,000,000 in gold weighs 3.685 pounds, you go about it in this way, and here is the kernel and crux of Loisette's system: "How much does $1,000,000 in gold weigh?" " Weigh— scales." " Scales — statue of Justice." "Statue of Justice — image of lav.'." The process is simplicity itself. The thing you wish to recall, and that you fear to forget, is the weight; conse- quently you cement your chain of suggestion to the idea which is most prominent in your mental question. What do you weigh with ? Scales. What doe6 the mental pic- ture of scales suggest ? The statue of Justice, blindfolded and weighing out award and punishment to man. Finally, what is this statue of Justice but the image of law ? and the words " image of law," translated back from the sig- nificant letters m, g soft, f and /. give vou 3-6-8-5. the number of pounds in $1,600,000 in gold. You bind to- gether in your mind each separate step in the journey, the one suggests the other, and you will find, a year from now, that the fact will be as fresh in your memory as it is •You can remember the equivalents bv noting the fact that t is the first letter of " «rn," and c of " cipher," / has but one stroke, a has two, m three. The script/ is very like 8, the script f lik< the last letter ot four, / is the roinan numeral for Jf/tY* which sug- gests JSrt. The others may be retained as memorising these two nonsense lines: Six sky Jewesses c Aase George Seven Great A'ings came fuarrcliajf. -75 K THE LOISETTE MEMORY SYSTEM, to-day. You cannot lose it. It is chained to you by an unbreakable mnemonic tie. Mark, that it is not claimed that "weight "will of itself suggest "scales" and "scales" "statue of Justice," etc., but that, having once passed your attention up and down that ladder of ideas, your mental tendency will be to take the same route, and get to the same goal again and again. Indeed, beginning with the weight of $1,000,000, " image of law " will turn up in your mind without your consciousness of any intermediate sta- tion on the way, after some iteration and reiteration of the original chain. Again, so as to fasten the process in the reader's mind even more firmly, suppose that it were desired to fix the date of the battle of Hastings (A. D. 1066) in the mem- ory; 1066 may be represented by the words "the wise judge" (M = 1, .« = o,/ = 6, rf§- = 6; the others are non- significants); a chain might be made thus: Battle of Hastings — arbitrament of war. Arbitrament of war — arbitration. Arbitration — judgment. Judgment — the wise judge. Make mental pictures, connect ideas, repeat words and sounds, go about it any way you please, so that you will form a mental habit of connecting the "battle of Hast- ings " with the idea of " arbitrament of war," and so on for the other links in the chain, and the work is done. Loisette makes the beginning of his system unnecessa- rily difficult, to say nothing of his illogical arrangement in the grammar of the art of memory, which he makes the first of his lessons. He analyzes suggestion into— 1. Inclusion. 2. Exclusion. 3. Concurrence. All of which looks very scientific and orderly, but is really misleading, and badly named. The truth is that one idea will suggest another. 1. By likeness or opposition of meaning, as "house" suggests "room" or "door," etc.; or "white" suggests "black," "cruel," "kind," etc. 2. By likeness of sound, as "harrow" and "barrow"; "Henry" and "Hennepin." 3. By mental juxtaposition, a peculiarity different in each person, and depending upon each one s own experi- ences. Thus, " St. Charles " suggests " railway bridge " to me, because I was vividly impressed by the breaking of the Wabash bridge at that point. " Stable" and "broken leg" come near each other in my experience, so do "cow" and "shot-gun" and "licking." Out of these three sorts of suggestion it is possible to get from any one fact to any other in a chain certain and safe, along which the mind may be depended upon after- wards always to follow. The chain is, of course, by no means all. Its making and its binding must be accompanied by a vivid, method- ically directed attention, which turns all the mental light gettable in a focus upon the subject passing across the mind's screen. Before Loisette was thought of this was known. In the old times in England, in order to impress upon the mind of the rising generation the parish boun- daries in the rural districts, the boys were taken to each of the landmarks in succession, the position and bearings of each pointed out carefully, and, in order to deepen the impression, the young people were then and there vigor- ously thrashed, a mechanical method of attracting the at- tention which was said never to have failed. This system has had its supporters in many of the old-fashioned schools, and there are men who will read these lines who can recall, with an itching sense of vivid expression, the 144 lickings which were said to go with the multiplication table. In default of a thrashing, however, the student must cul- tivate as best he can an intgnse fixity of perception upon every fact or word or date, that he wisties fb make perma- nently his own. It is easy. It is a matter of habit. If you will you can photograph an idea upon your cerebral gelatine so that neither years nor events will blot it out or overlay it. You must be clearly and distinctly aware of the thing you are putting into your mental treasure-house, and drastically certain of the cord by which you have tied it to some other thing of which you are sure. Unless it is worth your while to do this, you might as well abandon any hope of mnemonic improvement, which will not come without the hardest kind of hard work, although it is work that will grow constantly easier with practice and reitera- tion. You need, then : 1. Methodic suggestion. 2. Methodic attention. 3. Methodic reiteration. And this is all there is to Loisette, and a great deal It is. Two of them will not do without the third. You do not know how many steps there are from your hall door to your bed-room, though you have attended to and often reiterated the journey. But if there are twenty of them, and you have once bound the word "nice," or "nose," or "news," or "hyenas" to the fact of the stairway,you could never forget it. The Professor makes a point, and very wisely, of the importance of working through some established chain, so that the whole may be carried away in the mind — not alone for the value of the facts so bound together, but for the mental discipline so afforded. Here, then, is the " President Series," which contains the name and the date of inauguration of each president from Washington to Cleveland. The manner in which it is to be mastered is this: Beginning at the top, try to find in your mind some connection between each word and the one following it. See how you can at some future time make one suggest the next, either by suggestion of sound or sense, or by mental juxtaposition. When you have found this, dwell on it attentively a moment or two. Pass it backward and forward before you, and then go on to the next step. The chain runs thus, the names of the presidents being in small caps, the date words in italics: President - - - - Chosen as the first word as the one most apt to occur to the mind of any one wishing to repeat the names of the presidents. Dentists ----- President and dentist. Draw- ----- What does a dentist do? To give «/---• When something is drawn from one it is given up. This is a date phrase meaning Self-sacrifice - • - There is an association of thought between giving up and self-sacrifice. Washington - - Associate the quality of self-sacrifice with Washington's character. Morning wash - - Washington and -wash. Dew ------ Early wetness and dew. Flower beds - - - Dew and flowers. Took a bouquet - - Flowers and bouquet. Date phrase (1797). Garden ----- Bouquet and garden. Eden ----- The first garden. Adam ----- Juxtaposition of thought. Adams ----- Suggestion by sound. Fall ------ Juxtaposition of thought. Failure ----- Fall and failure. Deficit ----- Upon a failure there is usually a deficit. Date word (1801). Debt ------ The consequence of a deficit. Bonds ----- Debt and bonds. Confederate bonds - Suggestion by meaning. Jefferson Davis • - Juxtaposition of thought. Jefferson. I KT 166 THE LOISETTE MEMOKV SYSTEM. "7 Now follow out the rest for yourself, taking about ten at a time, and binding thou you do last lo those you nave done before each time, before attacking the next bunch. 1 9 3 .SON the fraud the heavy shell lodge Jeffreyi painted clay mollusk 1 v assize baked clay unfamiliar word ivement tiles dictionary too /irii-jv a Job Tyler -on's parental grief Wat Tyler Johnson mad son poll tax son Madison compulsory bad son Madeira free will dishonest b first-rate wine free offering thievish boy frustrating burnt offering take defeating poker feet Polk Grant toe the line end of dance award row termination " ly" adverb school premium Monroe examination row part of speech cramming boat part of a man fagging steamer Taylor laborer the funnel measurer hay field windpipe theodolite 11 AYES throat Theofhiltis hazy quinzy fill us clear H v Quincy Adams Fillmore vivid quince more fuel brightly lighted fine fruit .1. the flame camp fire the fine bov flambeau war field sailor boy bow Garfield sailor arrow Guiteau jack tar Pierce murderer Jackson hurt prisoner stone wall feeling prison fare indomitable wound half fed V tough make soldier well fed oaken furniture cannon well read bureau Buchanan author Van Buren rebuke Arthur rent official censure round table side-splitting to officiate tea table - tea cup ,V half full divert wedding annoy linked harassing Lincoln divide Harrison link cleave Old Harry stroll Cleveland the tempter sea shore It will be noted that some of the date words, as "free will," only give three figures of flic date, S45; but it is to be supposed that if the student knows that many figures in the date of Polk's inauguration he can_ guess the other one. The curious thing about this system will now become apparent. If the reader has learned the series so that he can say it down, from President to Cleveland, he can with no effort, and without any further preparation, sav it backwards from Cleveland up to the commencement ! There could be no better proof that this is the natural mnemonic system. It proves itself by its works. The series should he repeated backwards and forwards eveVy day for a month, and it should lie supplemented bv .1 series of the reader's own making, and by this one, which gives the numbers from a to 100. and which must In- chained together before they can be learned. O — hoes 1 — wheat 34 — mare 67 — hockey 2 — hen 35— mill 68 — kh 3 — home 30 — image 69 — ship 4 — hair 37— mug '," — eggs 5 — °" 3S — muff 71— -ate 6 — shoe 39 — mob "1-— '- 7 — hook 8— off 40— race 73— comb 41 — hart 74 — hawker 9 — bee 42 — horn 75— coal 10 — daisy- 43 — armv 70— cage II — tooth 44 — warrior 77— cake 12— dine 4S — roval 78— coffee 13 — time 4I) — arch 79 — cube 14 — tower 47 — rock 15— dell .;S — wharf 81— feet 16— ditch 4') — rope sj — \xin 1 7 — duck iS — dove go — "heels :ine 51— lad s 4 — fire 19 — tabby 52 — lion 85— vial 20— hvenas ?3 — lamb 21 — hand 22 — nun 54— liar 5 e— lily 23 — name iage So— fib 24— owner ^7 — lake 00 — pies Ji — nail 91 — putty z>> — hinge 59 — t i 02 — pane 27 — inkf (0— < -l 93 — bomb 28— knife Oi — cheat 94 — bier 29 — knob 62 — chain 95 — bell 30 — muse 63 — sham 31 — mayday f>4 — chair 07 — book 32 — hymen 65— jail . >s— beef 33 — mama 60 — judge yr-pope IOO — ii ; By the use of this table, which should be committed as thoroughly as the President series, so that it can be re- peated backwards and forwards, any date, figure or num- ber can be at once constructed, and bound by the usual chain to the fact which you wish it to accompany. When the student wishes to go farther and attack larger problems than the simple binding of two facts to- . there is little in I m that is new, although there is much that is good. If it is a book that is to be learned as one would prepare for an examination, each chapter is to be considered separately. Of each a precis is to be written in which the writer must exercise- all of his ingenuity to reduce the matter in hand to its final skeleton of fact. This he is to commit to memory both by the use of the chain and the old system of interro- gation. Suppose after much labor through a wide of language one boils a chapter or an event down to the final irreducible sediment: "Magna Charta was exacted by the barons from King John at Runnvmede." You must now turn this statement this way and that way; asking yourself about it every possible and impossi- ble question, gravely considering the answers, and, if you find any part of it especially difficult to remember, chain- ing it to the question which will bring it out. Thus, " What was exacted by the barons from King John at Runnvmcdcr" "Magna Charta." "By whom w.i* Magna Charta exacted from King John at Runnvmede?" "By the barons." " From whom wa John." "From what king." etc.. etc.? " King John. "Where TO Magna Charta," etc., etc.? "At Runnv- mede " And so on and so on, as long as your ingenuity can t questions to ask, or points of view from which to THE LOISETTE SYSTEM OF MEMORY. *r 167 consider the statement. Your mind will be finally satu- rated with the information; and prepared to spill it out at the first squeeze of the examiner. This, however, is not new. It was taught in the schools hundreds of years be- for Loisette was born. Old newspaper men will recall in connection with it Horace Greeley's statement that the test of a news item was the clear and satisfactory manner in which a report answered the interrogatories, "What?" "When?" "Where?" "Who?" "Why?" In the same way Loisette advises the learning of poetrv, "The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 1 * " Who came down?" " How did the Assyrian come down?" " Like what animal did?" etc. And so on and so on. until the verses are exhausted of every scrap of information to be had out of them by the most assiduous cross-examination. Whatever the reader may think of the availibilitv or value of this part of the system, there are so many easily applicable tests of the worth of much that Loisette has done, that it may be taken with the rest. Few p eo ple, to give an easy example, can remember the value of IT— the ratio between the circumference and the diameter of the circle — beyond four places of decimals, or at most five — 3. 1415924-." Here is the value to 108 deci- mal places: 3. I4 i 59-6.V35S979323S-46264338; > J705OjSS4I97i6 9 3 9 937 5-i05S20974944592307Si -6406286208 -i^)S62So34S-J5342i 170679S2 148086+ By a very simple application of the numerical letter values, these 108 decimal places can be carried in the mind and recalled about as fast as you can write them down. All that is to be done is to memorize these nonsense lines: Jlother Day will bV any shawl. My love pick up my new muff. A Russian jeer may move a woman. Cables enough for Utopia. Get a cheap ham pie by my cooley. The slave knows a bigger ape. I rarely hop on my sick foot. Cheer a sage in a fashion safe. A baby fish now views my wharf. Annually Mary Ann did kiss a jay. A cabby found a rough savage. Now translate each significant into its proper value and you have the task accomplished. "Mother Day," in = 3, /// = 1, >-= 4, rf= 1, and so on. Learn the lines one at a time by the method of interrogatories. ''Who will buy any shawl?" Which Mrs. Day will buy a shawl?" "Is Mother Day particular about the sort of shawl she will buy?" "Has she bought a shawj?" etc., etc. Then ce- ment the end of each line to the beginning of the next one, thus, "Shawl" — "warm garment" — "warmth" — "love" — "my love," and go on as before. Stupid as the work may seem to you, you can memorize the figures in fifteen minutes this way so that you will not forget them in fifteen years. Similarly you can take Haydn's Dic- tionary of Dates and turn fact after fact into nonsense lines like these which you cannot lose. And this ought to be enough to show anybody the whole art. If you look back across the sands of time and find out that it is that ridiculous old "Thirty days hath September " which comes to you when you are trying to think of the length of October — if you can quote your old prosody, "O datur ambiguis,' 1 etc., with much more certainty than you can serve up your Horace; if, in fine, jingles and alliterations, wise and other- wise, have stayed with you, while solid and serviceable in- formation has faded away, you may be certain that here is the key to the enigma of memory. You can apply it yourself in a hundred wavs. If you wish to clinch in your"mind the fact that Mr. Love lives at 4S5 Dearborn Street, what is more easy than to turn 4S5 into the word " rifle " and chain the ideas together, say thus: "Love — happiness — good time — picnic — forest — wood rangers — range — rifle range — rifle — fine weapon — costly weapon — dearly bought — Dearborn." Or if you wish to remember Mr. Bowman's name, and you notice he has a mole on his face which is apt to at- tract your attention when you next see him, cement the ideas thus: " Mole, mark, target, archer, Bowman." yr*-*- K 168 BOOK-KEEPING. ftfE ART op ^^ AMD DOUBUe ^ The Two Systems Compared Side by Side. 00K- KEEPING is the art of recording business transactions in a system- atic manner, so that the results will be readily ap- parent, and so that the con- dition of the business, as to its resources and liabil- ities, losses and gains, may be ascertained with ease and exactness. A knowledge of the science of accounts is necessary to all men, no matter in what business they may be engaged. It is especially valuable as it is demanded in every position in life. There are two sys- tems of Book-keeping, Single Entry and Double Entry. The former is mainly used where transactions are limited to the business of retail dealers, and where it is only necessary to record the details of purchases and sales for cash or credit. A single entry of the account in the Ledger is am- ple for the purpose of a record. But where business is done on a large scale, such as per- tains to a wholesale house, it becomes necessary to have recourse to the more satisfactory though more intricate system of Double Entry. Instead of making only one entry of a transaction, as in the simpler method, two are made — first on the Dr. or Cr. side of one account, and again on the contrary side of some other account. The advantage of this double entry is that the mer- chant can always inform himself of the exact state of each account, and not alone of the goods sold, but of what he has on hand, without the inconvenience of often taking an account of stock. Then again it is a check by which errors may be easily detected. Books Used in Single Entry. In Single Entry only three books are neces- sary — Cash-Book, Day-Book and Ledger. All moneys received or paid out are entered in the Cash-Book. If goods are purchased for cash, the money being paid away, the entry is made on the Cr. side, " By Merchandise per Day- Book." The cash should be balanced as soon after the last day of the month as possible. A record of the transactions of each and every day in the order in which they take place should be entered in the Day-Book. The name -r BOOK-KEEPING. _k 169 of the customer is entered in full, with the term Dr. or Cr. annexed, according to the nature of the transaction — Dr. when goods are sold to him, and Cr. when goods are bought or received from him. The date of each entry must be in- serted, and the names and addresses of custom- ers written in full. Goods purchased or received on credit are entered under Cr., and the entry preceded by the word " By." When goods are sold on credit add " Dr." to the person's name and residence, and begin the entry with the word " To." When abatement for discount or short measure is allowed by you, enter the person Cr., and when similar allowance is made to you, enter the person Dr. Every transaction is entered in the Ledger from all other books, with certain references, indicating the sources from which the items are derived. Each customer's name has a certain space allotted to it, in which the goods sold ap- pear on the Dr. side and the cash received on the Cr. side. Books Used in Double Entry. In Double Entry the principal books used are the Day-Book, Cash-Book, Journal and Ledger. The first-named book should contain the prin- cipal transactions occurring in the various stages of business. Entries should be fully intelligible, from the fact that it contains the greater portion of the matter from which the other books are made. All transactions in which cash has any part must be entered in the Cash-Book at the time they occur, in the same manner as other entries are made in the Day-Book. In the Journal are entered and methodically arranged the scattered items of the Cash-Book and Day- Book. The Ledger is the most important of all the books in the series, and into it are transferred the entries from the Journal, under their separ- ate heads. To facilitate the finding of particu- lar accounts, an index-book is used in connec- tion with the Ledger, in which the names are alphabetically arranged, with the number of the page of the Ledger opposite each. The very important fact must not be lost sight of that every item is entered twice, once on the Dr. side of one account, and or^ce on the Cr. side of another account. How Entries are Ifcade. If a person buys merchandise to the amount of $1,000, for which he pays cash, the entry would be made as follows : Merchandise, Dr. To Cash $1,00000 $1,00000 The first entry shows what the merchandise has cost him, and the second shows that he has paid away cash amounting to #1,000. Accounts are opened with Cash, Merchandise, Bills Paya- ble, Bills Receivable, Interest, Commission, etc., in the same manner as personal accounts are treated in the Single Entry Ledger, all items received or disbursed being debited and credit- ed to their account. To make it still plainer, suppose George Smith sells a quantity of goods to Peter Aylmer, and charges him $50 commis- sion ; the entry would be made in this fashion : Peter Aylmer, Dr. To Commission $5000 $5000 If the same party owed Aylmer the same sum of money and gave him a note for the amount with #5.00 interest added, it would be entered thus: Sundries Peter Aylmer Interest To Bills Payable $5000 500 $SS'oo There are two styles of accounts, Real and Representative. The latter class embraces such as Commission, Interest, etc., and should be deb- ited and credited for what they cost or pro- duce. By doing this, when the books are bal- anced a person can tell at once exactly what these representative accounts have cost or pro- duced. How to Detect Errors. It is customary among merchants to have a set time for the adjustment of their account 7. o "V 170 HOOK-KEEPING. t. . books, and for this it is necessary, before tak- ing a general balance, to prove the posting of the Ledger by taking a trial balance. To do this the accountant adds all the Dr. sides into one sum, and all the Cr. sides into another. When the Ledger has been correctly posted these two sums will be equal ; but if they do hot balance the cause of the difference must be looked up at once. Sometimes a sum is enter- ed to a different account than the one to which it belongs, but on the same side, and the sums will still agree. To find such an error as this, the Journal and Ledger should be compared by two persons, the one reading from the Journal, and the other scanning the accounts in the Ledger, and checking them when correct. When a Journal entry is omitted or twice en- tered in the Ledger, the summing up of the latter will not show the error. To find it, how- ever, it is necessary to foot up the Cash re- ceived, Cash paid, Bills Receivable, Bills Payable and Day-Book entries, and the sum will always agree with that side of the Ledger which is cor- rect, leading easily to the detection of the error. How Errors are Made. Very frequently errors are made in journal- izing the subsidiary books and in posting the Ledger, such as debiting or crediting one per- son or account in place of another; omitting entries ; making the sum too large or too small, etc. Immediate attention should be paid to er- rors of this kind, not by an erasure or interlin- eation, but an explanatory entry in the Day- Book. That is then to be journalized like a regular transaction and posted in the Ledger. For instance, in the Ledger of May ioth, Rich- ard Klotz is debited to Bills Payable, but on the 30th of May it is found that this entry should have been posted to John Dobbins' account. John Dobbins is therefore debited to Richard Klotz in the Day-Book, and the mistake is thereby explained. If, any account has been overposted, it must be either debited or credited for the excess; and if it has been underposted, a new entry must be made upon the same side for the deficiency. When an entry has been entirely omitted, it must be made as soon as discovered, mentioning when omitted. When an entry has been posted twice, it may be cor- rected by entering the amount on the other side, noting the fact of its being twice posted. The greatest care should be exercised in mak- ing original entries, as they are the 1 dangerous of all. Balancing books should not be delayed beyond a specified time, for, the longer the time, the more difficult the correction of an error. Where an account has been under- paid for a year or so the person may have sub- sequently died, failed, retired from business, or otherwise become inaccessible. Thus a positive loss is sustained which might otherwise have been avoided. Subsidiary Books. Among the subsidiary books generally used is the Petty Cash-Book, in which a record is kept of the various charges incurred in trade, too trifling to be entered separately in the Cash- Book. This book is balanced monthly, and the total amount of expenditures transferred to the Cash-Book under the head of Petty Cash. The Bill-Book is used in the same manner in Single and Double Entry. A separate book should be kept for Bills Receivable and Bills Payable. When a note is received it should be imme- diately entered under the head of Bills Receiv- able and duly numbered ; and when a draft is accepted, or note paid away, it should be en- tered as Bills Payable. In some cases merchants keep a Cash account and Bank account separately. Thus, if they have $5,000 on hand in cash and should deposit $1,000 of it in the First National Bank, they would debit or charge the bank with the amount and credit Cash for the amount paid away, and when they draw any portion.from the bank they credit the bank with the amount and debit Cash with it ; or, if it is paid away to any person, he is charged with it. In large establishments the /* NT V X OOK-K.EEPING. 171 Bank account is frequently kept in a separ- ate book. -em} THE TWO SYSTEMS. In the following pages are given three sets of accounts, exemplifying thoroughly the theory and practice of Single Entry and Double Entry Book-keeping. Of the Double Entry sets, the first is a very simple one, and designed to prepare the student for a thorough understanding of the second, in which has been introduced the feature of com- bining the Journal and Day-Book, and which also presents two methods of closing the Led- ger, as will be explained further on. The Cash-Book, in Double as well as in Sin- gle Entry, shows on the debit side all cash re- ceived and on the credit side the cash paid out, and the excess of debit consequently shows the exact amount of cash on hand. The form used in both systems is the same, with this exception, that in Double Entry, where the posting is done direct from the Cash-Book, a column is ruled off next to the date column to show the folio of the Ledger. The balances may be brought down weekly, but when the entries are numerous it would be better to balance the Cash account daily. Money received or paid on account is entered in the Cash-Book as well as the Day- Book. The first and last thing to remember in study- ing Book-keeping is that The thing received is Dr. The thing delivered is Cr. Or, What you owe is Cr. What owes you is Dr. Debit what costs value. Credit what produces value. Book-Keeping by Single Entry. In the pages immediately following we pre- sent to the student a set of books kept by Single Entry. The Day-Book affords a regular daily history of every transaction, giving details and particu- lars. The entries in the book are direct and simple, first stating the name of the person to be debited or credited on the Ledger, ex- pressed, respectively, by "Dr." and " Cr.," and giving the consideration and amount. These entries are transferred under the proper heads in the Ledger, which in Single Entry exhibits the relation in which persons with whom we deal stand to the business. An account in the Ledger should be transferred to a new folio be- fore it crowds upon the one below it. The Day-Book and Ledger contain only transactions relating to persons. A prudent business man, however, will feel the necessity of keeping a record of receipts and disbursements of cash, the issue and redemption of his own notes and the receipt and disposition of the notes of others, and for this purpose will keep a Cash-Book and a Bill-Book. The Cash-Book is here given in full. In view of the thorough ex- planations appended, the form of the auxiliary books is not given. The words and figures in italics would in practice be entered in red ink, as illustrated in the Double Entry sets. ^J : 7 2 SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK. SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK. Dr. Cash. iss 3 . Nov. Nov. To Charles Evans, invested by him " Thomas J effers, " " " " Edgar Hatch, on « To Balance on hand from 3d inst, " I Bureau, Mahogany Veneered " Bills Receivable, Martin Stevens' Note, Evans' favor. " John Roberts, Arm Chair fo* Office $ V> 00 6»S t oS 60 00 & at » CO IJ500 500 Nov. Nov. >4 16 '7 To Balance on hand from loth inst. " 1 Pint of Varnish " Standing Cupboard " 1 Reclining Chair " 3 Ottomans " 1 Walnut Bedstead. 19 To Balance on hand from 17th inst. aa " Steamboat Vint Shlnkle, part Bill of data M ,- 64S60 5» 7S J5 00 7 OS 45° 6S63S R) --3 15000 74- •3 Nov. ISS3- Dec. 26 30 To Balance on hand from 24th inst. *' a Mahogany Bocking Chairs Walnut, ® $u. 50 " 1 Walnut Bedsteads, ® 4.50 " 1 Doz. Cane-Seat Walnut Chairs 24JJ0 « t Child's High Chair 1.15 " " Rocking " i.»S " Edgar Hatch, in full " Repairing Tables ■ " Chair* To Balance from Nov. 30th, iSSj 474 83 «5 00 900 »«50 6J a ■ tea 1 47" SINGLE *NTRY CASH-BOOK. 173 :^ ~A SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOQK. Cash. Cr. 1883. Nov. Nov. 24 By C. R. George, Bill of Lumber " Bill of Coal " Balance in Bank $650, in Safe $24.98 By Joseph Maynes, Bricklayer, Repairs to House " James Wright, Painting House " Samuel Hudson, in full of " One pair of Pinchers " Wages paid hands " Balance in Bank $620, in Safe $18.60 16 By Samuel Hudson, part Bill of Paints, etc. 17 " Wages paid hands " Balance in Bank $jaj.J0, in Safe $72.73 By Bills Payable, Evans' Note, Smith's favor, Less Discount from date to J an. 6th f 1S83 " Charles Evans on 4 36 474 74S,23 25 60 2S|oO 25 40 CO 39 ! 25 47' OS 602 oS K" '74- SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. . fe- SINGLE ENTRY DAYBOOK. St. Louis, November ist t 1883. Charles Evans, Cabinet-Maker, associates with himself Thomas J enters — Evans transferring to the firm such portion of his resources and liabilities as is mutually agreed upon, and Jeffcrs investing their equivalent in Cu>h. The parties are to share alike in gains and losses. Charles Evans, By Cash invested " Sundry Notes he holds against others, per B.-B. " BaJ. of Edgar Hatch's f 11 " Maurice Perry's f H Materials and Unfinished work, as per Inventory " Stock of Furniture, " " " ** Tools, " " To Sundry Notes he owes, per B.-B, 11 Bal. due Samuel Hudson, on $ ** " Richard Kelso & Co., on f Dr. Thomas Jeffcrs, * By Cash invested Edgar Hatch, To Bal. of his f due Charles Evans Maurice Perry, To Bal. of his Jf due Charles Evans Samuel Hudson, By Bal. of Charles Evans* ^ assumed by us Richard Kelso & Co., By Bal. of Charles Evans* ^ assumed by us Edgar Hatch, To 1 Hair Cloth Mahogany Sofa By Cash on * 3& Cr. 5th Peter Fowler, To 9 Mahogany Chairs, Cane-Seats, (cb $1.25 " 6 " " Hair-Cloth Seats, (3 3.00 " 2 Cherry Dining Tables, (cb 6.00 M I Maple French Bedstead " 1 " Low-Post Bedstead ^ _^_^__ - _^ •< Osmond K;iy, To 1 doz. Windsor Chairs li 1 <« H H " 4 " " " " 1 Spring-Seat Black Walnut Sofa Samuel Hudson, To Cash in full Richard Kelso & Co., By Bill of Lumber To our Note ® 30 days In full of their Edgar Hatch, To 1 Ash Footstool Andrew Cummins, To 3 Patent Office Chairs « 5.00 Sth 9th Dr. Cr. Cr. Dr. Cr. Cr. Dr. Dr. 50.00 350.00 SS-73 37-+0 356.50 a>o-« 151.20 421.00 67.00 75*> 11.25 1S.00 12.00 4-»5 »-7S Dr. J 12. 00 « $15.00 7.50 •* 10^0 5.00 21.00 Dr. Dr. Dr. 1,21! 5«3 6+8 55 37 67 75 JO 60 75 t> >S 45 jo ■35 210 V_ -X hi SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. Li- 175 7f SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. 5A Lotas, Nwember I2th % 1883. Edgar Hatch, To 1 Red Walnut Dining Table Francis Watkins, To 2 Children's Low Chairs, $2.00 John A. Crowe, To 3 do*. Windsor Chairs, ® $n.od '* 1 Hocking Chair Edgar Hatch, To 4 of Osmond Ray, assumed by him Osmond Ray, By transfer of f to Edgar Hatch Samuel Hudson, By Bill of Paints, Varnish, etc. To Cash In part Francis Watkins, To 1 Walnut Book-case Edgar Hatch, To 1 Hat-stand, Mahogany Veneered Francis Watkins, To Varnishing i Table Steamboat Vint Shinkle, To 3 Mahogany Sofas, 60 days " Cash to Bal. i Dr. Cr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Cr. 0.00 $45.00 32.00 12.00 32.00 60.00 2S.00 2S.00 $75.00 62.75 42 50 26 50 J37 75 7- r K 176 SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. " Dr. SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. Charles Evans. Cr. ISS3. Nov. : To Sundries " Met Capital at starting I 2 |63 04S 20 18S3. Nov. 1883. Nov, 1883. Dec. ■ By Sundries By Net Cap. brought down " j Net Gains I 1,111 - 1883. 1,211 1,111 2J Nov. M »3 30 To Cash on " Ntt Cap. to New f lO 77* 78S 00 38 I 3° 14030 J* fi I By Net Cap. from old * 77' 3^ Dr. Thomas Jeffers. Cr. I8S3. Nov. H 29 3° To Cash on t " JVtt Cap. to Nra f 2 »5 703 00 38 18S3. Nov. 1883. Dec. 3° By Cash Invested ■*. 4 Ntt Gain* By Net Cap. from old < 1 648' oS 14030 7* 7~*3i_ 1 J63J3S n r. Edgar Hatch. Cr x88 3 . Nov. m 1 3 9 12 >5 To Charles Evans ** Sofa " Footstool " Dining Tablo " Osmond Ray Am't to folio 55 20 1 4° 45 75 00 50 00 50.^ 7S 1SS3. Nov. 1 By Cash Am't to folio 1 * 6000 ibs 00 00 Dr. Maurice Perry. Cr. Nov. To Charles Evans 37 Dr. Samuel Hudson. Cr. 1883. Nov. 8 To Cash To Cash " Sal. to New i 1 67 00 00 26 1883. Nov, 1S83. Nov. 1S83. Dec. I By Charles Evans By Bill of date By Bal. from Old 1 t 1 67 00 1883. Nov. 16 3° J So »S 16 '75 26 ■75 '7; 20 t »5 26 Dr. Richard Kelso & Co. Cr. 1883. Nov. 9 To Bills Payable 1 210 .•0 .'0 1SS3. Nov. 1 9 By Charles Evans •' Bill of data 1 1 75 SO •U tic 20 Dr. Peter Fowler. Cr. 1883. Nov. To Sundries V 1 00 fag 18S3. Nov. 20 By Bal. to folio 2 "9 50 '9 50 ■9 50 1 Dr. John A. Crowe. Cr. 1SS3. Nov. 1SS3. Dec. •3 29 1 To Sundries " Bureau To Bal. from Old * 2 2 42 '9 0O OO 1SS3. Nov. 30 3" By Bureau '' Bal. to New y 2 "9 42 00 00 00 61 00 61 4* z>. Edgar Hatch. Cr. < . a ISS3. Nov. '5 *9 26 To Am't from folio " Hat-stand " Bureau 1 2 2 162 10 25 75 00 00 18S3. Nov. 15 30 By Am't from folio Sundries 1 2 60 '37 00 75 ■97 75 ■97 75 Dr. Steamboat Vint Shinkle. Cr. 1SS3. Nov. 1SS3. Dec. 22 1 To Sundries To Bal. from Old * 2 23700 1S83. Nov. 22 30 By Cash '• Bal. to New i 2 % CO 00 00 237 00 237 S7 00 Dr. A. E. Ford. Cr. 1SS3. Nov. 23 By Bill k a 15 ~ 12 :^=5 V i7» BOOK-KEEPING. 4 DEDUCTIONS. UNSETTLED BALANCES ON THE LEDGER. DEBTS DUE THE FIRM. Maurice Perry Peter Fowler Andrew Cummins John A. Crowe Steamboat Vint Shinkle Francis Watkins 37 40 4825 '5 4> 87 34 50 264 1$ DEBTS THE FIRM OWE. Samuel Hudson A. E. Ford »5 9640 221 66 The above Ledger balances, together with the auxiliary books, furnish the material for the following statement i ASSETS AND LIABILITIES. ASSETS. LIABILITIES. Cash on hand per C.-B. Debts due the firm per Ledger Bills Receivable per B.-B. Furniture per Invt. Book 9 Materials, etc., per Invt. Book Tools, per Invt. Book 47. *4 300 776 »39 14' 9S «J 75 79 95 Debts the firm owe per Ledger Bills Payable per B.-B. Total liabilities m 43' 66 Total assets Deduct liabilities »."94°» 65*86 6p Firm's net capital or present worth ■.54' 76 ASSETS, INCLUDING PARTNERS' DEBITS. Total assets per above stati-im-nt Cash paid Charles Evans " Thomas Jcffers Firm's net gains Each partner's *,' k= $ 1 40.30. Deduct 2,104:61 ,0 »5 2,22o62 >.949!°» 2S060 LIABILITIES, INCHDIM; PARTNERS' INVESTMENTS. Total liabilities per above statement Cli.irli-s Kvans' investment Thomas Jcffers' investment 652 64S 64S >,•*■ • K" ■71 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 179 HE distinguishing feature of Double Entry is in carrying out a mathematical principle of equilibrium, under the titles of debtor and cred- itor, or debits and credits. To preserve this equilibrium, every debit must have a credit or credits to balance the amount, and, vice-versa, every credit must be balanced equally by a debit or debits. In Single Entry a record is kept of resources and liabilities only ; in Double En- try is added a record of gains and losses. The Day-Book is the original book of entry and should contain in a concise and unequivocal form a consecutive history of transactions, in the order and on the date of their occurrence. The purpose of the Journal is to decide upon* the proper debits and credits in each transac- tion, preparatary to entering them in the Led- ger. The process of thus classifying transac- tions by debits and credits is called journalizing. Very often the Day-Book and Journal .'.re com- bined in a "Journal Day-Book," as in Set II. The Ledger is the final book of entry, and in it are arranged, under the proper accounts, all facts necessary for a full statement of the busi- ness. Each of these accounts exhibits one of the four following results, viz. : A resource, a liability, a loss, or a gain. The process of transferring accounts from the Journal to the Ledger is called posting. To close an account in the Ledger, add the debit and credit sides separately on a slip of paper, and, if the totals thus obtained are not equal, subtract the smaller from the greater. This difference is entered in red ink to make up the deficiency of the smaller side. Then rule with red ink and enter the totals in black. The red ink entry is then transferred in black to the opposite side of the account into which it is closed. When both columns are equal the to- tals are simply entered in black, and this indi- cates that the account is cancelled. When there are more entries on one side of an account than on the other, a line is drawn, after closing the account, obliquely across the vacant space. This line commences at a double rule opposite the double rule under the totals, and extends thence in the direction of the last figure in the column. The Key to Journalizing. Remember that the key to all journalizing is stated in the two old lines which the student would do well to memorize : "By Journal laws what you receive Is Dr. made to what you give,'' By referring constantly to this rule and ex- amining each entry in the Journal or Journal Day-Book by its light, the whole mystery of Double Entry Book-keeping will become clear. •r 180 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. -.': :— THE PRINCIPLES. •-:-■- *- --.; : - An account is a statement of facts and figures relating to some person, property or cause, so arranged as to show a specific result. As stated on a preceding page, there are two classes of accounts, Real and Representative. In other terms, accounts showing resources and liabilities, and accounts showing losses and gains. The for- mer are closed " To Balance " or " By Balance," and the latter " To Loss and Gain " or " By Loss and Gain." Some accountants use the words " Profit and Loss," instead of " Loss and Gain." The following rules, embodying the principles of Double Entry Book-keeping, will be found to cover in a concise form all points which gen- erally confuse the student groping through a voluminous treatise : The proprietor or the partners in a business should be cred- ited for all investments and for the gain or share of the gain, and debited for liabilities assumed, for all sums withdrawn from the business and for the loss or share of the loss incurred. Where there is only one proprietor he is represented on the books by Stock, but in a partnership business each partner's ac- count is kept under his own name. The Stock account and partners' accounts are closed " To Balance " or " By Balance." The Cash account is credited for all disbursements and debited for all receipts of cash. It always closes "By Balance." A Bank account shows on the debit side the amount deposit- ed, and on the credit side the amount withdrawn, and closes " By Balance," unless the account is overdrawn. The Merchandise account is credited with the proceeds and debited with the cost of merchandise on hand at commencing and purchased in the course of business. When the merchan- dise has all been sold, as in Set I., the difference between the sides will show a gain if the credit side is the greater, and a loss if the debit side preponderates. Real estate, personal property and speculative accounts come under this rule. The Bills Receivable account is credited when the notes, acceptances or obligations of others are disposed of or paid, and debited when such obligations are acquired. This account always closes " By Balance." The Bills Payable account is credited when notes, etc, of the firm or business are issued, and debited when they are paid or redeemed. It always closes " To Balance." Personal accounts, including the names of persons, banks and corporations or institutions competent to sue or be sued, are credited when we become indebted to them or they get out of our debt, and debited when they become indebted to us or we get out of their debt. These accounts are closed "By Bal- ance" or "To Balance." The Expense account is debited for liabilities incurred and cash paid out for which no direct return is expected — such as salaries, rent, etc. This account closes " By Loss and Gain." The Loss and Gain account is debited with losses and credit- ed with gains, and closes "To Stock" or "By Stock." Under the head of Interest and Discount are debited and credited all allowances for the use of money on notes, drafts, etc Credit the account when it produces value ; debit the ac- count when it costs value. This account closes "To Loss and Gain" or " By Loss and Gain." SET I. By way of initiation into the principles and practice of Double Entry Book-keeping we present in Set I. the record of simple business transactions. It will be observed that all trans- actions are first entered, in the order of their occurrence, in the Day-Book, from which th£y are transferred to the Journal, or journalized, and thence they are posted to the Ledger. The established form of Journal entries requires the debit expression to precede the credit. There- fore, in applying the preceding principles to the first entry in the Day-Book, using the word Stock to denote the proprietor, we have as our first Journal entry, " Cash, Dr., to Stock, $2,- ooo." When one person or account is indebted to another in a certain sum, the latter is the creditor of the former to the same amount. This is the foundation of Double Entry Book-keep- ing, the most important characteristic of which we now encounter in transferring the first trans- action to the Ledger, where it will be doubly entered, on the Dr. side of the Cash account, and on the Cr. side of the Stock account. The check-mark (1/ ) in the Day-Book is to indicate that the transaction has been carried to the Journal, and the figure in the first column of the Journal shows the page of the Ledger to which the account is posted. The number in the Ledger column immediately preceding the amount refers, in turn, to the Journal page. How to Close the Ledger. The purpose of closing the Ledger is to show the state of each account in a single amount, to do away with the unused accounts, and to ascertain clearly the general results of the busi- _se BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 181 ness. In this process all the losses and gains are gathered together in the Loss and Gain account, and there compared, the gains being placed upon the credit, and losses on the debit side. When the credit side is the greater the account is closed "To Stock" and shows a net gain. The oppo- site entry, " By Loss and Gain," is made in the Stock account and increases the capital. When the debit side is the greater, the account shows a net loss and is closed " By Stock," and the op- posite entry in the Stock account, "To Loss and Gain," indicates a decrease in capital. The first step in closing the Ledger is to take a Trial Balance, that is, to make a systematic arrangement of the Ledger accounts, with their proper debit and credit totals and differences. If the Ledger is correct, the total debits will equal the total credits. The next thing in order is to ascertain by an inventory the value of all goods and property unsold and credit the amounts in red ink to the proper accounts, "By Balance, Inventory." The opposite entry is afterwards made on the debit side of the Balance account in black ink. Thus, if the Merchandise ac- count has in red ink the entry, " By Balance, Inventory, $ 1, 600," the corresponding entry in black in the Balance account will read, "To Mdse., $1,600." In Set I. the entire stock is sup- posed to have been sold, and consequently no entry of this kind will be found. Now a Loss and Gain account is opened, if this has not been done previously, and also a Balance account In the first are to be entered in black ink all accounts closing "To Loss and Gain" or "By Loss and Gain," showing the profit and loss on each account. In the second are to be enter- ed all accounts closing "To Balance" or "By Balance," show- ing the resources and liabilities. Close first all accounts to which inventory balances have been carried. The differences between the sides of these accounts will show gain or loss, and the closing entry, in red ink, will express the difference — "By Loss and Gain" or "To Loss and Gain." Having finished these accounts, the other accounts in the Led- ger, excepting Stock and partners' accounts, are closed in red ink— "To" or "By Loss and Gain," or "To" or "By Bal- ance." The "Loss and Gain" and "Balance " red ink entries are now carried in black ink to the opposite sides of the Loss and Gain and Balance accounts. The Loss and Gain account is now closed, in red ink, "To Stock" or " By Stock." In a partnership business each partner is credited or debited with his share. The process of closing the Ledger is now completed by tak- ing the difference between the sides of the Stock account and entering in red ink "To Balance " or " By Balance," which is transferred in black to the Balance account. Balance Sheets. The balance sheet given for Set II. is the most condensed form for a partnership business. The style and symmetry will commend it to all accountants, while the fulness of the illustrations must satisfy alL The form has been used for a long time, but has never been adopted to any great extent by busi- ness men, the objection being its inadequacy to contain long lists of personal accounts. This objection can be overcome by using, instead of persons' names, the general titles Accounts Receivable and Accounts Payable. In nearly all kinds of busi- ness this will reduce the number of accounts within the limits of this form. The following rules should be used in preparing this form : First rule the parallel head-lines, leaving space for the double captions. Then ascertain the number of Ledger accounts to be represented. This will, of course, embrace all the accounts in the Trial Balance that do not cancel. If the business is that of a single proprietor, rule in pencil as many lines as will contain all the accounts, and five additional. If it be a partnership busi- ness, with two or more partners, rule three additional lines for each partner. Next lay off proper spaces for debit and credit money columns : first, for the footings of Ledger accounts ; sec- ond, for Gains and Losses ; third, for Stock ; and fourth, for Re- sources and Liabilities ; also, for a single money column for in- ventories, and for the Ledger titles and their Ledger folios. After denoting the proper space for each heading, commence to rule with red ink at the right hand and bring all the lines of the first two captions, Real accounts and Stock, or one of the part- ners, down to the lower pencil line. For the other partner drop two lines. For Losses and Gains drop two lines, for Stock business ; and an additional line for each partner. Then rule the foot-lines as shown, and the schedule will be ready to receive the accounts. Auxiliary Books. All accountants, where the business is any way large, keep what are termed auxiliary books. Among these is the Inventory- Book. It is used to enumerate the different articles of unsold merchandise, at such times as may be deemed desirable. In- ventories are frequently copied into Invoice-Books. An Invoice is a statement in detail of goods sold, shipped abroad or consigned to another to be sold. The Invoice-Book is used for taking copies of the invoices which accompany goods purchased or received on consignment. Some houses, instead of copying, paste their invoices in a blank Invoice-Book prepared for this purpose. This book, while showing the entire cost of merchandise, will also exhibit the separate credits pro- ducing merchandise. If a lot or package is distinguished by a peculiar mark, that mark is transferred to the invoice, thus serving an important purpose in checking the articles, adjusting disputes, etc. Bills Receivable and Bills Payable are usually bound in op- posite ends of the same book, termed a Bill-Book. This book should never be omitted, and especially is it important to keep a record of the amount and condition of notes payable. The Sales-Book contains all the regular sales, either for cash or on time. In houses doing a mixed Dusiness the Sales-Book and Commission Sales-Book can with equal propriety be kept together or separate, as convenience may dictate. -< ^J V K" 182 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. SET I. DAY-BOOK. (I.) St. Louis, December ist, 188 j. Commenced business this day with, Cash to the amount of Bought of Armstrong & Co., on f , 1,000 brls. Flour, ® $6.00, 1 3 Sold Jesse Jameson, for Cash, 300 brls. Flour, ® $6.50, " 5 Sold John Williams, on ^, 250 brls. Flour, © $7.00, 7 Sold Wm. Moore, on his Note $6.75, 675.00 H ' Paid Cash for Stationery and Books for use of Store, . , 5 Bought of Edwin Ellerton, for C:ish, 300 brls. Flour, ® $5.00, '7 Sold Peter Potts, for Cash, 100 brls. Flour, ® $6.00, ,g Bought of W. L. George, on Jf , 1,000 bu. Oats, ® 750, 1 ' " ~~ — ■" ao *■" — ^— — — ^ — — — — — Sold Sellers A Bro., on their Note o* *7~ *i. 5 --— ■ £~ 61 1 < \ BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 183 » SET 1. JOURNAL (1.) St. Louis, December i, 1883. 2>. Cr. a t Cash, 2,000 6,000 1,950 ".750 ",05° Sro 800 So >,5°° 600 750 " 5>i 2.730 8,250 6,000 5'5 3.3*5 100 2,OOC 6,00c ".95( >.7.« 1,05c 5°o 800 So 1,500 600 75o 5'5 2,730 8,250 6,000 5>5 3.3*5 100 Merchandise, Cash, — — ■■ - ' 3 — - - ■ • ■ John Williams, Bills Receivable, Merchandise, Cash, Expense, 14 Merchandise, 'S Cash, ■7 Merchandise, Bills Receivable,. Cash, Merchandise, A. A. McHatton, *> — To Merchandise Cash, Cash, To Merchandise, ..••...,, Expense, - J» 3S,385 1 38.3S5 1 f v Is ' a "■ -^ 1 NT* vr. »a ^ 184 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. A Z>r, SET I. LEDGER. (I.) Stock. Cr. Dk. 31 To Balanct, 3JTO 1 88 j. Dec. it 1 3' By Cash, " Loss and Gala, By Balance, 1 L> 1,000 3,570 3.5TO 1884. Jan. 1 3J7« Dr. Cash. Cr. ■883. Dec. 18S4. Jan. To Stock, " Mdse., " Kills Receivable, '• Mdse., To Balance, 1 a, coo 1. 950 800 600 2,730 5iS 3,3« 18S3. Dec. •« 11 ■4 '5 3' 3i »i9*> 10,270 By Expense " Md»e., 1,500 100 10*70 >»*■ Dr. Merchandise. Cr. 1883, 18S3. Dec. I To Armstrong & Co., 6,000 Dec. 3 By Cash, •«S«> ■« 10 " Bills Payable, 500 i 5 " John Williams, >.7S« •• >5 ** Clbii. >,5oo ' 7 " Bills Receivable, 1,090 " 18 " W. L. George, 750 ' ia " Cash, 800 SJ 36 31 "..Upward Harrison, " Lost and Gain, ' L> 8,250 /,7*> 1 1 1 >7 ao 21 »7 29 11 •• " Bills Receivable, ■ " Cash, " A. A. McHatton, " Cash, 600 S'5 ».7J0 6,000 3vJ'5 >8.7»o = .?.:*> Dk Armstrong & Co. Cr. 1883. Dk. 3' To Balanxt, U 6,000 1SS3. Dec. I 1 By Mdse., By Balance, 1 6,oop 1SS4. Jan. 6,000 Dr. John Williams Cr. 1883. Utt. I To Mdse., To Balance, * «.7So = Dk. 3> Bjf Bmtmmtt, La tsm 1884. Jan. 1 j « — »»• ■ XiUFORt*^ Ps" BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 185 ~~A Dr. Dr. SET I. LEDGER. (2.) Bills Receivable. Bills Payable. Cr. •883. Dec. 7 20 To Mdse., To Balance, I I 1,050 S'5 ■883. Dec. H 28 3> By Cash, " Bmlemte, I Li 5'S t.oji ^',565 i,S"S 1884. Jan. I lfi&> Cr. 1883. Dec. 31 To Balance, Li s°° Dec. 1884. Jan. By Mdse., By Balance. _5_oo 500 Dr. Expense. Cr. 1S83. Dec. To Cash, I I 50 100 1883. Dec. 3' By Loss and Gain,, La Dr. W. L. George. Cr 1883. Dec. _JT_ To Balance, Li 75° 18S3. Dec. |8 By Mdse., By Balance, z J 75° 1884. Jan. I 1 7S> Dr. Howard Harrison. Cr. 1883. Dec. $1 Dr. 18S3. Dec. To Balance, To Cash, " John Williams, 11 Bills Receivable, " A.A. McHatton, k. Li 8,250 1883. Dec. 26 Jan. By Mdse., By Balance, Balance. I8S3. Li 10,270 Dec. 3> Li 1.7S0 31 L2 1,050 ** 3< La 6,000 M 3< 3' 19,070 B 3y Armstrong & Co., «' Bills Payable, " W. L. George, " Howard Harrison. " Balance (ntt capital), -Las? 8,250 Dr. A. A . McHatton. Cr. 1883. Dec. *l To Mdse., To Balance, 1 6,000 188',. Dec. 3' By Balance, Li 6,000 1884. Jan. 1 6,000 Cr. Li 5,000 Li 500 La 750 La 8.250 3S7° 19.070 Dr. Loss and Gain. Cr 1883. Dec. it 3' 3< To Expense, " Stock (net gnin) , La Li 150 •J7° — 1883. Dec. 3« B*y Mdse., Li 1,720 1,720 1.720j '.^ K~ 186 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. Dr. SET I. TRIAL BALANCE— FACE OF LEDGER. Cr. 11,920 17,000 '.75° '.565 150 6,000 3S.38; Stock Cash . Merchandise Armstrong & Co. John Williams Hills Kfcu: Bills Payable Kxpcnsc \V, L, George Howard Harrison A. A. McIIatton EifuililriuM ;. ■■ ifoy. 6,oo< 5>! 5« 75t 8,25c ,W ; TRIAL BALANCE— DIFFERENCES. Dr. Cr. Stock, Cash, Merchandise, . Armstrong & Co., John Williams, Bills Receivable, Bills Payable, KxjHnse, . W. L. George, Howard Harrison, A. A. McHafton, 10,270 1.750 1,050 150 IfeMO tpa» 500 750 S,» 5 o l„,."o •7 " — 9 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. I8 7 DOUBLE «ni. ENTRY. .-0.-3. DAY-BOOK AND JOURNAL COMBINED. J N the system given in the following pages, the main feature is the combination of the Day-Book and the Journal. This form is the most practical in use for general pur- poses, and has been adopted by accountants in all branches of business. Its chief advantage is in dispensing with a separate Journal, and in bringing the Day-Book and Journal entries into such immediate connection as to leave no doubt of their identity. In this set by Merchandise Companies is meant the temporary copartnership existing between the consignor and the con- signee, having reference to the sale of particular consignments. In Merchandise Company busi- ness, one of the partners, the consignee, is the commission merchant, and, in that capacity, re- ceives and disposes of the property as he would of a simple consignment, the only difference be- ing that he is interested in the losses and gains. This species of copartnership differs from that of a general partnership only in its duration and the manner of conducting its sales. In the first method, exemplified by the three Merchandise Company accounts A, B and C, in the month of April, the principle recognized is that the holder of the property is responsible for it. Thus, when we receive from James A. Wright & Co. an in- voice to be sold on joint account, we debit Mdse. Co. A with the invoice and expenses, and credit the consignor with the cost of the invoice, thus making ourselves responsible for the property as if it were all our own. The consignor's entry, if recognizing the same prin- ciple, will be to debit us for the entire cost of the merchandise. In the second method, shown by the three Mdse. Co. accounts D, E and F, the principle recognized is that the owner of the property is responsible. For example, when we receive from George Allen & Co. merchan- dise to be sold on joint account, we debit Mdse. Co. D with our own share only, and credit the consignor. The consignor's entry in this case, if made to correspond with ours, would be to debit us for our share, and "Shipment in Co., to St. Louis," for his share. However, the final result is the same in both cases. So far as ab- solute right and responsibility is concerned, the second method is correct, the principle recog- nized being that the owner of the property is responsible. The only advantage possessed by the first method is that (the Mdse. Co. account shows its entire cost. For the month of April the Ledger is closed without the use of a balance account by bring- ing down the resources and liabilities under their proper accounts. This is the business method, and if each month is supposed to represent a year, this would be a good instance of the man- ner of closing books at the end of each year. The method of closing by Journal entries as shown in the month of May is used frequently, though requiring more labor and possessing no advantage over the other. The books used in this set are the Journal Day-Book and Ledger. 7. 1 K 188 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. ~7 SET II. JOURNAL DAYBOOK. (I.) St. Louis, April 2, 1883. John Adams and Arthur Astor have this day entered into copartnership, under the style and firm of Adams & Astor, In the prosecution of a general Commission and Grocery business; to invest in equal amounts and participate alike in gains and losses. Cash, Dr To John Adams, lor amount of his investment. First National Bank, Dr To Arthur Astor, For amount of his investment. Store and Fixtures, Dr. To Sundries, Bo't of John Adams his store and fixtures. To Mortgage Payable, Assumed mortgage on the property, . " Interest, Due on mortgage to date, " Cash, For balance, ' 3 Merchandise, Dr. To John A. Fargo & Co., Bo't on J, 5 casks Brandy, 300 gals, (a) $2, 200 brls. Mess Pork, (a) $9, . . 30,000 lbs. Bacon Sides, @ 5^, * 600 1,800 1,500 Expense, To Cash, Paid for set of Books. Mdse. Co. A, Dr. To Sundries, Received from James A. Wright & Co., Pittsburg, to be sold on our joint 4 and risk, each 1, Soo kegs Nails, © $3 ■ $2,400 20,000 lbs. Lead, ® 1$ ... 1,400 To James A. Wright & Co., Their invoice as above, " Cash, Paid freight Mdse. Co. B, Dr . To Butler & Carlton, Kcceivcd from B. & C, Sedalia, Mo., to be sold on our joint f and risk, each |, , 500 brls. Flour, © $S, S Cash, Dr. To Mdse. Co. A., Sold George Cooper, .... 400 kegs Nails, (S) $3.50, 6 Bills Receivable, To Mdse. Co. A, Sold Joseph Stanton, on his note 30 days, 30,000 lbs. Lead <2> otf .... 400 kegs Nails la $3.75 . *i,Soo 1.500 Mdse. Co. A, Dr. To Sundries Closed Company sales with Jamoi A. Wright & Co., and rendered them an f of tho same. To Storage and Adv " Commission, Our charges © 2\ % on $4,700, " J. A. Wright A Co., Their i net gain, • " Loss and Gain, Our " " ■0,000 10,000 12.500 3.9°° 75 3.900 4,000 1.400 MM «Ai 10,000 CsOOO 84 3.4'° MOO 75 100 '.400 3k1« 10 117 jo 33" -5 4o.<75 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 189 -/' Y_ SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (2.) Saint Lotas, April 6, 1883. Amounts brought forward, Butler & Carlton, To Bills Payable, " Cash. Dr. To Sundries, Shipped them, to be sold on our joint f , each l , 20 hhds. Sugar, 24,000 lbs. ® 5(J $1,200 100 bags Coffee, 14,000 lbs. (S3 io

30 days, 500 brls. Flour ® $9, . Mdse. Co. B, To Storage and Adv. " Commission, " Butler & Carlton, Their J net gain " Loss and Gain, Our " " Dr. To Sundries, Closed sales in Company with Butler & Carlton, of Sedalia, Mo., and rendered them an f of sales. Our Charges 2J * on $4,500 Sundries, Cash, Bills Receivable, To Merchandise, Dr. Sold John Tyler, 30,000 lbs. Bacon (St 6$ Received His Note Ot 30 days, for balance, James A. Wright & Co., Dr To Bills Payable Accepted their draft on us thirty days sight, favor F. B. Morse & Co., in full of their j. Mdse. Co. C, To Peter Curtis, " J. G. Holland, " Cash, Dr. To Sundries Received per Anchor Line, from Peter Curtis, Cairo, to be sold on joint f of him - self, J. G. Holland, Memphis, and ourselves, each J, as per contract, 1,000 brls. Flour, ® $S.so $S,5oo For his and our | above invoice, Paid Freight Str. Missouri Belle St'k, Dr. To Sundries, Bo't of John Dunn, J Steamer Missouri Belle, for To Cash, Paid in hand " Bills Pa yable, Gave our note © ninety days, for .... '3 Sundries, Bills Receivable, Cash, Dr. To Mdse. Co. C, Sold William Cook, Sedalia, 1,000 brls Flour, $10 His note (3t forty days, for For Balance Mdse. Co. C, Dr. To Sundries Closed sales in Company with Curtis & Holland, and rendered them each an Ac- count of the same. Adver., Our charges, z\ it on $10,000 His J net gain, To Storage '• Commission, " Peter Curtis, " J. G. Holland, " Loss and Gain Our 49,875 ».9'5 -4,500 500 800 1,000 4,136 5,700 7,000 3,000 ',300 93,7*° ^5 -. 93.7* 9" 8a i/xs M '/*» 73 '7 300 3+ «. »-95t 5t sec 11 955 1,500 »S° •59 "5 H 75 9* '•Sot 150 995 3« '.333 66t sac 9« 1.50c 150 '59 "5 3 3 2 6 a 3 6 4 a 3 3 6 5 3 a a 3 a a 1 (. 6 3 a 3 6 To Merchandise, Sold J. Collins, East St. Louis, 16 Merchandise, To Cash, " J. Wills & Co., Dr. To Sundries, Bo'tofJ. Wills & Co., '3 . Sundries, Expense, Arthur Astor, Priv. Dr. To Cash 30 Sundries, Cash, Interest, John Tyler has discounted his note in our favor, due May lath. isi'tler & Carlton, Dr Received on Account Sales of the Mdsc. sent them to be sold on joint account on the 7th inst. Our \ net gain as above. •* . ,, Sundries, J. G. Holland, Peter Curtis, To Merchandise, " Cash, Dr. To Sundries, Shipped J. c;. Holland, Memphis, to be sold on joint » of J. G. Holland Curtis, of Cairo, and ourselves, each }, 33 hhds. Sugar, 30,000 lbs., ® 6Jj> Peter $'.95° SO S -•.'-■« ■ " " j " " M John Adams, Priv., Dr To First National Hank, Drew on Private f. Butler & Carlton, Paid their draft on us in favor of James Flood. Cash, Received rent for upper floors to date. Steamer Missouri II ILLE, Dr For our share of earnings of last trip, as par sutcment rendered this day. 1, '" T.Xl'KNSK, Dr " . - V Sundry expenses to date, as per Expense-Hook. Loss and Gain, Dr 3 To J. G. Holland For our | net lost i>n shipment of Sugar for ioint i <>f Holland. Curtis and our- selves, of the aad inst., as per Account Sales this day received. 1 ioj."9 »03."9, fc- k . » / L r? r - BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. s 4 I 9 I SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (4.) St. Louis, April 30, 1 88 j. Amounts brought forward. Cash, Dr. - To John Adams Amount invested this day. St. Louis, May ist, 1883. Mdse. Co. D, Dr. To Sundries Received from George Allen, St. J oseph, to be sold on our joint j , each \ t 100 brls. Cider Vinegar, (d) $7 $700 50 do. Linseed oil, @ $40 2,000 40 h'f kegs White Lead, fa) $3 120 $J,320 To George Allen, For our £ above invoice " First National B'k, Paid freight per check First National Bank, Dr To Cash Deposited. - — —— 2 — ^ . Sundries, Dr. To Sundries, Shipped Watson Weed, Springfield, 111., to be sold on joint f , each \, 200 brls. Mess Pork (a) $9 $i,Soo Drayage charges, iS $I,SlS Watson Weed, For his \ above invoice Shipment in Co. 1. " ourj " " To Merchandise, As above, " Cash, Paid Drayage, .... . _ 3 Cash, Dr To Mdse. Co. D Sold to Richard Pratt, 100 brls. Vinegar ® $7.50 Insurance, Dr To Cash Kffectcd Insurance for $5,000 on any property that may be in our Warehouse. Henry Green & Co., Dr To Mdse. Co. D, Shipped them to Chicago, as per their order, 50 brls. Linseed Oil © $45 $ 2 , 2 5o 40 h'f kegs White Lead (d> $3. 120 Payable fa) Sixty Days. Mdse. Co. D, Dr. To Sundries, Closed Sales in Company with George Allen, and rendered him an Account Sales. To Charges, Storage, Advertising and Insurance " Commission, 2 1 * $3,120 " George Allen, For his ! invoice $1,410 and net gain $/ii " Loss and Gain, " Our J net gain, 103,1 >c 2.6SS 105,807 V 103,11c 2,68! 90 105,80; 90 .,46c 8,500 009 009 750 W 2.370 i°>595 50 i° 1,41c 5' S,5oc 1, 80c 7SC 37 5" »,37 16 M5«|»7 »54"7 3.3O0 4,°rx — *» 7 6o,4So *75 Cash, Dr. 3,60^05 44 95 2,000 -5 60,43925 *7J ».°4i To Mdse. Co. F, Sold John W.Welsh, 250 brls. Lard, 50,000 lbs., fal 40. Sundries, Mdse. Co. F., Loss and Gain, To Charges, 11 Commission, " Hugh Spencer, Dr. To Sundries, Closed "Mdse. Co. F," and rendered Hugh Spencer, Topcka, an Account Sales of the same. To close f j Our 4 net loss t Storage, cooperage, etc., . • 2\$ on sales His \ invoice, ■ ?3>5°° Less J net loss 4°4 33 Leaves net proceeds • • • 2.75° 4S41 Hugh Spencer, Dr. To Cash, Remitted him in full of f. Cash, Dr. To Bills Receivable, Received payment in full for William Cook's note of April 13th. ' »3 , First National Bank, Dr. Deposited. To Cash, _ 25 _ 6.515 7,000 Watson Weed, Dr. To Shipment in Co. No. 1 Received an Account Sales of 200 brls. Mess Pork, shipped on the 2d inst. Our net proceeds as above. s6 George Allen, Dr. To Bills Payable, Accepted his draft on us (a) thirty days sight, favor of W. H. Walker, for amount his due. ; Bills Pay'able, Dr To Cash Paid our acceptance favor of John A. Fargo & Co., due this day. sS , Cash, Dr. . To balance 0. To James Scott, _ 30 J. Wills & Co., Dr. . To balance ^ . To Cash, Sco 2.SS 3.900 4.500 1,000 & 5< 16S 3.oi! 6,5i. 75 (a 105,24 4024 Soo 2, S3 3.90 > 4.50 > 105,24^ 24 13 -a V 7 1 s — *k 01 1 s 194 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. A > SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (7.) St. Louis, May j 1, 1883. I 6 1 6 3 8 1 3 1 8 S 2 8 2 2 8 8 a 3 3 3 3 8 4 5 3 Amounts brought John Adams, 1 For amount charged to J. D.'s Private Jf , now carried to his Stock f. , • »4 * m 105 ,34c 14 SCO \ IO£^«t an 'S* AUTHUR ASTOR, ** For amount chargcj to Pfrivatf J, n >w carrlad to g£ock y . Interest, M Allowed 7 * on his additional investment of April 30. « 89 ■05/05 iq $0 '5 CLOSING ENTRIES. 15,00a ».5« 4.5« 4.57$ »>J37 IS »3 IJC 5,000 434 Balance, Store and Fixtures Valuation of property. iSfica 4JO0 4.575 »4« "2 150 SO Dr. . . • To Loss and Gain, Tor increase in value of property. Mortgage Payable, Amount due on Mortgage. Balance, H Dr Amount on hand. Balance, !'.:' in. . .,,1 deposit. Interest, D ' • ' Amount due from us to dute on Mort^ .: - Balance,- Amount due us on ♦ I'. II. Wills' nof ■ Loss and Gain, Cost over proceeds of Interest. Loss and Gain, Balance of Expense Account. Balance, Note on hand ^F. U. Walla). 5.000 Commission, Gain on Commission. ' sj.-;5 1 i < N t ! 1 • •^ > 6 1 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (8.) St. Louis, May ji, i88j. Amounts brought forward 5 Bills Payable, Dr 8 To Balance, Our outstanding Xotes. 5 Peter Curtis, Dr. To Balance, Amount due him. 6 J. G. Holland, Dr. To Balance, Amount due him. 8 Balance, 6 To Steamer Missouri Belle Stock, Valuation of our interest in Steamer Missouri Belle. 8 Balance, 6 Dr. To Steamer Missouri Belle, Amount due us. 8 Balance, 7 Dr. To Watson Weed, Balance due us. Dr, 3 Loss and Gain, 7 To Shipment in Co. i, . Our loss on shipment. Dr. 4 Loss and Gain, 7 To Insurance, Cost of insurance. 7 Charges, 3 Dr To Loss and Gain, Gain on storage, advertising, etc. Geo. Emerson & Co., Dr. To Balance, Amount due them. M.S. Clay & Co., Dr. To Balance, Amount due them. 3 Loss and Gain, Dr. To Sundries, Net gain carried to Partners' $ . To John Adams, His £ net gain, . . ... 1 Arthur Astor, •# « « h John Adams, Dr. To Balance, For amount his net capital. Arthur Astor, Dr To Balance, For amount his net capital. ■*> ■■' 195 =7? 53.S75 S 10,781 5.34° P 1 1.954 99 10,000 350 1.709 109 53.S7S io,7Si 5.34° |« ".954 9° 350 1.709 IOQ 37 50 >50 4.354 3,354 16 3,6So 40 >5,7S5 ■3.'3° 133,311 57 37 50 ■50 4.354 16 3^54 17 ■ ,34030 1,34020 ■S.7S5 ■3,'30 "3,311 57 VTs^ o J- 0j 1 S 196 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. . > Dr. SET II. LEDGER. (1.) John Adams. Cr. • as 3 . Jlfr. 3' To JJalafi.-e, To J. A., Private, " Balance, 1 Li 7 8 '*> ib IS83. Apr. 14 M 2 3° 3° By Cash, " Loss and Gain, By Balance, " Interest, " Loss and Gain, 1 4 L3 10,0a s,68 1 JO 14,6*3 * 14/a May 41 20c '5.7S5 >4 May (1 l< 1 3' 3' Li 7 S •4*4* 15 fl '5.9S5 '4 IS. * Dr. Arthur Astor. Cr. iSSj- jo To Tlalanct, s To A. A., Private, " Balance, Li 7 s ",«o iSSj. Apr. 4. a 3° 1 3' By First National Bank, " Loss and Gain, By Balance, " Loss and Gain, I L3 Li • 10,000 ->37 "W 37 »*• = 37 5 37 J JO '57 r. May 1* 3' 3' '5c 13, '3^ 57 May "J* ■3.28c . ■3^8, Dr. Store and Fixtures. c 1SS3. Apr. si 3' " Loss amrGain. To Balance, M Loss and Gain, 1 Li 7 ...50O 1SS3. Apr. 3' ^ Z>SW*tV, Inimtory, By Balance, 1 7 > 14,000 14,00c May 11 12,500 15,000 May 15,000 15.000 r Dr. 11 3i Mortgage Payable ■ c 1S83. May 41 To First N i-.i.m.il Hank, " Balance, s 7 4.500 4i5°° Apr. 1 By Store and Fixtures, 9,00c ! 0.00a *Q0< J > (!• ' « ■■ ^ ^ *r i& \ ~A BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. I 97 Dr. 1SS3. Apr. SET II. LEDGER. (2.) Cash. Cr. Dr. First National Bank. To A. Astor, 1SS3. Apr. *5 25 , Way I " s 7 " 7 " 11 M 13 ■ • 3' By John Adams, M Butler & Carlton, " Balance t By Mdse. Co. D, " Expense, " Mdse. Co. E, " Mdse. Co. F, M Sundries, " Bills Payable, " Balance, Dr. Interest. 1 I8S3. iS*$. 1 Apr. 2 To John Adams, 1 10,000 Apr. 2 By Store and Fixtures, 1 3.4'° u s " Mdse. Co. A, 1 M°o M 3 " Expense, 1 75 u 9 " Mdse., 2 800 " 3 " Mdse. Co. A, 1 100 " >3 ■ Mdse. Co. C, 2 3.ooo 6 " Butler & Carlton, 2 '5 *« >4 " Mdse., 3 900 9 " Mdse. Co. C, 2 200 " JO " Bills Receivable, 3 995 73 12 '* Str. Missouri Belle Stock, 2 5,000 M 2S 11 Store and Fixtures, 3 1,500 16 " Mdse., 3 800 U 30 " John Adams, 4 2,68890 iS 23 30 " Sundries, " Expense, 3 3 3 200 50 '59 ^^^ 30 ** Balane*, Li j/,2ot]p3 21,28463 ' i 1 2.^4. >3 May 1 To Balance, La 11,26963 May I By First National Bank, 4 8,500 " 3 " Mdse. Co. D, 4 750 • • 2 " Sundries, 4 iS " 8 " Mdse. Co. E, 5 2,37" 53 1 " 3 " Insurance, 4 37.0 M 8 " Bills Receivable, s 3,300 1* 10 " First National Bank, 5 4,000 " '4 " Mdse. Co. F, 5 4,750 " 17 " Hugh Spencer, 6 6,;i5'0 " >s " Henry Green & Co., 6 2,600 05 M 23 " First National Bank, 6 10,000 M ■7 " Mdse. Co. F, 6 2,000 H 26 " Bills Payable, 6 3,9°° " '7 " Bills Receivable, 6 7,000 ■ ( 30 " J. Wills & Co., 6 1,000 " 28 " James Scott, 6 4,5oo 3 1 " Balance, 7 4,575 19 38,546 *' li 1! Cr. Cr. .S3 3 . Apr. 20 30 8 11 ■5 3' 3' To Bills Receivable, •* Lass and Cain, To Mdse. Co. E, " First National Bank, " Henry Green & Co., ** John Adams, " Balance, 3 13 4*7 71\73 ; 18S3. Apr. 2 By Store and Fixtures, By Balance, M Loss and Gain, I 84 84 **[ May S 5 6 7 7 123 '57 44 '5 iS 47 50 95 68 37 97 May 11 3' 31 7 7 i 4 r» 213 n V.9 97 =3 1 -M IT- ■ aA I » «•■ 1 198 BOOK-KEEPING BV DOUBLE ENTRY. 7* ' < ' SET II. LEDGER. (3.) Dr. Expense. Cr. 1883. iSKj. Apr. 3 To Cash, i 7S A,r. 3» 77k Loss and Gam, u ■3 11 «( 11 • 3 '59 *34 »H May 5 To First National Bank, s ISO May ; ji By Loss land Gala, 150 Cr. Dr. Butler & Carlton. 1883. 1 1883. Apr. 6 To Sundries, s »,9'5 Apr. 4 B) Mdse. Co. B, I spoo n 30 " Loss and Gain, 3 300 11 7 U 14 44 s 'SJ7S •t 25 " First National Bank, 1 3 y-.S; 5 ♦.'S3 i ' f S3 75 .LV. Merchandise. • Cr. 1 1SS3. 18S3. Apr. 3 To John A. Fargo & Co., i 2*oo Apr. 9 By Sundries, s vfm 11 10 " Sundries, h '.Soo 11 '4 " Cash, 3 900 J 3 " Loss and Gain, 7S<> " 13 " Sundries 3 ugfB • •lanct, Invtntory, 6r»50 6,450 May 1 To Balance, Li I,SoO May ! By Sundries, 4 «rS00 Z/r. 1SS3, Loss and Gain. Cr. 'SSj. Apr. jo To J. G.Holland, 1 H5 Apr. 6 By Mdse. Co. A, i 33615 11 1° " Expense, H, aS* 7 '• Mdie. Co. B, a ■ 3° '* John Adams {tut gain). 1,940 & II U •• Mdse. Co. C, s 30 " Arthur Aslor (■>/ gain) , Li 1.040 J7 II II M 30 " Butler & Carlton, M Store and Fixtures, 3 ti 300 <■:- •■ jS^ II 30 " Interest, Lj 79 73 s^ II 30 " Mdse., Li ^r II 30 " Storage and Adver., L4 60 ' .XT II 30 " Commission, LS 4S0 X II 3 30 " Str. Missouri Belle Stc jk, ^ m 4.. 4^79 7 May '7 To Mdse. Co. F, 6 *S43 7 May 3 By Mdse. Co. D, 4 11 3< " Interest, 7 • 131 5 • • 8 " Mdse. Co. E, 5 «7$| " 3< " Expense, 7 150 " '5 " Henrv Green * Co., 6 ■1 3< " Shipment In Co. 1, 8 too ii 3' " Store and Fixtures, 7 j.= «i 11 3' M Insurance, 8 373 * 3' n Commission, 7 «M '5 H 3' " Sundries, 8 a/Bos 3.674 4 a 3' " Chafes, S I$0 3-"74 41 1 1 1 \ . V s _J » *J K f * K BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. I 99 SET II. LEDGER. (4.) Dr. John A. Fargo & Co. Cr. I&3. 1 May 12 To Bills Payable, 5 3,900 I»3- Apr. 3 By Mdse., ■1 3,900 -sra Dr. Mdse. Co. A. Cr. ISS3. Apr. 3 To Sundries, 6 " " 3AOO Soo 4.70O 1SS3. Apr. By Cash, " Bills Receivable, ■■400 3.300 4.700 Dr. James A. Wright & Co. Cr. 1SS3. Apr. 9 To Bills Payable, Dr. 4,130" »S 4,'3° *S 1SS3. Apr. By Mdse. Co. A, 4f H I* II Mdse. Co. B. 3,So0j 33 6 2 5 4.'3<> 2 5 1SS3. Apr. 4 7 To Butler & Carlton, " Sundries, I 2 4,000 500 i 4,5"" ISS3. Apr. By J ames Scott, 4.S0O Dr. Bills Receivable. Cr. 1883. Apr. M 9 13 To Mdse. Co. A, " Mdse., " Mdse. Co. C, To Balance, " Mdse. Co. E, I 1 a 3,300 1,000 7.000 1SS3. Apr. 30 3" By Sundries, " Balancf, By Cash, " Balance, 3 1,00c •0,300 11,300 May 41 1 s s 10,300 5,000 May 8 >7 3' 5 6 7 3,300 7,oco 5.ood «S,3°o 15,300 Dr. Storage and Advertising. Cr. 18S3. Apr. To Loss and Gain, /_ L3 "60 ■s%. Apr. 6 7 By Mdse Co A, N n «« (i It C, 30 - K" 200 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. Mf 1 Dr. SET II. LEDGER. (5.) Commission. Cr. 1883. Apr. jo To Lost and Gain, To Loss and Gain, 7 *&> I8S3. Apr. M 6 7 '3 By Mdsc. Co. A, B. c, By Mdse. Co. D, E. " " " F, 1 * a "'7 in 5° 480 May 3» 434 IS May H 3 8 '7 4 5 6 73 1S750 434 '5 434 »5 Z?r. Bills Payable. Cr. IBB3. Apr. 3° TV Balanct, To First National Bank, " Cash, " Balance, LS I2f>3b a* 1SS3. Apr. u 6 9 ■ a By Butler & Carlton, " J as. A. Wright A Co., " Str. Missouri Belle Stock, By Balance, " John A. Fargo & Co., " Geo. Allen, a a 1 a, 900 4.>36 >S 5.000 ",036 »S ia,036 aj May it la j6 3' 5 6 8 4.'3° 3.900 10,781 »s >5 .May 11 M 1 ■ a a6 t 6 11,03635 3.900 a,SSi iS,Si7 iS,Si; a 5 Z?r. James Scott. Cr. 1883. Apr. To Mdse. Co. B, 4.500 18S3. May ■a By Cash, 6 4J00 Dr. Mdsc. Co. C. Cr. I8S3. Apr. •1 9 >3 To Sundries, M (t a 2 8,700 ■ .3'"' 1 883. Apr. '3 By Sundries, • 10,000 10,000 = 10,00c Dr. Peter Curtis. Cr. 1883. Apr. »3 f 3' To Sundries, ■ Balanct^ To Balance, £ 666 66 01 I8S3. Apr. 11 9 '3 By Mdse. Co. C, 11 11 ii « By Balance, * 1 s/wSer 6,006 «7 0,00667 May S 5.34o CH May I L 5 1 -L T BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 4- SET II. LEDGER. (6.) Dr. J. G. Holland. Cr. ISS3. Apr. 23 3' To Sundries, " Balance, To Balance, 3 Lb i,333 ',5< /v. John Adams, Private. Cr. 1SS3. Apr. H To First National Bank, 3 200 II 1SS3. May 3' By J. A., Stock, 7 200 Dr. Steamer Missouri Belle. 1SS3. Apr. »S To Str. Missouri Belle Stock, Dr. 250 1SS3. May 31 By Balance, Mdse. Co. D. V Cr. _*Soj Cr. IS83. May 1 3 To Sundries, 4 4 1,660 18S3. May • f 3 3 By Cash, " Henry Green & Co., . 4 4 750 ».37<> 3i"o| 3,'2d • V 1 rs - £~ 1 202 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. / ■ > Dr. SET II. LEDGER. (7.) • George Allen. Cr. .883. j May ! 16 To Bills Payable, 6 2,881 .883. May 41 I 3 By Mdse. Co. D, !• HUM j. M7> ■gn «* Dr. Watson Weed. Cr. 1SS3. May M 4 To Sundries, " Shipment in Co. No. 1, 4 6 909 Soo May 3« By Balance, 8 >.7°9 >.7°9 ..709 Dr. Shipment in Co. No. i. Cr. 18S3. May a To Sundries, 4 909 ■«3. May " »5 3' By Watson Weed, " Loss and Gain, 8 800 .09 9°9 V*. =» Z>r. Insurance. • Cr. :88 3 . May 3 ; To Cash, 4 37 5° 1SS3. May 3« By Loss and Gain, 8 37 50 1 zv. Henry Green & Co. Cr. .8S3. May M 3 To Mdse. Co. D, " Loss and Gain, 4 6 ».37° ■"75 iMj. May «S By Sundries, 6 >^»s a.645 »*4S Dr. Charges. Cr 18S3, May 3' To Loss and Gain, 8 ISO May H .1 s »7 By Mdse. Co. D, •■ « •• s > F, ♦ S 6 J 150 _J» 1 | > / \ •■ -*7 3 * 6 v' 1 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. SET II. LEDGER. (8.) 203 Dr. Mdse. Co. E. Cr. 1SS3. May 7 8 To Sundries, 5 5 | I ».500 5. 000 ,SS, May 8 By Sundries, 5 7.5oo 7o-oo 7.S00 Dr. ■ss 3 . May 31 1 To Balance, Geo. Emerson &• Co. s 4.254 16 16 1SS3. May II 7 8 *r»S4 By Mdse. Co. E, G. 5 2,000 5 2. 2 S4 16 4.254 '6 Dr. Mdse. Co. F. Cr. IS83. May (I ■ 7 7 To Sundries, M M I 4.000 2,750 1883. May II «4 •7 By Cash, 5 6 4.75o 2,000 6,750 6.750 Dr, Hugh Spencer. Cr. ISS3. May >7 To Cash, 6 6,515 62 1SS3. May u 7 '7 By Mdse. Co. F, >• <■ 11 •■ 5 3.5oo 6 3,015 6a 6,515 6a 6,5=5 62 Dr. 1SS3. -May 31 To Balance, M. S. Clay & Co. »,254 1883. May By Mdse. Co. E, Cr. 2,254 -7 Dr. 18S3. May Balance. Cr. i3S 3 . * " V. To Store and Fixtures, 15,000 May 3' By Mortgage Payable, 7 4.S0C 3' 1 Cash, 4,575 00 M 3> " Interest Payable, 7 18 37 i' 11 First National Bank, 2 '.337 50 " 3> " Bills Payable, 8 10,7s 1 .V " Interest Receivable, 146 S2 M 31 11 Peter Curtis, S 5,340 01 Ji M Bills Receivable, 5,000 i« 3' " J. G. Holland, 8 ",954 99 31 •* Str. Missouri Belle Stock. 8 10,000 M 3i •* Geo. Emerson & Co., S 4-2?4 ' 6 3< a Str. Missouri Belle, 8 25a ■i 3' " M. S. Clay & Co., 8 2,254 17 3' ' Watson Weed, 8 1,709 M 3" " John Adams, 8 15,783, '4 TT— rl M 3' " Arthur Astor, 8 ■3,"30 5S.0.S 57 58.018 41 4L_ ~7 /_ -H ■^ FT 204 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. A SET II. TRIAL BALANCE, APRIL 8,831 »S 284 1,050 10,300 ♦.500 9.75o aoo ■50 250 TOTAL FOOTINGS. 12,500 21,284 l'J,0O0 A 4,i»3 5.7°° "5 4,7<» 4,'36 4,5oo • ',300 4.500 10,000 666 do 1.333 10,000 200 >5o 250 M 57.5S4 83 105,80790 John Adams (Stock) Arthur Astor (Stock) Store and Fixtures Mortgiuje Payable Cash First National Bank Interest Expense Butler & Carlton Merchandise • Loss and Gain - John A. Fargo A Co. - Mdse. Co. A. . J as. A. Wright & Co. . Mdse. Co. B. • Bills Receivable Storage and Advertising Commission • Bills Pavable • James Scott • Mdse. Co. C. • Peter Curtis . J. G. Holland . Steamer Missouri Belle Stock - J. Wills & Co. - John Adams (Private) Arthur Astor (Private) Steamer Missouri Belle Inventory. — Property Unsold, April jo. Store and Fixtures, rained at cost . M dse. on hand Steamer Missouri Belle, at cost .... SET II. TRIAL BALANCE, MAY. BALANCES. FOOTINGS.* • FOOTINGS. BALANCSS. 200 • • John Adams • 14,64404 I4444 04 150 Arthur Astor ".94037 >> 1790 37 12,500 12,500 , Store and Fixtures 4.500 38,546 Mortgage Payable Cash o,oorj 4.5O0 4.575P9 31 J3W7i ■» 2i,337i|o 31,331 a* First National Bank SAW 75 5°a>7 34160 341 60 • Interest 150 484 » Expense Loss and Gain " »°! 80 . 5.000 15.30O Bills Receivable 10,300 • Commission * iS.3.7 -15 i* '5 8,036 a? Bills Payable • Peter Curtis - 5.340 01 5.340 oi 250 2C.0 Steamer Missouri Bi-l'e 1.709 >.709 • Watson Weed - • 109 9°9 Shipment in Co. * 80c 37 5° 37 50 • Insurance Charges >5« ffl < 1 ■ * Geo. Emerson ft Co. 4.»5- 16 4.354 ■* M. S. Clav ft Co. ».»5- ■7 MM '7 . J.G.Holland - «r95- 99 ■.954 99 10,000 69 10,000 Steamer Mi-«»uri Belle Stock ; 50,009 124445 18 ™4rf45 18 (0,00969 1 * The amounts In this column do not comprise, like those in the preceding balances, the footings of all the Ledger accounts as do not balance or cancel. The footings of this column and its opposite will not, therefore, tally with the footings of the method ban adopted is the one most in use with accountants, but docs not afford so sure a test of the correctness of the Ledger. but such only J'-urnsl. The ■f <* *- K" BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 205 i s «3 "1 s os; I •5 5 I M *fi rrS; «** n j* 8 In «1 N - N - ^ % a § .itmt . - a 21 ■Sals 8— c » £0 »^ K|§8 c i-u a < r. gllj SS? 8 UJ CO UJ o < CO CO cc o I- co < CO < a < 1 roo 1 N - iffR : : : -v - : £ r£ cf : : '- : * if", i-r. - • Q Q n-r>.0 1 ! o" cows ! ^ '-- ? : 2 ■£& £ I? • ** • "" ft <■> It si 31 •«/*>/ -7 ■ « N W f3fO^-VlU]Vi\0 NNNNOOCChQnO -- I I £2i :* I = S3 So :0-2 4> C W L : - x o 0-3 _ o «1J £ o t <->X| # K 206 -- BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY OLUMNAR OURNAL. Combining in one book the Day-Book, Journal, Cash-Book and Sales-Book, AND INTRODUCING THE COMBINED STATEMENT, SHOWING, ON ONE SHEET, TRIAL, BALANCE, LOSSES AND GAINS, ASSETS AND LIABILITIES. A GREAT saving of space and time is effected by the use of the Columnar Journal. This plan essentially com- bines four books in one : Day-Book, Journal, Cash-Book and Sales-Book, and the classification of the entries obviates the necessity of carrying a multiplicity of items to the Ledger. In the pages immediately following, the transactions of Set I. are presented in the shape of a Six-column Journal — so called because it has six columns for figures — three debit and three credit columns. Merchandise and Cash, being the principal items in this set, are given special columns, and are posted to the Ledger in totals at the end of the month, or as often as the Journal is to be posted. All the amounts that pass immediately to the Ledger are placed in the General column, and to this column must be added the footings of the special columns when- ever the Journal is to be fully posted. This plan may be extended to suit the requirements of any business, and instead of six columns, eight, ten, or even twenty, may be employed, the most frequently occurring items being given special columns. Besides the advantages mentioned above, the Columnar Journal presents a monthly summary, by which the business of a month or quarter may be compared with that of others, and the in- crease or decrease in trade may thus be more easily and defin- itely calculated. By way of practice, the student of the science of accounts will do well to write up a Ledger conforming to the Six-column Journal here presented. The results will be identical with the Ledger of Set I., except that the Cash and Merchandise entries will be posted in totals at the end of the month, " By Sundries" and " To Sundries," when the footings of the special columns have been added to the General column. When this set is completed Set II. will furnish material for further study and practice. . Pew T0 Cotge gipicE Entity BeoKg ijto Double Entity. THE difference in the two systems.it should be remembered, is that in Double Entry you introduce Representative Accounts, representing the firm or business in every transaction under some one or other of the subdivisions adopted, as Stock, Cash, Merchandise, Expense, Bills Payable, Bills Receivable, Interest, Profit and Loss, etc. In changing single entry books into double entry the first step should be to make an inventory of stock, etc., and a statement of all accounts due to or by you, on separate sheets of paper. When this is done proceed to make the following entries in your Journal, entering, of course, the proper amounts in the debit and credit columns : STOCK, DR. Bills Payable, John Jones, Piter Smith, TO SUNDRIES. For my Notes due as per schedule hereto. For amount due him as per schedule hereto. For amount due him as per schedule hereto. (And so continue the list 0/ parties you owe anything Iff.) SUNDRIES, DR. TO STOCK. Merchandise, For amount of stock on hand as per Inventory. Bills Receivable, For notes due me as per schedule hereto. Charles Grey, For amount due me as per schedule hereto. Robert Brown, For amount due me as per schedule hereto. (Ami so continue the whole list.) Property account in the same way, if you have any ; also Mortgages sad Stocks. When this has been accurately done and the amounts posted to the Ledger, the accounts will produce a positive balance- sheet — that is, the total credits will be equal to the total debits, for the following reasons : 1 . Sundries is no actual account, but is used of necessity, meaning that n plurality is intended. 2. Stock Dr. to Sundries means that it is Dr. to all the accounts named, which are respectively Cr.'s, and therefore must be equal. 3. Sundries Dr. to Stock means that all the names and accounts stated are Dr., and Stock is Cr. for the aggregate of the several Debtors, and therefore must be equal. Note. — The balance of Stock account will show what you are worth, or have in your business. BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 207 A SIX-COLUMN JOURNAL, (i.) (The transactions of Set I. Written up in the form of a Columnar Journal.) Mdse. Cash. General. 2,000 bo 6,000 00 1,95000 50000 (,50000 75000 80000 60000 8,75000 5,350 VL 1,75000 1,05000 5000 L.F, 51500 3.365 bo St. Louis, December /, 1883. L.F. General. Cash. Mdse. Cash, To Stock Commenced business this day with $2,000 cash on hand. Merchandise, To Armstrong & Co., . Bought, on acc't, 1,000 brls. Flour, @ $6.00. 3 Cash, To Merchandise, . Sold to Jesse Jameson, 300 brls. Flour, @ {6.5a 5 John Williams, To Merchandise, . . . 250 brls. Flour, @ $7.00. 7 Bills Receivable, To Merchandise, . . . Sold Wm. Moore, on his Note @ 30 days, 150 brls. Flour, @ {7.00. OO Merchandise, To Bills Payable, .... Bought of Joseph Wheelock, on our Note @ 60 days, 500 bu. Wheat, @ $1.00. Cash, To Merchandise, .... Sold Albert St. John, 100 bu. Wheat, @ $1.25, . . $125.00 100 brls. Flour, " 6.75, . . 675.00 14 ~ Expense, To Cash, . . . Stationery and Books for use of Store. _ r5-« Merchandise, To Cash, Bought of Edwin Ellerton, 300 brls. Flour, @ $5.00. 17 Cash, To Merchandise, . . Sold Peter Potts, 100 brls. Flour, @ $6.00. , 18 Merchandise, To W. L. George, . . . 1,000 bu. Oats, @ 75c. 20 — ■ Bills Receivable, To Merchandise, .... Sold Sellers & Bro., on their Note @ 5 days, 500 bu. Oats, @ 80c., . . $400.00 100 bu. Wheat, @ $1. 15, . 115.00 2,000 6,00000 50000 1,95000 1,75000 1,050 00 80000 5000 1,50000 750 00 600 00 51500 9,25000 1,550:00 6,665 00 £- V \ 208 BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. -7 A SIX-COLUMN JOURNAL. (2.) KIdsb. 8,75600 Cash. General. L.F. St. Louis, December 22, /8Sj. 8,253 17,000 5.350O0 3.36^00 2.730 o 20,57ok» 20,57000 1^! T -«• » A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 209 rf?ST ^ IOGRAPHY • -040c i^sh -cw>o»' :=S)=? -*o4o- -o^o- '< lf»Mj/eeatcJ. o-ru tA/o (Kvntl.i f tirvve." — Longfellow/ s Psalm 0/ Lift. \ y demand made upon it by the reader. It is confidently believed that no name at all apt to be met with in an ordinary course of English reading has been omitted. EXPLANATION! The figures following the name indicate the years of birth and death. After the names 'of some of the Popes, -where the date of birth is un- known, the first figure shows the year of accession to the pontificate. An interrogation mark indicates that the date is doubtful or approx- imate. Assumed names or sobriquets are printed in italics immediately fol- lowing the name. Fl. — Flourished or lived. B. C. — Before the Christian era. Am. — American. Van. — Danish. Eng. — English. Fr. — French. Ger. — German. Gr. — Greek. It.— Italian. Nor. — Norwegian. Port. — Portuguese. Prus. — Prussian. Scot. — Scottish. Sw. — Swedish. H^ ACHEN, Johann van. 1552-1620 German painter. Aaron. 1574-1451 B.c. First high priest of the Israelite*. Brother of Moses. Aarschot, Philippe de Croi, Duke of. ....-1595. Flemish general and statesman. Aarssens, Franz Van. 1572-1641. Dutch diplomatist. +• 14 I IV A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. r f — ' Abati, Bocco degli. Florentine traitor mentioned in Dante's Inferno. Abbas Pasha, 1874-. . . . Khedive of Egypt. Suc- ceeded his father, Mohammed Tewfik Pasha, in 1893. Abbas I. Tie Great. 1 557-1628. Shah of Persia. Abbassides. Fl. 749-1258. The most famous dynasty of Caliphs at Bagdad and Damascus. Abbot, George. 1562-1633. English prelate. Abbot, Rev. Jacob. 1803-1879. Am. author. Hollo Books. Abbott, John Stevens Cabot. 1805-1877. American historian. Abd-el-Kader. 1807-1883. Emir of Algeria. Led the Arabians, about 1830, in hostilities against the French, then beginning to invade his country. After a brave struggle he was vanquished in 1847 and imprisoned in France. In i860, risking his own life, he averted the massacre of thousands of Christians in Syria. Abdur Rahman Khan. 1845-. . . . Amir of Afghanistan. Abdul-Aziz. 1830-1876. Sultan of Turkey. Abdul-Hamid II. 1842- Sultan of Turkey. Abelard, Pierre. 1079-1 142. French orator and philosopher. Abercrombie, James. 1706-1781. British general in America. Abercrombie, John. 1781-1844. Scottish metaphysician. Abercromby, Sir Ralph. 1734-1801. British general. Abernethy, John. 1764-1831. Eng. physician and anatomist. About, Edmond Francois Valentin. 1828-1885. Fr. author. Abraham, or Abram. Born about 2000 B.C., and died at the age of 175. Hebrew prince and patriarch. Acier, Michel Victor. 1736-1799. French sculptor. Acilius Glabrio, Manius. Fl. 191 B.C. Consul of Rome. Acosta, Jose de. i539?-l6co. Spanish Jesuit, missionary and author. Adair, John. 1757-1840. American general and statesman. Adam. 4000 B.C. Father of the human race. Adams, Charles Francis. 1807- 1888. American statesman and diplomatist. Son of J. Q. A. Negotiated the Treaty of Geneva. Adams, John. Born at Braintree, Mass., 1735; died, 1826. American statesman and diplomatist. First vice-president and second president of the United States ; one of the negotiators of the treaty of peace with Great Britain, 1782. Defeated by Jefferson for the presi- dency in 1800, he retired to private life, disliked by both prevailing parties. His talents, patriotism and public services, however, entitle him to be regarded as one of the greatest of the founders of the American republic. Adams, John Quincy. 1 767-1848. Son of J. A. American statesman and diplomatist. Sixth president of the United States, being elected by the House, not one of the four candidates in 1824 — Adams, Clay, Jackson and Crawford, all members of the same party — having a majority. Defeated by Jackson in 1828. Elected to the House in 1830, his oratory gained for him the title " Old Man Eloquent," and he was distinguished for his unremitting devotion to public business. He was a member of the House until 1848, in which year, while in his seat at the Capitol, he received a stroke of paralysis, which caused his death. Adams, Samuel. 1722-1803. Governor of Massachusetts; one of the popular leaders of the Revolution ; a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Adanson, Michel. 1727-1806. French naturalist. Addison, Joseph. 1672-1719. English poet, moralist and dramatist. Requested by Lord Godolphin to write a poem on the battle of Blenheim, Addison composed " The Campaign," which procured for him a great public applause and a lucrative government position. He became under-secretary of state in 1705, and was elected to Parliament In 1708. Dr. Johnson says of him : " He not only made the proper use •f wit himself, but taught it to others. * * * He has restored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence not to be ashamed." His contribu- tions to the Toiler and the Spectator are examples of his graceful style and genial spirit. Adelaide. 1792-1849. Consort of William IV. of England; Adelung, Johann Christoph. 1732-1806. German philologist Adrian I. Pope, from 772-795. II.', 867-872. III., 884-885. IV., 1154-1 159. V., 1276 ; died same year. VI., 1521-1523. /Bschines. 398-314 B.c. Athenian orator; rival of De- mosthenes. /Esop. 6i9?-5&4 B.C. Greek" fabulist. Being a slave, he was liberated by his master on account of his talents. iEsopus. Fl. 1st century B.C. Roman tragedian. xEtion. Fl. end of 4th century. Greek painter. Afire, Denis Auguste. 1793-1848. Archbishop of Paris. Killed during the insurrection of June, 1848, In an effort to arrest the carnage. Aga, Mohammed. 1734-1797. Founder of the reigning Per- sian dynasty ; assassinated. Agamemnon - Generalissimo of the Greek forces during the Trojan war. Agassiz, Louis. 1807-1873. Swiss naturalist; professor at Harvard; founder of museum of comparative zoology, Cambridge. Research** on Fossil Fishes. Agatharchus. Fl. 480 B.C. Greek painter, said to have been the first to adopt the rules of perspective. Agnesi, Maria Gaetana. 17 18-1799. Italian lady possess- ing rare talents for languages and mathematics. Agricola, Cnxus Julius. 37-93. Roman general ; built a line of fortresses across Scotland. Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius. 63-12 B.C. Roman soldier and statesman. Agrippina Augusta -60 A.D. Mother of Nero; noted for her cruelty and immorality ; poisoned her uncle and second hus- band, the Emperor Claudius ; executed by order of Nero. Aiken, John. 1 747-1822. English writer. General Biog- raphy. Ains worth, Robert. 1 660-1 743. English classical scholar. Ainsworth, William Harrison. 1805-1882. English novelist. Jack Sheppard, Guy Fawkes, etc. Airy, Sir George Biddell. 1801- Astronomer Royal of England. Akbar. 1542- 1605. Most illustrious of the Mogul emperors. Akenside, Mark. 1 721-1770. English physician, poet and classical scholar. Pleasures of the Imagination. Aladdin. Fl. 1375. Son of Osman and organizer of the Janissaries. Alaric. 350?-4io. King of the Visigoths; conquered Rome. Albert, or Albert Francis, Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince ofSaxe-Coburg-Gotha. 1819-1861. Consort of Queen Victoria. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. 1841- Heir-apparent to the British Crown. Alboin -573- King of the Lombards. Assassinated si the instigation of his wife, whom he had requested to drink wine from the skull of her father. Alboni, Marietta. 1824- Italian vocalist; married Count Pepolo ; retired from the stage, 1863. Albuquerque, Alfonso, Marquis de. Tie Great. !453-'5l5- Portuguese conqueror. Alcibiades. 450-404 B.C. Athenian general. Assassinated. Alcott, Amos Bronson. 1 799-1888. American philosopher and teacher. Alcott, Louisa May. 1833-1888. American authoress; acted as hospital nurse during the civil war. Little Women: Am Old-Fash. tone J Girl, eu . ^ ~A A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 211 Aldrich, Thomas Baily. 1836-.... American poet and novelist. Story of a Bad Boy ; Margery Daw ; Baby Bell ; Pru- dence Palfrey , etc. Alembert, Jean le Rond d'. 1717-1783. French geometer. Alexander. The Great. 356-324 B.C. King of Macedon. " The youth whoall things but himself subdued." — Pope. Taughtby Aristotle. Ascended the throne of Macedon 336, destroyed Thebes and was chosen commander of the Greeks against Persia. He invaded Asia Minor in 334, defeating Darius on the banks of the Granicus. In 333 he almost annihilated the Persian army at the battle of Issus. Cut the Gordian knot and caused the Ammonian oracle to declare him the son of Jupiter Ammon. Captured Tyre in 33a, and, having invaded Egypt, founded Alexandria. In 331 he defeated Darius at the decisive battle of Arbcla. Becoming elated by his successes, he claimed the homage due to a god, stabbing his foster-brother Clitus, for refusal to pay such homage. Invaded India in 327, advancing as far as the Hyphasis. Died at Babylon of a fever said to have been aggravated by excessive drinking. Alexander I. 1777-1825. Emperor of Russia. II., 1818-1881; assassinated by the Nihilists. III., 1845-.... Alexander I. Pope from 108 to 117. II., 1061-1073. III., 1159-1181. IV., 1254-1261. V., 1409-1410. VI., 1492-1503, Alexander I -1124. King of Scotland. II., 1 198-1249. III., 1241-1286. Alexander, Archibald. 1772-1851. Am. author and divine. Alexander, James Waddell. 1804-1859. SonofA. A. Ameri- can author and divine. Alexander, Joseph Addison. 1809-1859. SonofA. A. Ameri- can theologian and orientalist. Alexander, William. Lord Stirling. 1726-1783. American Revolutionary general. Alfieri, Vittorio. 1749-1803. Italian poet. Alfonso XII. 1857-1885. King of Spain. XIII., 1886-.... Alfred. The Great. 849?-90i. King of the West Saxons. Established schools and a system of police, and founded a navy. Algardi, Alessandro. i6oo?-i654. Italian sculptor. Alger, William Rounseville. 1823- Am. author and divine. Allen, Ethan. 1742-1789. American Revolutionary com- mander. With only eighty-three men, in 1775, he captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Abraham a Sancta Clara. (Ulrich Megerle). 1642-1709. Ger. pulpit orator ; chaplain at the court of Vienna. Abt, Franz. 1819-1885. Ger. musician and composer. When thi Swallows Homeward Fly ; Oh, Ye Tears; Over The Stars is Your Rest. Albani, Emma. 1850- American vocalist. Allen, William F. 1847- American perfecter of the new system of standard time. Allen, William Henry. 1784-18 1 3. Am. naval commander. Allibone, Samuel Austin. 1816- Am. author. Critical Dictionary of English Literature. Allison, William R. 1829 - Am. lawyer and statesman. Allston, Washington. 1779-1843. American painter. Alma-Tadema, Lawrence. 1836- . . . . Belgian painter. Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of. 1508-1582. Spanish commander in the Netherlands, infamous for his cruelties. Ambrose, Saint. 34Q?-397- One of the fathers of the church. Ames, Fisher. 1758-1808. Am. orator and statesman. Amherst, Jeffrey. Lord Amherst. 1717-1797. British' general and field-marshal and governor of Virginia. Ampere, Andre Marie. 1775-1836. French mathematician and natural philosopher. Many of his poems 'The Cyclops. B.C. 382?-30i. General of Alexander Anacreon. B.C. 5607-478. Greek poet. have been rendered into English by Moore. Anaxagoras. B.C. 500-428. Greek philosopher. father of modern science." Andersen, Hans Christian. 1805-1875. Danish author and novelist. Anderson, Maj. Robert. 1805-1861. Defender of Ft. Sumter. Anderson, Mary. (Mme. Navarro). 1859-. . . . Am. act. Andrassy, Julian, Count. 1823-1890. Hun. statesman. Andre, John. 1 751- 1780. English spy ; hanged for his con- nection with the contemplated treason of Arnold. Andrew, John Albion. 1818-1867. American statesman and abolitionist ; governor of Massachusetts. Andros, Sir Edmund. 1637-1714. British colonial governor of New England. Anjou. Famous noble house of France. Anne of Austria. 1601-1666. Queen of France. Anne. 1664-1714. Queen of England ; last of the Stuarts. Anthon, Charles. 1797-1867. American classical scholar. Anthony, St. 251-356? Egyptian founder of monachism. Anthony, Henry B. 181 5- 1884. U. S. Senator. Anthony of Padua, St. 11 95-1 231. Monk of Franciscan order. Anthony, Susan B. 1820-. . . . American " woman's rights" advocate. Antigonus. the Great. Antiochus I. King of Syria and Babylonia; reigned B.C. 280-261. II., reigned B.C. 261-246; poisoned by his queen, Laodice. III. {The Great), reigned B.C. 223-187. Antisthenes. Fl. 400 B.C. Greek philosopher ; regarded as the founder of the Cynic school. Antoinette, Marie. 1755-1793. Queen of Louis XVI. ot France ; guillotined. Antonelli, Giacomo. Antonius, Marcus, general and statesman. Applegarth, Robert. 1831-. ... Leader of the workingmen of England. Aquinas, Thomas. Saint. The Angelic Doctor. 1224-1274. Theologian, teacher and writer; member of the order of St. Dominic. Arabi Pasha. 1834- Egyptian revolutionist. Aram, Eugene. 1704-1759. English scholar; noted for his learning no less than for his tragic fate. Executed for the murder of one Daniel Clark, whom he is said to have killed to procure means for prose- cuting his studies. The chief character in one of Bulwer's novels. Arbuthnot, John. 1675-1735. Scottish physician. Archimedes. B.C. 287 ?-2l2. Greek mathematician and natural philosopher. Argyll (or Argyle), Archibald Campbell, eighth earl. 1598- 1661. Scottish Covenanter ; defeated by Montrose ; executed for treason. Argyll (or Argyle), George Douglas Campbell, seventh duke. 1823- English statesman and author. The Reign of Law. Ariosto, Ludovico. 1474-1533. Italian poet. Orlando Furioso. Aristides. B.c -468 ? Athenian general and statesman. Aristophanes. B.C. 444 ?-38o ? Greek comic poet. Aristotle. The Stagirite. B.C. 384-322. Greek philosopher; tutor of Alexander the Great. Ethics. Arius. 2557-336? Patriarch of Alexandria and founder of the Arian schism. Arkwright, Sir Richard. 1732-1792. English manufacturer and inventor of the spinning -jenny. 1806-1876. Italian cardinal. Mark Antony. B.C. 93?-3Q. Roman i 7 212 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. J Arminius. B.C. 16-21 A.D. Ger. hero. See Hermann. Arminius, Jacobus (Jacob Harmen). 1 560-1609. Dutch founder of the Arminian theology. Armitage, Edward. 1817- Eng. historical painter. Armstrong, John. 1 709-1 779. Scottish poet and physician. Armstrong, William George, Baron. 1810-. . . . English inventor of the Armstrong gVO* Arnaud, Henri. 1641-1721. Leader of the Waldenses. Arndt, Ernst Moritz. 1 769-1860. German poet and writer. Arnheim, Johann Georg von. 1581-1641. German general and diplomatist. Arnim, Harry Carl Edward von. 1824-1879 Prussian diplomatist. Arnold, Benedict. 1 740-1801. American general and traitor. His plot to betray West Point, one of the most important of American fortresses, into the hands of the British, was betrayed by the capture of Major Andre, and he barely escaped. He became a colonel in the British army, and is said to have received ,£6,315 from the British at indemnity for the loss he sustained by his treachery. Arnold of Brescia (or Arnaldo) -1 155. Italian re- former, orator and popular leader. Arnold, Edwin. 1832- English journalist aad poet. Light of Asia. Light of the World. Arnold, Matthew. 1822-1888. English author, poet and critic. God and the Bible ; The Strayed Reveller ; Essays on Criticism, tie. Arnold, Thomas. 1795-1842. English historian and master of Rugby. History of Rome. Arnold von Winkelried -1386. Swiss patriot, who broke the Austrian phalanx at the battle of Sempacb by throwing him- self against the points of their spears, gathering in his arms all the spears within reach. He was mortally wounded, but his brave action decided the fate of the battle in favor of his countrymen. Artemisia. Fl. 480 B.C. Queen of Halicarnassus. Joined the fleet of Xerxes against Greece, and commanded her own ship in the battle of Salamis with courage and ability. Artemisia. Fl. 350 B.C. Consort of Mausolus, Prince of Caria, and after his death erected in his honor a tomb numbered among the seven wonders of the world. Artevelde, Jacob van. I300?-I345. Leader of the people of Ghent. Artevelde, Philip van, son of J. v. A. 1340-1382. Leader of the insurrection in Flanders. Arthur, Chester Allan. 1831-1886. Twenty-first President of the United States. Born at St. Albans, Vermont ; read law, was admitted to the bar and began practice in New York city ; i860, quarter* master-general on the staff of Gov. Morgan ; 1871, collector of the port of New York, but superseded, 1878, by Gen. Merritt ; 1880, placed in nomination for vice-president by the republican party and elected ; sue* cceded to the presidency on the death of Garfield, Sept. 19, 1881. Arthur, Timothy Shay. 1 809-1 841. American author. Lights and Shadows of Real Life; Ten Nights in a Bar-Roem, etc. Ascham, Roger. 15 15-1568. English scholar and author. Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Lord. 1774-1848. English diplomatist. (Ashburton treaty.) Aspasia of Miletus, r.c -432 ? Mistress of Pericles, the Athenian law not permitting a citizen to marry a foreigner. Socrates called himself one of her disciples. Astor , John Jacob. 1 763-1 848. Wealthy American merchant, native of Heidelberg, Germany. Settled in New York city, and entered the fur trade with great success, establishing trading posts in the north- west as far as the Pacific Ocean and founding Astoria in 1811. He next made extensive investments in real estate, and when he died his property was estimated at twenty millions. Founded the Astor Library. Atahualpa -1533- Las* Inca of Peru. Athanasius. 2967-373. Greek father of the church. Athelstan. 8o5?-94i. King of England. Athenagoras. Fl. 168. Greek Christian philosopher. Atterbury, Francis. 1662-1732. Eng. prelate and politician. Attila. The Scourge of God. . . . .-453. King of the Huns. Attucks, Crispus - r 77°- Mulatto leader of mob in Boston massacre. Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit. 1784-187 1. French com- poser. Fra Diavolo ; Afasaniello. Audubon, John James. 1 780-1851. American ornithologist. Auerbach, Berthold. 1812-1882. German Jewish author and poet. The Country House on the Rhine. Augereau, Pierre Francois Charles, Due de Cast igli one. 1757— 1816. French general? The son of a mechanic, he received but little education. Enlisted as a private in the French army in 179a, but was rapidly promoted, and at the end of a year had attained to the rank of general of division. Throughout his successful military career he ex* hibited remarkable valor and ability. Augustine, Sa^nt. 354-430. Latin father of the church. Augustus I. 1670-1733. King of Poland and elector of Saxony. Augustus Caesar. B.C.63-A.D. 14. First Emperor of Rome. Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Due d'. 1822 French general. Son of King Louis Philippe. Aurelianus. 212-275. Roman emperor. Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus. Marcus Aureliw. 121-180. Roman em|>eror and philosopher Aurung-Zebe. 1618-1707. Emperor of Kindostan. Ausonius. 310-394? Latin poet. Austen, Jane. 1775-1817. English author. Austin, Saint. Fl. 597. The apostle of England. Austin, Stephen F -1836. Founded the first colony in Texas. Avicenna. 980-1037. Arabian physician. Aytoun, William Edmondstoune. 181 3-1865. Scottish poet. ^>ABER, Mohammed. I483?-I530. Founder of the *^~^ Mogul empire in India. Baccio della Porta. Fra Bartolommeo di San Marco. 1469-1517. Italian painter . member of the order of St. Dominic Last Judgment; Marriage of St. Catherine; Virgin on a Throne. Bach, Johann Sebastian. 1685-1750. German composerand musical director, distinguished also for his skill as a performer on the organ and the piano. The Nativity. Bache, Alexander Dallas. 1806-1867. American philoso- pher and savant ; great-grandson of Dr. Franklin. Bache, Franklin. 1 792-1864. Am. physician and chemist. Back, Sir George. 1 796-1878. English Arctic navigator. Bacon, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans. Lord Bacon. 1561*1636. English statesman, jurist and philosopher. Son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper of the great seal under Elizabeth. His youthful precocity caused Queen Elizabeth to call him her " little lord keeper." Studied at Trinity College, and at 15 began to oppose the philosophy of Aristotle. Called to the bar, and nude queen's counsel at 98. Solicitor-general, 1607; judge of the marshal's court. 1A11; attorney-general, 1613; lord keeper, 1617; lord high chancellor, 1619. Charged with gross bribery and corruption in Parliament, 1671, he pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to pay a fine of ,£40,000, and to be imprisoned during the royal pleasure, and incapacitated from holding public office. He regained his liberty after two days* imprisonment, his fine, too, being remitted hy King James, who also allowed him a pernio* of j£i,soopcr annum. He spent the remainder of his life in retirement, diligently pursuing the study of literature And science. The belief **■*■ K~ *f- A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 213 that Bacon is the real author or at least the principal author of the plays attributed to Shakespeare has of late years found many adherents, and numerous books on the subject have been published. The Wisdom 0/ the Ancients : Novum Organum. Bacon, Nathaniel. l630?-l677. Virginia patriot, bom in England. Bacon, Roger. The Admirable Doctor. 1214-1292. Eng- lish philosopher. Opus Ma/us. Baconthorp, John. The Resolute Doctor. -1346? English monk and philosopher. Baffin, William. 1580-1622. English navigator. (Baffin's Bay.) Bailey, Philip James. 1816- English lawyer and poet. Festus: The Mystic. Baillie, Joanna. 1762-1851. Scottish poetess. The Family Legend : Plays on the Passions. Baillie, Matthew. 1761-1823. Scottish physician. Baillie, Robert. 1602 ?-i662. Scottish theologian. Bailly, Jean Sylvain. 1736-1793. French astronomer and philosopher. 1789, first president of the States-General ; mayor of Paris same year. Endeavoring, with Lafayette, to curb the violence of the revolutionists, he caused the National Guard to fire on a riotous mob in the Champ de Mars, in 1791, thus incurring the enmity of the people. Executed by the Jacobinsr Baily, Edward Hodges. 1788-1867. English sculptor. Baily, Francis. 1774-1844. English astronomer. Bainbridge, William. 1774-1833. Am. naval commander. Baird, Sir David. 1757-1829. Scottish general. Baird, Spencer F. 1823- American naturalist. Bajazet (or Bayazeed). 1347-1403. Sultan of the Ottomans. Subjugated Bulgaria, Asia Minor, and a portion of Greece, and gained a victory over the Hungarians, French and Poles at Nicopolis, in 1396. Defeated and captured in 1401 by Tamerlane, by whom he is said to have been confined in an iron cage. Baker, Sir Samuel White. 1821-.... English African explorer, and author of geographical and literary works. In 1847 he established a sanatorium and prosperous agricultural settlement in the mountains of Ceylon, 6,200 feet above sea level, whither he conveyed emigrants and the best breeds of sheep and cattle. In 1861-4 explored, at his own expense, the region lying around the sources of the White Nile ; discovered and named Lake Albert N'yanza, and found the exit of the Nile. In 1869, the sultan of Turkey placed at his disposal 1 ,500 troops, with which another expedition was made to the great African lakes. Baker, Valentine, Pasha. English officer and commander of Egyptian troops in the Soudan. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de. I475?-I5I7. Spanish discoverer. Discovered the Pacific Ocean, 1513. The jealousy of his superior offi- cers caused his conviction on a charge of treason, for which he was executed. Baldwin I. 1058-1118. King of Jerusalem; brother of Godfrey de Bouillon. Balfe, Michael William. 1808-1870. Irish composer. The Bohemian Girl. Baliol, Edward -'303- King of Scotland. Baliol, John. ....-1269. English baron; father of Edward Baliol. Baliol, John de. I259?-I3i4. Son of the preceding. King of Scotland ; rival of Bruce. Ballou, Hosea. 1771-1852. American theologian; founder of the denomination of Universalists. Balmaceda, Jose Manuel. 1840-1891. President of Chili. Deposed and committed suicide. Balzac, Honore' de. 1 799-1850 French novelist. Bancroft, George. 1800- 1891. American historian and diplo- matist. Minister to Germany and to England ; secretary of the navy. History 0/ the United States, which has been translated into all the principal languages of Europe. Baner (or Banier), Johan. 1595-1641. Swedish general. Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss. 1816- American general and politician. Native of Massachusetts; worked during boyhood in a cot- ton factory ; learned the machinist's trade ; edited a country newspa- per ; admitted to the bar ; elected to Legislature of his native state in 1849, and three years later became speaker. Sent to Congress in 1852 as a Democrat, and in 1854 re-elected by the American and Republican par- ties. Speaker of House in 1855. Served three terms as Governor of Massachusetts, and in 1861 was appointed major-general of volunteers. After the war was sent to Congress in 1866, 1868 and 1870. Supported Horace Greeley for presidency in 1872. Re-elected to Congress in 1876 by Democrats and disaffected Republicans. Banks, Thomas. 1 735-1805. British sculptor. Banneker, Benjamin. 1731-1806. American negro mathe- matician. Barbarossa, Hadher. I476?-I546. Corsair king of Algiers. Barbaroux, Charles Jean Marie. 1 767-1 794. French rep- resentative and Girondist; beheaded by the Jacobins. Barbauld, Anna Letitia. 1 743-1825. English authoress. Barbour, John. 13207-1395? Scottish poet. The Bruce. Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince. 1755-1818. Russian field-marshal. Barclay, Robert. 1648-1690. Scottish Quaker author. Barham, Richard Harris. 1788-1845. English divine and humorist. Ingoldsby Legends. Barebone, Praise God -1680. English fanatic. Baring, Sir Francis. 1740-18 10. English capitalist. Barlow, Joel. 7755-1812. American patriot and poet. Barnard, John 'j. 1815-1882. American general and writer. Barmecides. Famous Persian family, noted for its tragic fate. Barnes, Albeit. 1798-1870. American theologian and com- mentator. Barneveldt, Johan van Olden. 1549-1619. Dutch statesman. Barnum, Phineas T. 1810-1891. American showman; na- tive of Connecticut. Humbugs of the World. Barras, Paul Francois Jean Nicola, Count de. 1 755-1829. French statesman. Barry, James. 1741-1806. Irish painter. Barry Cornwall. See Procter. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Jules. 1805- French states- man and writer. Baxter, Richard. 1615-1691. English Dissenting minister and writer. The Saints' Everlasting Rest ; Call to the Unconverted. Bayard, Pierre du Terrail de. 1475-1524. French warrior, whose bravery earned f«r him the sobriquet "The cavalier without fear and without reproach." Francis I. showed the universal reverence for Bayard's character by choosing to be knighted at his hands. Mor- tally wounded at Romagnano, Bayard would not allow himself to be carried from the field of battle, refusing to " turn his back to the enemy for the first time." Bayle, Pierre. 1647-1706. French philosopher and critic. Bazaine, Francois Achille. 181 1- 1888. French general. Made general of division during the Crimean war ; held a command in the French expedition to Mexico, in 1862, with great distinction, and suc- ceeded to the supreme command in 1863. Created a marshal of France in 1864. In the Franco-German war he surrendered the fortress of Metz.with 173,000 men, 6,000 officers, 50 generals and 3 marshals, and fled to Eng- land. He was court-martialed and sentenced to degradation and death, but the sentence was commuted to twenty years' imprisonment. Con- fined at the isle Sainte Marguerite, he escaped in nine months and settled in Madrid. -M "71 2I 4 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of. 1804-1880. Eng- lish statesman and novelist. His first novel, Vivian Grey, was pub- lished at the age of 21. Entered Parliament in 1837, and became the leader of the Conservative party. Acted as chancellor of the exchequer a number of years, and in 1868 was prime minister of England for a lew months. Was again called to the premiership in 1874, and was raised to the peerage. Was succeeded in 1880 by William E. Gladstone. Beaton (or Beatoun), David, Cardinal. 1494-1546. Primate of Scotland. Beattie, James. 1735-1803. Scottish poet and philosopher. Beauharnais, Eugene de. .1781-1824. French general ; son of Alexander de Beauharnais ard Josephine, afterward Empress of France. Beaumarchais, Pierre Auguste Caron de. 1732-1799. French dramatist. Beaumont, Francis. 1586-1615. English dramatic writer; associate of John Fletcher. Beauregard, Peter Gustavus Toutant. 1816-.... American Confederate general. Born in Louisiana; graduate of West Point; served in Mexico. Entered Confederate army in i86t,and commanded at Fort Sumter and at the first battle of Bull Run ; defeated at Shiloh by Gen. Grant in 1862 ; defended Charleston in 1863. Mgr. La, loti 1 Becket, Thomas a. 1117-1170. Archbishop of Canterbury ; high chancellor of England. Having excommunicated two bishops for complying with the king's will, he was assassinated byfour barons of the royal household. Canonized in 1172. Bede. The Venerable. 673 ?-735- English monk and ecclesiastical writer. Ecclesiastical History 0/ the English Nation. Bedford, John Plantagenet, Duke of. 1390-1435. English general. Regent of France and protector of England during the minority of Henry VI. Defeated by Joan of Arc. Beecher, Henry Ward. 1813-1837. American divine and lec- turer. Born in Connecticut. Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church, Brooklyn, since 1847. Powerful advocate of the abolition movement. Star Papers : Sermons. Beecher, Lyman. 1775-1863. American divine. Father of H. W. B. Views on Theology. Beethoven, I.udwig von. 1770-1827. German composer. Sin/onia Eroica : Lenore ; Fidelio : Ninth Symphony. Behring, Vitus. 1680-1742? Danish navigator. Discovered Behring's Strait : suffered shipwreck while commanding an expedition to the northern seas and died on Behring's Island. Belisarius. 505 ?~565. Byzantine general. Bell, Sir Charles. 1774-1842. Scottish physiologist. Bellini, Vincenzo. 1802-1835. Italian composer. La Son- namSula ; ■ / Puritani : Norma. Belvedere, Andrea. 1646-1732. Italian painter. Belzoni, Giovanni Battista. 1778-1823. Italian traveller. Bendemann, Edward. 181 1- German painter. Benedek, I.udwig von. 1804-1878. Hungarian general. Benedict I. Pope from 575 to 578. II., 684-685. III., 855- 858. IV., 900-903. V., chosen pope 964 but driven from Rome by Otho I., died at Hamburg 965. VI., 972-974; killed by the people of Rome. VII., 975-984. VIII., 1012-1034. IX., ascended the pontifical chair in 1034, but was driven from Rome. X., 1058-1059, when he was deposed on account of being irregularly elected. XI., 1303-1304. XII., 1334- 134a. XIII., 1724-1730. XIV., 1740-1758. Benedict XIII. 1334-1424. Anti-Pope. Original name, Pedro de Luna. Chosen pope at Avignon in 1394, while Boniface IX. reigned at Rome. Both were deposed in 1415 by the council of Con- stance. Benedict, Sir Julius. 1804-1858. Ger. musician and COinpOMI 111 I- Hi*. Coli'lniti'.l at Jenny I.iml u Ami. Benezet, Anthony. 1713-1784. French philanthropist. £ Bennett, James Gordon. 1800-1872. American journalist ; native of Scotland ; founded the New York Herald. Benjamin, Park. 1809-1864. Am. journalist and poet Bentham, Jeremy. 1748-1832. English jurist and utilitarian philosopher. Bentinck, William Charles Cavendish, Lord. 1774-1839. British general ; governor-general of India. Bentley, Richard. 1662-1742. English classical scholar and divine. The Epistles of Phalaris. Benton, Thomas Hart. 1782-1858. American statesman. Born at Hillsboro, N. C. ; removed to Tennessee, where he studied law, and commenced practice at 29. Commanded a regiment under Gen. Jackson, who, in a quarrel, attempted to strike Benton with a horse- whip, causing Benton's brother to severely wound Gen. Jackson with a pistol. Benton shortly after removed to St. Louis, where he published a political paper. Elected to the United States Senate in 1820, he con- tinued a member of that body for thirty years, being defeated in 1850 by a division in the Democratic party on the slaver)* question. His advo- cacy of a gold and silver currency during his second term in the Senate earned for him the sobriquet of *' Old Bullion." Elected in 185a to the National House of Representatives, he earnestly opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Defeated for the governorship of Missouri in 1856. Favored Buchanan for the presidency in opposition to his son- in-law, Fremont. A Thirty Years' Virtu, Beranger, Pierre Jean de. 1 780-1 857. French lyric poet. Bergerac, Cyrano de. 1620-1655. Fr. dramatist and duelist. Beriot, Charles Auguste de. 1802-1870. Belgian violinist and composer. Berkeley, George. 1684-1753. Irish Protestant prelate and metaphysician. The Principles of Human Knowledge. Berlichingen, Gotz von. Of the Iron Hand. 1480-1562. German warrior ; hero ef one of Goethe's dramas. Berlioz, Louis Hector. 1803-1869. French composer. The Damnation of Faust : symphonies, Harold, Romeo and Juliet. Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules. 1764-1844. Marshal of France ; King of Sweden and Norway as Carl XIV. Johan. Bernard, Saint. 1091-1153. French ecclesiastic, canonized 1174. Abbot at Clairvaux, refusing other ecclesiastical preferment, but exerting great power over Europe. - Bernard de Menthon, Saint. 923-1008. Founder of the hospices of St. Bernard. Bernardo del Carpio. Fl. 9th century. . Spanish soldier. Bernhardt, Sara (Mme. Damala). 1850- Fr. tragedienne. Bert, Paul. 1833-1886. French physician and politician. Berthier, Ix>uis Alexandre, Prince of Wagram. 1753-1815. Marshal "f France. Berthollet, Claude Louis. 1748-1822. French chemist. Berwick, James Fitz-James, Duke of. 1660-1734. Marshal of France ; natural son of James II. of England. Bessel, l'riedrich Wilhelm. 1784-1846. Prus. astronomer. Bessemer, Henry- 1813- English engineer. (Bessemer process.) Knighted 1S7U. Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand von. Count. 1809-1886. German statesman. Beza, Theodore. 1519-1605. Fr. Calvinistic theologian. Biddle, John. The father of English Unitarians. 161 5-1662. English theologian. 1786-1844. American financier. 1 829- 1 882. American landscape painter , Biddle, Nicholas. Bierstadt, Albert. native of Germany Billings, Wiiliam. Binney, Amos. 1803-1847. Binney, Horace. 1780-1875 1746-1800. American musical composer. American naturalist. American lawyer. ^ 1 ^JL A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 2I 5 Birney, James G. 1792-1857. American politician. Bird, Robert Montgomery. 1803-1854. American author. Bismarck-Schonhausen, Karl Otto, Prince. 1815-.... German statesman; chancellor of the German Empire. Retired i8yo. Bjornson, Bjornstjerne. 1832-. . . Norwegian poet and novelist. Black Hawk. 1 767-1838. American Indian chief. Black, William. 1841- Scottish author. A Princess of Tkule; MacLeod of Dare; A Daughter of Heth. Blackburn, Joseph Clay Stiles. 1838- Am. statesman. Blackstone, Sir William. 1723-1780. English jurist. Com- mentaries on the Laws of England, Blackwood, William. 1776-1817. Scottish publisher. Black- wood 's Magazine. Blaine, James Gillespie. 1830-.... American statesman. Born in Pennsylvania; removed to Maine, whtre he edited the Port- land Adve* User; served four terms in the Legislature; in Congress from 1862 to 1876, and speaker for three terms. Prominent candidate for the Republican nomination for the presidency in 1876 and 1S80. Chosen Uniied States senator in 1877, but resigned to accept the secretaryship of state under Garfield. Blair, Hugh. 1718-1800. Scottish divine and rhetorician. Blake, Robert. 1599-1657. British admiral, regarded as the founder of England's naval supremacy. Blake, William. 1757-1828. English poet and artist. Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis. 1813-1883. French jcurnalist, historian and politician. Hlavatsky, Helena. 1831-1891. Fo'nder Theosophical So. Blennerhasset, Harman. 1770-1831. Friend and accom- plice of Aaron Burr. Blessington, Margaret, Countess of [nee Power). 1789-1849. Beautiful and accomplished Irish lady. Blind, Carl. 1820- German radical. Bloomfield, Robert. 1766-1823. English poet. A tailors son and a shoemaker's apprentice. The Farmer's Boy. Blucher, Gebhard Lebrecht von. Marschall Vonodrls. 1742 -1819. Prussian field-marshal. Decided the battle of Waterloo. Blumenthal, Leonard von. 1810- Prussian general and strategist. Boabdil -1536? Last Moorish king of Granada. Boadicea -62. British queen. Bobadilla, Francisco de. Fl. 1500. Spanish administrator who sent Columbus in chains to Spain. Boccaccio, Giovanni. 1313-1375. It. novelist. Decameron. Bodenstedt, Friedrich Martin. 1819- German poet and author. Boerhaave, Herman. 1668-1738. Dutch physician and philosopher. Boethius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus. 475-525 ? Roman statesman and philosopher. Falsely charged with treason, he was beheaded. De Consolatione Philosophic. Bogardus, James. 1S00-1874. American inventor. Bohn, Henry George. 1800- English publisher. Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas. 1636-1711. French poet and satirist. Boleyn, Anne. 1507 ?-I536. Second queen of Henry VIII. of England. Beheaded. * Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount. 1678-1751. English author, orator and politician. Dissertation on Parties. Bolivar, Simon. 1 783-1 830. Liberator of the South Ameri- can colonies. Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon. Napoleon III. 1808- 1873. Son of Louis Bonaparte. Emperor of the French. As claimant to the throne of France, he attempted in 1836 to take Strasburg, but was banished. In i8*ohe was imprisoned in Havre for an attempted insurrection at Boulogne, but escaped to England in 1846. Returning to France after the revolution of 1848, he was elected president. He gained the support of the army, and abolishing popular representation by the coup d'etat of 1851, was declared emperor. In 1853 he married Eugenie, Countess de Teba, Having surrendered at Sedan, after the decisive battle of the Franco-German war, he was deposed and retired to Chisel- hurst, in England, where he died. Bonaparte, Jerome. 1784-1-860. Youngest brother of Napo- leon I. King of Westphalia. Bonaparte, Joseph. 1768-1844. Eldest brother of Napoleon I. King of Spain. Bonaparte, Louis. 1778-1846. Brother of Napoleon I. King of Holland. Bonaparte, Lucien, Prince de Canina. 1775-1840. Brother of Napoleon I. Bonaparte, Napoleon. Napoleon I. 1769-1 821. Emperor of the French. Born at Ajaccio, Corsica. Attended a military school from 1779 to 1784, and showed particular aptitude for history and mathe- matics. Entered the army as sub-lieutenant in 1785, ana in 179a had risen to the rank of captain of artillery. In 1793 he submitted a plan for the reduction of Toulon, held by the English and Spaniards, and was entrusted with its execution. His success in this undertaking won for him a commission as brigadier-general. In 1794, on the fall of Robes- pierre, Napoleon was suspended and put under arrest, his detention, however, being of short duration. In the spring of 1795, on the remodel- ling of the army, he was again suspended, and placed upon half-pay, the only reason g ; ven by the authorities being that be was too young to com- mand the artillery of an army. In the fall, on the breaking out of a for- midable insurrection led by the National Guard, the whole force of insurgents numbering more than 30,000, the convention recalled Napo- leon, who, with only 5,000 regulars and 1,500 volunteers, gained a brilliant victory after a brief but sanguinary engagement. This victory made him virtually commander-in-chief of the army of the interior. In 1706 he was appointed to the command-in-chief of the army of Italy, and in the same year married Josephine de Beauhamais. In his very first campaign Napoleon appeared a consummate general. His peculiar mode of attack consisted in precision of movement, concentration of forces and formidable charges upon a determinate point. In a few weeks he gained four victories, conquered Lombardy and laid siege to Mantua, which he captured after almost annihilating three Austrian armies. Napoleon then turned his arms against the Pope, compelling him to pay 30,000,000 lires and surrender many valuable works of art. After defeating another Austrian army sent to Italy, Napoleon cot luded a treaty securing his brilliant success. In 1798 he was given command of a powerful expedition into Egypt, the intention being to strike at the power of Great Britain, and gained a decisive victory over the Mamelukes and Turkish auxiliaries at the battle of the Pyramids, and another at Aboukir. Returning to France, he overthrew the Directory and was elected first consul. In 1800 he gained the great victory of Marengo. Made peace with England 1802, granted general amnesty, established public order, re-established the Catholic faith, and produced his Civil Code. Napoleon became emperor in 1804, and engaged in war with England, Russia, Sweden and Prussia. Divorced from Josephine in 1809, he married Maria Louise, daughter of the Emperor of Austria, in 1810. In 1812 occurred the ill-fated Russian campaign, Napoleon's loss being estimated at 450,000 men. Beaten at Leipzig, 1813, he made a disastrous retreat. In 1814 the allies entered Paris, compelled Napo- leon to abdicate, and sent him to Elba, granting him the sovereignty of that island, with a yearly pension of 6,000,000 francs. Returning again to France, he was enthusiastically received and raised an army of about 125,000, but was completely defeated at Waterloo, 1815. He abdicated again, and, unable to carry out his intention of embarking for America, he surrendered to the captain of a British man-of-war. Carried to the island of St. Helena, he died there in 1821 after nearly six years' confinement. -7T -M to >v 216 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. A Boi Bonaparte, Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul. Prince Napoleon. 1823-1891. Son of Napoleon I. and Maria Theresa. Bonaparte, Napoleon Francois Charles Joseph. Napoleon II. 1811-1833. Son of Napoleon I. and Maria Theresa. Bonaventura, Saint. The Seraphic Doctor. 1221-1274. Italian theologian. Bonheur, Rosa (or Rosalie), 1822-.... French painter of animals. Boniface I. Pope, ruling from 419 to 422. II., 530-532. III., elected 607 and died same year. IV., 608-615. V., 619-624; dis- tinguished for his efforts to convert the Britons VI., died in 805. fif- teen days after his election to the Papacy. VII. (Anti-Pope),elected 974, during reign of Benedict VI. ; driven from Rome, but returned in. 985, imprisoning John XIV., who is said to have been starved to death; died 985. VIII., 1294-1303. IX., 1389-1404. Boniface, Winfred, Saint. Apostle 0/ Germany. 680-755? Bonner, Edmund. Bloody Bonner. i490?-'569. Bishop of London, noted for his persecution of the Protestants. Bonneville, Benjamin L. E. 1 795?— 1 878. American soldier and traveller. Bonnivard, Francois de. 1496-1570. The hero of Byron's Prisoner 0/ Chilian. Boone, Daniel. 1 735-1820? American pioneer. Born in Pennsylvania, but removed in boyhood to North Carolina. Visited Kentucky, hitherto unexplored, in 1769, and emigrated to that State with his own and five other families in 1773, constructing a fort at Boonsborough in 1775. Captured by the Indians, he was adopted by them, but escaped and returned to the fort, which was shortly after at- tacked by Indians under the British flag. The fort was ably de- fended, two of Boone's sons, however, being killed. Boone lost his lands in Kentucky in consequence of a defective title, and, removing 10 Missouri, pursued the occupation of a hunter and trapper. Booth, Edwin. 1833-.... Son of Junius Brutus Booth. American tragedian. Booth, John Wilkes. 1835-1865. Son of Junius Brutus Booth. American actor, who became infamous as the assassin of Abraham Lincoln, whom he shot at the theatre on the evening of April 14th, Ib6s. Effected his escape, but was traced into Virginia, where, refusing to sur- render, he was shot. Booth, Junius Brutus. 1796-1852. English tragedian. Borden, Simeon. 1798-1856. American civil engineer. Borgi, Giovanni. 1735-1802. Italian founder of ragged schools. Borgia, Cesare, Due de Valentinois. 1457-1507. Natural •on of Alexander VI. Italian cardinal and military leader. Made cardinal in 1492, but afterwards secularized. Notorious for cunning, perfidy and cruelty. Borgia, Francisco. See Francis, Saint. Borgia, Lucrezia, Duchess of Ferrara -'523. Sister of Cesare Borgia. Distinguished for^ieauty and talents, and a patron of learning, but contemporaneous writers differ in their estimation of her character. Borromeo, Carlo, Saint. 1538-1584. Italian cardinal, noted for benevolence and care of the sick. Borrow, George. 1803-1881. English author and traveller. Bos, Ilieronymus. I450?-I5CO. Dutch painter. Boscawen, Edward. 1711-1761. English admiral. Bossuet, Jacques Benigne. 1627-1704. French prelate, ora- tor and controversialist. Boswell, James. 1740-1795. Scottish lawyer ; biographer of Dr. Johnson. Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of. 1526 7-1577? Scottish conspirator ; husband of Mary of Scotland. Bottcber, Johann Friedrich. 1682-1719. Inventor of Dres- den china. Boucicault, Dion. iSj2-iS Spanish novelist Cecilia Bohl de Faber. Cabanel, Alexandre. 1823-. . . . French historical painter. Cabanis, Pierre Jean George. 1 757-1 808. French physician and philosopher. Cabot, (icorgc. 1751-1823. President of the Hartford Con- vention. Cabot, John -1498? Venetian navigator in the service of England. Discovered North American continent in 1497. Cabot, Sebastian. 1477?— 1557. Son of preceding. English navigator. Cade, John. Jack Cad* -1450. Irish rebel. Cadoudal, George. 1769-1804. French Bourbon general. Executed for plotting the dethronement of Napoleon I. Cadwalader, George -'879. American general. Cadwalader, John. 1 743- 1786. American general. Caedmon -680? Anglo-Saxon poet. The Creation. Caesar, Caius Julius. 100-44 B.C. Roman general and statesman. Elected Consul 60 B.C.; formed a secret alliance with Pompcy and Crassus known as the first triumvirate. It is said that during his Gallic wars a million of men were stain, eight hundred cities and towns captured and three hundred tribes subdued. Pompcy having become Caesar's enemy through jealousy, the latter crossed the Rubicon, 49 B.C., and in a short time became master of Italy. Having conquered all his enemies, and subdued Spain and Africa, Caesar was made per- petual dictator, and received from the Senate the title •( Imperator. Although beloved by the masses, the patricians fc...ed and hated him, and the result of a conspiracy of Ca&sius, Brutus and others was his assassination. Cagliari, Paolo. Paul Veronese. I530?-I588. Italian painter. Cagliostro, Alexandra (Joseph Balsamo). 1743-1795. Italian impostor and adventurer, physician and alchemist. Caille, Nicolas Louis de la. 1713-1762. French astronomer. Caillet, Guillaume -, 359- French insurgent leader. Cajetan, Thomas de Vio. 1469-1534. Italian prelate. Calderon de la Barco, Don Pedro. 1600-1683. Spanish poet and dramatist. Produced his first drama at the age of 13. Served as a soldier, but took orders in 165a, after which he wrote only sacred dramas. He wrote some five hundred plays. Calhoun, John Caldwell. 1783-1850. American statesman. Born in South Carolina; elected to Congress, 1810; secretary of war, 1817; vice-president, 1825-1833, resigning to enter the Senate; secre- tary of state, 1844 ; returned to the Senate, 1845. Calhoun was an avowed champion of slavery and state's rights. Caligula, Caius Caesar. 12-41. Emperor of Rome, noted for cruelty and sensuality. Built a temple to himself. Assassinated. Calonne, Charles Alexandre de. 1734-1802. Fr. statesman. Calvert, Cecilius, second Ix>rd Baltimore -1676. First proprietor of Maryland, residing in England. Calvert, George, first Lord Baltimore. I582?-i632. Father of the preceding. Founder of Maryland. Calvert, Leonard. i6o6?-i647. Brother of Cecilius. pint governor of Maryland. Calvin, John. 1509-1564. French theologian. Established the Presbyterian form of church government. The fundamental prin- ciple of his theology Is that of predestination to eternal happiness or misery by the absolute decree of God. Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Regis de. 1 757-1824. French statesman. Cambyses -522 B.C. King of Persia; conqueror of Egypt. Cameron, Richard -1680. Scottish Covenanter. Cameron, Simon. 1799- 1S80. American politician; senator from Pennsylvania, secretary of war and minister to Russia. Camillus, Marcus Furius -364 B,C Roman general and dictator. ==H======= _^^ All w K" / A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 219 Camoens, Luis. 1517—1579. Portuguese poet. Served in Morocco as a volunteer, and, failing to procure advancement at court on his return, went to India. There he was banished, on account of his satire. Follies in India, from Goa to Macao, where he wrote the Lusiad, the greatest of his works. Recalled to Goa, he suffered shipwreck, and saved the Lusiad by holding it above the waves as he swam ashore. He died in great poverty. Campanini, Italo. Italian tenor singer. Campbell, Alexander. 1788-1866. Irish founder of the de- nomination of "Christians," or " Disciples of Christ." Campbell, Colin, Lord Clyde. 1792-1863. British General. Campbell, John, Lord. 1779-1861. Lord chancellor of England. The Lives 0/ the Lord Chancellors. Campbell, Thomas. 1 777-1844. Scottish poet. Son of a Glasgow merchant. Published Pleasures 0/ Hope in 1 799. Camphon, Jules. Governor-general of Algeria. Ap- pointed May 11, 1S91. Canby, Edward general. Canisius, Petrus. theologian. Canning, George. Canova, Antonio. Richard Sprigg. 1819-1873. American (De Hondt.) 1521-1597. Dutch Jesuit English statesman and orator. Italian sculptor. Venus Vic- 1770-1827. 1757-1822. torious : Venus and Adonis ; Theseus and the Minotaur: Dtgda- /us and Icarus ; The Graces. He executed statues of Washington and Napoleon. Canrobert, Francois Certain. 1809-.... French marshal and senator. Cantacuzenus, John -141 1? Greek emperor and historian. Canute II. 990-1035. King of Denmark; conqueror of England. Capet, Hugh. 9407-996. Founder of the Capetian dynasty. Caracalla. 188-217. Emperor of Rome, noted for cruelty. Caracci, Agostino. 1558-1602. Italian painter and engraver. Caracci, Annibal. 1560-1609. Italian painter. Caracci, Ludovico. 1555-1619. Italian painter. Caravaggio, Michel Angelo da. 1569-1609. Italian painter. Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell, Earl of. 1 797-1868. English general. Carducci, Bartolommeo. 1560-1610. Florentine painter. Carey, Henry Charles. 1793-1879. Am. political economist. Carlisle, John G. 1829-. American statesman. Carlos, Don, Duke of Madrid. (Carlos Maria de los Dolores Juan Isidoro Josef Francesco Quirino Antonio'Miguel Gabriel Rafael.) 1848-.... Claimant to the Spanish throne. Nephew of Charles VI. Carlyle, Thomas. 1795-1881. Scottish essayist, biographer and historian. The son of a small farmer; educated at the University of Edinburgh. Taught mathematics for some time, but resolved to devote himself to literary pursuits and became thoroughly familiar with the literature of Germany. Married Jane Welch in 1827, and set- tled on a farm. Besides his best known works and several translations, he produced biographies of Schiller, Frederick the Great and John Sterling. Sartor Resartus first appeared in Fraser's Magazine in 1833; Freds'' ^v.'olution, 1837; Chartism, 1839; Heroes and Hero Worship,\%*p; Latter-Day Pamphlets and Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, 1845. Carnarvon, Henry H. M. Herbert, third Earl of. 1831-. . . . English statesman. Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi. 1837-. . . . President of the French Republic. Carroll, Charles (of Carrollton). 1737-1832. Am. patriot. Cartier, Jacques. 1494-1555? French navigator. Cartwright, Edmund. 1743-1823. English inventor. Cary, Alice. 1822-1870. American poetess. Cary, Henry Francis. 1722-1884. Eng. translator of Dante. Casas, BartolomS de las. 1474-1566. Spanish missionary and historian. History of the Indians. Casaubon, Isaac. 1559-1614. Swiss scholar and critic. Casimir I. 77i' Pacific. . . . .-1058. King of Poland. II., 1 137-1194. III., ThcGrcat, ....-1370. IV., 1425-1492. V., 1609- 1672. Cass, Lewis. 1782-1866. Am. statesman and diplomatist. Castelar y Rissol, Emilio. 1837- Spanish republican orator and statesman. Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount. 1769-1822. Second marquis of Londonderry. British statesman, prominent in suppressing the Irish rebellion of 1798, and to him is attributed the union of Ireland with Great Britain. Opposed Bonaparte Committed suicide. Castro, Joao de. 1 500-1 548. Port, general and navigator. Catherine, Saint. 1347-1380. Italian nun at Siena. Mediator between the rival popes in the great schism. Catherine I. 1682-1727. Empress of Russia ; succeeded to the throne on the death of her husband, Peter the Great. II., 1729-1796; notoriously immoral. Catherine of Aragon. 1486-1536. Queen of Henry VIII. of England ; divorced. Catherine de, Medici. 15 10-1589. Queen of Henry II. of France ; opponent of the Huguenots. Catiline, Lucius Sergius. io8?-62 B.C. Roman conspirator. Cato, Dionysius. Fl. 3d century. Latin poet. Cato, Marcus Portius. The Elder. 234-149 B.C. Roman statesman and author. Cato, Marcus Portius. The Younger. 95-46 B.C. Opponent of Caesar; famed for purity and nobility. Committed suicide. Catullus, Caius Vallerius. 77 ?-45 ? B.C. Latin poet. Caulaincourt, Armand A. L. de. 1773-1827. Fr. diplomat. Cavaignac, Louis Eugene. 1802-1857. French general and statesman. Put down the insurrection of 1848. Cavour, Camillo Benso di. 1818-1861. First prime minister of the kingdom of Italy. Caxton, William. I4I2?-I492. English scholar and mer- chant. Introduced printing into England. Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh. 1 520-1 598. Lord treasurer of England. Cecilia, Saint. Fl. 2d century. Roman martyr; patroness of music. Cenci, Beatrice. The beautiful Parricide. 1583?-! 599. Roman lady, famous for her beauty and tragic fate. Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de. 1547-1616. Spanish novel- ist. Don Quixote. Cesnola, Louis Palma di. 1832-. . . . Born in Italy; colonel in U. S. army during the civil war ; appointed 1865 consul to Cyprus, and became famous for his excavations in that island. Chalmers, Thomas. 1780-1847. Scottish divine ; founder of the " Free Church." Astronomy in its Connection with Religion. Chambers, William. 1800-1883. Scot, editor and publisher. Chambord, Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne d'Artois, Comte. 1820-1883. Head of elder branch of the Bourbons. Chamisso, Adelbert von. 1 781-1838. German traveller. Champollion, Jean Francois. 1791-1832. French Egyptolo- gist. Hieroglyphic Dictionary. Changarnier, Nicolas A. T. J793-1877. French general. l£ j4 **? 7^ A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Charming, William Ellery. 1780-1842. American divine and author; opponent of slavery. Chantrey, Sir Francis. 1 782-1841. English sculptor. Chapin, Edwin Hubbell. 1814-1881. American divine. Charlemagne. CharUs the Great, or Charles I. 742-814. Emperor of Germany and King of France. Crowned emperor of the West, with the title of Caesar Augustus, by Pope Leo III., 800. The' most powerful and enlightened monarch of his time. His empire extended from the Elbe to the Ebro, and from Calabria to Hungary. Founder of the Carlovingian dynasty. Charles II. The Bald. (Charles II. of France.) 823-877. Emperor of Germany. Invaded Italy and was crowned Emperor. III., The Fat, 83a?-888. IV M 1316-1378. Emperor of Germany and King of Bohemia. V., 1500-1558. Emperor of Germany. King of Spain as Charles I. Ascended the Spanish throne in 1516 and became Emperor of Germany in 1519. In 1521 summoned the Diet of Worms to check the progress of Luther's doctrines. In 1527, warring with Francis I. of France, and Pope Clement VII., Rome was sacked and the pope made prisoner. Convened the Diet of Augsburg to suppress the Reformation, but, the Protestants having united, liberal terms were granted them. In 1535, defeated Barbarossa and captured Tunis, liberating thousands of Christian slaves. Defeated in 155a by the Protestant forces under Maurice of Saxony, he signed the treaty of Passau, establishing the Protestant church on a firm basis. Three years later he retired to the monastery of St. Yuste. VI., 1685-1740. VII. (Kart Albrecht), ■697-1745- Charles II. The Bald. (Charles II. of Germany.) 823-877. King of France. IV., The Fair. 1x294-328. V., The Wise, 1337- 1380. VI., The Mad or The Beloved, 1368-1422. Became insane in 1392. VII., The Victorious, 1403-1461 ; expelled the English. IX., >55o--574. X., 1757-1836. Charles I. Charles Stuart. 1600-1649. King of England. Executed alter ineffectually attempting to subdue his rebellious subjects. II., 1630-1685; witty, but careless and voluptuous, the Habeas Corpus act was passed during his reign. Charles I. (Charles V. of Germany.) 1500-1558. King of Spain. II., 1661-1700. III., 1716-1788. IV., 1748-1819. Charles IX. 1550-1611. King of Sweden. X. (Gustavus), 1622-1660. XII., 1682-1718; ascended the throne in 1697. A league being formed against him by Russia, Denmark and Poland, in 1 700, he besieged Copenhagen, forced Denmark to make peace, and beat the Russians. He then invaded Poland, compelling King Augustus to resign. Invading Russia, he was badly defeated at Pultowa. He fled to Turkey, but soon returned. Marching into Norway, he was killed at the siege of Fredericks. ill. XIII., 1748-1818. XIV. (Bernadotte), 1714-1844. XV., 1826-1872. King of Sweden and Norway. Charles Edward Stuart. The Young Pretender. 1720-1788. English prince. Charfes the Bold. 1433-1477. Duke of Burgundy. While still Count of Charolais and before succeeding to his dukedom, he led a successful revolt of the nobles against Louis XI. of France. Aspiring to enlarge his dominions, he invaded Lorraine, but was defeated by Duke Rene's Swiss allies and killed in battle. Charles Martel. 6o4?-74i. King of the Franks. Charron, Pierre. 1 531-1603. French moralist. Chartier, Alain. 1385-1455. French poet. Chase, Salmon Portland. 1808-1873. American statesman and jurist. Secretary of the Treasury; chief justice. Chateaubriand, Francois Auguste de, Viscount. 1768-1848. French author. Genius of Christianity. Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of. The Great Commoner. 1708*1778. English statesman and orator. Opposed taxation of the American colonics. Chatterton, Thomas. 1752-1770. English literary impostor. Chaucer, Geoffrey. 1340?- 1 400. English poet, styled the " Father of English poetry." Canterbury Totes. Cheever, George Barrelle. 1807-1890. American divine. Cheke, Sir John. 1514-1557. English scholar. Chenier, Andre Marie de. 1 762- 1 794. French poet; exe- cuted. The young- Captive, written just before his death, is caBed by Lamartine " the most melodious sigh that ever issued from a dungeon." Cherbuliez, Victor. 1832-.... French novelist. Cherubini, Maria Luigi C. Z. S. 1 760-1842. It. composer. Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of. 1694-1773. English orator and wit, distinguished especially as a man of fashion. Chevalier, Michael. 1806-1879. Fr. political economist. Chiabrera, Gabriello. 1 552-1637. Italian lyric poet Child, Lydia Maria. 1802- 1880. American philanthropist. Chillingworth, William. 1602-1644. English theologian. The Religion 0/ Protestants a Sa/e Way to Salvation. Chitty, Joseph. 1776-1841. English jurist and writer. Choate, Rufus. 1 799-1859. American lawyer and statesman, noted for his eloquence. Senator from Massachusetts. Choiseul, Eticnne Francois de. 1719-1785. Fr. statesman. Choris, Louis. 1795-1828. Russian painter and traveller. Christian I. 1425- 1481. King of Denmark. II., 1481-1556. Called "The Hero of the North." III., 1503.1559. IV., 1577-1648. V., 1646-1699. VI., 1699-1746. VII., i749-itk>8. VIII., 1786-1848. IX., 1818-.... Christina. 1 629-1 689. Queen of Sweden. Daughter of Gustavus A.dolphus. Learned and eccentric. Abdicated 1654. Chrysippus. 280-207 B.C. Greek Stoic philosopher. Chrysostom, John, Saint. 350?-407. Greek father of the church. Church, Frederick Edwin. 1826-. . . . American painter. Churchill, Charles. 1731-1764. English poet and satirist. Cialdini, Enrico. 181 1-.... Italian general. Cibber, Colley. 1671-1757. English actor and dramatist. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. 106-43 B.C. Roman author, states- man and orator. While consul, suppressed the conspiracy of Catiline. Exiled 58 B.C., but recalled and enthusiastically received. Was an ad- herent of Pompcy.but enjoyed the favor of Julius Caesar. Killed by the soldiers of Antony. Cicero is regarded as an orator second only to Demosthenes. Cid Campeador. (Ruy Diaz de Bivar.) I040?-ioo9. Cas- tilian hero. Cimabue, Giovanni. 1 140-1300? Italian painter. Cimon. 500-499 B.C. Athenian general and statesman. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintus. 520-438 B.C. Roman patriot and Dictator. Elected consul while cultivating a farm, having lost his property. Conquered the jEqui. Twice chosen dictator, and at the expiration of each term of office he returned to the plow. Cinna, Lucius Cornelius -84 B.C. Roman demagogue. Cinq-Mars, Henri C. de Ruze, Marquis de. 1620-1642. French conspirator. Civilis, Claudius. Fl. 70. Chief of the Batavi. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of. 160S-1674. English historian and statesman. Clarke, Adam. 1762-1832. Irish Methodist Bible com- mentator. Clarke, John S. 1835-. . . . American comedian. Clarke. Mary Cowden. 1809-. . . . English writer. C*n- cordance of Skaksyere. Claude Lorraine. 1600-1682. French painter. 7 «• ■»■ ^ Claudian (Claudius Claudianus). 365 ?-4o8 ? Latin poet. Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero). B.C. 10-54 A.D. Roman emperor; invaded Britain. Claudius, Marcus Aurelius. 214-270. Roman emperor. Clay, Henry. 1777-1852. American statesman and orator. Born in Virginia; removed to Kentucky 1797; practiced law; elected to Kentucky Legislature in 1804, and two years later chosen to fill a short term in the U. S. Senate; re-elected to the Senate 1809, and to the House of Representatives 1811, of which body he was made speaker; re-elected speaker 1813; signed treaty of Ghent, 1815; re- elected speaker four times ; advocated Missouri Compromise. Not one of his decisions as speaker was reversed. In 1824, he was one of four candidate* for the presidency, receiving thirty-seven electoral votes. When the election devolved on the House of Representatives, his influence decided the contest in favor of Jackson. A bloodless duel between Clay and Randolph, in 1826, was the result of charges against Clay growing out of this election. Re-elected to the Senate in 1831 for six years ; and in 1832 was defeated for the presidency as the candidate of the anti-Jackson party. Again elected to the Senate in 1836, but resigned in 1842. Whig candidate for the presidency in 1844. Re- elected Senator 1848. Clay is generally given credit for the compro- mise of 1850, believed to have postponed for ten years the civil war. Clemens, Samuel Langhorne. Mark Twain. 1835-. . . . American humorist. Learned the printer's trade, and became a pilot on the Mississippi. The Innocents Abroad. The Jumping Frog; Roughing It; The Gilded Age ; The Tramp Abroad. Clement I. 30?-ioo. Pope. IV., ...-628. V., I264?-I3I4. VII. (Giulio de Medici), i475?-i534- VIII., 1605, XL, 1649-1731. XIV., 1705-1774. Clement of Alexandria. i50?-220? Father of the church. Cleon -422 b.c. Athenian demagogue and general. Cleopatra. 69-30 B.C. Queen of Egypt, remarkable for beauty and accomplishments. Cleveland, Grover. 1837- American statesman. Born at Caldwell, N. J., the son of a Presbyterian minister, who removed to Fayetteville, N. Y., in 1840. First worked in a country store, secured an education and became a teacher in the N. Y. Blind Asylum. Studied law in Buffalo; admitted to the bar in 1863, and became assistant district attorney ; afterwards sheriff. Mayor of Buffalo, 1881, and then elected Governor of New York by 192,00c* majority. Elected President in 1884. Clinton, De Witt. 1769-1828. American statesman; pro- moter of the Erie Canal. Governor of New York, United States Sena- tor, and Federal candidate for the Presidency. Clinton, George. 1 739-181 2. Vice-president of the U. S. Clinton, Sir Henry. 1738-1795. English general in America. Clive, Robert, Lord. 1725-1774. English general and founder of the British empire in India. Committed suicide. Clodius, Publius. 52 B.C. Roman tribune and demagogue. Clootz, Jean Baptiste, Baron. Anackarsis Clootz. 1753-1794. Prussian traveller and French revolutionist. Guillotined. Clough, Arthur Hugh. 1820-1861. English poet. Clovis (or Cklodwig). 465-511. King of the Franks; con- queror of Gaul. Cobbett, William. 1762-1835. English political writer. Cobden, Richard. 1804-1865. English statesman and economist. Leading orator of the Anti-Corn-Law League. Coke (or Cook), Sir Edward. 1552-1633. English jurist. Colbert, Jean Baptiste. 1610-1683. French statesman. Cole, Thomas. 1801-1848. English landscape painter. Colenso, John William. 1814-1883. Eng. theologian. Bishop of Natal. The Pentateuch and Book 0/ 'Joshua Critically Examined. Coleridge, Hartley. 1796-1849. Son of S. T. C. Eng. poet. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. 1772-1834. English poet and critic. Educated at Cambridge. Intimate friend of Robert Southey, with whom he intended to emigrate to America for the purpose of found- ing a democratic community. In company with Wordsworth he studied German literature and wrote the Lyrical Ballads. In 1807 he took to wandering habits, and left his family dependent on his brother-in-law, Southey. His health failing about 1825, he became addicted to the opium habit, but succeeded in overcoming it. The Ancient Mariner. Colfax, Schuyler. 1823- 1885. Am. politician ; vice-president. Coligny, Gaspard de. 1517-1572. French admiral. Leader of the Huguenots, and killed in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Collier, Jeremy. 1650-1726. English theologian. Collingwood, Cuthbert, Lord. 1750-1810. English lord high admiral ; second in command at the battle of Trafalgar. Collins, Anthony. 1 676-1 729. Eng. author and free-thinker. Collins, William. 1 720-1 756. Eng. poet. The Passions. Collins, William Wilkie. 1824-1889. English novelist. AJter Dark; Armadale; The Woman in White; Man and Wife. Colman, George. The Elder* 1 733-1 794. Eng. dramatist. Colman, George. The Younger. 1762-1836. English dra- matist. John Bull. Colonna, Vittoria. 1490-1547. Italian poet. Colt, Samuel. 1814-1862. Am. inventor ofthe revolving pistol. Columba, Saint. 521-597. The apostle of Caledonia. Columbus, Christopher. 1436-1506. Genoese navigator and discoverer of America. Became a sailor at 14. Studied mathe- matics at the University of Pavia. Removed to Lisbon at the age of thirty, and was employed in several expeditions to the west coast of Africa. Columbus meditated reaching India by a western route. He unsuccessfully solicited the aid of John II. of Portugal, but finally Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain furnished him two small vessels, and another was added by the efforts of his friends. With these ships and one hundred and twenty men he set sail from Palos, August 3, 1492, and after a long voyage, during which he was threatened with death by his mutinous crew, he discovered the island of San Salvador, October 12 of same year. Supposing that he had reached India, he called the natives Indians. After visitingCuba and Hayti, he returned to Spain, where he was received triumphantly. In 1493 he again sailed across the Atlantic, this time with seventeen ships, and discovered Jamaica and Porto Rico. In 1498 he made his third voyage, with six vessels, discovering the mainland at the mouth of the Orinoco. In 1499, complaints having been made to the court of the conduct of Columbus at Hispaniola, he was carried to Spain in chains by Francisco de Bobadilla, whose action was f however, repudiated by the king and queen. Columbus* last voyage to America was made in 1502, to Honduras. He died neglected. Combe, George. 1788-1858. Eng. educator and phrenologist. Comines, Philippe de. 1445-1509. Fr. statesman and historian. Commodus, Antoninus. 161-192. Emperor of Rome. Comonfort, Ignacio. i8io?-i863. President of Mexico. Comte, Auguste. 1798-1857. French philosopher. Positivism* Conde, Louis II., Prince de. The Great Condi. 1621-1686. French general. Victorious over the Spaniards at Rocroi, 1643, and over the Germans at Nordlingen, 1645. Again defeated the Spanish at Lens in 1648, almost annihilating their infantry, previously regarded in- vincible. Seeking revenge for having been imprisoned by the orders of Mazarin or the queen, he warred against the government, and neitt entered the service of Spain. Returned to France in 1659, and defeated William of Orange in 1674. Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de. 1 715-1780. French meta- physician. Condorcet, Marie Jean A. N. C. de. 1 743-1 794. French mathematician and philosopher. Imprisoned in 1794, he committed suicide by poison. *?5 ^ Confucius, or Kong-foo-tse. 551-478 B.C. Chinese phil- osopher. The son of a soldier, he was raised to the rank of mandarin at 10 ; superintendent of public markets and public fields. Commenced public teaching at 22. Became, in 499 B.C., minister of crime, and soon after retired from public life, devoting his time to study, travel, and the dissemination of his doctrines. The philosophy of Confucius re- lates to the present life only, the useful and the practical forming the chief objects. He placed great importance upon outward forms of po- liteness, being the first to enunciate, in substance, the Golden Rule His object was to promote human happiness. His influence upon posterity has been truly enormous, his teachings affecting two-thirds of humanity for twenty-three centuries. Congreve, Sir William. 1772-1828. English engineer. (Con- greve rocket). Congreve, William. 1 670-1 729. English dramatist and wit. Conkling, Roscoe. 1829-1888. American statesman, lawyer and orator. U. S. senator from New York. Conrad I -918. Emperor of Germany. II., ....-1039. III., 1093-1153. IV., 1228-1254. V., 1252-1268, Conscience, Hendrik. 1812-1883. Flemish novelist. Constans I. 320?~35o. Emperor of Rome. II., 630-668. Constanrine I. 7 he Great. 272-377. Emperor of Rome. Embraced Christianity, an J transferred his court from Rome to Byzan- tium, thenceforth called Constantinople. II., 312-340. III. (emperor of the East), 612-6 ji. IV., ....-635. V., 719-775. VI., 771-797. VII., 905-959; poisoned by his son, Romanus II. VIII., .,..-946, IX., 961-1038. X., ... .-1054. XI., ... .-1067. XII., ... .-1071. XIII. (Palaeologus), 1 394-1543 ; killed while defending Constantinople^ against thfl victorious Mahomet II. Last emperor of the East. Constantius I. 250-306. Emperor of Rome. II. (emperor of the West), 317-361. III., -421. Conti, Francois Louis de, Prince. 1 664-1709. Fr. general. Cook, Eliza. 1817-. . . . English poetess. Cook, James, Captain. 1728-1779. English discoverer, and circumnavigator of ihc globe. KiiUd by natives in the Sandwich Islands. Cooke, George Frederick. 1755-1S12. English actor. Cooper, Sir Astley PastOtL 1768-1841. English physician. Cooper, James Fenimore. 1779-185 1. American novelist. Having studied at Yale College, he entered the navy in 1806 as mid- shipman,but left the service in 1811. His first novel, Precaution, ap- peared in 1809, but was not a success. His next. The Sfiy, was enthu- siastically received. His sea-stories are considered the best of his numerous productions. Cope, Edward Drinker. 1840-. . . . American naturalist. Copernicus (Copemik or Kopemik") , Nicholas. '473-1543- German astronomer. Disproved the Ptolemaic theory. In his great work. The Revolution 0/ the Celestial Orbs, the first copy of which was handed to him on the day of his death, he demonstrated that the sun is the centre of the universe. Coppee, f'raiicou Kdouard Joachim. 1842-. . . . French poet. Corday, Charlotte. (Mariane Charlotte Corday d'Armans). 176&-1793. French heroine ; assassinated Marat. Coriolanus, Cneius Marcius. Fl. 490 B.C. Roman hero. Cornsille,' Pierre. 1 606-1 684. Founder of the Fr. drama. Cornelius, Peter von. 1787-1867. German painter. Cornell, Ezra. 1807-1874. American philanthropist. Cornwallis, Charles, Earl. 1738-1805. British general. Corot, Jean Baptist* Camilie. 1 796-1875. French painter. Correggio, Antonio Allegri da. 1494-1534. Italian painter. Extremely skilful in foreshortening and in the use of chiaroscuro. The Assumption of the Virgin; Rcce Homo; Penitent Magdalen; St. Jerome; l^a Vierge au Panier. Cortez, Hernando. 1485-1547- Spanish conqueror of Mexico. Corvinus, Matthias. 1443-1490. King oPHungaiy. Corwin, Thomas. 1 794-1865. American statesman. Cotton, John. 1585-1652. Puritan minister in Boston. Cottin, Sophie Ristaud. 1773-1807. French novelist Cousin, Victor. 1792-1867. French philosopher. Cowley, Abraham. 1618-1667. Eng. poet Pindaric Ode*. Cowper, William. 1731-1800. English poet. Studied at Westminster school, and became a fine classical scholar. Admitted to the bar, but never practiced, his morbid sensitiveness, nervousness and diffidence making him unable to occupy a conspicuous position! Became temporarily deranged, and made several attempts at suicide. In 17&4 he commenced his translation ct Homer. The Task was published in 1785. Cowper** letters are considered among the best in the language. His poetry U by turns playful and pathetic, tender and sarcastic — »omctimc* sublime. Cowper, William. 1666-1709. English anatomi-t Cox, Samuel Sullivan. 1824-1889. American statesman. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland. 1818-. . . . Am. l.ishop and poet Cozzens, Frederick Swart wout. 1818-1869. Am. author. Crabb, George. 1778-1854. Eng. philologist. Synonyms. Crabbe, George. 1754-1832. English poet. Studied surgery, but abandoned that profession. Wcs befriended by Edmund Burke, and published The Library in 1781. Ordained a minister of the Church of England in 1782. The Village, his best work, was produced in 1783. Craik, Dinah Maria (Mulock). 1826-1887. English authoress. Olive; John Halifax, Gentleman; A Life for a Life ; A Woman's Thoughts about Women, Cranch, Christopher Pearse. 1813-. . . . Am. artist and poet. Cranmer, Thomas. 1489-1556. English reformer; arch- bishop of Canterbury. Burned to death. Crassus, Marcus l.icinius. io8?~53 B.C. Roman triumvir; immensely wealthy. Defeated and slain by the Parthlans. Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. 1812-1878. English historian. Fifteen Decisive Battles, Crichton, James. The Admirable Crichtan, 1 560-1 583. Scottish prodigy. Stabbed by his pupil, a son of the Duke of Mantua, Crittenden, John Jordon. 1786-1863. American statesman. Crockett, David. 1786-1836. American backwoodsman. Crcesus. 590-546 B.C. King of Lydia, famous for wealth. Croly, George. 1 780-1860. Irish poet and pulpit-orator. Cromwell, Oliver. 1 599-1659. English general; lord pro- tector of England. Elected to Parliament 1G28. In 1637 resolved to emigrate with his cousin, John Hampden, but they were detained by an order of council. Re-elected to Parliament 1640. Entered the Parlia- mentary army in 1642 as captain of cavalry. Rapidly promoted, and led left wing at Mam ton Moor, 1644. Commanded right wing at Nascby, 1645, and became leader of the Independents. Transferred the custody of the king from Parliament to the army, 1647. Won the battle of Preston, 1648. Signed the death warrant of Charles I., 1649. Made commander-in-chief, 1650, and defeated the Scotch at Dunbar and Charles at Worcester. Dissolved Parliament in 1653, and was in 1654 proclaimed by the army protector of the commonwealth. Cropsey, Jasper Frank. 1823-. . . . American painter, Cruden, Alexander. 1700-1770. Scottish bookseller and author. Concordance. Cruikshank, George. 1792-1878. Eng. humorous artist. Cumberland, William Augustus/Duke of. 1721-1765. Con- queror at Culloden. * Cunningham, Allan. 1785-1S42. Scottish author and critic. Curran, John Philpot. 1750-1817. Irish barristerVnd orator. Curtis, George Ticknor, 1S12-. . . . Am. law. and auth. -*£= ^ A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. -• » Z2 3 Curtis, George William. 1824-. . . . Am. author and editor. Cushing, Caleb. 1800-1879. American lawyer, Statesman and diplomatist. Cushman, Charlotte Sanders. 1816-1876. Am. actress. Custer, George A. 1839-1876. American general, killed by the Sioux. Cuvier, Georges C. L. F., Baron. 1 769-1832. French naturalist. Cyprian, Saint. 20O?-258. Latin father; bishop of Car- thage ; martyr. Cyril, Saint. 3I5?~386. Bishop of Jerusalem. Cyril, Saint. 376P-444. Bishop of Alexandria. Cyrus. TJie Great, ox The Elder. ...-.-529 B.C. King of Persia ; conquered Babylon. Cyrus. The Younger -401 B.C. Hero of Xenophon's Anabasis. 1750-1818. American mathemati- Y^ABOLL, Nathan. Jk—f cian. Dacier, Andre. 1651-1722. French scholar and critic. Dacier, Anne Lefevre. 1654-1720. Wife of preceding. Translated Homer. Daendels, Hermann Willem. 1762-1818. Dutch general. Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande. 1789-1851. French artist; inventor of the daguerreotype. Dahlberg, Eric. 1625-1703. Swedish general and engineer. Dahlgren, John Adolph. 1809-1870. Am. rear-admiral. Dallas, Alexander James. 1759—1817. Am. statesman. Dallas, George Mifflin. 1792-1864. Am. statesman. Dalton, John. 1766-1844. English chemical philosopher. Damiani, Peter. 990-1072. Italian ecclesiastic. Damiens, Robert F. 17 14-1757. French fanatic. Darnpier, William. 1652-1712. Eiig. explorer and navigator. Dana, Chas. A. 1819- . . . Am. journ. Ed. N. Y. Sun. Dana, Francis. 1743-1811. Am. lawyer and statesman. Dana, Richard Henry. 1787-1879. American poet and writer. The Buccaneer. Dana, Richard Henry. 1815-1882. Son of preceding. Am. author and lawyer. Two Years Be/ore the Mast. Dancer, Daniel. 17 16-1794. English miser. Dandelot, Francois de Coligny. 1521-1569. French general. Dandolo, Enrico. H05?-I205. Blind doge of Venice ; took Constantinople by storm, Dane, Nathan. 1752-1835. Am. lawyer and statesman. Daniel. Fl. 6th century B.C. Hebrew prince and prophet. Daniel, Samuel. 1562-1619. English poet. 1265-1321. The greatest poet of Italy. Dante Allighieri. Divina Commcdia. Danton, Georges Jacques revolution, and head of the '759-'794- A leader of the French Dantonists." Guillotined. D'Arblay, Mme. (Frances Burney.) 1752-1840. English novelist. Evelina: Cecilia; Camilla. Darboy, Georges. 1813-1871. Archbishop of Paris. Darius I. (Darius Hystaspis.) -435 B.C. King of Persia. II -405 B.C. III. (Codomannus), ....-330 B.C.; defeated by Alexander. Darius the Mede. Supposed to be Cyaxares II. Darley, Felix 0. C. 1822-1888. American artist. Darling, Grace. 1815-1842. English heroine. Darnley, Henry Stuart, Lord. IS4S?-I567. Husband of Mary Queen of Scots ; assassinated. Darwin, Charles Robert. 1809-1882. English naturalist and originator of the theory of evolution. In his " Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection," published in 1859, he propounds the theory that all forms of life, animal or vegetable, past or present, have been produced by a series of gradual changes in natural descent. In his " Descent of Man," he infers that "man is descended from a hairy quadruped furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in its habits." Darwin, Erasmus. 1731-1S02. English physician and poet. D'Aubigne, Jean Henri Merle. 1794-1872. Swiss historian. D'Aubigne, Theodore. 1550-1630. French soldier, poet and historian. Daudet, Alphonse. 1840-.... French novelist. Jack. Davenport, Edward L. 1816-1877. American actor. David. 1090-1015 B.C. King of Israel; prophet and poet. David, Saint. 490?-544. Patron of Wales. David, Jacques Louis. 1748-1825. French historical painter. David, Pierre J. 1 789-1856. French sculptor. Daviess, Joseph Hamilton. Jo Daviess. 1 787-1 854. Am- erican statesman. Da Vinci, Leonardo. See Vinci. Davis, Henry Winter. 1817-1865. American politician. Davis, Jefferson. 1808-1889. American statesman and presi- dent of the Confederacy. Born in Kentucky ; graduate of West Point; served in the Black Hawk war and Mexican war; elected to U. S. Senate front Mississippi in 1847; secretary of war 1853-7; re- elected senator in 1857 ; inaugurated provisional president of *he Con- federate States in 1861, and elected for six years in 1862. Imprisoned in Fortress Monroe for two years after the fall of Richmond. History 0/ the Civil War. Davoust for Davout), Louis Nicholas, Duke of Auerstadt and Prince or Eckmiihl. 1770- 1823. Marshal of France. Davy, Sir Humphrey. 1778-1829. English chemist. Dem- onstrated that the fixed alkalies are metallic oxides. Inventor °f the safety lamp. Researches Chemical and Philosopliical. Dayton, William Lewis. 1807-1864. American statesman. Dearborn, Henry. 1751-1829. Am. general and statesman. Decatur, Stephen. 1779-1820. American naval commander. Defeated the Algerines. Killed in a duel. De Foe (or Defoe), Daniel. 1661-1731. English novelist. Son of James Foe, a butcher, he assumed the prefix " de." Took part in the insurrection against James II. Imprisoned and pilloried in 1 702 for publishing The Shortest Way -with Dissenters, an ironical pamphlet. His works are over two hundred in number, and show great versatility and originality.^ Robinson Crusoe: The True-born Englishman^ The History of the Union: Memoirs of a Cavalier; Religious Courtship. De Kalb, John, Baron. 1732-1780. German general; ac- companied Lafayette to America in 1777, and served under Washington. Killed at the battle of Camden. De Haas, Maurice F. H. 1830?-. . . . Dutch marine painter. Delacroix, Ferdinand V. E. 1799-1863. French painter. De la Rame, Louisa. OuiJa. 1840?-. . . . Eng. novelist.- Delaroche, Paul. 1797-1856. French painter. Delaware, Thomas West, Lord. . . . .-1618. Gov. of Virginia. Delmas, Antoine Guillaume. 1768-1813. French general. Delorme, Marion. 1612-1650. French beauty and courtesan. Del Sarto, Andrea Vannuchi. 1488-1530. French painter. Demetrius Phalereus. 345?-284? B.C. Attic orator and philosopher. Demetrius Poliorcetes. 3357-284? B.C. Macedonian general. te- Democritus. The Laughing Philosopher. 460-361 B.C. Greek philosopher. Demosthenes. 3857-322 B.C. Athenian orator. Conquered an impediment in his speech, and by perseverance and determination be- came the greatest of orators. Opposed Philip of Macedon, against whom he delivered his Philippics. It being proposed to reward his public ser- vices with a golden crown, a bitter contest ensued with his rival /Eschines, in which Demosthenes, however, was triumphant. This led to the oration On the Crown, considered his greatest achievement. Con- demned to death by Anlipatcr, he committed suicide by poison. He left sixty orations. Denis, Saint 272. Apostle and patron of France. De Quincey, Thomas. 1785-1859. Eng. author. The son of a wealthy merchant. Contracted the opium habit while pursuing his studies at Oxford — a habit which he overcame, in 1820, after a severe and prolonged struggle. His Confessions of an Opiuin-I-'atcr, written as an autobiography, and published in 1821, created a great sensation. De Quincey was a brilliant writer, and l:ft numerous works. Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, Earl of. 1 790-1869. English statesman and orator. Translator of Homer's Iliad. Derby, Edward Henry Smith-Stanley, Earl of. 1826- English statesman. Descartes, Rene. 1 596-1650. Fr. philosopher and mathe- matician. Discourse on the Metltod of Reasoning Well, and of In- vestigating Scientific Truth ; Meditaliones de Prima Philosophia ; principles of Philosophy. " I think, therefore I am." Desfontaines, Rene Louiche. 1752-1833. French liotanist. De Smet, Peter John. 1801-1873. Jesuit missionary to the Indians. Des Moulins, Camillc. 1762-1794. De Soto, Ferdinand. 1460-1542. ered the Mississippi river. 1 760- 1 806. Fr. Jacobin ; guillotined. Spanish explorer ; tliscov- Negro emperor of 1 799-1863. Fr. novelist and poet. Dutch statesman. President of Mexico. Dessalines, Jean Jacques. Hayti. De Vigny, Alfred, Count. De Witt, Jan. 1625-1672. Diaz, Porfirio. 1830- Dibdin, Charles. 1745-1814. English song writer Dick, Thomas. 1772-1857. Scottish author. Dickens, Charles. 1812-1870. English novelist. After study- ing at college, he was articled to an attorney, but found the study of l.iw uncongenial, and became a reporter for the press. Sketches by Box appeared in the London Morning Chronicle in 1836. Pickwick Papers: Oliver Twist; Dombey cV Son ; Bleak House : Hard Times ; Nicho- las Nickleby ; David Copperfeld ; A Tale of Two Cities ; Great Expectations, etc. Dickinson, Anna Elizabeth. 1842-. . . . Am. lecturer. Diderot, Denis. 1712-1784. Fr. philosopher and novelist Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth. 1843-.... English states- man, editor and author. Greater Britain. Diocletian. 284-305. Roman emperor. Diogenes. Died 323 B.C. Greek Cynic philosopher. Lived in a tub, affecting great contempt for the comforts of life. Dionysius. The Elder. 4307-367 B.C. Tyrant of Syracuse. Dionysius. The Younger. 398-340? Dionysius of Halicarr.assus. 70?~7? B.C. Disraeli, Benjamin. See Beacomfield. Disraeli, Isaac. 1766-1848. Father of preceding. English litterateur ■ born of a Jewish family. Curiosities of Literal u re. Dix, John Adams. 1798-1879. Am. general and <.(atr-.ni.in. Dixon, William Ilcpworth. 1821-1879. English traveller Tyrant of Syracuse. Greek his(orian. and historian. Dodge, Mary Abigail, can authoress. GaiUlamiUon. 1838?- Amcri- 1536-1608. English poet American surgeon. .-1514? " The great Dodsley, Robert. 1709-1764. English author and bookseller. For some time employed as a footman. The footman' s Miscellany. Doellinger, John Joseph Ignatius. (799-1890. German (heolo- i-i.m and historian ; leader of the " Old Catholic movement. Dom;nichino. (Zampieri). (58(-i64i. Italian painter. Dominic, Saint 1170-1221. Spanish preacher, and founder of the order of Dominicans Domitian. 5i?-96. Rom. emperor. Cruel and depraved. Donatus. Fl. 300. Founder of (he Donatists. Donizetti, Gae(ano. 1798-1848. Italian composer. Lucia di l.ammermoor; Lucrezia Borgia. Donnelly, Ignatius. 1832-.... Am. statesman and author. Dore, Paul Gustave. 1832-1883. French artist Doha, Andrea. 1468-1560. Genoese patriot and commander. Dorr, Thomas Wilson. 1805-1854. American politician. Dorset, Charles Sackville, Earl of. 1637-1706. English poet and wit. Dorset, Thomas Sackville, Earl of. and statesman. Dorsey, John Syng. 1783-1818. Douglas, Archibald flelllhe-Cat. carl of Angus." Lord chancellor. Douglas, James, Earl of. ... .-1330. Scottish patriot. Douglas, Stephen Arnold. The Little Giant. (8l7?-l86l. American statesman. Native of Vermont , admitted to the bar in New York ; removed to Illinois and gained destinction as an orator. Judge of Illinois Supreme Court 1841 , elected to Congress 1843 : senator 1847. Supported the compromise measures of Henry Clay, and advocated the doctrine known as "squatter sovereignty " Re-elected to the Senate 1853, and reported the bill repealing the Missouri compromise. Candi- date for the Democratic nomination for the presidency in 1856. De- feated Lincoln for the U.S. senate in 1858, they canvassing the state to- gether. Candidate of one wing of the Democratic party for president in i860. Supported the Union party in 1861. Douglass, Frederick. 1817?-. ... Am. orator; formerly a slave; native of Maryland His father was a white man and ha mother ancgro slave. Sold to .1 shipbuilder in 18-2. bur escaped to Massachu- setts and assumed the name of Douglass. Exhibiting rare powers as an orator, he was aided by Wm. L Garrison and others, and employed, in 1841, by the American Anti-Slavery Society. Dow, Lorenzo. 1777-1834. American preacher. Dow, Neal. 1S04- . American prohibition Ut. Draco (or Dracon). Fl. 624 B.C. Athenian lawgiver. Drake, Sir Francis. 1540-1595. English naval hero; first English circumnavigator of the globe, captured or destroyed one hundred vessels in the port of Cadiz in 1587, and contributed in 1588 to the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Drake, Joseph Rodman. 1795-1820. American poet. Draper, John William. 181 1-1882. American scieii; Drayton, Michael. 1563-1631. English poet. Dreyse, Johann Nikolaus von. 1787-1867. Prussian inventor of the needle-gun. Drusus, Claudius Nero. 38-9 B.C. Roman general. Dryden, John. 1631-1700. English poet, critic and dram- atist. Educated at Cambridge. Wrote some spirited heroic slanras in memory of Cromwell. After the accession of Charles II., he became a stannch royalist. His first drama. The Wild Gallant, was published in 166a ; Annus Mirabilis and The Indian Emprrtr, 1667. Appointed poet-laureate in 1668. He next wrote his Essay on Dramatic Pe+try and several comedies and tragedies. Absalom and Achitopkel, 1681. Became a Roman Catholic in 1686 and wrote The Hind and Pantkrr, a poetical allegory. His ode on Alexander's Feast, considered the finest English lyric, appeared in 1606, after he had completed his trans- lation of Virgil. Lord Macaulay calls Dryden " an incomparable res- soner in verse." kl 4-r Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni. 1835- French traveller. Dudevant, Mme. Amantine Lucille Aurore ( nit Dupin). George Sand. 1804-1876. French novelist. Married at the age of 18 to a retired army officer, she separated from him ten years later. She was at one time a zealous Catholic, but later adopted most liberal views, adopting man's attire and denouncing the marriage system. She edited a democratic paper during the revolution of 1848. She has left numer- ous novels and several dramas. Dudley, Benjamin Winslow. 1785-1870. Am. physician. Dudley, Charles Edward. 1780-1841. American senator. Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas. 1798-.... Fr. statesman. Dufferin, Frederick Temple Hamilton Blackwood, Earl of. 1826- English statesman. Governor-general of Canada. Dumas, Alexandre. 1803-1870. French novelist. Dumas, Alexandre. 1824-. . . . Son of above. Fr. novelist. Dumouriez, Charles Francois. 1739-1823. French general. Duncan I -1040. Scottish king. Killed by Macbeth. Dundonald, Thomas Cochrance, Earl of. 1775-1860. Brit- ish admiral. Dunglison, Robley. 1 798-1869. American physician. Mtdi- cal Dictionary. Dunois, Jean de. Bastard of Orleans. 1402-1468. French national hero. Natural son of the Duke of Orleans. Defeated the English at Montargis in 1427, and assisted at the siege of Orleans in 1429. Expelled the English from Normandy and Guienne, and was created Count d'Orleans. Duns Scotus. The Subtle Doctor. 1 265?-' 308. Scottish theologian. Dunstan, Saint. 925-988. English prelate. Dupanloup, Felix Antoine Filibert. 1802-1878. Fr. prelate. Dupleix, Joseph, Marquis. 1695-1763. Fr. governor in India. Dupont, Samuel Francis. 1803-1865. Am. rear-admiral. Duquesne, Abraham. 1610-1688. Fr. naval commander. Durer, Albreckt. 1471-1528. German painter and engraver. Crucifixion; Adoration of the Magi ; The Knight and Death: Reve- lation of St. fohn. Dwight, Timothy. 1752-1817. Am. author and divine. Confederate general. V^ARLY, Jubal A. 1818?-. Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock. 1793-1865. English painter. Eaton, Amos. 1777-1842. American naturalist. Eaton, William. 1764-1811. American soldier. Eble, Jean Baptiste. 1758-1812. French general. Edes, Benjamin. 1732-1803. Am. patriot and journalist. Edgeworth, Maria. 1767-1849. English novelist. Edgeworth, Richard Lovell. 1744-1817. English author; father of preceding. Edison, Thomas Alva. 1847- American electrician and inventor. Edmund I. 9227-946. Anglo-Saxon king. II., Ironside, 989-1016. Edmunds, George F. 1828- American lawyer and statesman. Born in Vermont ; admitted to the bar 1849 : became U. S. senator in 1866 to fill an unexpired term, and has since been con- tinuously re-elected. Elected pres. of Senate 1883. Retired 1891. Edward I -925. King of the Anglo Saxons. II., The Martyr, 96W-978 ; assassinated by order of his stepmother. III. The Confessor, 1004-1066. Edward I. Longs/tanks. 1239-1307. King of England; conquered Wales and Scotland. H., 1284-1327 ; defeated by Bruce at Bannockburn ; dethroned by the Queen and her favorite, Roger de Mortimer, in 1326; was murdered the following year. III., 1312. 1377; son of Edward II. ; proclaimed king in 1327 ; executed Mortimer, and imprisoned the queen-mother; carried on war with France and won the great victory of Crecy. IV., 1441-1483. V., 1470-1483 ; ascended the throne at the age of 13, but assassinated two months later. VI., l537-'553- Edward, Prince of Wales. The Black Prince. 1 330-1 376. Son of Edward III. Participated in the invasion of France, command- ing the main body of the English at Crecy. Won the battle of Poitiers. Edward the Confessor. 1004-1066. King of England. Edwards, Amelia Blandford. 1831- English novelist. Edwards, Jonathan. 1 703-1 758. American theologian and metaphysician. Freedom of the Will. Edwin. 586P-633. King of Northumbria. Edwy. 938-958. King of the Anglo-Saxons. Effingham. See Howard, Charles. Egbert. The Great. 775?-838. Saxon king of Wessex. Egmont, Lamoral, Count. 1522-1568. Flemish statesman and soldier. Tried for treason and executed. Elbee, Gigot d'. 1752-1794. Vendean general. Eldon, John Scott, Earl of. 1751-1838. English statesman. Elgin, James Bruce, Earl of. 1811-1863. British statesman. Governor -general of Canada. Elgin, Thomas Bruce, Earl of. 1777-1841. British diplo- matist. The " Elgin Marbles," in the British museum, were obtained by him at Athens and sold to the government for ^35,000. Eliot, George. See Evans, Marian C. Eliot, John. Apostle of the Indians. 1604-1690. English clergyman. Ttranslated the Bible into the Indian language. Eliot, Sir John. 1590-1632. Eng. orator and statesman. Elizabeth. 1533-1603. Queen of England. Daughter of Henry VIII. Proclaimed Queen 1558; restored the Protestant religion. During her reign the Spanish Armada was repulsed, and Mary Stuart executed. Essex, Leicester and Raleigh were among her favorites. Elizabeth Petrovna. 1 709-1 762. Empress of Russia. Daughter of Peter the Great. Ascended the throne in 1741; took up arms against Frederick the Great, and her armies in 1760 captured Berlin. Though unmarried, she was the mother of a large family. Elizabeth, Saint. 1 207-1 231. Queen of Hungary. Ellenborough, Edward Law, Lord. 1748-1818. English chief justice. Ellenborough, Edward Law, Earl of. 1790-187 1. English statesman. Ellery, William. 1727-1820. American patriot. Elliot, George Augustus, Lord Heathfield of Gibraltar. 1718- 1790. British commander. Elliott, Ebenezer. The Corn Law Rhymer. 1 781-1849. English poet. Elliott, Jesse Duncan. 1782-1845. American commodore. Ellsworth, Ephraim Elmer. 1837-1861. American officer. Ellsworth, Oliver. 1 745-1807. Am. jurist and statesman. Ellwood, Thomas. 1639-1713. English Quaker author. Elssler, Fanny. 1811-1884. Viennese dancer. Elzevir. A celebrated family of printers and publishers at Leyden, 1570-1680. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. 1803-1882. American essayist, philosopher and poet. Born in Boston ; graduate of Harvard ; or- dained Unitarian minister in 1829, but retired from the ministry in 1832 ; travelled in Europe, and on his return began lecturing. The firstvolume of his Essays appeared im84i,andhis Representative Men, regarded by some as his greatest work, in 1850. Emmanuel. The Great. 1469-1521. King of Portugal. 15 K 226 ~7T A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Emmet, Robert. 1780-1803. Irish patriot and orator. Early in life became a leader of the "United Irishmen," and in 1803 became implicated in the killing of Lord Kilwarden, chief justice of Ireland, and others. Although defending himself with great eloquence, he was sentenced to death and executed. Emmet, Thomas Addis. 1764-1827. Brother of the preced- ing. A leader of the " United Irishmen," and imprisoned from 1798 till idol. Removed to America in 1804, and was in 1812 elected at- torney-general of New York. Empedocles. 475-. . . . B.c. Greek philosopher. Encke, Johann Franz. 1791-1865. German astronomer. Endicott, John. 1589-1665. Colonial governor of Mass. Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Due d'. , 1772- 1804. French prince. Charged with conspiracy, and executed by order of Napoleon. Ennius, Quintus. 239-169 B.C. Roman epic poet. Enoch (or Henoch). 3378- B.C. Father of Methuselah. Translated at the age of 365. Epaminondas. 4127-362 B.C. Theban statesman, orator and general. Defeated the Spartans at Leuctra ; died after his victory at Mantinea, from a wound received in battle. Epictetus. 60-. . . . Greek Stoic philosopher. Enchiridion. Epicurus. 340?-270B.c. Greek philosopher ; founder of the Epicurean school. Erasmus, Desiderius. 1465-1536. Dutch scholar. Erastus, Thomas. 1524-1583. Ger. physician and writer. Eratosthenes. 276-196? B.C. Greek geometer. Considered the founder of the science of astronomy. Eric XIII. 1382-1450. King of Sweden (VII. or VIII. of Denmark). XIV., i535f-i577- Eric the Red. Fl. 1000. Scandinavian navigator; discov- ered Greenland. Ericsson, John. 1803-1889. Swedish engineer and inventor. Constructed the " Monitor" which destroyed the Confederate iron-clad Merrimac. Erigena, Joannes Scotus. Fl. 850. Irish philosopher. Ernesti, Johann August. 1707-1781. German scholar. Erskine, Ebenezer. 1680-1754. Scottish theologian. Erskine, Henry. 1746-1817. Scottish lawyer and orator. Erskine, Thomas, Baron. 1750-1823. Scottish lawyer and orator. Recognized as the greatest advocate of his time. " He spoke as his clients would have spoken, being endowed with his genius." Admitted to the bar in 1778 ; successfully defended Lord George Gor- don in 1781 ; elected to the House of Commons in 1783, and again in 1790 ; secured the acquittal of Hardy and John Home Tooke in the state trials oi 1794: was made lord chancellor, and created a peer in 1806 ; retired from office in 1807. Escobar y Mendoza, Antonio. 1 589-1669. Spanish Jesuit and casuist. Cases of Conscience. Espartero, Joaquin Baldomero, Duke de la Vittoria. 1 792- 1879. Spanish statesman and general ; defeated the Carlists. Essex, Robert Devereux, second Earl of. 1567-1601. Favor- ite of Queen Elizabeth ; beheaded for high treason. Essex, Robert Devereux, third Earl of. 1592-1647. English Parliamentary general. Estaing, Charles Hector, Count d'. 1729-1794. French admiral; beheaded. Esterhazy de Galantha, Paul. '635-1713. Hungarian governor-general. Ethelbeld -860? King of Wessex. Ethelbert. 455 ?-6i6. King of Kent. Ethelbert -866. King of the Anglo-Saxons. Ethelred I -871. King of the Anglo-Saxons. II., The Unready, 968-1016 ; ordered massacre of Danes in 100a. Ethelwulf. -858. King of Wessex. Euclid of Alexandria. 11. 300 B.C. Greek mathematician. Eudoxie (or Eudocia). 394?-46i. Roman empress. Eugene of Savoy. (Prince Francois Eugene de Savoie- Carignan). 1663-1736. Austrian general. Defeated the Turks at Zenta ; associated with Marlborough at Blenheim, Oudenard and Malplaquet; defeated the Turks at Peterwaradin in 1716, and at Belgrade in 1717. Eugenie Marie de Montijo. 1826-. . . . Empress of the French ; wife of Napoleon III. Eugenius I. Pope; ruled from 654 to 658. II., 824-827, III., 1145-1153. IV., 1431-1438; deposed; died in 1447. Euler.Leonard. 1707-1783. Swiss mathematician. Euripides. 480-406 ? B.C. Greek tragic poet. Eusebius of Nicomedia. Fl. 325. Arian prelate. Eusebius Pamphili. 266-340? Ecclesiastical historian, and bishop of Csesarea. Evald, Johannes. 1 743-1 781. Danish poet. Evans, Marian C. George Eliot. 1820-1881. English nov- elist. The daughter of a clergyman. Lived with George H. Lewes, as his wife, for several years, and after his death married J. W. Cross. Adam 3cdc : Rontola: Middlemarch ; Daniel Deronda. Eustachi, Bartolommeo. 1510-1574. Italian anatomist. Evarts, William Maxwell. 1816-. ... American lawyer and statesman. Leading counsel for the defence in the impeachment trial of President Johnson ; attorney-general 1868-9 : counsel for the United States in 1872 before the Geneva Arbitration Tribunal. Evelyn, John. 1620-1706 English author. Sylva. Everett, Edward. 1 794-1865. American scholar, orator and statesman. Graduated at Harvard, 1811, and ordained a minister in 1814. Appointed professor of Greek at Harvard 1815, but did not occupy the chair until 1819, after completing a course of study at Gottingen and travelling extensively in Europe. Elected to Congress in 1834, remain- ing in that body for ten years, and in 1835 became governor of Massa- chusetts. Minister to England, 1841-s. Secretary of state, 1851. Elected to the United States Senate, 1853, but resigned on account of ill- ness. Defeated for the vice-presidency in i860. Supported the Federal government during the civil war. Ewing, Thomas. 1789-1871 American statesman. Exmouth, Edward Pellew, Viscount. i757-<833- English admiral Eyck, van, Hubert. 1366-1426 Flemish painter. Eyck, van, Jan. John of Bruges. I300?-I440? Brother of preceding. Flemish painter Adoration of Ike Magi. Eyre, Edward John. 181 8?- Eng. explorer in Australia. Ezekiel. Fl. 7th century B.C. Hebrew prophet. Ezra. Fl. 5th century B.C. Hebrew law-maker. V7ABER, Frederick William. 1815-1863. English priest jL. and writer. Fabius Maximus, Quintus. Cunetator. 203 BC. Roman consul and general. As opponent of Hannibal he inaugurated the " Fabian " policy, carrying on only a defensive war. Faed, Thomas. 1826- . . . Scottish painter. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel. 1686-1740 German natural philosopher and inventor of the Fahrenheit thermometer. Fairfax, Thomas, Lord. 1611-1671. Parliamentary general. As commander-in-chief in 164s, won the battle of Naseby. Falconer, William. 1735 ?-i 709. Scot. poet. The Shipwreck. Faliero (or Falieri), Marino. 1278-1350. Doge of Venice; the hero of Byron's tragedy. ^r 7 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 227 £- Faneuil, Peter. 1700-1743. American merchant. Faraday, Michael. 1791-1867. English chemist and natural philosopher. Founder of the science of magneto-electricity. Farnese, Alessandro, Duke of Parma. 1546-1593. It. general. Farquhar, George. 1678-1707. Irish dramatist. The Beaux' Stratagem: The Constant Couple. Farragut, David Glascoe. 1801-1870. American admiral. Passed the New Orleans forts and captured New Orleans in 1862, and was made rear-admiral same year. Congress created for him the office of vice-admiral in 1864, and he was made admiral in 1866. Faust, Karl. 1825- German composer. Faust, Dr. Johann. Fl. 1500. German necromancer. Faust, Johann -1466 ? One of the inventors of printing. Fawkes, Guy -1606. English conspirator; executed. (" Gunpowder plot.") Fearne, Charles. 1 749-1494. English jurist. Featherstonhaugh, George William -1866. American traveller and geologist. Fechier, Charles Albert. 1824-1879. English actor. Fenelon, Francois de Salignac de la Mothe. 1651-1715. French prelate and author. Telemachus. Ferdinand (of Saxe-Coburg). 1861- ... Prince of Bulga. Ferdinand I. 1503-1564. Emperor of Germany. II., 1578-1637; king of Bohemia and Hungary. Ill "i657« Ferdinand IV. 1751-1825. King of Naples. (I. of the two Sicilies.) Ferdinand II. 1810-1859. King of the two Sicilies. Ferdinand I. The Great. 1000-1065. King of Castile. V., The Catholic (II. of Aragon, III. of Naples, II. of Sicily), 1452- 1516; founded the Spanish monarchy. VI., The Wise, 1713-1759. VII., 1784-1833. 1724-1816. Scottish philosopher. 1 7 10-1776. Scottish astronomer. 1808-1886. Scottish architect. Fl. 1446. Portuguese navigator. -1576. Spanish navigator. -1558. French physician and writer. Ferguson, Adam. Ferguson, James. Fergusson, James. Fernandez, Diniz. Fernandez, Juan. Fernel, Juan. 1497- Ferry, Jules Francois Camille. 1832-. Fersen, Axel von, Count. 1755-1810. Fesch, Joseph, Cardinal. 1763-1836. Fessenden, William Pitt. 1806-1869. . . Fr. statesman. Swedish field-marshal. French prelate. Am. statesman. Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm. 1775— 1S33. German jurist. Reformer of the criminal law. Feuillet, Octave. 1812-1890. French author. Fichte, Immanuel Hermann. 1797- 1879. Ger. philosopher. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. 1762-1814. Ger. metaphysician. Field, Cyrus West. 1819- American merchant and financier. Established the first telegraph cable between America and Europe, via Newfoundland. Field, David Dudley. 1805- American jurist. Fielding, Henry. 1 707-1 754. Eng. novelist and dramatist. Son of Edmund Fielding, a lieutenant-general under Marlborough. Commenced reading law at 18, but discontinued this study in a few years, and began to lead a. dissolute life. About this time, however, he produced several successful plays. After marrying, and squandering his wife's fortune, he resumed the study of law, but, gout preventing his practicing, he turned his mind to literature. In 1749 his great novel, Tom Jones, was published. In 1750 he was appointed a magistrate, and endeared himself to the inhabitants 01 the London suburbs by suppress- ing numerous bands of robbers. Among Fielding's novels, besides Tort Jones, may be mentioned Amelia and Joseph Andrews. Corsican conspirator ; Leader in a conspiracy to Fieschi, Joseph Marco. 1790-1836. inventor of the so-called infernal machine. kill Louis Philippe. Executed. Fiesco (or Fieschi), Giovanni Luigi, Count of Lavagna. I 525-I547. Genoese conspirator. Having sent some of his adherents to capture the palace of the Dorias, he made a night attack on the Doria galleys in the harbor, but fell while passing from one galley to another, and was drowned before help could reach him. Fiesole.Giovanni da. FraAngelico. 1387-1455. It. painter. Fillmore, Millard. 1800-1874. American statesman ; thir- teenth president of the United States. Bora in New York ; learned fuller's trade ; read law and acquired a lucrative practice in Buffalo. Elected to Congress 1832, and continued a member of that body till 1842. Elected vice-president 1848, and became president on the death of Taylor, in 1850. Approved the Fugitive Slave Law and the com- promise measures of Henry Clay, and made Daniel Webster secre- tary of state. American statesman. English prelate; executed. Op- Am. inventor. (Steamboat.) 1763-1798. Irish revolutionist. B.C. Rom. general and consul. 230-174 B.C. Roman general Fish, Hamilton. 1808-. . . Fisher, John. »459-«535- posed the Reformation. Fitch, John. 1743-1798. Fitzgerald, Edward, Lord. Flaminius, Caius -217 Flaminius, Titus Quintius. and consul. Flamsteed, John. 1646-1719. Eng. astronomer. Flaxman, John. 1755-1826. English sculptor. Fleetwood, Charles . . . .-1692. Eng. Parliamentary general. Fletcher, Andrew {of Saltoun). 1653-1716. Scottish author. Fletcher, John. 1576-1625. English poet and dramatist ; associate of Beaumont. The Maid's Tragedy ; The Faithful Shep- herdess. Flotow, Frederick Ferdinand Adolphus von. 1812-1883. German composer. Martha. Fontenelle, Bernard de Bovier de. 1657— 1757. Fr. author. Foote, Andrew Hull. 1806-1863. American rear-admiral. Foote, Samuel. 1720-1777. English wit and comedian. Ford, John 1586-1639. English dramatist. Forrest, Edwin. 1806-1872. American tragedian. Forster, John. 1812-1876. English biographer. Forster, William Edward. 1818-1886. English statesman. Forsyth, John. 1780-1841. American statesman. Fortescue, Sir John. 1 3957-1485? English jurist. Fortuny, Mariano. 1 839-1 874. Spanish painter. Foscari, Francesco. 1373-1457. Doge of Venice. Foster, Birket. 18 12-.... English engraver. Foster, Stephen Collins. 1826-1864. Am. song-writer. Fourier, Francois Charles Marie. 1772-1837. French social- ist ; founder of Fourierism. Theory of Universal Unity. Fowler, Orson Squire. 1809-1887. Am. phrenologist. Fox, Charles James. 1749-1806. English orator and states- man. Entered Parliament in 1768 as a Tory, but joined the opposition in 1773, and became leader of the Whigs, in which capacity, and also as foreign secretary and secretary of state, he opposed the policy of Pitt. Fox, George. 1624-1690. English founder of the society of Friends, or Quakers. Fox, John. 1517-1587. English Protestant clergyman and author. Book of Martyrs. Foy, Maximilian Sebastian. 1775-1825. French orator and general. Fra Bortolommeo di San Marco. See Baccio delta Porta. / ^ 228 A COMPKNDIU.M OF BIOGRAPHY. ~A jy Fra Diavolo. (Michael Rozzo.) 1769-1806. Neapolitan brigand. Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez. i757?-i840. Dictator of Paraguay ; adopted a policy cutting off all intercourse with other nations. Francis I. 1494-1547. King of France ; defeated at Pavia. II., 1543-1560. Francis I. 1708-1765. Emperor of Germany. II. (I. of Austria), 1768-1835. Francis II. 1836-.... King of the Two Sicilies. Francis Borgia, Saint. 1510-1572. Duke of Gandia and Viceroy of Catalonia ; joined the Society of Jesus and became a zealous preacher; elected general of the order in 1565. Francis de Paula, Saint. 1416-1507. Italian Franciscan monk ; founded the order Fratres Minimi. Francis de Sales, Saint. 1 567-1622. French Jesuit, writer and orator ; bishop of Geneva. Treatise on the Love 0/ God. Francis of Assisi, Saint. 1 182-1226. Italian founder of the Franciscan order. Francis Joseph Charles. 1830- Emperor of Austria. Francis, John Wakefield. 1789-1861. Am. physician. Francis, Sir Philip, 1 740-1 8 1 8. British statesman and writer. Believed to have been the author of the Letters of Junius. Francis Xavier, Saint. See Xavier. Franklin, Benjamin. 1706-170X). American statesman and philosopher. Born in Boston; the youngest of a family of seventeen children. His father was a tallow-chandler and soap-boiler. Learned the trade of a printer and studied diligently. Removed to Philadelphia, where he established the Pennsylvania Gazette. Began the publica- tion of Poor Richard's Almanac in 1735. Discovered the identity of lightning and electricity in 1752, by means of a kite. Franklin occupied many positions of public trust and was the recipient of many honors. He was deputy postmaster-general of the colony ; delegate to the Con- tinental Congress; minister to France, 1776-85; president of Pennsyl- vania, 1785-8 ; member of the convention of 1787. Franklin, Sir John. 1786-1847. English Arctic explorer; perished in the Arctic regions. Fredegonde. 546?~5o6. Wife of Chilperic I. of France. Frederick I. Barbarossa. 1 121-1 190. Emperor of Ger- many. Crowned by Pope Adrian IV. Reduced Milan in 1158, but was defeated by the Lombards near Legnano. Joined the third crusade in 1189 with 150,000 men, and defeated the Turks at Iconium. Died in the Holy Land. II., 1194-1250. Opposed by the Guelphs and the pope in his project to unite Italy and Germany in one empire. Began a crusade against the Moslems in 1227, but turned back, and was excom- municated by Pope Gregory IX. Resumed the crusade in 1228, cap- tured Jerusalem and made peace with the pope. Defeated the Guelphs at Cortenuova, 1237, and renewed war with the pope. Frederick William. The Great Elector. 1620-1688. Elector of Brandenburg ; founder of the Prussian monarchy. Frederick I. 1657-1713. First king of Prussia. II. (Fred- erick the Great), 1712-1788. Subjected to inhuman treatment in youth by his father, he gave but little promise of his future greatness. As- cended the Prussian throne in 1740, and invaded Silesia, which was ceded to him by Maria Theresa in 174a. An alliance having been formed against him by Austria, Russia and France, he began the Seven Years' War in 1756 by invading Saxony. Gained a great victory at Prague in 1757, but was defeated at Kolin soon afterward. His affairs were now in a desperate condition, but in the same year he defeated a French army twice as large as his own at Ross bach, and won a brilliant and decisive victory over the Austrians at Lcuthen. In 1759 he was de- feated at Kunnersdorf, and Berlin was captured by the allies, but in 1760 he gained the victories of Licgnitz and Torgau, and peace was made in 1763, Prussian Poland being added to Frederick's dominions. Besides being a great general and monarch, Frederick was a voluminous writer. Frederick William I. 1688-1740. King of Prussia. Father of Frederick the Great. II., 1744-1797* III., 1770-1840; founded the Zollverein. IV., 1795-1861. Frederick III Frederick William;. 1831-1888. King of Prussia and emperor of Germany. Frederick VI. 1768-1839. King of Denmark. VII., 1808-1863. Freeman, Edward Augustus. i823- # »«« English historian. The Norman Conquest ; Historical Essays ; History 0/ Federal Government. Freiligrath, Ferdinand. 1810-1876. German lyric poet Frelinghuysen, Theodore. 1787-1862. Am. statesman. Frelinghuysen, Frederick Theodore. 1817-188$. Nephew of preceding. American statesman. Fremont, John Charles. 1813-1890. American politician, explorer and general. Republican candidate for the presidency in 1856. Freycinet, Charles Louis de. 1828- French *■■ BULB, Froebel, Frederick. 1782-1852. German educator ; founder of the "Kindergarten." Froila I. 722-768. King of Spain. Froissart, Jean. 1337-1410? French historian. Chronicles. Froude, James Anthony. 1818-. . . . English historian. Short Studies on Great Subjects ; Histor? of Henry VHl. Fry, Elizabeth (nit Gurney). 1780-1845. Eng. philanthropist. Fuller, Melville W. 1833-. . . . Chief justice of th,- t . > Fuller, Sarah Margaret, Countess d'Ossoli. 1810-1S50. Am. authoress. Fulton, Robert. 1 765-181 5. American engineer and inven* tor of the steamboat. Born in Pennsylvania. After spending some years in London as an artist, he turned his attention to civil engineering and inland navigation. In 1 796 he published a treatise on Canal Navigation. Went to Paris, and there invented a submarine torpedo. He returned to New York in 1801 and, with the assistance of Robert Livingston, dis- covered steam navigation. In 1806 he built the steamer Clermont, which made regular trips between Albany and New York at a speed of five miles an hour. Although he spent a large amount of money on his inven- tion, the patent did not prove of pecuniary value to him. Fuseli, John H. 1 742-1825. Swiss historical painter. y^ADSDEN, Christopher. 1724-1805. American states- V3£ man. Gadsden, James. 1 788-1858. American statesman. (The Gadsden purchase.) Gage, Thomas. I720?-I787. British general in America. Gaines, Edmund Pendleton. 1777-1849. American general. Gaines, Myra Clark. 1805-1885. Wife of E. P. G. American heiress. Gainsborough, Thomas. 1 727-1 788. English painter. Galba, Servius Sulpicius. B.c 4?-A.D. 69. Roman emperor. Galen. 131-205? Greek physician, medical writer and phil- osopher, living at Rome. De Locis AJfectis. Galerius, Caius Valerius Maximianus -31:. Roman emperor. Galilei, Galileo. Galileo. 1 564-1642. Italian astronomer. Discovered, about 1584, the isochronisvn of the vibrations of a pendulum, and the law by which the velocity of falling bodies Is accelerated. Adopted tn astronomy the system of Copernicus, and constructed his wonderful telescope in 1609. Through it he discovered the satellites of Jupiter, and was enabled to explore the surface of the moon and view the phases of Venus. He also ascertained that the "milky way" was composed of myriads of stars. In 1631 he produced his THatafues am the Ptolemaic and Cepernuan Systems, but was c o m p el led by the A. ~A A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 220 Inquisition to abjure the theory of the motion of the earth. He was detained in prison for several years, but it does not seem that he was severely treated, as he was allowed to pursue his studies until prevented by blindness. Gall, Franz Joseph. 1758-1828. German physician ; founder of phrenology. Gallatin, Albert. 1 761-1849. American statesman; native of Switzerland. Secretary of the treasury, 1801-13. Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins. 1787-1851. American clergy. man and instructor of deaf-mutes. Gallienus, Publius Licinius Valerius. 233?-268. Roman emperor. Gallitsin, or Galitzin. An illustrious family of Russian princes. Gait, John. 1779-1839. Scottish novelist. Galvani, Aloisio. 1 737-1 789. Italian discoverer of galvanism. Gama, Vasco da. I45o?-I524. Portuguese navigator. Gambetta, Leon. 1838-1882. French radical orator and statesman. Gambier, James, Baron. 1756-1833. British admiral. Garcilaso de la Vega. 1503-1536. Spanish poet. Gardiner, Stephen. 1483-1555. Eng. prelate and statesman. Garfield, James Abram. 1831-1881. Twentieth president of the United States. Born in Ohio; worked on a farm in boyhood, and learned the trade of a carpenter ; afterward became driver and helms- man of a canal-boat ; graduated at Williams College in 1856 ; appointed professor of Latin and Greek at Hiram College, Ohio, and chosen president of that institution in 1858. About this time he married Miss Lucretia Randolph, and occasionally acted as a Campbellite minister. Elected to the state senate in 1859, and in 1861 was chosen colonel of an Ohio regiment ; promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. Elected to Congress in 1862, and remained in that body until 1880, when he was made senator. Nominated for the presidency by the Republican party in 1880, and elected the following November. Shot by Charles J. Guiteau, in Washington, July 2, 1881, and died on September 19 of same year. Garibaldi, Giuseppe. 1 807- 1 882. Italian patriot and general. Garrick, David. 1716-1779. English actor. Garrison, William Lloyd. 1804-1879. Am. abolitionist. Garth, Sir Samuel. 1672 7-1719. Eng. physician and poet. Gascoigne, George. 1535—1537. English poet. Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn. 1810-1865. English authoress. Gassendi, Pierre. 1592-1655. French savant. Gates, Horatio. 1728-1806. American Revolutionary general ; bom in England. Captured Burgoyne's army at Saratoga. Gatling, Richard Jordan. 1818- American inventor. Gauss, Carl Friedrich. 1777—1855. German mathematician. Gautama Booddha. 624-543 ? B.C. Hindoo reformer, and founder of Buddhism. See Buddha. Gautier, Theophile. 1811-1872. French poet and novelist. Gaveston, Piers de -1312. Favorite of Edward II. of England ; executed by the nobles. Gay, John. 1688-1732. English poet. Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis. 1778-1850. French chemist and natural philosopher ; discovered cyanogen. Gellert, Christian Furchtegott. 1715-1769. German poet. Genevieve, Saint. 422?~5I2. French religious, said to have converted Clovis to Christianity. Patron of Paris. Genghis Khan. 1 163-1227. Mogul conqueror; subdued China and Persia. Genseric. 4o6?-477. King of the Vandals. Invaded Africa, 429 ; defeated the Romans in numerous battles ; captured Carthage, 439 ; captured and sacked Rome, 455 ; defeated the navy of the Emper- or Marjorian in 457. Geoffrey of Monmouth. I too?- 1154. Eng. chronicler. George I. (Lewis.) 1660-1727. King of Great Britain. II. (Augustus), 1683-1760. Defeated the French at Dettingen in X743. Charles Edward Stuart was defeated at Culloden, 1746, by the Duke of Cumberland, and the latter part of the reign of George II. was marked by victories over the French in Canada, in India, and on the ocean. III. (William Frederick), 1738-1820. Arbitrary and ignorant, and through his obstinacy lost the American colonies. Became insane in 1810. IV. (Augustus Frederick), 1762-1830. *' The First Gentleman of Europe." Led a dissipated life and incurred an immense debt. Married, in 5786, Mrs. Fitzherbert. She being a Roman Catholic, the marriage was ille- gal. As his father refused to pay his debts unless he contracted a regu- lar marriage, he was induced, in 1795, to marry his cousin, whom he regarded with great dislike, a separation being the result. Became regent 1811. Took little interest in public afTVirs. One year before his death, an act was passed relieving Roman Catholics from political dis- abilities. George, Saint. Fl. 3d century. Bishop of Alexandria. Patron saint of England. To him is attributed the destruction of a terrible dragon. Gerard-Thorn, or Tenque. 1040 ?-l 121. Founder of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. Germanicus, Csesar. B.C. 14-A.D. 19. Roman general. Gerome, Jean Leon. 1824-. Fr. painter. Gerry, Elbridge. 1744-1 8 12. Am. Revolutionary statesman; signer of the Declaration of Independence. Governor of Massachusetts, 1810; vice-president, 1812. Gessler -'3 7- Austrian bailiff killed by Tell. Gesner, Conrad. 1 5 16-1565. Swiss naturalist. Ghiberti, Lorenzo. 1378-1455. Florentine sculptor. Gibbon, Edward. 1737-1794. English historian. Educated at Oxford. The first volume of his great work, History 0/ the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire t appeared in 1776; the next two in 1781, and in 1783 he retired to Lausanne, in Switzerland, where he com- pleted the last three volumes, which appeared in 1788. Gibbon has been justly criticised for the antagonism to the Christian faith shown in this work. Gibson, John. 1791-1866. English sculptor. Giddings, Joshua Reed. 1795-1864. Am. abolitionist. Gifford, Sanford Robinson. 1823-1880. American painter. Gifford, William. 1757-1826. English writer and critic; founder of the Quarterly Review. Studied at Oxford, after serving five years as a shoemaker's apprentice. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey. 1539-1583. English navigator. Gilbert, Sir John. 1817- English artist. Gilbert, William Schwenck. 1836-.... English humorous author and librettist. Bab Ballads ; Pygmalion and Galatea ; Pina- fore ; Patience; Pirates 0/ Penzance ; lolantke : Princess Ida, etc. Giles, Wm. Branch. 1762-1830. American statesman. Gilray, James. 1785—1815. English caricaturist. Girard, Stephen. 1750-1831. American merchant and banker, born in France. Founded Girard College. Girardin, Emile de. 1806-1881. French journalist. Giulio Romano. 1492-1546. Italian painter and architect. Gladstone, William Ewart. 1809- English premier. Glauber, Johann Rudolph. 1604-1668. German chemist. Glendower, Owen. 1349?-I4I5. Welsh chieftain. Gluck, Christoph Wilibald von. 1 7 14-1787. Ger. composer. Gobelin, Gilles and Jean. Fl. 1450. French dyers. Godfrey of Bouillon. io58?-iioo. Leader of first crusade. Godiva. Lady Godiva. Fl. I Ith century. English heroine wife of Leofric, Earl of Leicester. V- A pr ~X 230 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. Godman, John D. 1794-1830. Am. physician and naturalist. Godunoff, Boris Fedorovitch. 1552-1605. Czar of Russia. Godwin, William. 1 756-1 836. Eng. novelist. Caleb Williams. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. 1749-1832. German poet and author, dramatist, scientist and statesman. Faust: Wilhelm Mtisttr ; Fgmont : Sorrows of Werther ; Iphigenia in Tauris; West-Eastern Divan. Goffe, William. 1605 ?-l670. Eng. Puritan and regicide. Goldsborough, Lewis M. 1805-1876. Am. rear-admiral. Goldsmith, Oliver. 1728-1774. Irish poet and miscellaneous writer. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterward studied medicine. Squandered in dissipation a large portion of the funds fur- nished for his education. In London, he became the intimate friend of Dr. Johnson. His Vicar 0/ Wakefield was written while he was under arrest for debt. The Traveller ; The Deserted Village ; She Stoops to Conquer. Gomez, Sebastiano. 1616-1690. Spanish painter. A slave of Murillo, who liberated him and took him into his studio. Gonsalvo de Cordova, Hernandez. The Great Captain. I443?-I5i5. Spanish commander. Goodrich, Samuel Griswold. Peter Parley. 1793-1860. American author. Goodyear, Charles. 1800-1860. American inventor. (Vul- canized india-rubber.) Gordon, George, Lord. 1750-1793. English agitator. Gorgey, Arthur. 1818-.... Hungarian general. Gore, Catherine Grace. 1799-1861. English novelist. Gortschakoff, Alexander Michaelovitch, Prince. 1798-1883. Russian statesman and diplomatist. Gottschalk, Louis Moreau. 1829-1869. Am composer. Gough, John B. 1 822-1886. American temperance lecturer, born in England. Gould, Augustus Addison. 1805-1866. American naturalist. Gould, Hannah Flagg. 1789-1865. American poetess. Gould, Jay. 1836-.... American railway financier. Gounod, Charles Francois. 1818-.... French composer. Faust; La Heine d* Saba : Romeo and Juliet. Gower, John. I320?-I402. English poet. Gracchus, Caius Sempronius. 159-126B.C. Rom. statesman. Graham, John, Viscount Dundee. Claverhouse. 1650?- 1689. Scottish officer, noted for merciless severity toward the Cov- enanters. Graham, Sylvester. 1794-1851. American vegetarian. Granger, Gideon. 1767-1822. American statesman. Grant, James. 1822-1887. Scottish novelist. Grant, Ulysses Simpson. 1822-1885. Eighteenth presi- dent of the United States. Born in Ohio; graduated at West Point, 1843; served in Mexico; became a captain in 1853. Resigned in 1854, and after passing some time in St. Louis, removed to Galena, 111., in 1859, and engaged *n business. In 1861 he was made aide-de-camp to the governor of Illinois, but soon after was chosen colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois Volunteers, and in July of same year was made brigadier-general. His war record is history. Made commander-in- chief of the Union armies in March, 1864. Elected to the presidency in 1868, and again in 1872, and after the expiration of his second term he travelled extensively in Europe and Asia, Granville, Granville Geo, Earl. 1815-1891. English statesman. Grattan, Henry. 1746-1820. Irish orator and statesman. Gray, Asa. 1810-18S8. American botanist. Gray, Thomas. 1716-1771. English poet. Declined the position of poet-laureate. Elegy. Greeley, Horace. 181 1-1872. American journalist. Born in New Hampshire ; learned the printer's trade, and worked as a journey- man printer in New York for one year. Founded the Mrui Y'ork Trib- une in 1841. A staunch Whig and Republican, he favored Fremont for the presidency in 1856, and Lincoln in i860. Accepted the Democratic nomination in 1872, but was defeated at the election by Grant. Green, John Richard. 1874-1883. English historian. SJurt History of the English People. Green, Seth. 1817-1888. American pisciculturist. Greene, Nathaniel. 1742-1786. Am. Revolutionary general. Greenleaf, Benjamin. 1786-1864. American mathematician. Greenleaf, Simon. 1783-1853. American jurist. Greenough, Horatio. 1805-1852. American sculptor. Gregory I. (Saint.) The Great. 540-604. Pope, ascending the pontifical chair in 590. II., ruled 715-731. III., 731-741. IV., 827-844. V., 997-999 VI. 1044-1047. VII. (St. Hildebrand), 1073- 1085; excommunicated Henry IV. VIII., 1187; died same year XI., 1227-1241; excommunicated Frederick II. X., 1271-1276. XI., 1370- 1378 ; condemned the doctrines of Wycliffe. XII., 1406-1409, when be and the anti-pope, Benedict XIII., were deposed by the council of Pisa; died 1417. XIII., 1572-1585; reformed the Julian calendar. XIV., 1590-1591; excommunicated Henry IV. of France. XV., 1621-1623. founded the Propaganda. XVI., 1831-1846; succeeded by Pius IX. Gregory of Nyssa, Saint. 332-394. Greek father of the church. Gregory of Tours, Saint. 540-595. French prelate and historian. Gregory, James. 1638-1674. Greek geometer. Gregory Nazianzen, Saint. 326?-389. Bishop of Constanti- nople. Grenville, George. 1712-1770. Eng. statesman. (Stamp act.) Grevy, Francois Paul Jules. 1807-1891. Fr. president. Grey, Henry, Earl. 1802-. . . . English statesman. Grey, Lady Jane. 1537-1554- Gifted English lady ; executed. Grimm, Fricdrich Melchior, Baron. 1723-1807. Ger. writer. Grimm, Jakob Ludwig (1785- 1 863), and Wilhelm Karl (1786- 1859) German philologists ; brothers. Grisi, Giulia. 1812-1869. Italian singer. Griswold, Rufus Wilmot. 1815-1857. American author. Grotius (De Groot), Hugo. 1583-1645. Dutch jurist and theologian. Grouchy, Emmanuel de, Marquis. 1766-1847. Fr general. Guarneri, Giuseppe A. 1683-1745. Italian violin-maker. Guatemozin. 1497-1525. Last Aztec emperor of Mexico. Guelph (or Welf). Noble German family, originally Italian. Guiccioli, Teresa Gamba, Countess. 1801-1873. Friend of Byron. Guido Reni. 1575-1645. Italian painter. Guillotin, Joseph Ignace. 1738-1814. French physician; advocate of the guillotine. Guiscard, Robert. 101 5-1085. Norman commander. Guise, Charles de. 1525-1574. Cardinal of Lorraine. Guise, Claude de Lorraine de, Duke. 1496-1550. French general and statesman. Guise, Francois de Lorraine de, Duke. 1519-1563. Guise, Henry I. of Lorraine de, Duke. 1550-1588. Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume. 1787-1874. French statesman and historian. Gustavus I. ((iustavus Vasa.) 1496-1559. King of Sweden. II. (Gustavus Adolphus), 1594-1632. Defeated the Polish and Russian armies invading Sweden. Became the head of the Protestant league in 4^ ■Tf »£- A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 231 Germany and defeated Tilly at Leipsic in 1631, and on the banks of the Lech in 1632. At the great battle of Liitzen, Wallenstein now com- manding the imperial army, Gustavus was killed, but his troops nevertheless gained a complete victory.' III., 1746-1792 ; assassinated. IV., 1778-1837 ; ascended the throne in 1792, but was deposed in 1809. Gutenberg, Johann. (Gansfleisch.) 1400-1468. German inventor of printing. Guzman, Alfonso Perez de. 1258-1309. Spanish commander. HACKLANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm von. 1816-1878. German novelist. Military Life in Time of War. Hadrian (or Adrian). 76-138. Roman emperor. Hafiz, Mohammed Sherns ed-Deen. I300?-I390? Persian poet. Divan. Hagedorn, Friedrich von. 1 708-1 754. German poet. Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich. 1755-1843. Ger- man physician and founder of homoeopathy. Hale, Edward Everett. 1822-.... Am. clergyman and author. Hale, Sir Matthew. 1609-1676. English jurist. Hale, Nathan, Captain. 1755-1776- American patriot. Halevy, Jacques F. F. E. 1 799-1 862. French composer. Haliburton, Thomas Chandler. Sam Slick. i8o2?-i865. Nova Scotian jurist and humorous writer. Halifax, Charles Montague, Earl of. 1661—1715. English statesman. Halifax, George Saville, Marquis of. 1630-1695. Hall, Charles Francis. 1821-1871. Am. Arctic explorer. Hall, Tames. 1811-.. . American author and judge. Hall, Mrs. S. C. (Anna Maria Fielding.) 1800-1881. Irish authoress. Sketches 0/ Irish Character ; The Outlaw, etc. Hallam, Arthur Henry. 1811-1833. Engiish critic and essayist. Hallam, Henry. 1777-1859. Father of preceding. English historian and critic. Halleck, Fitz-Greene. 1790-1867. American poet. Marco Bozzaris ; Fanny. Halleck, Henry Wager. 1714-1872. American general and lawyer. Halley, Edmund. 1656-1742. English astronomer. Hamilcar Barca -229 B.C. Carthaginian general; father of Hannibal. Hamilton, Alexander. 1757-1804. American orator, states- man, financier and general. Born in the West Indies. Secretary and aide- de-camp to Washington in Revolutionary war ; chosen to the Conti- nental Congress in 1782, but resigned in order to practice law ; leading member of the convention of 1787; secretary of the treasury, 1789-95 ; became recognized leader of the Federal party. Hamilton died from a wound received in a duel with Aaron Burr, and his death was deeply deplored. Hamilton, Sir William. 1788-1856. Scottish metaphysician. Hamilton, Sir William Rowan. 1805-1865. Irish astronomer. Hamlin, Hannibal. 1809-1891. American statesman. Hampden, John. 1594-1643. English statesman and re- former. Entered Parliament in 1620. Denied the authority of the crown to levy tonnage without the consent of Parliament, and refused to con- tribute to the forced loan ordered by King Charles, for which he was imprisoned. Regaining his liberty and re-entering Parliament, he ably and firmly resisted the arbitrary measures of the crown. Intending, with his cousin, OliverCromwell, to emigrate in 1638, they were detained by order of council. In 1640 he was leader of the opposition in the Long Parliament, and the most popular public man in England. Impeached for high treason in 1642, together with four other members, the Commons refused to surrender them, the king himself going so far as to personally lead his guard in an attempt to arrest them in their seats. This caused the greatest excitement and indignation, so that the Commons were soon enabled openly to defy the regal authority. Hampden afterward raised a regiment for the Parliamentary army, and, after displaying great courage in numerous engagements, was slain in a skirmish with Prince Rupert's forces. Hampton, Wade. 1755-1835. American general. Hampton, Wade. 1818- Confederate general. Elected governor of South Carolina in 1876, and U. S. senator in 1878. Hancock, John. 1 737-1 793. American statesman; presi- dent of the Continental Congress. Hancock, Winfield Scott. 1824-1886. American general; second in command at Gettysburg. Democratic candidate for president in 1S80. Handel, George Frederick. 1684-1759. German composer. Composed sonatas at 10 ; produced Almeria at 18 ; settled in England in 1712, after spending some years in Italy, and became chapel-master of George I. The oratorio of Saul was produced 1740, and his greatest work, The Messiah, the greatest of oratorios, in 1741. Handel was stricken with blindness in 1751, but continued to conduct his oratorios. Buried in Westminster Abbey. Hannibal. 247-183 B.C. Carthaginian general. Sworn by his father, Hamilcar Barca, to eternal enmity toward Rome ; became commander of the Carthaginian forces, 221 B.C.; subdued several power- ful Spanish tribes, and in 219 captured Saguntum ; crossed the Alps, 218 ; defeated the Romans near the Ticinus and on the banks of the Trebia; routed Flaminius at Lake Thrasymene, 217 ; almost destroyed a supe- rior Roman army near Cannae, 216 ; captured Capua. Recalled to Carthage to repel a Roman invasion under Scipio Africanus, he was defeated at Zama in 202. Banished from Carthage about 194, through the enmity of the aristocracy. Finally ended his life by taking poison, to escape falling into the hands of the Romans. Hans Sachs. 1494-1576. German poet and shoemaker. Hardee, William J. 1818-1873. Confederate general. Hardenberg, Friedrich von. See Ncwalis. Hardicanute. ioi7?-io42. King of England and Denmark. Hardinge, Henry, Viscount. 1785-1856. English general. Hardwicke, Philip Yorke, Earl of. 1690-1764. Eng. jurist. Hardy, Thomas. 1840-.... English novelist. Far from the Madding Crowd; Under ike Green-wood Tree. Harley, Robert, Earl of Oxford. 1661-1724. Eng. statesman. Harney, William Selby. 1798^1889. American general. Harold I. Harefoot. -1041 King of England. II. . . . .-1066 Defeated by William the Conqueror, i»rd slain. Haroun-al-Raschid. 766? -809. Caliph of Bagdad. Harrison, William Henry. 1773-1841. American general and ninth president. Harrison, Benjamin. 1833-. . . . Born at North Bend, O. Graduated from college at 1 8; studied law and began practice at Indianapolis in 1854 ; elected reporter of the supreme court in i860. This office he abandoned in 1862, to aid the cause of the Union, and rose to the rank of Brigadier-General. Elected U. S. Senator, 1881, and President, 1888. Harte, Francis Bret. 1839-.... American writer and humorist. Born in New York ; removed to California at 15, where he was successively miner, school-teacher and editor. Removed to Boston, and was appointed in 1878 consul to a German port. Heathen Chinee ; Luck 0/ Roaring Castp, etc. Harvard, John. i6o8?-i688. Founder of Harvard College. Harvey, William. 1578— 1657. English physician and anato- mist. Discovered the circulation of the blood. Hasdrubal -207 B.C. Punic general ; brother of Han- nibal. Defeated the Scipios in Spain ; slain at the Metaurus. 4fe & K 232 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 4* Hastings, Warren. 1732-1818. British general and states- man; president of the Council of Bengal, and governor-general of India. Defeated Hyder Ali, king of Mysore. After perpetrating great outrages against the Rajah of Benares and the Begums of Oude, In order to replenish the treasury, he resigned in 1775 and returned to England. Impeached soon afterward, and opposed in his trial by Burke, Sheridan and Fox, but acquitted. Havelock, Sir Henry. 1795-1857. British general. De- feated the Sepoys in India, and relieved Lucknow. Hawke, Edward, Lord. 1715-1781. English admiral. Hawkins, Sir John. I520-»I595. English naval officer. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. 1804-1864. American author. Twice-told Tales; Mosses from an Old Manse: House 0/ Seven Ga- bles; Scarlet Letter; The Marble Faun ; The Blithtdate Romance. Haydn, Joseph. 1732-1809. German musical composer. Born of extremely poor parents; served some years as a chorister in Vienna; appointed in 1760 chapel-master to Prince Esterhazy, who *>ecame his patron ; visited London 1 791, where six of his symphonies were received with great enthusiasm. His masterpiece, the oratorio of The Creation, was produced in 1798. Haydon, Benjamin Robert. 1786-1848. English painter. Hayes, Isaac Israel. 1832-1881. American Arctic explorer. Hayes, Rutherford Birchard. 1822-.... Nineteenth presi- dent of the United States. Born in Connecticut; admitted to the bar, 1845; brigadier-general in civil war ; Congress, 1865-8; governor of Ohio, 1868-76. Republican candidate for the presidency in 1876; inaugurated president in 1877, the electoral commission to determine the result of the election of 1876 having decided, by a vote of eight to seven, that Hayes had received 185 electoral votes as against 184 for Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic candidate. Hayne, Robert Young. 1791-1840. American orator and statesman; opponent of Webster in discussing the constitution; gov- ernor of South Carolina. Heath, William. 1737-1814. Am. Revolutionary general. Heber, Reginald. 1783-1826. English prelate and author; bishop of Calcutta. Hymns ; Journey through India. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1770-1831. German philosopher, metaphysician and pantheist. His system of philosophy is developed in the Encyclopedia of thg Philosophical Sciences, Heine, Heinrich. 1799-1856. German lyric poet and author. Heloise. 1 101-1 164. French nun ; pupil and friend of Abelard. Helps, Sir Arthur. 1817-1875. English author. Helvetius, Claude Adrian. 1715-1771. Fr. philosopher. Hemans, Felicia Dorothea (tike Browne). 1794-1835. Eng- lish poetess. Published her first volume of poems in «8o8, and in 1813 married Capt. Hemans, but separated from him In 1818, she retaining all their children. Restoration of the Works of Art to Italy. Hendricks, Thomas Andrews. 1819-1886. Am. statesman. Hengist -488. Jutish chief ; founded kingdom of Kent. Hennepin, Louis. 1640-1702? French Catholic missionary and explorer of the Mississippi. Henrietta Maria. 1609-1669. Queen of England. Henry I. Beauelere. 1068-1135. King of England. Defeated hi* brother Robert and usurped the throne. II., 1:33-1189; first of the Plantagenets ; issued constitutions of Clarendon, which were, however, repealed about ten years later; conquered Ireland. During his reign Thomas a Hecket was killed. III. {of Winchester), 1207-1373 ; warred with the barons. IV., Bolingbroke f 1366-1413 ; first king of the house of Lancaster. V. {of Monmouth), 1388-1432; conquered France. VI. {of Windsor),i 421-1 471 ; his reign was made memorable by the war of the Roses. VII., 1456-1509 ; founded the Tudor dynasty. VIII., 1 491-1547 ; defeated the French at Guinegastc and the Scotch at Flodden, 1513; made 'lhomu Wolaey prime minister ; applied unsuccessfully to the pope for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, his wife ; favored the Reformation ; deposed Wolsey and elevated Thomas Cranmer ; had himself declared head of the church ; married Anne lioleyn after the convocations of York and Canterbury had declared bis marriage with Catherine invalid ; declared the English Church independent of the papal see and abolished the monasteries ; had Anne Boleyn executed in 1536, and married Jane Seymour the day after the execution ; excommunicated by the pope, 1538 ; his third wife having died in 1537, he married Anne of Cleves in 1540; was divorced from her the same year and married Catherine Howard, who was executed on a charge of adultery in 154a; married Catherine Parr in 1543, she surviving him. Henry I. ioo5?-io6o. King of France. II., 1518-1559; married Catherine de' Medici. III., Henri de I atois, 1551-1589; tMt of the Valois. IV., Le Grand, 1553-1610; king «f Navarre ; first of the Bourbons ; assassinated. Henry I. The Fowler. 876-936. Emperor of Germany. Defeated the Hungarians. II. (Saint), 972-1034. III., The Black, at The Bearded, 1017-1056. IV., 1050-1106 ; excommunicated by Gregory VII. V., 1081-1125; last of the Salic line. VI., 1165-1107. VIL, 1262-1313. Henry, Patrick. 1 736-1799. American patriot and orator. Member of the Continental Congress ; governor of Virginia. Heraclitus. Fl. 500 B.C. Greek philosopher. Herbert, George. 1593-1632. British poet and divine. Herder, Johann Gottfried von. 1 744-1803. German author. Hermann !or Arminius). B.C. 16- A.D. 21. German hero. Defeated the Romans a.d 9, near the Lippe. Herod. The Great. B.C. 73 -a.d. I. King of Judea. Herodotus. 484?-4o8? B.C. Greek historian. Herrick, Robert. 1591-1674. English divine and poet Hespe rides, or Poems Human and Dhnne. Herschel, Sir John Frederick William. 1790-1871. English astronomer and philosopher. Herschel, Sir William. 1738-1822. Father of preceding. German astronomer. Bom in Hanover, but removed to England at ai ; discovered Uranus. Hesiod. Fl. 800 B.C. Greek poet. Works and Days, Hezekiah. 750-698 B.C. King of Judah. Hicks, Elias. 1 748-1830. American Quaker preacher. Hildreth, PJchard. 1807-1865. Am. journalist and historian. Hill, Sir Rowland. 1795-1879. Author of the English penny post system. Hipparchus. Fl. 150 B.C. Bithynian astronomer. Hippocrates. The Father of Afedicine. 460-360? B.C. Greek physid.m. Hoar, George Frisbie. 1826-. . . . Am. lawyer and statesman. Hobart, Augustus Charles. Hobart Pasha, 1822-1886. Turkish naval commander, bom in England. Hobbes, Thomas. 1 588-1 679. English philosopher. Hoche, Lazare. 176&-1797. French general. Hoe, Richard March. 1812-18B7. American inventor of print- ing presses. Hofer, Andreas. 1767-1810. Tyrolcse patriot; executed. Hoffman, Charles Fenno. 1806-1884. American author. Hogarth, William. 1697-1764. Bag. painter and engraver. Hogg, James. Tht Ettrick Shepherd. 1772-1835. Scottish poet. Hohenlohe. Hohenstaufen, Hohenzollern. Princely families Of (i( 1 Holbein, Hans. The Younger. 1497-1554. German painter. The Dance of Death ; Lesst Supper, etc. Holland, Josiah Gilbert. 1819-1881. American author. Timothy Titctmb's Letters ; The Bay Pmtk, etc. k= 747->79»- Leopold I. 1790-1865. King of Belgium. II., 1835- Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastian. 1825- President of Mexico. Le Sage, Alain Rene. 1668-1747. Fr. novelist. Gil Bias. Leslie, Alexander, Earl of Leven -1661. Scot, general. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, Viscount. 1805- French en- gineer and diplomatist. Planned the Suez canal, and the inter-oceanic canal across Panama. Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. 1 729-1 781. German author. Leutze, Emanuel. 1816-1808. German historical painter. Lever, Charles James. 1806-1872. Irish novelist. Charles CrMalley; Tom Burke of Ourt : Harry Lorrequer. Leverrier, Urbain J. J. 1811-1877. French astronomer. Lewes, George Henry. 1817-1878. English author; hus- band of " George Eliot." Biographical History 0/ Philosophy. Lewis, Matthew Gregory. 1775-1818. English novelist. Lewis, Meriwether. 1774-1809. American explorer. Leyden, Lucas van. 1494-1533. Dutch painter. Lieber, Francis. 1800-1872. German historical writer. Liebig, Justus von, Baron. 1803-1873. German chemist. Lincoln, Abraham. 1809-1865. Sixteenth president of the United States. Born in Kentucky ; removed to Indiana when eight years old ; captain in the Black Hawk war, 1833 ; elected to the Illinois legis- lature, 1834 ; admitted to the bar, 1836, and removed to Springfield, 111.: elected to Congress in 1846; Republican candidate for U. S. senator in 1854, his opponent being Stephen A. Douglas ; nominated for the presi- dency and elected, i860; re-elected 1864, but assassinated April 14, 1865, by John Wilkes Booth. His death was universally deplored, for his wist administration of affairs during the civil war had won for him the regard of both factions of the bloody controversy. Lilinokalani. 1838-.... Queen of Hawaii. Lind, Jenny. (Mrs. Goldschmidt.) 1821-1887. Swedish vocalist Linnaeus, Charles. 1 707-1 778. Swedish botanist. Lippi, Filippo. 1412-1469. Italian painter. Liszt, Franz, Abbe. 1811-^885. Hungarian piani-t. Littleton (or Lyttleton), Sir Thomas. I420?-I48l. English jurist. Tenures. % Liverpool, Robert B. J., Earl of. 1770-1828. Eng. statesman. Livingston, Edward. 1764-1836. American jurist. Livingstone, David. 1817-1873. Scottish explorer in Africa. Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi. Livy. (Titus Livius.) 59 B.C. - 1 7 A.D. Roman historian. Locke, John. 1632-1704. English philosopher. Essay en the Human Understanding. Lockhart, John Gibson. 1 794-1854. Scottish author. Logan. Tah-gah-jute. 17257-1780. American Indian chief. Logan, Benjamin. I742?-i862. Kentucky pioneer. Logan, John Alexander. 1826-1887. American general and statesman. Lola Montez. 1820-1861. Creole ballet dancer. Long, Roger. l68o?-l770. English astronomer. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. 1 807- 1 882. American poet. Born in Portland, Me. ; graduated in 1835 at Bowdoin College, at which Institution he took the chair of modem languages after travelling four years In Europe ; held the same position at Harvard 1836-54. Hyperion; Voices of the Night: The Spanish Student: Evangeline: Song ef Hiawatha: Miles Standish ; Tales of a II ayside Inn, etc. Longinus. 11. 3d century. Greek philosopher. Longstreet, James. 1821- Confederate general. Lome, John George Edward Henry Sutherland Campbell, Marquis of. 1845- En(r. author. G01 .-. Conquered the Saracens in the great battle of Tours, or Poitiers, 732. Martineau, Harriet. 1802-1876. English writer. Marx, Karl. 1818-1883. German socialist. Mary I. Bloody Mary. 1516-1558. Queen of England. Married Philip II. of Spain; persecuted the Protestants. II., 1661- 1694; wife of William III. Mary Stuart. 1542-1587. Queen of Scots. Daughter of James V. and Mary of Guise ; educated ia France, where she was mar- ried to the Dauphin in 1 558, who the following year ascended the French throne as Francis II., but died childless, 1560 ; invited to the throne at Scotland, and married her cousin. Lord Daraley; suppressed, 1565, a revolt of the Protestants instigated by Queen Elizabeth ; joined, 1566, a league to extirpate heresy, and, wearying of the arrogance and disso- luteness of Lord Damley, bestowed her confidence on David Rizzio, an Italian musician, whose murder was instigated the same year by Mary's jealous husband. Lord Damley himself was killed in 1567, and Queen Mary married the Earl of Bothwell the same year. Public sentiment in Scotland against her became so intense that she was compelled to take refuge in England, where she was finally beheaded on an improves charge of conspiracy. Masaniello. 1620-1647. Neapolitan insurgent leader. Mason, James M. 1797-1871. American statesman. Massasoit. I58o?-i66i. Sachem of the Wa.5». V., 1605-1621. Paul I. 1 754-1801. Emperor of Russia ; assassinated. Paul Veronese. (Paolo Cagliari.) 15307-1588. It. painter. Pausanias. Fl. 479 B.C. Spartan general. Paxton, Sir Joseph. 1 803-1 865. English architect. Payne, John Howard. 1792-1852. American dramatist and poet. Home, Sweet Home. Peabody, George. 1795-1869. American philanthropist Acquired great wealth as a banker in London ; expended over five millions in benevolent enterprises. Peale, Rembrandt. 1778-1860. American painter. Pedro (de Alcantara) I. 1798-1834. Emperor of Brazil; king of Portugal as Pedro IV. IX, 1815-1891. Deposed 1889. Peel, Sir Robert Orange Peel. 1788-1850. English statesman and prime minister; repealed the Corn Laws. Peixoto, Floriano. President of Brazil. Elected 1891. Pelham, Henry. 1684-1754. English statesman. Pellegrini, Carlos. Pres. Agentine Rep. Elected 1890. Pellico, Silvio. 1789-1854. Italian poet and patriot Pemberton, John Clifford. 1814-1881. Confederate general. Penn, William. 1644-1718. English Quaker; statesman, courtier, author and philanthropist ; rounder of Pennsylvania. Son of Sir William Penn, an English admiral. Pepin. The Short. 7i4?-768. King of France. Son of Charles Martel and father of Charlemagne. Mayor of the palace under Childeric III.; usurped the throne in 75a. Pepys, Samuel. 1632-1703. English author and scholar; secretary of the admiralty. Diary ; Memories 0/ the Navy. Pepperell, Sir William. 1696-1759. Am. colonial general. Perceval, Spencer. 1762-1812. Eng. statesman ; assassinated. Percival, James Gates. 1795-1856. American poet Percy, Thomas. 1728-181 1. English prelate and author. Pereire, Emile (1800-1875) and Isaac (1806- ). French financiers. Founded the "Credit Mobilier." Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista. !7io?-i737? Italian composer. Pericles. 4957-429 B.C. Athenian orator, statesman and general. Became the leader of the democratic party and the first man in Athens; greatly increased Athenian influence; erected many noble public works, including the Parthenon. Perrault, Claude. 1613-1688. French architect. Perry, Matthew Calbraith. 1794-1858. American commodore ; commanded expedition to Japan. « Perry, Oliver Hazard. 1785-1819. American commodore; defeated the British on Lake Erie. Persius Flaccus, Aulus. 34-62. Roman satirist. Perugino, Pietro. (Vannucci.) 1446-1524. Italian painter. Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich. 1745-1827. Swiss educationist. Peter, Saint -66. Apostle. Peter I. The Great. 1672-1725. Czar of Russia. Organ- ized an army and entered it as a private ; studied practical seamanship, and formed a navy ; travelled incognito in Western Europe ; worked as a ship-carpenter in Holland : founded schools and effected a number of reforms ; defeated Charles XII. of Sweden, at Pultowa, 1709 ; founded St. Petersburg. His second wife, Catherine, was a prisoner of war, of obscure parentage. The crown prince, Alexis, opposing the czar's policy, was forced to renounce the succession and is said to have been poisoned by his father. Peter the Hermit. 1050?-! 1 15. Preacher of first crusade. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, Earl of. 1658-1735. English general ; able but eccentric Captured Barcelona and Valencia. Petion, Alexandre. 1770-1818. First president of Hayti. Petrarch. (Francesco Petrarca.) 1304-1374. Italian poet and scholar. Enamored of Laura de Sadc, whose name has been ren- dered Immortal by over three hundred sonnets and fifty ■-«»-»■» ad- dressed to her. Pettie, John. 1839- Scottish artist. \ K" A A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 243 1815-1852. American authoress. Daughter of preceding His Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart The Sunny Side. Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart. 1844-. . . American authoress. The Gates Ajar. Phidias. 490-432 B.c. The greatest of Greek sculptors. Zeus at Olympia is counted among the wonders of the world. Philidor. Assumed name of a French family (Danican) of musicians. Francois Andre Danican (1736-1795) was a celebrated chess player. Philip. (Pometacom.) King Philip -1676. New England Indian chief; sachem of Pokanoket. (King Philip's war.) Philip II. 382-336 B.C. King of Macedonia ; father of Alex- ander the. Great. Assassinated. Philip II. (Augustus.) 1 165-1223. King of France. An- nexed Normandy, Anjou and Lorraine; won the battle of Bou- vines. III., The Bold, 1245-1285; ascended the throne in 1270. IV., The Fair, 12G8-1314; reduced the power of the feudal nobles; imprisoned Pope Boniface III. and caused him to remove his seat to Avignon; suppressed the order of Knights Templars. VI. (of Valois), 1293-1350. Philip II. 1527-1598. King of Spain. Son of Charles V. Provoked insurrection in the Netherlands by his attempt to intro- duce the Spanish Inquisition; married, on the death of Mary Tudor, his second wife, Isabella of France, the betrothed of his son, Don Carlos; equipped the "Invincible Armada" for the conquest of England. III., 1578-1621. IV., 1605-1665. V., 1683-1746; first of the House of Bourbon. Philip. The Good. 1396-1467. Duke of Burgundy. Phillips, Adelaide. 1833-. . . . English-American vocalist. Phillips, Wendell. 1811-1884. American orator and abo- litionist. Speech in Faneuil Hall, 1836. Phips (or Phipps), Sir William. 1651-1695. Colonial gover- nor of Massachusetts. Captured Port Royal. Phocion. 4027-317 B.C. Athenian general and statesman. Piccolomini, Ottavio. 1599-1656. Austrian general ; con- spirator against Wallenstein. Gained great distinction in the Thirty Years' war ; led Spanish army in Flanders. Pickering, Timothy. 1745-1829. American statesman. Pierce, Franklin. 1804-1869. Fourteenth president of the United States. Born in New Hampshire ; Congress, 1832-7 ; senator, 1837-42 ; brigadier-general in Mexican war ; elected president on the Democratic ticket, in 1852, holding that office from 1853-7 ; opposed co- ercion ol the South in 1863. Pilate, Pontius -38. Roman governor of Palestine. Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth. 1746-1825. American states- man and soldier; leader of the Federalists. Pindar. 520 7-440 ? B.C. Greek lyric poet. Pinkney, William. 1764-1822. Am. lawyer and orator. Pisano, Andrea. 1270-1345. Italian sculptor and architect. Pisano, Nicola. 12007-1278? Italian sculptor. Pisistratus. 612-527 B.C. Tyrant of Athens. Pitcairn, Maj. John -1775- English officer; fell at Bunker HiU. Pitman, Benn. 1822-. . . . English phonographer. Pitman, Isaac. 1813-. . . . Eng. inventor of phonography. Pitt, William. 1 759-1 806. English statesman and orator. Son of the Earl of Chatham. Graduated at Cambridge ; admitted to thebar, 1780; entered Parliament, 1781 ; chancellor of the exchecquer, 1782 ; first lord of the treasury and prime minister, 1783 ; head of the great coalition against Bonaparte. Pius I. Pope, 142-157. II., 1458-1464. III., 1503; died same year IV. (Giovanni Angelo de'Mcdici), 1559-1565 ; convoked Council of Trent. V, 1566-1572. VI., 1775-1799. VII., 1800-1823 ; taken from Rome in 1809 by Napoleon, and detained at Genoa and Fon- tainebleau. VIII., 1839-1830. IX. fGiovanni Maria Maitai Ferretti), bom 1793 ; chosen to the pontificate, 1846 ; died, 1878. During his incumbency the dogmas' of the Immaculate Conception and of Papal In- fallibility were promulgated; temporal power overthrown, 1870, and the Papal States annexed to Italy. Pizarro, Francisco. 14757-1541? Sp. conqueror of Peru. Plantagenet. Dynasty of English kings, 1 1 54-1485. Plato. 428-347 B.C. Greek philosopher; disciple of Socrates Held that the human soul has always existed, and that an idea is an eternal thought of the divine mind. Pleasonton, Alfred. 1824- American general. Pliny. The Elder. 23-79. Roman naturalist ; perished at an eruption of Vesuvius. Natural History. Pliny. The Younger. 62?-n6. Roman orator and author. Plotinus. 205-270. Greek Neo-Platonic philosopher. Plunkett, William Conyngham, Lord. 1764-1854. Irish jurist. Plutarch. 507-120? Greek biographer and philosopher. Parallel Lives. Pocahontas. 15957-1617. Daughter of Powhatan. Saved the life of Capt. John Smith, an English explorer ; was converted to Christianity, and married an English gentleman named Rolfe. Poe, Edgar Allan. 1809-1849. American author ; extremely dissipated. The Raven ; The Fall 0/ the House 0/ Usher ; Tales 0/ the Grotesque and Arabesque . Polk, James Knox. 1795- 1849. American statesman; eleventh president. Bom in North Carolina ; removed to Tennessee ; admitted to the bar ; Congress, 1835; speaker for two terms ; governor of Tennessee, 1839-41 ; elected president en the Democratic ticket, holding that office from 1845-9. During his term Texas was formally annexed to the Union, and the Mexican war prosecuted. Polk, Leonidas. 1806-1864. Episcopal bishop and Confed- erate general ; prominent at Shiloh and Stone River. Pollok, Robert. 17987-1827. Scot. poet. Course of Time. Polo, Marco. 12527-1324? Venetian traveller. Polybius. 2067-124 B.C. Greek historian. Polycarp, Saint. 807-169? Bishop of Smyrna ; martyr. Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de. 172I- 1764. Mistress of Louis XV. of France ; assumed complete control of public affairs. Pompey. The Great. 106-48 B.C. Roman general and triumvir; conquered Suetonius and Mithridates ; became leader of the aristocracy and opponent of Caesar; defeated at Pharsalia. Ponce de Leon, Juan. 1460-1521. Spanish discoverer of Florida. Poniatowski, Jozef Antoni, Prince. 1762-1813. Polish com- mander; created field-marshal by Napoleon. Pontiac. 17127-1769. Chief of the Ottawas; formed coali- tion of Indians against the whites, and attempted to capture Detroit. Pope, Alexander. 1 688-1 744. English poet. The son of a linen-draper ; educated by a Catholic priest. Macaulay calls him " a great master of invective and sarcasm." Messiah: Pastorals ; Essay on Man ; Essay on Criticism ; The JDtmciad; Rape 0/ the Loch, and translations of Homer. Porter, David. 1780-1843. American commodore. Porter, David Dixon. 1813-1891. Son of preceding. Am- erican admiral ; reduced Fort Fisher, 1865. Porter, Fitz John. 1823-.... Nephew of David Porter. American general. Porter, Jane. 1776-1850. Eng. novelist. Thaddeus of Warsaw. Porter, Noah. 181 1-. . . . American educator. Powers, Hiram. 1805-1873. American sculptor. Powhatan. 15507-1618. Indian chieftain in Virginia. =^b ^l K 244 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. / Praxiteles. Fl. 360 B.C. Greek sculptor. Preble, Edward. 1761-1807. American naval officer. Prentice, George Denison. 1802-1870. American poet and journalist. Prentiss, Sergeant Smith. 1808-1850. American orator and lawyer. Prescott, William Hickling. 1796-1859. American historian. Ferdinand and Isabella. Price, Sterling 1867. Confederate general. Prim, Juan, Count de Reus and Marquis de los Castillejos. 1814-1870. Spanish general and statesman : assassinated. Prior, Matthew. 1664-1721. English poet and diplomatist. Probus, Marcus Aurelius. 232—282. Roman emperor. Procter, Adelaide Anne. 1825- 1864. English poetess. Procter, Bryan Waller. Barry Cornwall. 1790-1874. Eng- lish poet. The Sea. Prout, Father. (Francis Mahony.) 1805-1866. Irish journal- ist and writer. Prynne, William. 1600-1669. English Puritan writer. Ptolemy I. Soter. 397?-283 B.C. King of Egypt. II., Philadelphus , 309-447 b.c Ptolemy. (Claudius Ptolemseus.) Fl. 2d century Greek astronomer and geographer. Believed the earth to be at rest in the cen- tre of the universe, the heavenly bodies moving around 't Pugin, Augustus N. W. 1811-1852. English architect. Pulaski, Casimir, Count. 1 747-1 779. Polish patriot; general in the American Revolutionary army. Fell at the siege of Savannah. Putnam, Israel. 1718-1790. American Revolutionary general. Conspicuous at the battle of Bunker Hill. Pym, John. 1 584-1643. English republican statesman and orator ; popular leader in Parliament. Pyrrho. 36o?-270? B.C. Greek skeptic and philosopher. Pyrrhus. 3187-272 B.C. King of Epirus and one of the greatest of ancient generals. Defeated the Romans and conquered Macedonia Pythagoras. 6oo?-5io? B.C. Greek philosopher. Taught the doctrine of transmigration of souls QUACKENBOS, George Payn. 1826- 1881. American educationist. Quarles, Francis. 1592- 1 644. English poet. Emblems. Queensberry, William Douglas, Duke of. 1724-1810. Scot- tish profligate. Quin, James. 1693-1766. English actor, famous as Falstaff. Quincy, Josiah. 1744-1775. American orator and patriot. Quincy, Josiah. 1772- 1 864. Son of preceding. American statesman and scholar. Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius. 50?-u8? Roman rhetorician. Va^ABELAIS, Francois. I495?-I553- French scholar and < AJ\ satirist. Joined the Franciscans, but left the order: afterward studied medicine His great work, The Pleasant Story 0/ the Giant Gargantna and hit Son Pantagruel, is a satire upon the different branches of society of his age, more particularly the monastic orders Rachel. (Elizabeth Rachel Felix.) 1821-1858. French actress, born in Switzerland ; daughter of a Jewish peddler. Racine, Jean. 1639-1699. French dramatist. Les Plat- dears : Britannicus ; Berenice ; Bafaut ; lphigtnie : Phidre : Esther; Athalie. Racine, Louis. 1692-1763. French poet. Son of J. R. Radcliffe, Ann. 1 764-1823. English novelist. Radcliffe, John. 1650-1714. English physician. Raglan, James Henry Fitzroy Somerset, Lord. 1788-1855. English general. Commanded British army in Crimean war. Raleigh, Sir Walter. 1552-1618. English courtier, states- man, navigator and author. A favorite of Queen Elizabeth ; executed by James I . Rameau, Jean Philippe. 1683-1764. French composer. Ramsay, Allan. 1685-1758. Scottish poet. Ranavalona III. Queen of Madagascar Sue. 1883. Randolph, John (of Roanoke). 1773-1833. American poli- tician and orator. Entered Congress 1799; advocated extension of slavery; opposed Missouri Compromise ; Senate, 1824; soon after fought a duel with Henry Clay ; minister to Russia, 1830. Randolph, Peyton. 1723-1775. President of first American Congress. Raphael. (Raffaelle Sanzio, or Santi d' Urbino.) 1483-1520. Italian painter. Sistine Madonna ; Adoration of the Magi; Marriage o/tke Virgin : Transfiguration, etc. Ravaillac, Francois. 1578-1610. French fanatic ; assassin of Henry IV. Read, Thomas Buchanan. 1822-1872. American poet and artist. The House by the Sea ; The Wagoner of the Alleghanies. Reade, Charles. 1814-1884 English novelist. Peg Wojfing- ton: Hard Cash; White Lies: A Terrible Temptation ; Griffith Gaunt. Reaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchault de. 1683-1757. French naturalist and inventor of a thermometer. Recamier, Jeanne F J. A. B. 1777-1849. French lady noted for beauty and accomplishments. Red Jacket. 1760-1830. Eloquent Seneca Indian chief. Reeves, Sims. 1821-.... English oratorio singer. Regulus, Marcus Atilius -250 B.C. Roman general and statesman. Captured by the Carthaginians and sent to Rome to secure peace, but advised against it J returning to Carthage as he had promised, he was tortured and put to death. Reid, Capt. Mayne. 1818-1883. Irish-American novelist. Rembrandt van Ryn, Paul. 1607-1669. Dutch painter. Remusat, Charles Francois Marie, Count. 1797-1875. French statesman and philosopher. Essays on Philosophy. Renan, Joseph Ernest. 1823- . French philologist and writer. Life of Jesus. Retz, Jean Francois Paul de Gondi, Cardinal. 1614-1679. French prelate ; a leader of the Frondeurs. Memoirs. Reuter, Kritz. 1810-1874. Low-German poet and novelist. Reuter, Julius. 181 5-.... German originator of Reuter's Telegraphic Agency. Revere, Paul. 1735-1818. American engraver and Revolu- tionary patriot. Carried the news of Gage's impending attack to Concord. Reynolds, John Fulton. 1820-1863. American general. Reynolds, Sir Joshua. 1723-1792. English painter. Ricardo, David. 1772-1823. English pohti-al economist. Richard I. Caeur de Lion. 1 1 57-1 109. King of England. Led a large army into Palestine, where he exhibited great pa prowess, conquered Acre and defeated Saladin. II., 1306-1400. 111., 1453-1485, last of the Plantagenets. Richardson, Samuel. 1689-1761. English novelist. Richelieu, Annand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal. 1585-1643. French prelate and statesman. Made cardinal, i6m . prime minister,. 1624 , curbed the nobility 1 subdued the Calvinists ; restored balance of power in Europe ; granted religious toleration to the Protestants ; secured exile of his foe, Marie de Medici, the king's mother, 1630 ; aided German Protestants against Austria : founded French Academy (1635); added Alsace, Lorraine, and Roussillon to France. v~ _M _«• 9 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 2 45 Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich. Jean Paul. 1763-1825. German author. Among his works, which are distinguished for quaint- ness and originality, may be named Greenland Lawsuits : Hesperus ; The Invisible Lodge ; Parson in Jubilee : Titan. Ridley, Nicholas. i5oo?-i555. English bishop and reformer. Burned at the stake. Rienzi, Nicola Gabrini. I3I3?-I354- Roman orator; made famous by his attempt to restore the Roman Republic. Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Earl de Grey and Marquis of. 1827-.... English statesman. Ristori, Adelaide, Marchioness del Grillo. 1821- Italian actress. Rittenhouse, David. 1732-1796. American astronomer. Riviere, Briton. 1840-. . . . English animal painter. Rizzio, David. 1540-1566. Italian musician; favorite and secretary of Mary Stuart ; assassinated. Robert. Robert the Devil. ....-1035. Duke of Normandy ; father of William the Conqueror. Robert I. Robert Bruce. 1274-1329. King of Scotland. II., 1316-1390; first of the Stuarts. Robert, Louis Leopold. 1794-1835. French painter. Robertson, Frederick William. 1816-1853. Eng. divine. Robespierre, Maximilien Joseph Marie Isidore. 1 758-1 794. French Jacobin revolutionist ; ruler during the Reign of Terror ; guil- lotined. Robin Hood. Fl. 12th century. English outlaw. Rob Roy. (Robert McGregor.) i66o?-i735? Scottish freebooter. Rochamcoau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur de, Count. 1725-1807. French marshal ; general in America in 1781. Rockefort, Victor Henri de Rochefort-Lucay, Comte. 1830- .... French editor and communist. Rochefoucauld, Francois, Due de la. 1613-1680. French wit and author. Maxims. Rochejaquelin, Henri de la, Comte. 1772-1794. French royalist : leader of the Vendeans. Rodney, George Bridges, Lord. 1718-1792. Brit, admiral. Roebling, John Augustus. 1806-1869. American engineer. Rogers, John. 1829- American sculptor. Rogers, John. I50o?-i555. English divine; burned at Smithfield. Rogers, Samuel. 1763-1855. English poet. Roland, Marie Jeanne Philipon, Mme. 1754-1793. French Girondist and writer ; guillotined. Memoirs. Rollin, Charles. 1661-1741. Fr. historian. Ancient History . Rollc, ov Hrolf. 86o?-930? Norwegian viking. First duke of Normandy. Romanoff, Michael Feodorovitch. J598?-l645. Founder of the Russian dynasty. Romulus. Fl. 750 B.C. Founder of Rome. Romilly, Sir Samuel. 1757-1818. English statesman. Rooke, Sir George. 1650-1709. British admiral. Rosa, Salvator. 1615-1673. Italian painter. Roscius, Quintus. 61 b.c Roman actor. Rosecrans, William Starke. 1817- Am. general. Ross, Sir John. 1 777-1856. British admiral and Arctic navigator. Ross, Sir James Clark. 1800-1862. Nephew of preceding. British Arctic navigator. Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. 1828-1882. English painter and poet. House 0/ Life. Rossini, Gioacchimo. 1 792-1 868. Italian composer. Will- iam Tell: The Barber 0/ Seville. Rothschild, Mayer Anselm. 1743-1812. Jewish banker at Frankfort ; founder of the house of Rothschild. Rouget de l'lsle, Claude Joseph. 1 760-1836. French poet and musician. Marseillaise. Rouher, Eugene. 1814-1884. French politician. Rousseau, Jean Baptiste. 1670-1741. French lyric poet. Rousseau, Jean Jacques. 1712-1778. French philosopher and writer. Born in Geneva ; apprenticed to an engraver, but wan- dered about, and was successively a servant, a clerk, and a music teacher; went to Paris 1745, and met Diderot and Grimme; formed a connection with Therese le Vasseur, an ignorant woman, whom he afterward married. In 1760 appeared Julie, or The New Heldtie ; in 1762, The Social Contract. His Smile, or Education, was burned at Geneva, and he was compelled to take refuge in England. Hk Con- fessions are an autobiography. Rubens, Peter Paul. 1 587-1640. Flemish painter. Rubinstein, Anton. 1830- Rus. composer and pianist. Ruckert, Friedrich. 1 789-1866. Ger. orientalist and poet. Rudolph I. (of Hapsburg). 1218-1291. Emperor of Ger- many. Founder of the Austrian empire. II., 1552-1612. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count. 1753-1814. Am- erican natural philosopher in France. Rupert, Prince. (Prince Robert of Bavaria.) 1619-1682. German warrior. Ruskin, John. 1819- English writer on art. Russell, John, Earl. 1 792-1878. English statesman. Russell, William, Lord. 1639-1683. English patriot. Be- headed on a charge of complicity in the " Rye House Plot." Rutledge, John. 1 739-1800. American statesman and jurist. Ruyter, Michael Adrianzoon de. 1607-1675. Dutch admiral. Q*ACKVILLE, George, Viscount. Lord George Germain. e*^ 1716-1785. English statesman and general. Sadlier, Mary Anne, Mrs. 1820-. . . . Am. authoress. Saint Clair, Arthur. 1734-1818. American general. Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin. 1804-1869. French poet and critic. Saint-Pierre, Jacques Henri Bemardin de. 1737-1814. Fr. author. Paul et Virginie. Saint Simon, Claude Henri de, Count. 1760-1825. French socialist. Sala, George Augustus Henri. 1828-. . . . Eng. litterateur. Saladin. 1137-1193. Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Opposed the Crusaders. Defeated the Christians at Tiberias. Sale, George. 1680-1736. English orientalist. Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne Cecil, Marquis ot 1830-.... English premier. Sallust. (Caius Sallustius Crispus.) 86-34 B.C. Rom. historian. Saltonstall, Sir Richard. 1 586-1658? Puritan in Massachu- setts colony. Salvini, Tommaso. 1833-. . . . Italian actor. Samuel. 1 170-1060 B.C. Last of the Israelite judges. Sand, George. See Dudevant. Sandeau, Leonard Sylvain Jules. 181 1-1883. Fr. novelist. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de. 1798-1876. Mexican gen- eral and statesman. Sappho. Fl. 600 B.C. Greek lyric poetess. Sardanapalus. Fl. 900 B.C. King of Assyria. Sardou, Victorien. 1831-.... French dramatist. / ^J L I ^ c sv_ 246 1 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. J Saul - ,0 55 B - c - First king of Israel. Savage, Richard. 1698-1743. Eng. poet. The Wanderer. Savonarola, Girolamo. 1452-1598. Italian religious re- former. Saze, Hermann Maurice, Count of. 1696-1750. Marshal of France; native of Saxony. Captured Prague 1741. Saxe, John Godfrey. 1816-1887. American humorous poet Say, Jean Baptiste Leon. 1816-. . . . French financier. Member of the Academic Francaise. Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von. 1 775-1 854. German philosopher. Schenck, Gen'l Rob't C. 1809-1890. Am. statesman. Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von. 1759-1805. The most popular of German poets. Studied medicine and law, but could not resist his inclination towards literature. His drama. The Robbers^ appeared in 1777; Thirty Years' War, 171(1: W'ull- enslein, the work of many years, 1799. The Maid of Orleans, Mary Stuart and William Tell are anions his best known dramas, and The Song of the Bell is considered the best of his minor poems. He enjoyed the friendship of Goethe. Schlegel, August Wilhelm von. 1767-1845. German poet, critic and philologist. Lectures on Dramatic Literature. Schlegel, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von. Brother of pre- ceding. 177^-1829. German philosopher and scholar. Lectures on the Philosophy of History. Schliemann, Heinrich. 1822-1890. German traveller. Schoeffer, Peter. 1430-1500. One of the inventors of printing;; partner of Johann Faust. Scheneld, John McAllister. 1831-. . . . Am. general. Schomberg, Friedrich A. H., Duke of. I6i6?-i690. Protes- tant general. Born at Heidelberg; served in Swedish army during the Thirty Years' war ; afterward marshal of France ; entered the service of the Prince of Orange, and fell at the battle of the Boyne. Schopenhauer, Arthur. 1788-1860. German pessimist philosopher. The World as Will. Schott, Andreas. 1552-1629. Dutch Jesuit scholar. Schubert, Franz. 1797-1828. German composer. Schumann, Robert. 1810-1856. German composer. Schurz, Carl. 1829-. . . . German-American statesman. Schuvaloff, Peter, Count. 1828-. . . . Russian diplomatist. Schuyler, Philip. 1733-1804. Am. general and patriot. Schwanthaler, Lud wig Michael. 1 802- 1848. Ger. sculptor. Schwarz, Berthold. Fl. 14th century. German monk and alchemist : reputed inventor of gunpowder. Schweinfurth, Georg August. ' 1836-..., Ger. traveller. Scipio Africanus Major, Publius Cornelius. 235 B.c-184? Roman general ; invaded Africa and defeated Hannibal. Scipio AJmilianus Africanus Minor, Publius Cornelius. 185 1-129 B.C. Roman general ; captured and destroyed Carthage. Scott, Sir Walter. 1771-1832. Scottish novelist and poet. Scott, Winfield. 1786-1866. American general. Sebastian, Saint. 255 ?-288. Roman soldier and martyr. Sebastian, Dom. 1554-1578. King of Portugal and warrior ; invaded Morocco, but was defeated and slain. Secchi, Tictro Angelo. 1818-1878. Italian astronomer. Sedgwick, Catherine Maria. Daughter of T. S. S. 1780-1867. American authoress. Sedgwick, John. 1813-1864. American general. Sedgwick, Theodore. 1746-1813. American jurist. Seid Abdul Ahud. 1S60-. . . . Amir of Bokhara. Selkirk, Alexander. 1676?-. 723. Scottish sailor whose ad- ventures suggested the story of Robinson Crusoe. Semiramis. Fl. 1250 B.C. Assyrian queen. Built Babylon, and greatly increased her dominions ; invaded India, but was defeated. Semmes, Raphael. 1809-1877. Confederate naval officer. Seneca, Lucius Amicus. 5 7-65. Roman statesman, moralist and Stoic philosopher. Sennacherib. Fl. 700 B.C. Assyrian king. Sergius I. Pope from 687-701. II., 844-847. III., 904- 913. IV., 1009-10x3. Servetus, Michael. 1509-1553. Spanish theologian. Burned at the stake. On Ike Errors of the Trinity. Sesostris. (Rameses.) Fl. 1400 B.C. King of Egypt. Severus, Alexander. 205-235. Roman emperor. Severus, Lucius Septimius. 146-21 1. Roman emperor. Sevigne, Marie de Rahutin-Chantal, Marquise de. 1627-1696. French lady celebrated for her beauty and accomplishments. Seward, William Henry. 1801-1872. American statesman. Secretary of state 1861-9. Seymour, Horatio. 1811-18S6. American statesman. Elected governor of New York 1853, and reelected 1863; opposed the adminis- tration's war policy , Democratic nominee for the presidency in 1868. Sforza, Ludovico. II Moro. 1451-1510. Italian general. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, first Earl of. 1621- 1683. English statesman. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, third Earl of. 1713. English philanthropist, author and freethinker. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh Earl of 1 88$. English philanthropist. Shakspere, Shakspeare, or Shakespeare, William. 1616. The greatest English dramatist Born at Stratford-on-Avon; married Anne Hathaway 1583 ; went to London about 1586 and became an actor and playwright ; acquired a competence and retired to his native town about 1610. Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece, th« only works published under his own hand, appeared 1593-4. The first edition of his collected works appeared in 1633. Hamlet ; Lear 1 Mac- beth: Othello; The Tempest: Midsummer Sithfs Dream, etc., etc. Shaw, Henry W. Josh Billings. 1818-1885. Am. humorist. Sheil, Richard Lalor. 1793-1851. Irish orator. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. 1 792-1822. English poet. Expelled from Oxford, at the age of sixteen, for writing a treatise on the necessity of atheism ; married the daughter of a retired innkeeper against his lather's will ; became reconciled to his father, and doped with Miss Westbrook, whom he married at Gretna Green ; separated from her by mutual consent, and, hearing of his first wife's suicide, married Mary Godwin, with whom he was travelling on the continent ; demanded at law the custody of the two children by his first marriage, but the guard* lanship was granted to their maternal grandfather, on the ground of the father's atheism ; removed to Italy, where he was accidentally drowned. Adonais; Ttu Cenci ; Prometheus: Revolt cf Islam : Atastrr ; Tit Witch of Atlas. The Cloud, Ode to the Skylark and The Sensiture Plans are among the most exquisite of his shorter poems. Sheppard, Jack -1724. English burglar; hanged. Sheridan, I'lnlip Henry. 1831-1888. American general. Victorious at Winchester, Cedar Creek and Five Forks. Made ncutcsv ant-general of the U. S. army 1869, and promoted to the chief frdm i n cl on the retirement of General Sherman, 1883. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley. 1751-1816. Irish orator and dramatist. The Rintts; The School for Scandal : The Duenna. Sherman, John. 1823-.... American statesman. Secretary of the treasury, 1877—81 ; resumed specie payments. Sherman, Roger. 1721-1793. American statesman. 1671- 1801. 1564 i^ A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 247 ft r? Sherman, William Tecumseh. 1820-1891. Brother of John Sherman. American general. Made the celebrated "March to the Sea." Became general of the army in 1869, retiring in 1883. Sickingen, Franz von. 1481-1523. German Protestant general. Siddons, Sarah (nie Kemble). 1755-18.31. English actress. Sidney, Algernon. 1622-1683. English republican; exe- cuted on false charge of complicity in " Rye House Plot." Sidney, Sir Philip. 1554—1586. English soldier and poet. Siemens, Ernst Werner. 1816-. . . . German inventor. Siemens, Charles William. 1823-1883. Brother of preced- ing. German inventor. Sigismund. 1368-1437. German emperor and king of Hungary. Sigismund I. 1466-1548. King of Poland. II., 1518-1572. Sigourney, Mrs. Lydia Howard Huntley. 1791-1865. Am- erican poetess. Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse. Silli-man, Benjamin. 1 779-1 864. American naturalist. Simeon Stylites. 390?-459. Syrian ascetic ; lived for forty- six years on the tops of pillars. Simeoni, Giovanni. 1816-1892. Prefect of Propaganda. Simon, Jules. 1814- . French statesman. Sixtus I. Pope from 117 to 128. II., 257-258; martyr. III., 431-440. IV., 1471-1484. V. (Felice Peretti), 1585-1590. Skobeleff, Michael. 1843-1882. Russian general. Glocum, Henry Wadsworth. 1827- American general. Smiles, Samuel. 1816- Scottish author. Smith, Adam. 1723-1790. Scottish political economist. An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Smith, Gerrit. 1797-1874. American philanthropist. Smith, Horace (i78o?-i849) and James (1775-1839). English poets and humorists ; brothers. Rejected Addresses. Smith, John, Captain. 1579-1631. English explorer ; found- er of Virginia. History of Virginia. Smith, Joseph. 1805-1844. Founder of the Mormon church. Smith, Seba. Maj. Jack Downing. 1 792-1 868. Am. author. Smith, Sydney. 1771—1845. English divine and essayist. Smith, William II. 1825-1891. Leader House of Com- mons. Smollett, Tobias George. 1721-1771. Scottish novelist. Sobieski, John. 1629-1696. King of Poland and patriot. Defeated the Turks, and raised the siege of Vienna. Socrates. 470 ?-399 B.C. Gr. philosopher; teacher of Plato. Soliman II. The Magnificent. 1494-1566. Sultan of Tur- key. Conquered Persia and part of Hungary. Solomon. The Wise. 1033-975 ? B - c - King of Israel. Solon. 638-558 ? B.C. Athenian law-giver and poet. Somers, John, Baron. 1650-1716. Eng. jurist and statesman. Sontag, Henriette, Countess Rossi. 1806-1854. German vocalist. Sophocles. 495-405 B.C. Gr. tragic poet. (Edipus Tyrannus. Sothern, Edward Askew. 1830-1881. English comedian. Soult, Nicholas Jean de Dieu. 1769-1851. French marshal. Southey, Robert. 1 774-1 843. English poet-laureate. Thai- aba ; The Curse of Kehama ; Roderick, etc. Southworth, EmmaD. E. (Nevitt). 1818-. ... American novelist. Retribution: The Curse of Clifford : The Pearl of Pearl River, etc. Sparks, Jared. 1789-1866. American historian. Spartacus -71 B.C. Thracian gladiator in Rome; in- augurated Servile war, Speke, John Hanning. 1827-1864. English explorer in Africa. Spencer, Herbert. 1820-. . . . English philosopher. Sociology. Spenser, Edmund. 1553-1599. English poet. The Faerie Queen ; The Shephearde's Calendar. Spinner, Francis E. 1802-1890. Treasurer of the U. S. Spinoza, Benedict. 1632-1677. Dutch philosopher and pan- theist. Ethics Demonstrated by Geometrical Method. Spurgeon, Charles Haddon. 1834-.... English pulpit-orator. Spurzheim, Johann Caspar. 1776-1832. German phrenologist. Stael-Holstein, Anne Louise Germaine Necker de, Baronne. Mme. de Stael. 1766-1817. French authoress, and a lady of remark- able genius. Corinne. Standish, Miles. 1584-1656. Captain of Plymouth Colony. Stanhope, Philip Henry, Earl of. 1805-1875. Eng. historian. Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn. Dean Stanley. 1815-1881. Eng- lish divine and author ; dean of Westminster Abbey. Stanley, Henry M. (John Rowlands.) 1840-. . . . Ameri- can explorer in Africa; born in Wales. Stanton, Edwin McMasters. 1814-1869. American states- man ; secretary of war in President Lincoln's cabinet. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. 1816-. ... American " Woman's rights " advocate. Starhemberg (or Stahremberg), Ernst Rudiger, Count. 1635-1701. Austrian general. Starhemberg (or Stahremberg), Guido Baldi, Count. 1657-1737. Austrian general. Stark, John. 1728-1822. American Revolutionary general. Stedman, Edmund Clarence. 1833-. . . . American poet. Steele, Sir Richard. 1671-1729. British essayist and drama- tist. The Funeral; The Tender Husband; The Conscious Lovers ; Essays in The Tatler, The Spectator and The Guardian. Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl von, Baron. 1757-1831. Prus- sian statesman. Stephen, Saint. Stoned 36? First Christian martyr. Stephen I. Pope, 253-257. II., 752. III., 752-757. IV., 768-772. V., 816. VI., 885-891. VII., 896-897. VIII., 928-930. IX., 939-942. X., 1057-1058. Stephen I. (Saint.) 979-1038. King of Hungary. Stephen. 1105-1154. King of England. Stephens, Alexander Hamilton. 181 2-1883. American statesman. Bom in Georgia ; admitted to the bar, 1835 ; Congress, 1843; vice-president of the Confederate States ; elected to the U. S. Senate from Georgia, but not permitted to take his seat ; member of the House of Representatives, however, from 1874 until his death. History of the War between the States; A Constitutional View of the Late War between the States. Stephenson, George. 1781-1848. English engineer; inventor of th; locomotive engine. Stephenson, Robert. 1 803-1 859. Son of preceding. Eng- lish engineer; inventor of the tubular bridge. Sterling, John. 1806-1844. British essayist. Sterne, Laurence, Rev. 1713-1768. Irish humorous writer. Tristram Shandy ; The Sentimental Journey. Steuben, Frederick William Augustus von, Baron. 1 730- 1794. German American general in the Revolutionary war. Stevens, Thaddeus. 1793-1868. American abolitionist. Stewart, Alexander Turney. 1802-1876. Am. merchant. Stewart, Balfour. 1828-.... Scottish physicist. Stoddard, Richard Henry. 1825-, • • • American poet. 1 \ 248 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY Story, Joseph. 1 779-1845. American jurist. Story, William Wetmore. 1819-. American sculptor. Stowe, Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth Beecher. 1812-.... Ameri- can authoress. Uncle Tom's Cabin. Strabo. 54 B.c-24 A.D. Greek , geographer. Stradella, Alessandro. 1645-1678. Italian composer. Stradivari, Antonio. 1670-1735. Italian violin-maker. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of. 1593-1641. English statesman : beheaded. Strauss, Johann. 1804-1849. Ger. composer of dance music. Strauss, Johann. 1825-. . . . Son of preceding. German composer. Strickland, Agnes. 1806-1874. English authoress. Stuart, Gilbert C. 1 756-1828. American portrait painter. Stuyvesant, Peter. 1602-1682. Last Dutch governor of New Netherland (New York). Sue, Marie Joseph Eugene. 1804-1857. French novelist. Sulla (or Sylla), Lucius Cornelius. 138-78 B.C. Roman statesman and general. Sullivan, Arthur. 1844-.... English composer. Pinafore, Patience, etc. See also Gilbert. Knighted by the Queen 1883. Sumner, Charles. 1811-1874. American statesman, lawyer and abolitionist. True Grandeur of Nations, Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of. 1516?— 1547. English poet. Suwarow, Alexander Vasilievitch. 1729-1774. Rus. general. Swedenborg, Emanuel. 1688-1772. Swedish theosophist. In his theosophy, the central point is the correspondence of the natural and the supernatural. The True Christian Religion ; The Mysteries 0/ Heaven. Swift, Jonathan. 1667-1745. Irish divine and satirist. Gulli- ver's Travels : Tale of a Tub. Swinburne, Algernon Charles. 1837- English poet. Sylvester I. (Saint.) Pope, 314-335. II., 999-1003. III. (Anti-pope), 1013. 55? after 117? Roman his- 1804- 1 884. Swedish VtVACITUS, Caius Cornelius. , a, t torian. Germania. Taglioni, Marie, Countess des Voisins. opera dancer. Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe. 1828- French author. Talbot, William Henry Fox. 1800-1877. English author and discoverer of photography. Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon. 1 795-1 854. Eng. author. Ion. Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice de, Prince of Bene- vento. 1754-1838. French diplomatist. Talmage, Thomas Dewitt. 1832- Am. clergyman. Tamerlane (or Timour). 1336-1405. Asiatic conqueror. Tancred. 1078-1112. Norman leader in the first crusade. Taney, Roger Brooke. 1777-1864. American jurist. Tannahill, Robert. 1774-1810. Scottish poet. Tarquinius Superbus. (Lucius Tarquinius.) -495? B.C. Last king of Rome. Tasman, Abel Janssen. i6oo?-i645. Dutch navigator. Tasso, Torquato. 1 544-1 595. Italian poet. Jerusalem De- livered. Taylor, Bayard. 1825-1878. American traveller, novelist, poet and journalist; minister to Germany ; translated Goethe's Faust. Among his works arc V'ieva Afoot, or Europe seen with Knapsack and Staff: Travels: Poems of the Orient; Booh of Romances ; Lyrics and Songs, and several novels. Taylor, Jeremy. 1613-1667. English bishop and author. Taylor, Thomas. The Platonisl. 1758-1835. Eng. scholar. Taylor, Tom. 1817-1800. English dramatist. Taylor, Zachary. 1784-1850. American general and states- man ; twelfth president. Bom in Virginia; entered the army in iftot,* served in Seminole and Black Hawk wan ; major -genera! in Mexican war, and won the battles of Resaca dc la Palma and Buena Vista. Elected president by the Whigs in itxB. Tecumseh. 1 770-181 3. Chief of the Shawnee Indians; formed alliance of Western Indians, and was defeated by Harmon at Tippecanoe. Tell, Wilhelm. Flem. 1305. Legendary Swiss hero. Teniers, David. The Younger. 1610-1690. Flem. painter. Tennyson, Alfred, Baron. 1S09-. . . . Eng. poet-laur. In Memoriam ; Enoch Arden : The Princess ; The Idylls of the King ; Lochsley Halt ; The Lotus Eaters ; The } My Grail ; Harold, etc. Terence. (P. Terentius Afer.) I95?-i6o? B.C. Roman comic poet. Terpander. Fl. 675 B.C. Greek musician. Terry, Alfred Howe. 1 827- 1890. American general. Tertullian. i5o?-230? Latin father of the church. Tetzel, Johann. I46o?-I5I9. German monk ; vender of in- dulgences. Thackeray, William Makepeace. 1811-1863. English novel- ist. Born in Calcutta. Henry Esmond; I'anity Fair; The Xrtv- c^mes; Pendennis : The Adventures of Philip: The Virginians; The Book of Snobs ; The Four Georges ; English Humorists. Thalberg, Sigismond. 1812-1871. Swiss pianist. Thales. 635?-546 B.C. Greek sage and philosopher. Themistocles. 5I4?~449? B.C. Athenian general and statesman. Theocritus. Fl. 275? Greek pastoral poet. ,..-548. Empress of the East; wife of Theodora. Justinian. Theodore. Theodoric iSi8?-i868. King of Abyssinia. The Great. 455-526. King of the Ostrogoths. Theodosius, Flavius. The Great. 346?-395. Rom. emperor. Theophrastus. 3727-287? B.C. Gr. philosopher and moralist. Thierry, Jacques N. Augustin. 1795-1836. French historian. Thiers, Louis Adolphe. 1797-1877. French statesman and historian. History of the Consulate and Empire. Thomas, George H. 1816-1870. American federal general. V.\m the battles of Chickamauga and Nashville. Thomson, James. 1 700-1 748. Scotch poet. The Seasons; The Castle of Indolence : Tancred and Sigtsmunda. Thoreau, Henry D. 1817-1862. American author. The Concord and Merrimac Rivers ; The Maine Woods. Thorwaldsen, Albert D. 1770-1844. Danish sculptor. Thucydides. 470-400 B.C. Greek historian. Tiberius. 42 B.c-37 A.D. Roman emperor. Tilden, Samuel Jones. 1814-1886. American statesman. Governor of New York ; Democratic candidate for presidency, 1876. Tilly, Johann Tzcrklas von, Count. 1559-1632. German general in Thirty Years' war: fell at the battle of the Lech. Timoleon. 395-337 B.C. Corinthian general. Tindal, Matthew. 1657 ?-!733- English theological writer. Tintoretto, II. (Giacomo Robust i.) 1512-1594. It. painter. Titian. (Ti.'i.tno Veccllio.) 1477-1576. The greatest of Yrnetian painters. Assumption of the I'irgrn : Peter Martyr; The Last Supper; Bacchus and Ariadne; Homage tf Frederick Bar. baressa tt the Pope, etc. Titiens 101 Titjena), Therese. 1834-1877. German vocalist. / -\ ■ — ■*■*» 7[ A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 249 Titus. 40-81. Roman emperor. Tobin, John. 1770-1804. Eng. dramatist. The Honeymoon. Tocqueville, Alexis Charles Henri Clerel de. 1805-1859. French statesman; author of Democracy in America. Todleben, Franz Eduard. 1818-1884. Russian general. Tone, Theobald Wolfe. 1763-1798. Irish patriot; founder of the United Irishman. Tooke, John Home. 1736-1812. English philologist and radical. Having said that certain Americans had been "murdered" at the battle of Lexington, he was sentenced to one year's imprisonment and a heavy fine ; subsequently tried for treason, but acquitted. Torquemada, Tomas de. 1420-1498. Spanish Dominican monk; inquisitor-general. Torricelli, Evangelista. 1608-1647. Italian physicist. Toussaint l'Ouverture, Francois Dominique. 1743-1803. Negro leader of the Haytien rebellion. Trajan. 52-117. Roman emperor. Trollope, Anthony. 1815-1883. English novelist. Tromp, Marten Harpertzoon van. 1597-1653. Dutch admiral. Tromp, Cornelis van. 1629-1691. Dutch admiral. Trumbull, John. 1750-1831. American poet and satirist. Trumbull, John. 1756-1843. American painter. Trumbull, Jonathan. 1740-1809. American statesman. Tupper, Martin Farquhar. 1810-1889. Eng. poet and author. Turenne, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de. 161 1- 1675. French general. Defeated Conde and the Spaniards in 1659 ; in- vaded Holland in 1672 ; killed at Salzbach. Turgenef, Ivan Sergyevich. 1818-1883. Russian novelist. Turner, Joseph Mallord William. 1775-1851. English land- scape painter. The son of a barber. The Battle of the Nile ; The Sun Rising through Vapor; The Fall of Schaffhausen. Turpin, Dick. 1711-1739. English highwayman. Tweed, William Marcy. Boss Tweed. 1823-1878. American politician and embezzler; mayor of New York city. Tyler, John. 1 790-1862. Tenth president of the United States. Born in Va. ; practiced law; Congress, 1816-21 ; governor of Virginia, 1825; senator, 1827; sympathized with the nullificrs and Opposed Jackson ; resigned 1836 ; elected vice-president on Whig ticket, 1840; succeeded Harrison in 184X. Tyler, Wat -1381. English rebel ; leader of rebellion against capitation tax. Tyndall, John. 1820- Irish scientist. yy DAL, Nicolas. 1506-1564. English dramatist and ■A^p- teacher. Author of the first English comedy. Uhland, Johann Ludwig. 1787-1862. German lyric poet. Ulloa, Antonio de. 1716-1795. Spanish mathematician and naval officer ; governor of Louisiana. Ulphilas. 3'3-3 8 3- The apostle of the Goths. Translated the Scriptures into Gothic. Ulpianus, Domitius -228. Roman jurist. Unger, Johann Friedrich. 1750-1813. German printer and engraver. Urban I. Pope, ruling 223-230; martyr. II., 1088-1099; organized the first crusade. III., 1184-1187. IV., 1261-1264. V.,1362- 1370. VI., 1378-1389. VII., 1500; died on the twelfth day of his pon- tificate. VIII., 1623-1644. Ure, Andrew. 1778-1857. Scottish chemist and physician. Urfe, Honore d'. 1567-1625. French romancist. Ussher, James. 1 580-1 656. Irish prelate and scholar. Utrecht, Adriaan van. 1599-1651. Dutch painter. 'TT'ALENS, Flavius. 3287-378. Emperor of the East. • » Brother of Valentinian I. Arian persecutor of orthodox Christians. Valentinianus I. (Flavius.) 321-375. Roman emperor. II. (Flavius), 371-392. III. (Placidius), 419-455. Valerian. (Publius Lucinius Valerianus.) . . . .-268? Roman emperor. Van Buren, Martin. 1782-1862. Eighth president of the United States. Enrolled at the bar in New York in 1803, and elected to the state senate; state attorney-general, 1815; leader of the " Albany Regency "; U. S. Senator, 1821 ; governor, 1828 ; secretary of state, 1829-31 ; vice-president. 1833-7; president, 1837-41. Vancouver, George. I758?-I798. English navigator. Vanderbilt, Cornelius. 1 794-1 877. American capitalist. Vandyke (or Van Dyck), Sir Anthony. 1599-1641. Flemish painter. Resided in England for several years before his death, where he became the most popular artist of his time. Besides many portraits, including those of the celebrated artists of his time and several of Charles I., may be mentioned as amonghis best works. The Crucifixion ; St. Augustine in Ecstacy , and The Erection of the Cross. Vane, Sir Henry. 1612-1662. English republican statesman. Convicted of treason and executed. Vanloo, Charles Andre. 1705-1765. French painter. Vanloo, Jean Baptiste. 1684-1745. French painter. Van Rensselaer, Stephen. The Patroon. 1 764-1 839. Am- erican statesman and landholder. Varus, Publius Quintilius. Fl. 7. Roman general ; governor of Germany ; defeated by Arminius. Vassar, Matthew. 1792-1868. Founder of Vassar College. Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre, Seigneur de. 1633- 1 707. French military engineer. Velasquez, Don Diego Rodriguez de Silva y. 1 599-1660. Spanish painter. Velde, Willem van der. The Elder. 1610-1693. Dutch marine painter. Velde, Willem van der. The Younger. 1633-1707. Dutch marine painter. Vendome, Louis Joseph, Due de. 1654-1712. Fr. general. Verbceckhoven, Eugene Joseph. 1 799-1 881. Belgian painter. Verdi, Giuseppe. 1814- Italian composer. Ernani ; La Traviata; II Trovatore ; Ai'da. Vernet, Antoine Charles Horace. 1758-1836. Fr. painter. Vernon, Edward. 1684-1757. English admiral. Vespasianus, Titus Flavius. 9-79. Roman emperor. Vespucci, Amerigo. (Americus Vespucius.) 1451-1512. Italian navigator and astronomer, after whom America is named. Viaud, Jean ("Pierre Luti"). 1850- ... . French writer. Victor, Claude Perrin, Duke of Belluno. 1 764-1 841. French marshal. Victor I. Pope, from 185 to 198. II., 1055-1057. III., 1086-1087. IV. (Anti-pope), recognized by Frederick 1. in 1159; died 1 164. Victor Emmanuel I. 1759-1824. King of Sardinia. II., 1820-1878; first king of Italy; restored Italian unity. Victoria. (Victoria Alexandrina.) 1819- Queen of Great Britain and empress of India. Vidocq, Eugene Francois. 1775-1850. French detective. Villars, Claude Louis Hector de, Due. 1653-1734- French general. Vincent de Paul, Saint. 1576-1660. French priest and re- former. Founded the Congregation of Missions and the Sisters of Charity. Vinci, Leonardo da. 1452-1519. Italian painter. Last Sup- per : Madonna; Adoration of the Magi, etc. Virgil (or Vergil). (Publius Virgilius Maro.) 70-19 B.C. Latin poet. sEneitt ; Eclogues; Bucolics; Georgia. Volta, Alessandro. 1745-1827. It. inventor of the voltaic pile. Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet de. 1694-1778. French author, poet, wit, dramatist, historian, philosopher and skeptic. The son of a notary ; imprisoned in the Baslilc in 1716 on an unfounded suspicion of being the author of a libel on the Regent, and there pro- duced CEdipe and wrote part of the Henriade; in Eh^land, 1726-9, passing much time in the society of Bolingbroke; his drama of Za'ire appeared in 1730, and about the same time he finished his History 0/ Charles XII.; Alzire, 1738; Mahomet, 1741; Merope, 1743; passed the years 1750-3 with Frederick the Great ; took up his residence (1755) at Ferney. The Age of Louis XIV. : Essay on the Manners 0/ Na- tions: Candide. Voorhees, Daniel W. 1827-. . . . American orator and states- man ; senator from Indiana. Vortigern -485. King of the Britons. YaVaDDINGTON, William Henry. 1826- French JL a\ statesman and archaeologist. Wagner, Richard. 1813-1883. German composer, poet and critic. Rienzi ; The Flying Dutchman : Tann/tduser; Lohengrin: Gotterdammerung ; Nibelungenlied : Rheingold, etc. Waite, Morrison Remich. 1816- 1888. American chief justice. Waldemar I. The Great. 1131-1181. King of Denmark. Walker, John. 1732-1807. English lexicographer. Wallace, Sir William. I270?-I305. Scottish general and patriot. Defeated by Edward. I. of England ; betrayed and executed. Wallace, William Vincent. 1815-1865. Irish composer. Maritana. Wallenstein. Albrecht Wenzel Eusebitrs von, Count. 1583- 1634. Austrian general. Hero of one of Schiller's dramas. Entered the imperial army at the beginning of the Thirty Years* war ; raised an army at his own expense in 1625, invading Denmark ; banished from court by Emperor Ferdinand, but recalled on the death of Marshal Tilly ; defeated by Gustavus Adolphus at Lutzcn in 1632, but gained several victories in Silesia ; again lost tne emperor's favor, b< ing charged with aspirations to the throne of Bohemia, was deprived of his command and assassinated. Walpole, Horace, Earl of Orford. 1717-1797. English author and wit. Catalogue 0/ Royal and Noble Authors. Walther von der Vogelweide. ("Walter of the Bird- Meadow.") 1170 7-1230? Greatest of the German minnesingers. Walton, Izaak. 1593-1683. English writer. The Complete Angler ; or, A Contemplative Man's Recreation. Warbeck, Perkin -1499- English pretender ; hanged. Ward, Artemas. 1727-1780. American general. Warner, Charles Dudley. 1829-. . . . American humorist. Warner, Susan. (Elizabeth Wetherell.) 1818-1885. American authoress. Warren, Joseph. 1741-1775. American physician, Revolu- tionary general and patriot ; fell at Bunker Hill. Warren, Samuel. 1 807- 1 877. English author. Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of. The King-maker. 1420?- 1471. English warrior. Set up and [deposed Edward IV. Hero ol Bulwer's Last o/the Barons. Washington, George. 1 732-1 799. Commander-in-chief in the American Revolution and first president of the United St;ites. Born in Virginia. Aide-de-camp to Braddock in the Indian campaign 1 IJjsi marriel Martha Cnstis, rrW I Ghana to Congress, 1774; appointed commander-in-chief, 1775; president, 1789-07. Watt, James. 1736-1819. Scottish engineer and inventor. Improved and completed the steam-engine. Has also been credited with the discovery of the composition of water. Watteau, Jean Antoine. 1684-1721. French painter. Watts, Isaac. 1674-1748. English Dissenting minister and •acred poet. Hymns. Wayne, Anthony. 1 745-1 796. American Revolutionary general. Captured Stony Point. Weber, Karl Maria Fricdrich Ernst von, Baron. 1 786-1 826. German composer. Der Freischiltz. His Waldmadclieu, subsequently known as Sytvana, was composed at sixteen. Webster, Daniel. 1 782-1852. American lawyer, orator and statesman. Born in N. H. ; Congress, 1812-16, 1832-8 ; Senate, 1828-41; secretary of state ; re-entered the Senate in 1844 ; again became secre- tary of state in 1850. Webster was nominated for the presidency In 1834, but defeated ; candidate for the Whig nomination in 1848, but defeated by Taylor, whom he cordially supported. Webster's reply to Harne of South Carolina, is considered the greatest speech ever made on the floors of Congress. His greatest legal effort was in the famous Dart- mouth College case. Webster, Noah. 1758-1843. American lexicographer. Wedgwood, Josiah. 1730-1795. English potter. Weed, Thurlow. 1797-1883. American journalist. Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of. 1769-1852. British general and statesman. Gained great distinction in India, in the war against the Mahrattas ; major-general, 1803 ; Parliament, 1805 ; sec- retary for Ireland, 1807 ; defeated the Danes at Kioge, and was given command of an anny sent to Spain against the French, 1808 ; o p p ose d by superior forces and able generals, but [ably thwarted their plans ; tri- umphantly entered Madrid, 1812 ; defeated Jourdan and Soull, 1813 ; in- vaded France and gained numerous victories ; defeated Xan£leon at Waterloo, 1815, and entered Paris with the allies same year. W.»- ward prime minister and minister of foreign affairs. Wells, Horace. 1815-1848. American dentist. (Anaesthesia.) Wells, Samuel Roberts. 1820-1875. Am. phrenologist. Wenceslaus (or Wenzel). 1361-1419. Emperor o: many and king of Bohemia. Wesley, Charles. 1 708-1 788. English Methodist divine ard hymn-writer. Wesley, Ji hn. 1703-1791. Brother of preceding. English founder of Methodism. West, Ben] .min. 1738-1820. Wharton, Francis. 1820-1889. Wharton, Henry. 1664-1695. Whately, Richard. 1787-1863. Am. painter in England. Am. jurist and theologian. English ecclesiastical writer Irish prelate and author. Wheeler, William Almon. 1819-1887. American statesman; vice-president. Whewell, William. 1794-1866. White, Andrew Dickson. 1832-. . White, Henry Kirke. 1785-1806. White, Joseph Blanco. 1775-1841. White, Richard Grant. 1822-1885. English philosopher. . . . American scholar. English religious poet. English author. American author. Whitefield, George. 1714-1770. English preacher; founder of Calvinistic Methodists. Whitman, Walt. 1819- American poet. In tum car- penter, editor, nurse and government clerk. Leaves of Grass. Whitney, Eli. 1765-1825. Inventor of the cotton-gin. Whittier, John Grcenleaf. 1807- American poet Bom at Haverhill, Mass. Member of the Society of Friends. Fanner, shoe, maker, journalist and abolition!*' agitator. Snow Bound; I' Freedom: Songs of Labor ; Home Ballads: In War Time; Nation- al /.yri.-< : Hie Tent on the Beach: Ballads of New England ': Hanoi Blossoms, etc. "ST mm. Al 4^= W s ~~ Wieland, Christoph Martin. 1733-1813. German poet. Wilberforce, William. 1759-1833. English philanthropist and statesman. Secured the abolition of the slave trade. William I. The Conqutror. 1027-1087. King of England. Dukeof Normandy; conquered England. II., Rufus, 1056-1100. III. (William Henry of Nassau, Prince of Orange), 1650-170J ; won battle of the Boyne. IV., 1765-1837 ; uncle of Queen Victoria. William I. 1772-1843. King of the Netherlands. II., 1792- 1849. III., 1817-1890. William I. 1 797-1 888. King of Prussia and emperor of Germany. II., 1859 — Williams, Eleazer. 1 787-1858. American clergyman, claim- ing to be the son of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette. Williams, Roger. 1 599-1683. English Puritan minister; founder of Rhode Island colony ; born in Wales. Willis, Nathaniel Parker. 1806-1867. American journalist and poet. Wilmot, David. 1814-1868. American statesman; author of the Wilmot Proviso. Wilson, Alexander. 1766-1813. Scottish-American orni- thologist. Wilson, Henry. (Jeremiah Jones Colbath.) 1812-1875. American politician ; eighteenth vice-president. Wilson, John. Christopher North. 1785-1854. Scottish writer. Windom, William. 182S-1891. Sec. of U. S. Treasury. Wiseman, Nicholas. 1802-1865. Eng. Catholic cardinal. Wittekind -807. Saxon warrior ; conquered by Charle- magne. Wolcott, John. 1738-1819. English satirist. Peter Pindar's Odes. Wolfe, Charles. 1791-1823. Irish poet. Burial 0/ Sir John Moore. Wolfe, James. 1726-1759. Eng. general ; fell at Quebec. Wolseley, Garnet Jos., Viscount. 1833-. . . . British gen. Wolsey, Thomas. 1471-1530. English cardinal and states- man. Prime minister of Henry VIII.; deposed 1529. Wood, Mrs. Henry. 1820-1887. Eng. novelist. East Lynne. Woodworth, Samuel. 1785-1842. American poet. Old Oaken Bucket. Worcester, Edward Somerset, Marquis of. 1601 ?-i667. English nobleman ; one of the inventors of the steam-engine. Worcester, Joseph Emerson. 1 734-1866. Am. lexicographer. Wordsworth, William. 1 770-1 850. English poet. Educated at Cambridge ; with Coleridge produced Lyrical Ballads, 1798 ; settled at Rydal Mount, 1803; Poems, 1807; The Excursion, 1814; The White Doe of Rylstone, 1815; Peter Bell, i8:6. Ecclesiastical Son- nets ; The Wagoner; Yarrtrw Revisited; The Prelude, Wrangel, Karl Gustaf von, Count. 1613-1675. Sw. general. Wrangell, Ferdinand Petrovitch von, Baron. i795?-i87o. Russian explorer ; governor of Russian America. Wren, Sir Christopher. 1632-1723. English architect. (St. Paul's Cathedral, London.) Wright, Silas. 1795-1847. American statesman. Wycherley, William. i640?-i7i5. English comedy writer. Wycliffe (or Wickliffe), John de. I324?-I384. English re- former; translator of the Scriptures. XANTIPPE. The wife of Socrates; notorious for bad temper, but credited by her husband with many domestic virtues. Xavier Francis, Saint. The Apostle of the Indies. 1506- 1552. French Jesuit missionary to India and Japan. Xenocrates. 396-314 B.C. Greek philosopher. Xenophanes. 6oo?-5oo? B.C. Greek philosopher. Xenophon. 4457-355? B.C. Athenian historian and general. Anabasis ; Cyroptedia. Xerxes I. The Great. ....-465 B.C. King of Persia. In- vaded Greece, but was defeated at Salamis. Ximenes, Francisco, Cardinal. 1436-1517. Spanish prelate, statesman and patron of literature. Published Polyglot Bible. •Y^AKOOB IBN LAIS -879. Founder of the ,-•■» Persian dynasty of the Suffarides. Conquered Selstan and Fanistan. Yale, Elihu. 1648-1721. Founder of Yale College. Yancey, William Lowndes. 1814-1863. American politician. Yonge, Charlotte Mary. 1823- English authoress. Yorck von Wartenburg, Hans David Lud wig, Count. 1759 1830. Prussian general. York, Edmund Plantagenet, first Duke of. 1341-1402. Found- er of the house of York. Yorke, Charles, Lord Morden. 1722-1770. English states- man and jurist. Young, Arthur. 1741-1820. English agricultural writer. Young, Brigham. 1801-1877. President of the Mormon church. Young, Charles Augustus. 1834-.... Amer. astronomer. Young, Edward. 1684-1765. English poet. Night Thoughts; Love of Eame the Universal Passion ; The Revenge. Yves, Saint. 1253-1303. French monk and jurist ; patron of lawyers. JT"ALEUCUS. Fl. 7th century B.C. Greek legislator .A-i a nd reformer ; first to make a written code of laws. Zamoyski, John Sarius. 1541-1605. Polish general, states, man and scholar. Zechariah. Fl. 6th century B.C. Hebrew prophet. Zelotti, Battista. 1532-1592. Italian painter. Zeno (or Zenon). 3557-307? B.C. Greek philosopher ; founde of the school of Stoics. Zeno (or Zenon). 495-. . . .? Greek philosopher. Zeno -49L Emperor of the East. Zenobia, Septirnia -275. Queen of Palmyra. Beauti- ful, learned, and possessed of a warlike and masculine temper. Her do- minions extendedfromtheMeditcrraneanto the Euphrates, and included a large part of Asia Minor. Defeated by Aurelian, she retired to Italy. Zephaniah. Hebrew prophet, who flourished in the reign of Josiah. Foretold the destruction of Jerusalem. Zeuxis. 450-. . .'. ? Greek painter. Zhukovsky, Vasili Andreevitch. 1783-1852. Russian poet. Zimmerman, Johann Georg von. 1 728-1 795. Swiss physi- cian and philosopher. On Solitude. Zinzendorf Nicolaus Ludwig von, Count. 1700-1760. Ger- man theologian ; restorer of the sect of Moravians. Ziska, John, of Trocznow. 1360-1424. Bohemian general and leader of the Hussites. Zoega, Georg. 1755-1809. Danish archaeologist. Zollicoffer, Felix K. 1812-1862. American general. Zoroaster. Fl. 1500 B.C. Persian philosopher and founder ot the Magian religion. Zschokke, Johann Heinrich Daniel. 1771-1848. German author. Zuccaro, Federigo. 1 543-1609. Italian painter. Zwingle, Ulrich. 1484-1531. Swiss reformer; killed IB battle. Exposition of the Christian Faith. ^ !■» THE UNITED STATES. 255 the election of a President pledged to oppose the extension of slavery would be a violation of their constitutional rights and a moral invasion of the Slave States. In adherence to this declaration, in December, i860, South Carolina seceded from the Union, and her example was followed by Mississippi, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina. In April following the Confederates opened hostilities by bombarding Fort Sumter, near Charleston, S. C, and compelling the Union- before General Grant, and, Port Hudson surrendering a few days later, the blockade of the Mississippi was ended. The battle of Gettysburg, at which General Meade defeated Lee's splendid army, was another important Northern victory during the year of Emancipation. In 1864, General Sherman cap- tured Atlanta, and accomplished his march to the sea, which ended with the fall of Savannah. The bloody victories of the Wilderness and of Spottsylvania helped the Union soldiers in their march south, and the siege of Petersburg was conducted THE BROOKLYN SUSPENSION BRIDGE. garrison to surrender. Both sides to the impending conflict armed with haste, and the first serious clash of arms occurred at Bull Run, where the Federal forces became panic-stricken and suffered defeat. The Confederates gained but a slight advantage and were driven back. In the West, where the Confederates had closed up the Mississippi River, the Federals captured Forts Henry and Donelson, and overran the State of Tennessee. On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. With varying fortunes the war progressed until July 4th of that year, when Vicksburg fell by General Grant in command of a line between thirty and forty miles in length. The fall of Richmond and Petersburg, April 2 and 3, 1865, brought the end near, and a week later General Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court-house. The war, in the conduct of which nearly 1,800,000 Union soldiers had been enlisted, and a debt of $2,000, 000,000 incurred, called for special financial legislation. In 1862, and on subsequent occasions, were issued legal tender notes of the United States, and interest -bearing bonds of various kinds. A national bank system, which survives, was established. Customs duties ki • 256 A THE TNI I U> MATES. were raised to an average of nearly 50 ]>cr cent, and a direct tax and a large variety of internal revenue duties were ini- ■ COL. W. A. ROEBLING. HI II IX H OF THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE. posed. These impositions provided for the annual expendi- tures of the Government, which were increased from $60,000,000 in i860 to $1,217,000,000 in 1865. April 14, 1865, a few weeks after his inauguration for the second term, President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by J. Wilkes Booth, who was hunted down and killed a few days later, four of his accom- plices being convicted and exe- cuted. Vice-President Johnson became President, and the work of political reconstruction was begun. The Thirteenth Amend- ment to the Constitution, abol- ishing slavery within the United States and places subject to their jurisdiction, was duly rati- fied and proclaimed. In April, 1866, Congress passed the Civil Rights bill over the President's veto, thus ensuring protection to the freed slaves, and giving to the Federal courts enlarged jurisdiction in the matter. In June was passed the Fourteenth Amendment, whereby equal civil rights were guaranteed to all, irrespective of race or color. Hy this tirrie the breach between President Johnson and the Republican party was complete, and the antagonism grew until in March. 1867, the Republican Congress passed, over the President's veto, the tenure of office act, intended to contract the executive's power to remove officials. Mr. Johnson deemed the act an unconstitu- tional invasion of his rights, and defied it, which led to his impeachment and trial by the Senate, who acquitted him, the two-thirds vote necessary for a conviction not being secured. Just before his retirement, the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed, which provides that the rights of citi- zens of the United States to vote -.hall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. At the next presidential election General U. S. Grant re- ceived the nomination of the Republican party and was elected. Representation in Congress was restored to such States as had not regained it since reconstruction commenced. In 1869 the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads were completed, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by rail. The claims of the United States against the British Govern- ment for the depredations of the Alabama and other Confed- erate cruisers built by the English were referred to a tribunal of arbitration, which met at Geneva, Switzerland, in Decem- ber, 1871, and awarded the United States the sum of $15,500,- 000 damages, this being the first occasion in the world's history in which an international difficulty of such gravity had been disposed of in so peaceful a manner. During General Crant'ssecondtcrm, which began in 1873, the Indians gave trouble. The Apaches, in Arizona, were subdued by General Crook. In 1873, General E. K. S. Canby and some other officers were treacherously massacred by the nit' . «ho were destroyed after a hard struggle. In 1876, the Sioux, in Montana, under Sitting Bull, rebelled against United State* authority and were attacked by General George A. Custer, who. with Ins immediate command, was surrounded and slain, other companies of the cavalry regiment under him being rescued by General Terry. 1 V THE UNITED STATES. In 1876 the convention of the Republican party nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President, while Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, was put forward by the Democrats. The ensuing election was extremely close, Mr. Tilden receiving a majority of the popular vote, and the returns also giving him a majority of the Electoral College. The returns from Florida and Louisiana were disputed, however, on the ground of fraud. Congress was unable to reach a decision, and an Electoral Com- mission was appointed. Under its decision, by a vote of 8 to 7, Mr. Hayes became President, the commission allotting him 185 of the electoral votes, one more than the number allotted Mr. Tilden. During the administration of President Hayes a great cause of irritation throughout the South was removed by his aversion to the use of the military power of the United States in controlling State governments. The decline of values in all parts of the country, however, as the time for re- sumption of specie payments approached, caused great distress. Wages were lowered, and thousands thrown out of employ- ment. In the summer of 1877 a great strike of men engaged by the railroad companies stopped, for a time, all transporta- tion of passengers and freight on many roads, and filled the country with alarm. Riots occurred at Reading, Scranton, Pittsburg, Chicago and St. Louis. At Pittsburg property to the amount of several millions of dollars was destroyed. During 1878 and 1879 the lower Mississippi valley was ravaged by yellow fever, and great numbers perished with the dread disease in New Orleans, Vicksburg, Memphis, and smaller places, although the Howard Association, as well as sisterhoods and clergymen, nobly devoted themselves to the care and relief of the sick. A majority of Congress, during Hayes' administration, was elected by the Democrats, and many cases of disagreement occurred between the legislative body and the executive, several bills being vetoed by the President, who, in 1879, called an extra session to pass the annual appropriation bills. One of the bills vetoed by the President was that to prevent the further immigration of natives of China. During the excitement on this subject in California, many acts of violence were perpetrated, and miny Chinese left the State and became scattered through the country. A new treaty with China at last removed some of the difficulties. In 1880 the Republicans nominated and elected General James A. Garfield, his opponent for the Presidency being General Winfield S. Hancock. A strong effort had previously been made in the Republican party to nominate General Grant, who had made a tour of the world, and been received with great distinc- tion in Europe. The election of 1880 was a close one, the vote of New York, which had for years been Democratic, deciding the contest in favor of the Republican candidate. The elections for Congress also showed a reaction in favor of the Republicans. The nomination of Garfield, however, had caused a split in the ranks of the Republican party, the supporters of the third term aspirations of General Grant, commoaly known as " Stalwarts," feeling deeply their failure to nominate him. This opposition to the President reappeared after he had begun his administration, and an open rupture between him and the Stalwart leaders fol- lowed. While this was at its height, a political fanatic, named Charles Jules Guiteau, conceived the idea that he would restore unity to the party by removing the President, thus throwing the administration into the hands of Vice-President Arthur, who was a Stalwart, and had received the nomination as a concession to that faction. July 2, iSSl, Guiteau lay in wait for the Presi- dent at the railway station at Washington, and shot him as he was on the point of departing from the city upon a vacation. The wounded President died September 19, at Long Branch, N. J., and was succeeded by Vice-President Arthur. The as- sassin Guiteau was tried, convicted and sentenced to be hanged, the execution taking place in the jail building at Washington. After Mr. Arthur's accession to power the Democrats, in the general elections of 1882, came to the front and carried so many of the Congressional districts as to secure them a large majority in the Forty-eighth Congress, which assembled in December, 1883. Interest in the final session of that Congress settled largely upon their action n regard to the tariff, a modification of which was very evidently looked for by the people. In 1884 an unsuccessful attempt was made to re-adjust the tariff, with a view to reducing the surplus in the treasury and securing a more equitable distribution of taxation. The defeat of the measure was largely due to the Democratic majority in the House, who desired to enter the Presidential campaign unfettered by prom- ises. Two unsuccessful treaties were negotiated during the *ame period. The first, with Mexico, was approved by the Senate, but failed to go into effect because of the refusal of the House to provide the legislative measures necessary to secure its operation. The other treaty, with Spain, was killed in its early stages. Negotiations for a new extradition treaty with Great Britain and her colonies were also begun. The Presidential campaign of 1884 was bitter and aggressive. James G. Blaine, of Maine, the Republican candidate, was defeated by Graver Cleveland, of New York, the nominee of the Democratic party, who received the support of many dis- satisfied Republicans; and in 1885, for the first time in twenty- four years, a Democrat was installed in the White House. President Cleveland took the helm of state with the motto of l: Reform," and the conservative spirit displayed in his administration of the office of chief magistrate of the republic rendered it satisfactory to all classes. General Benjamin Harrison was nominated by the Republicans and elected to the presidency in 1S88. In 1889 North and South Dakota, Montana and Washington were admitted into the Union ; Idaho and Wyoming were admitted in 1890, and Oklahoma was opened to settlers in the latter year. In 1890 the McKinley protec- tive tariff bill was passed by Congress and signed by the President. Active preparations are now in progress for the opening of the World's Columbian Fair in 1893. The country was never in a more prosperous condition generally than at present. The statistical department of this work speaks volumes for the growth and rank of the Union in all those things which make a nation great. V- A 16' I OS 1. i . • ■- 1 00 I 5 Gre«n«ii'b _ UU 260 THK DOMINION OF CANADA. LVViVT ^f^y ^^g^ ^^^-,. .1* rK\^irvxrr.\.\.\.'..\.\.l.\.1.\..1..\.i..1,\MJL.%.\.\.\'^ >. «$JK§ She Dominion op (Canada, j^v t^ 3 .f -^■.V.y Y.V yy W V W V, W V VV V.WgEEi- V V V U.-V- VV VVJg r-N*JgXg?^ «S**I* 'HE Dominion of Canada, now a semi-independent confederation of provinces subject to the British Crown, has an interesting history which reaches back to within a very few years of the discovery of America by Columbus. The French sea captain Jacques Cartier, in 1534, planted the standard of Francis I. of France upon the shores of New Brunswick, and in later voyages he discovered the St. Lawrence River. Attempts at colonization were made, but none were very successful until the time of Samuel de Champlain, when the city of Quebec was established, and the foundation laid of the empire of New France. His explorations were ably followed up by the Jesuit missionaries who were sent out later by the French Government, and the names of Fathers Joliet, Mar- quette, La Salle and Perrot, who first saw the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River, are indissolubly linked with the story of early discovery in North America. Cruel wars with the Indians constitute the leading feature of interest in early Canadian his- tory, each of the leading claimants of North American soil — England and France — employing the willing savages tocarry destruction into the settlements of the other. Directly result- ing from this cruel policy was the massacre of Lachine, in which the Iroquois, at the instigation of the English, fell upon the French settlements in the neighborhood of Montreal, and slaughtered their inhabitants, and which caused the cruel reprisals of Schenectady and Salmon Falls. During the fre- quent wars between England and France, tht latter's Canadian colonies became more than once the object of English attack, but it was not until September, 1759, that the citadel of Quelx*c fell before the gallant English General Wolfe, and with it the French tenure of Canada, which was called the Province of Quebec, divided into three districts and placed under the direction of a Governor appointed by Great Britain. During the war of American Independence, the Americana, finding that the Canadians would not join the revolution, in- vaded Canada, but were unable to hold the country on account of their failure to capture the city of Quebec. After the close of the war a great many persons from the English colonies settled in that portion of Canada lying north of Lake Ontario, which, upon the separation of the province in 1791, became known as Upper Canada, the cistern province taking the name of Lower Canada, Dissen-ions arOK ill both provinces over questions of government, but the war of 1812 united Canada in defence against a common invasion, in which the Canadians showed a patriotism and valor very creditable for so young a country. After the war, the same causes of dissension still existing, the old quarrels were renewed and the disaffection finally culminated in separate rebellions in each of the provinces. In Upper Canada a popular agitator named Mackenzie attempted to set up the republic, and in 1837 gathered a body of armed followers, who marched against the capital, Toronto, where they were defeated. More serious disturbances were caused in Lower Canada, when, under the leadership of Louis Papineau, the French Canadian "patriots" collected in masses on the Richelieu, and were not dispersed until after severe conflicts, in which several hundreds were slain. The union of the two provinces was decided upon by the home Government as a remedy for the troubles complained of, and this measure was accomplished in 1S41, the new Constitution giving Canada one legislature instead of two. Under it the country progressed rapidly in population, commerce and general prosperity. About 1S61 a strong party feeling arose between the two provinces over the claim for representation by population made by the inhabitants of Upper Canada, who, having largely outgrown the lower province in numbers, desired that their representation in Parliament should be proportionately larger. The Lower Canadians would not agree to any change of the Constitution in accordance with this plan, and the political struggle was growing dangerously bitter, when the confedera- tion of the various British provinces in America, with local government for each, was suggested as an available remedy. The provinces of Canada, afterwards known as Ontario and Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, accepted the pro- posed union. Newfoundland and Prince Edward ! rejected it. The matter was left with the British Government, which, in 1S67, conferred the Constitution under which the Canadians now live, a- well as the name Dominion of Canada. Since then the confederation has been enlarged by the admis- sion of the Hudson Bay Company's Northwestern territories in 1870, now known as Manitoba and the Northwest Terri- tories ; 01 British Columbia in 1871, and of Prince l.luard Island in 1S73. To the vast majority of Americans the country to the north of the international lxmnd.iry line is a terra inttgnitm, of which less is known than of the small revolutionary States of Central America. Of Mexican affairs the people of the "_ -- »£. THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 26l United States have sufficient reminders to spur interest or promote enquiry, in its biennial revolutions and military dicta- torships, but of the quiet, progressive 5,000,000 of people owning the 3,500,000 square miles comprising the Dominion of Canada we know but little, and apparently care less. However much it may be ignored, it is still an undoubted fact that a great nation is rapidly assuming consistency and form in that country. National sentiment and feeling have been developed, and now the habitants and bourgeois of Quebec vie with the agriculturists, manufacturers and trades- men of Ontario and the Maritime Provinces in priding them- selves upon being Canadians. Already they complain of being held in leading-strings by Great Britain, and the wish is gen- erally expressed that Canada should have the appointing of its own Governor-General, the power of negotiating foreign com- mercial treaties, and that the slight ties now binding the Dominion to the Colonial Secretary's office in London be yet further loosened, until the political connection, now merely nominal, ceases to exist even in name. The very presence of Sir Chas. Tupper as High Commissioner at the British Court, with functions possessed by the representatives of independent powers, is a tacit claim by the Dominion of the privileges of a sovereign people. ITS VAST AREA. The Dominion, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans and from the United States boundary line to the Arctic seas, has a larger area than Europe, and even exceeds the United States exclusive of Alaska. Territory, however, does not of necessity imply a correspondence in greatness, wealth or power, and any speculations based entirely upon such data must prove fallacious. In order to form anything like a just estimate of the importance of the country the state of the settled and cultivated portions must be considered. Canada proper, consisting of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, containing more than three-fourths of the population of the Dominion, is 1,000 miles long, with an average breadth of 230. It has an area of 450,000 square miles, or 310,000,- 000 acres. That portion of it included in Ontario may be considered the garden of Canada, both as to climate, soil and the variety 0*" productiveness of its agricultural exhibits. POPULATION. The people of Ontario are very different from their French neighbors on the other side of the Ottawa, and are as noted for real American enterprise, industry and progressiveness as those are for the opposite. In 1825 the number of inhabitants in Ontario (at that time Upper Canada) was 158,027. In 1852 the number had reached 952,004, and at the census of 1891 it was 2,112,989. The growth of the cities is also remarkable. Toronto in 1826 had only 1,677 inhabitants, and in 1854 it numbered 40,000, and now it contains 181,- 220 people. Hamilton, within ten years, from 1844 to 1854, quadrupled its population, and its increase since, if less rapid, has been remarkable. In 1875 the population of the entire Dominion was 4,000,000 ; in 1881 it was about 4,400,000, and now it num- bers 4,829,41 1. The material progress of the country has M been on an equally rapid scale. Canada exports horses, cattle, sheep, butter, cheese, poultry, eggs, fruit, wheat, flour, barley, oats, beans, and other produce each year to the value of $40,000,000 to $45,000,000. The money value of the fisheries in 1889 was $17,655,256. The foreign trade is largely with the United States and Great Britain, the balance being exchanged with European countries, the West Indies, South America, Australasia, China and Japan. The exports for 1890 were as follows : To Great Britain, $48,353,694; United States, $40,522,810; France, $278,552: Germany, $507,143; Spain, $69,788; Portugal, $207,777; I ta tyt $81,059; Holland, $1,042; Belgium, $41,- 814; Newfoundland, $1,185,739; West Indies, $2,719,141; South America, $1,551,887; China and Japan, $61,751; Australia, $471,028; other countries, $695,924. Total, $96,749,149. Total imports for home consumption, $112,- 765,584, of which $77,106,286 were dutiable goods and $35. 6 59.298 fr ee goods. The revenue of the Dominion for 1890 was $39,879,925, of which $23,968,954 was from customs; $7,618,118 from excise; $2,357,388 from post-office; $2,357,388 from public works, including government railways; $1,082,271 from interest on investments, and $220,141 from Dominion lands. The expenditure on account of consolidated fund was $35,994,031, of which $9,626,841 was for interest; $1,308,- 847 for civil government; $709,784 for administration of justice; $932,187 for legislation; $466,115 for lighthouse and coast service; $286,315 for mail subsidies and steam- ship subventions; $1,107,824 for Indians; $328,893 for fisheries; $120,548 for geological survey; $153,308 for arts, agriculture and statistics; $1,287,013 for militia and defence ; $1,972,501 for public works ; $3,904,922 for sub- sides to provinces ; $3,074,470 for post-office; $4,362,200 for railways and canals ; $873,400 for collecting custom's revenue; $164,047 for ocean and river service. CANADA PACIFIC RAILWAY. One of the most important factors in the prospective future advances of the country to a high condition of material progress and industrial wealth will be, undoubt- edly, the Canada Pacific Railway. The route through the Dominion is, in a certain sense, preferable to that which connects the Atlantic and Pacific in our country. It is said by competent authorities to be shorter by over a thousand miles in connecting Europe with Asia. Pass- ing close to Lake Superior and traversing the watershed which divides the streams flowing toward the Arctic seas from those which have their exit southward, the route, though presenting serious engineering difficulty, was more easy of construction than the Union Pacific. The effect of the completion of this road can scarcely be esti- mated at present, as it is opening up for settlement a vast region abounding in valuable timber, coal and other ma- terial products, and well suited for grazing and the growth of grain. Construction on the Canadian Pacific was " IV 262 "7 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. first commenced under the immediate supervision of the Gov- ernment, but this plan was not found to work well, and shortly after the change of Government, in 1878, the new Ministry handed over the work of construction to a syndicate, granting to them money and land bonuses and exclusive rights on a monopoly of traffic for twenty years from the time of the completion of the road. The road was opened for traffic in 1886. In 1890, 12,821,262 passengers and 20,787,469 tons of freight were carried ; the earnings amounting to $46,843,826, and the expenses being $32,913,350. The settlement of the Northwest Territory along the line of the railway is proceeding at an unprecedented rate. Indeed, there is nothing to be at all compared with it unless it is the rapidity of opening up in some of the Western States. Free grants are given to actual settlers, which, with an inexhaustible soil, should be a sufficient attraction for emigrants from Europe. But of this class the Canadian Northwest country has so far attracted no considerable number. Of the 44,000 emigrants arriving in Manitoba and the Northwest in one year fully three-fourths were from Ontario and other parts of Canada. NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. There are extensive coal fields in the Valley of the Sas- katchewan and at Edmonton, but so far they have not been worked to any extent. When capital has been directed into this channel, a cheap supply of coal can be secured, and one of the principal defects of that section of the Dominion will be removed. The length and severity of the winter in Manitoba and the contiguous territory is also a serious obstacle to their settle- ment. Winter often begins in October, and continues until about the end of April, after which the weather changes rap- idly, and the chilling, freezing atmosphere becomes soft and warm, with the southern winds sweeping over the interminable plains. Vegetation after this becomes so rapid as to be almost incredible, and in less than four, and occasionally only three, months after the seed has been sown, abundant crops of wheat, barley and oats can be harvested. With all its defects, it is a magnificent country, and it requires no great powers of prevision to foresee in it the home of millions of free, prosperous and intelligent people. Winnipeg, the leading city of the Northwest, has sprung up as if by magic, and is a very different place from the hamlet visited by General Wolseley and his troops, on the occasion of the Riel disturbance, a number of years ago. It has now a population of 25,642, and for some time the boom in real estate was such that city lots were selling at a higher price than in Toronto. Many other cities now exist in embryo in that vast region, and with a liberal, wise policy on the part of the Government, the success of the Northwest is certain. In the other sections of Canada, Ontario especially, the condition of the farming population has been entirely changed within the past twenty years. The log shanties of the squatter have been changed to elegant farm-houses of stone, brick and frame. Frame barns have taken the place of the open log structures that so poorly protected the crops of the pioneers, and wire and picket fences surround the steadings instead of rails. Farm-houses now contain all that is requisite for com- fort, with many of the elegancies of life added, and in many will be found not only a piano or parlor organ, but also a young lady quite capable of rendering music by note. Educa- tion has also become generally diffused, and it is but rarely that a person can be met with who cannot read and write. That the Dominion is more prosperous now than ever it has been before, will scarcely be questioned by those familiar with its present and past conditions, and that it has now entered upon a new and vast phase of its progressive development, under the most auspicious circumstances, cannot for a moment be doubted. GOVERNMENT OF THE DOMINION. The executive power of the Dominion is vested in a Gov- ernor-General, who is appointed by the British Government, and exercises authority in the name of the Queen. His advisers constitute the Privy Council, whom he appoints and removes, subject to the convenience of the lower house of Parliament. The military command is vested in the Queen. Parliament, consisting of an upper and a lower house, known respectively as the Senate and House of Commons, controls legislation. Senators, who are appointed for life by the Governor-General, on the recommendation of the Privy Council, are 80 in number, apportioned as follows : Quebec and Ontario, 24 each ; Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 10 each ; Brit- ish Columbia, 3; Manitoba, 3; P. E. I, 4; N. W. Ter, 2. The House of Commons has 215 members — Ontario, 92 ; Quebec, 65 ; Nova Scotia, 21 ; New Brunswick, 16; British Columbia, 6 ; Manitoba, 5 ; P. E. I., 6; N. W. Ter„ 4. A redistribution of memberships occurs after each decennial census, with the understanding that Quebec shall never have less than 65. All appropriation bills must originate in this house, co which the Privy Council is responsible, it representing the views of the political party which is in the ascendancy. Bills passed by Parliament may be vetoed at any time within two years. The seat of government is at Ottawa. The Dominion Parliament controls exclusively the currency, postal service, public debt, raising of money, regulation of trade and com- merce, the militia, savings banks, marriage and divorce, crim- inal law, navigation and shipping, bankruptcy, and all subjects not specially assigned to the local legislatures. The latter have the right to levy direct taxes, and to borrow money for provin- cial purposes, the management of public lands, public works lying within the province, municipal institutions, prisons, hospitals, asylums and charities, and generally matters of a local or private character. With a few minor exceptions, all Judges are appointed by the Dominion Government. There is a general court of appeal, possessing powers similar to that of the United States Supreme Court, and which passes upon the constitutionality of laws passed by the provincial legislatures. 4** NORTH AMERICA Scale of Mile*. 800 400 SOO 1000 IV 264 ~A MEXICO. t^^k i^^^^y?^ ?vivwvf^v r^viv^r^» =5 ^ -i-H^^^^-J- SO foreign country is attracting such close attention from the people of the United States just now as Mexico, sometimes familiarly alluded to as " the sister republic." Bounded on the north by the United States, on the south by Guatemala, on the east by the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the Pacific, it occupies the tapering southern extremity of the North American continent— a region of mountain table-lands, rich in mineral wealth and agricultural resources, which, hav- ing lain for ages comparatively undeveloped, are now begin- ning to feel the impulse of a new civilization supplied from the United States, whose capitalists are building railroads in differ- ent parts of the country. The history of the country begins — no one knows when. Ages before the coming of the Spanish conquerors the settlement of the Mexican valley had been accomplished by Indian tribes who are said to have come from the north, the last of these being the Aztecs, who founded a city, established a monarchial government, enforced civil and criminal laws, kept a standing army, and cultivated the arts and sciences, their skill in the working of metals and their profound knowledge of astronomy being attested by venerable relics which are extant at the present day. About the only dark feature in this pleasing picture of prehistoric civilization and culture is that provided by their religious observances, which included human sacrifices, the practice being so common that the observance of certain days caused the immolation of thousands of victims. Such were the accomplishments of the wonderful people whom De Cordova met in Mexico when he discovered it in 1517. Two years later Fernando Cortez effected a landing upon Mexican soil at a spot where the city of Vera Cruz now stands. Here he burned his ships to give a disaffected portion of his command to understand that nothing was left them but obedience, after which he marched into the interior. On his way he fought several engagements with the natives, and finally arrived at the City of Mexico, where the Aztec Emperor, Montezuma, received him with apparent kindness. Fearing treachery, Cortez caused Montezuma to DC seized and conveyed to the Spanish quarters. Cortez' con were delayed by the opposition of the Governor of Cuba, who sent a party to seize hii a and his .staff and send them back to Cuba. The brave Spaniard turned the tables upon his pursuers, vanquishing then and taking their leader, Narvacz, prisoner. Montezuma, after a long imprisonment, consented to acknowl- edge Spanish supremacy, but the Aztecs declined to submit so easily, and, making a final effort, compelled Cortez to retreat. He returned, however, a year later, and, after a series of battles, reached once more the City of Mexico, which he captured, August 13, 1521, after a siege of seventy-five days. The other provinces fell in succession before the invader, and for nearly 300 years subsequently Mexico remained in subjection. The government which the Spaniards first inaugurated was known as " Audiencia," with a President and four Auditors, but the measures of this body soon proved so harsh and arbitrary that the colony complained loudly of their oppression. A vice- regal government was inaugurated in 1535, which lasted undis- turbed for nearly three centuries. Events in Europe at the opening of the nineteenth century shaped the history of Mexico. The uprising of 1S10 is thus graphically described by Mr. John A. Dillon, a journalist whose thorough knowledge of Mexican affairs, no less than his eminent literary attainments, makes him peculiarly qualified to treat the subject : " The revolution was long in coming. Shut off as it was from the world, Mexico could not help noting that the power of Spain had grown weaker and weaker, until at last the rough hand of Napoleon pushed the feeble Bourbon from the throne. The latent fires of revolution broke forth on the 15th of Sep- tember, 1810, in the village of Dolores, near Guanajuato, where a curate named Manuel Hidalgo set up the Grilo dt Dolores, as it is called in Mexican history, or the 'call of Dolores.' What the call meant was little known, either to him who started it or to those who heard it. It meant any- thing but a republic to Hidalgo; it meant the cause of religion, and loyalty to some Mexican sovereign. To the Indians who heard it, it meant death to the strangers, the Gathupintt, as they called the Spaniards. " Then was started the most bitarre and motley revolution in history, outshaming Jack Cade. Swarms of ragged and swarthy Indians gathered around the priest, armed with sticks and stones and knives anil clumsy pikes. They swarmed down to Guanajuato in thousands and tens of thousands, and the slaughter of Cortex was repeated on their defenceless bodies. Cannon and musket tore their ranks in vain, for they rushed up to the loaded cannon's mouth and stuffed in their battered straw hats and ragged serafus, to keep the balls from coming out. By sheer force of numbers they destroyed the troops, and then in savage triumph sacked the city of their brothers. MEXICO. **5 \, " Brief and sad was the career of the soldier-priest. Under the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe he led his hordes from Guanajuato down to Vallcdolid, and thence to Queretaro, and in six weeks had reached the mountain of Las Cruces, within thirty miles of the capital. Here the Viceroy gave him battle, ami here again the ragged hordes rushed on the batteries and killed, every man behind them, only three officers of the Vice- roy's army of 3,000 escaping. " Then fear came on the victor for the unknown power of a city such as he had never seen the like of. He came within sight of Mexico, lingered there for a month, and then turned to retreat. A bloodhound was set on his trail in the person of General Calleja. The fugitive rebels passed back through Guanajuato, and the bloodhound Calleja followed them and cut to pieces 14,000 men, women and children in the city. In his report he said that he had them hacked with knives and swords, because gunpowder was very dear, and he did not want to put the Government to the needless expense of using ammu- nition. "On the 17th of January Hidalgo reached the place called the Bridge of Calderon, and there his last battle was fought and lost. He fled toward our frontier, but his commanders rebelled, and one of them, Elizondo, delivered the whole band up to the Government on the 21st of March, 181 1. It is needless to say that they were shot, and their heads were after- ward exposed in iron cages on the castle wall of Guanajuato. " The population was made up of four classes — the Span- iards of European birth ; the Mestizos, or half-breeds, the result of union between the Indians and whites ; the Creoles, who were the pure-blooded descendants of the original Span- ish settlers, and the pure-blooded Indians. The last-named had experienced but little change of condition under the Vice- roys, and were still subject to the payment of tribute and held in a sort of life-long tutelage. Degrading restrictions weighed upon them from which only their nobles were exempted. The Creoles, as proud of their origin as the native Spaniards were of their birth, were treated contemptuously by the latter, and denied all part in the government, or even high command in the army. Many of them had amassed great wealth, and while titles and other empty honors were conferred upon such, the Government deemed it imprudent to allow them a share of the administration of public affairs. This treatment was resented by the Creoles, and open rebellion would have been gladly availed of by them, had they not dreaded that, at such a turn of affairs, an uprising of the Indians and half-breeds would occur, and they and the native Spaniards be together overcome and destroyed. While the revolution of 1820 was going on in Spain, which lost Ferdinand his throne, the Mexi- cans agitated in favor of a liberal government, and Don Au- gustin Iturbide, a native Mexican officer of rank, who had served with distinction in quelling the earlier uprisings, inaugu- rated a second and successful revolution, which resulted in the ' declaration of Mexican independence, February 24, 1821. His authority obtained the national recognition ; in August he established a regency, and May 19, supported by his army and his followers, in the City of Mexico, he was proclaimed Emperor. December 2, 1822, Santa Anna, supported by other chiefs, proclaimed the Republic at Santa Cruz, and March 19 Itur- bide abdicated. Shortly afterwards he was ordered into exile, and in May, 1823, he left Mexico for London. The Constitution which Congress formulated October 4, 1824, was modelled after that of the United States, and estab- lished in Mexico a republic with nineteen States and five Territories. The first President was Don Felix Fernando Victoria, during whose administration Iturbide returned to the country and was arrested and shot. At the second presi- dential election the candidates were Generals Padraza and Guerrero. The former was elected, but Guerrero instituted a revolt, and seized the presidency in 1829. That year the Re- public received the recognition of the United States, and de- feated an attempt of the Spaniards to recapture the country with an army of 4,000, who were sent back to Havana. Gen- eral Anastasio Bustamante, who had assisted in the expulsion of the Spanish invaders, declared against Guerrero, and de- posed him. Intrigues and revolts followed in quick succession, Santa Anna coming to the front April 1, 1833, who, after banishing Bustamante and several other political leaders, insti- tuted an administration of sweeping reform. Laws were passed suppressing the convents and abolishing the payment of tithes, and measures discussed looking to the appropriation of church estates and their application to extinguishing the national debt. These failed to prove popular, going further than the people cared to follow. Insurrections followed, and troubles which led, in 1835, to the abrogation of the Constitu- tion which had been adopted in 1824, and the formation of a consolidated republic, which took the place of the confedera- tion of States. Santa Anna possessed dictatorial power, and the revolution was endorsed by the whole country except Texas, whose citizens declined to accede to the centralization of power. Santa Anna then invaded the State with an army, which was destroyed, and Santa Anna was captured. Busta- mante became President, but Santa Anna, after a trip to Washington, where he conferred with President Jackson, was released, and returned to Mexico. Another period of chronic revolution soon set in, a dictatorship was established for a while, and in 1844 constitutional government was resumed, with Santa Anna at its head. He was banished, however, and Herrara happened to be the President at the time war was de- clared against the United States after the annexation of Texas. The American arms were successful, and Mexico lost, in addition to Texas, New Mexico and Northern California, when peace was declared, in February, 1848. Santa Anna was re- called in 1853, and for the fifth time elected President. He attempted now to secure the position for life, with the right to name his successor, and this led to another revolution in 1855, when Alvarez deposed him and became President. He re- signed in favor of Comonfort, who gained the opposition of the ecclesiastical party by his promotion of a law, which was adopted in 1856, for the sale of church lands and the freedom of religious belief. Revolutions followed, and in 1857 Con- gress promulgated, and the President was forced to accept, a very democratic Constitution. In the following year Benito Juarez, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, claimed the legal succession to the presidency, but was defeated by the incumbent, Zuloaga, and driven to Vera Cruz, where he established himself as Constitutional Y- ^ C -^ fe= 266 CENTRAL AMERICA. President. His claims were strengthened by their acknowl- edgment by the United States, and, after defeating General Miramon in several engagements, he entered the capital in triumph, January II, 1861. His administration was noted for the reforms which he carried out, and which gained him the love of the Mexican people. Among the most important of these were the appropriation of church property to the service of the State, by which more than three hundred millions' worth of real estate was saved to the people ; making marriage a civil contract ; the abolition of ecclesiastical tribunals and per- petual monastic vows ; and, finally, the complete separation of Church and State. Much as the people enjoyed their liberties, the Church party could not brook so great a curtailment of their property and prerogatives, and they resolved upon the destruction of Juarez' Government. Their opportunity was not long wanting. Subjects of Spain, France and Great Britain having sustained alleged losses and injuries in Mexico, for which Juarez declined to give satisfaction, these three powers, at a convention held in London, October 31, 1861, decided to send a joint expedition to Mexico to demand it. In December of that year, General Prim, commanding a Spanish detachment from Cuba, landed at Vera Cruz, and a month later French and British troops followed. A settle- ment being effected with Spain and Great Britain, the forces of these powers were withdrawn from the country. The French army remained in Mexico, declared war against Juarez, and captured the City of Mexico June 10, 1863, President Juarez and his Ministers retiring to San Luis Potosi. June 24 a regency was formed, and July 8 an assembly of notables was convened to decide upon Mexico's form of government and re- solved that it should be a hereditary monarchial government under a Roman Catholic Emperor. The Archduke Maximilian, of Austria, accepted the crown. Juarez and his republican sup- porters retired to El Paso, where they remained from Septem- ber, 1865, to the beginning of 1866, when, the United States having secured the withdrawal of French troops from Mexico, they assumed the aggressive. Maximilian was captured and sho;, together with his Generals, Miramon and Mejia, June 19, 1867, three days after Juarez had re-entered the City of Mex- ico. The work of national reconstruction was at once com- menced. An attempted revolution by Santa Anna was quelled and its instigator captured and exiled. In 1871 Juaret was again elected, his opponents being Porfirio Diaz and Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, the latter of whom, on the death of Juarez, July 18, 1872, became President. Although a brilliant scholar and statesman, Lerdo misun- derstood the sentiments of the Mexican people, mistook the spirit of the age, and seemed to oppose the material progress of the country, endeavoring to stem the tide of reform and advancement and opposing the railroad movement. General Diaz seized this opportunity, and in 1876 organized a revolu- tion. After a series of victories and defeats, the revolutionary chieftains met the Government forces at Texcoac, and came out victorious after a sanguinary conflict. During his short administration Diaz began the work of regeneration, and initi- ated the railroad movement, which was a*bly conducted onward by his successor. General Gonzales, elected to the presidency In 1880, and again by Diaz, elected 1884, re-elected 1888. Mexico is a federal republic, and the General Govern- ment is administered according to the provisions-of the Constitution of 1857, which was twice overthrown and restored, and which was considerably amended in 1873-87. A President is chosen by indirect popular suffrage every fourth year. Both houses of Congress and the Supreme Judiciary are elected in like manner. The Senate and Supreme Judicial y are elected for terms of six years, and the Representatives for two years. The States have local constitutions, with elective Governors and legislature?. v&m G>E1W1^AIj flMEI^IGA. sQHh&5 R NDER the name of Central America are included the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and the territory known as British Honduras. In 1502 Columbus discovered the Eastern shore of Central America, and shortly afterward the Spaniards took possession of it, retaining it until 1820, when it rebelled and many of the States which then composed it were annexed by Mexico. Three years afterwards was formed the Central American Confederation, T V- but in 1839 Nicaragua withdrew, as did also Costa Rica in 1840 and Guatemala in 1847. In 1872 Guatemala, Costa Rica, San Salvador and Honduras became united, forming the Central American L'nion, the object of the union being the maintenance of peace in the several States and of the repub- lican form of government. Since this was accomplished, the several States have generally enjoyed an immunity from the internal discords which frequently plunged them into civil U.lls. ^5* N<8— K CUBA— SOUTH AMERICA. 267 A -e^ -'.•9 9 9999* f Ht» t t l < H i « i « Aft » Of • < U » i~»- 1H* -4|£ -K-K-X- (§>UBA. •*•*•*• -*-; < M"M ' !»■!"» tt ' Kfr »' I i' l"H"Hi ' ii» i> **** ROTABLE as the largest of the divisions of South America; as the youngest of the republics of the Western hemisphere, Brazil's history is of peculiar interest to the historical reader. Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, who had been sent out by King Emmanuel of Portugal to follow up the discoveries of Vasco da Gama, discovered the land in 1500, and the richness of its forests in dye-woods soon attracted the attention of commerce. A Gov- ernor of the territory was appointed in 1549, who founded the present capital of Rio de Janeiro. Numerous attempts were made by the Dutch and French to take the country, but it was retained almost in its entirety by Portugal, whose King, on the occasion of Napoleon's invasion of his country in 1808, fled to Brazil, and virtually transferred the monarchy to his colonial possession. Seven years later Brazil was made a king- dom and its ports thrown open to the world, and in 1821 the King went back to Portugal, leaving behind him his son, Dom Pedro, as regent. A revolution, or rather a transition, occurred in the same year, and in 1822 Brazil was proclaimed an inde- pendent empire, and Dom Pedro was invested with the impe- rial crown. A Constitution was granted in 1824, when the home Government acknowledged the independence of the young empire. In 1826 Dom Pedro became King of Portugal by the death of his father, and he resigned the European crown to his daughter. In 1831, after long and harassing wars with adjacent countries, the Emperor abdicated in favor of his son, Dom Pedro II., then but six yean old, and the country was ruled by a regent until he came of age, in 1841. The imperial dynasty continued until November 15, 1889, when, by declaration of the principal citizens of the national capital, the Republic of the United States of Brazil was founded. The revolution was peaceful, the Emperor was kindly treated, provision was made for his support, and he was transferred to his kindred in Portu- gal; he has recently died. A provisional government was formed, upon the model of that of the United States of America, under the presidency of Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca, and on February 24, 1891, a new constitution was voted by the Constituent Assembly, by which the President's term of office is fixed at four years. Every- thing went on much as usual; the Imperial officials became Republican, most of the ambassadors who had represented the Empire abroad continued at their posts to represent the Republic. Some few important changes were made ; the Church and the State were separated, civil marriages only are recognized, and education is secularized. A second revolution broke out in 1891, by which President Fonseca was unseated; and on Novem- ber 23, 1891, General Florlano Peixoto was elected President. &* -^•CHi * * ©HILL * * £T^ <&+ ^^ E N 1533 the Incas of Peru lost their control over Chili, and a few years later the Spaniards occupied the country, the city of Santiago being founded by them shortly after their arrival. A treaty was established with the natives in the early part of the eighteenth century, by which boundary lines were established and the rule of the Spanish Vice- roy acknowledged. A preliminary movement to the declaration of independence was made in 1810, when the Chilians deposed the Captain-General and placed the executive power in the hands of a committee of seven. War between the mother country and the colony commenced in the following year, and two years later the latter was entirely under the control of the [■ royalist troops. Nothing daunted, the colony, in 1817, rebelled again, and, after a severe struggle, defeated the royalists and secured their independence. At first the Government took the shape of a directorship, but confusion prevailed until 1833, when a new Constitution, whose formation was begun two yean previously, was adopted. Under the amended form of govern- ment ah improved condition of affairs was established, which has endured up to the present day. Allusion has been made, under the head of Peru, to the war in which that country was conquered, but a fuller mention of il may be afforded here, as the event is one of great impor- tance in connection with South American history. Ii -7T \ Longitude U West from 32 Washington. 47 270 PERU. hostilities began between Chili and the allied republics of Bolivia and Peru, growing out of rival territorial claims, and claims to guano beds and mineral deposits. Chili insisted that, having done more than either of the others to repel the enemy, she was entitled to generous treatment. When the war came she had an army of 22,000 and a navy of ten small steamers and two powerful iron-clads, which gave her a vast advantage over the enemy. The war was conducted with great spirit and intrepidity, the naval conflicts between the two powers being especially remarkable for the ferocious courage displayed on both sides. In the spring of 1881 Callao and Lima were taken, and the Chilians were masters of the situation. By the terms of peace Chili exacted from the conquered countries the absolute annexation of the territory containing all the nitrates and the great bulk of the guano, the occupation of other territory for a period of years, and of the Loblis islands as long as there if anv guano on them ; also the payment of a monster war in- demnity. In 1891 a civil war resulted in the overthrow and death by suicide of President Balmaceda. An incident of this war was the escape from San Diego, California, with a cargo of arms, of the Chilian steamer Itata ; which was pursued and finally surrendered to the United States. Shortly after this a murderous attack was made upon unarmed American sailors in the streets of Valparaiso. The .United States demanded explanation and repara- tion, and the matter was left to diplomacy for settle- ment. e ^T „. t .„ *- E?EI^U. < fe< C++ ff\2s-»- -« »~M- C++ 1524, Pizarro made a visit to the coast of Peru, but it was not until 1531 that he returned with intention of con- quest. His aim was aided at the time by the divided con- dition of the country, for the possession of which rival Incas were struggling. With less than 200 men in his command, the Spanish adventurer made the friendship of one of the Incas, whom he took prisoner. Promising to release him for a ransom, he acquired from the natives metals and valuables worth nearly eighteen millions of dollars, after which he treacherously slew his prisoner. After subjecting the country to misrule, accompanied by atrocious cruelties, Pizarro was assassinated in 1541. Spanish rule became firmly rooted, however, and in the early part of the eighteenth century the colony of Quito was separated from Peru and added to the adjoining colony of New Granada. Another partition of the colony resulted in the formation of the separate govern- ments of Venezuela, Guatemala, Caracas, Cumana and Chili. Peru was the last of the colonies to rise against Spain, but in 1821 patriots from Chili and Buenos Ayres entered the country and drove the Spaniards from the capital. In 1824 the dicta- toiship was assumed by Bolivar, who, two years later, drove the Spaniards from their last stronghold, after which be ' a republic called Bolivia of the southern and southeastern por- tions of the colony, and resigned the dictatorship. Revolution in Peru occurred in 1826, and in place of the Constitution pre- pared by Bolivar, a new one, similar in form to that of the United States of America, was adopted. Civil war followed, but peace was finally brought about by General Castilla, who became President in 1845 and ruled the country until 1851, when, a vicious government succeeding him, another revolution occurred. Complications with the United States arose in 1858, through the seizure of several American vessels by ships belonging to the revolutionary forces, but in 1873 the American claims for damages were settled. Castilla's star once more shone in the ascendant, and the country enjoyed good gov- ernment until 1862. In 1867 a Constitution was adopted and a treaty of commerce and friendship was made with Chili. After revolutions, assassinations and other exhibitions of anarchical tendency, the country came, in 1879, into conflict with Chili. With the Bolivians as allies, the Peruvians made a gallant stand, but in 1881 the Chilians defeated and dispersed the Peruvian army and drove the President from the capital. After this disastrous war with Chili, which deprived Peru of territory and the income derived from the guano deposits, the Republic receded from public notice. Re- cent surveys, however, show the existence of rich di on the coast of the mainland, and in iSScjan arrangement was concluded by the Government for the cancellation of of its external debt, in pursuance of which the State rail- ways, the guano, the celebrated silver mines of Cerro de Pasco, and vast tracts of land are vested in the Peruvian Corporation. 4& "7 UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. 271 »*^9(§^*- She United States or (Colombia COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. +++++++++++ -*^-« +++++++++++£ jNE of the most enlightened and progressive coun- tries in South America is the United States of Colombia. In 1536-7 the country was con- quered by the Spaniards, who held it until 1809, when a war of independence, lasting eight years, gave its inhabitants their liberty. At that time the country, then known as New Granada, was united with Ecuador and Venezuela, but a separation took place in 1829, and the United States of Colombia, as at present organized, was formed. Civil wars desolated the country from i860 to 1885, but peace has prevailed generally since then. A Constitution was promulgated in 1S86 by which the ex- ecutive authority is vested in a President elected for six years, while the legislative power lies in a Senate consist- ing of three members from each State, and a House of Representatives, each of the nine States sending a mem- ber for every 50,000 of its inhabitants. The States have each their own legislature and executive officer. Venezuela was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and a settlement was effected by the Spaniards in 1520, who held the country until 1823, when the Venezuelans, who had declared their independence in 181 1, secured it after a severe struggle of eleven years' duration. It separated from New Granada and Ecuador in 1880. Many civil wars have devastated the country, which has hardly yet settled down to the peaceful enjoyment of the liberties guaranteed by the Constitution of J864, by which Venezuela became a federal republic, whose executive power is vested in a President holding office for four years. Legislative power lies in a Senate and House of Representatives, whose Deputies are named by corresponding State bodies. Ecuador was, many years previous to the coming of the Spaniards, the seat of an Indian monarchy, whose King was overthrown in the tenth century by Indians, who established a government and ruled the country until it was conquered in the latter part of the fifteenth century by Huaqua Capac, Inca of Peru. His sons divided the country between them and quarrelled, the war resulting in the victory of the one of them to whom the province of Quito had fallen. He reunited both countries, but in 1532 Pizarro seized and slew the Inca, and Spanish rule prevailed until 1809, when the colonists arose in rebellion and obtained their independence in 182a Ecuador became an independent State in 1830, and civil war followed, lasting twenty years, after which came war with Peru. Tran- quillity followed, and prosperity has of late rewarded the coun- try's efforts in the direction of commercial and social advance- ment. The Government is a republic, with the executive in the hands of a President, who is elected for four years. Legislative power rests in a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, who have respectively eighteen and thirty members. Paraguay was discovered in 1530, and settled in 1536 by the Spaniards, whose missionaries found the natives mild and peaceful of disposition and well disposed to receive the truths of Christianity. In 181 1 the country declared for independ- ence, and was for twenty-nine years kept under the rule of Jose Gaspar Rodriguez Francia, who sustained during the whole period a policy cf non-intercourse with foreigners. The country was accessible only by way of the river Parana, and ingress and egress by it were so thoroughly stopped that during the long period of his rule no foreigners whatever were allowed to enter, and only half a dozen were permitted to leave. Such shipping as was in the river at the time this policy was inaugurated stayed there, rotted and fell to pieces. This unique condition of affairs was only ended by Francia's death, when the dictatorship was seized by Antonio Lopez, who held it under the title of President until 1862, when he died, and was succeeded by his ambitious son, Francisco Solano Lopez, who set himself up as protector of the " equilibrium " of the La Plata region. War with Brazil, Uruguay and the Argentine Republic ensued, which lasted for five years, closing in 1870, when Lopez was killed and peace restored. At the mercy of its conquerors, Paraguay ceded a portion of its territory to Brazil, and agreed to pay in all an indemnity so enormous that it is now bankrupt and with no prospect of regaining the finan- cial prosperity it enjoyed previous to the war. Executive power rests in a Fresident, who is elected for four years, and the legislative function in a Congress composed of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies Guiana, consisting of three divisions, belonging respect- ively to Great Britain, France and the Netherlands, has no specially interesting historical reminiscences. British Guiana, the largest and most valuable of the three possessions, was 4¥ 4 t Q . ^ K 272 EUROPE. acquired by Great Britain in 1803. It u ruled by a Governor appointed by the Crown. French Guiana was acquired in 1704. It is not a very valuable possession, and its main use to France is as a penal settlement. Dutch Guiana, which lies between the others, is a rich country, and is ruled by a Gov- ernor-General and Council. Formerly known as Buenos Ayres, the Argentine Repub- lic was discovered in 15 12, and twenty-three years later its settlement begin, as a part of the Peruvian domain. Such it remained until the end of the fifteenth century, when the vice- royalty of Buenos Ayres was formed by the consolidation of the land now divided among the Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Uruguay and Bolivia. War for independence from Spanish rule began in 1809 and ended in 18 12, with the revolutionary arms in the ascendant. In 181 7 a Dictator was elected, subject to the limitations of a provisional constitution, and three years later a democratic government was inaugurated. After a war with Brazil the Argentine provinces in 1831 formed a confeder- ation, and the power fell into the hands of General Rosas, commander of the army, who exercised it despotically until 1852, when he was deposed, at which time the province of Buenos Ayres seceded from the confederation. It returned, however, later, and by a recent treaty the confederation was increased by the acquisition of all of Patagonia, except a strip along the Straits of Magellan, and all of the island of Terra del Kuego east of the Andes. Subsequent to the deposition of Rosas, the confederation engaged in a number of foreign wars, and suffered many internal bioils; but since 1890 peace has been enjoyed to a fair extent. A President, who is elected for six years by the provincial representatives, holds the execu- tive power. Legislative power restt in a National Congress, which comprises a Senate of twenty-eight members and a House of fifty-four Deputies. The provinces, fourteen in num- ber, are ruled by Governors, who are elected for fourteen years. Uruguay has a history even more bloody and bellicose than any other of the South American dominions. It was first settled by the Jesuits in the early part of the seventeenth century, but Spain and Portugal both claimed possession of it later, and after much fighting the former succeeded in making its claim good in 1724. About a century later Brazil an- nexed it, but it revolted and secured its independence in 1828. Since that time until quite recently revolution continued to be the normal condition of the country, and at times civil war was conducted with such ferocity that the intervention of foreign powers became necessary as an act dictated by feelings of humanity. Although in theory a republic, with a President and a Senate and House of Delegates, the real power lies with whatever General happens at the time to have the control of the military. Bolivia, named after Simon Bolivar, sometimes called the " Liberator of South America, " for the leading part which he took in helping the efforts made by the different States in the direction of independence, was held by the Spaniards until 1825, when it became independent. Since then revolt has almost entirely occupied the attention of its people. In the war with Chili it was virtually annihilated, the conditions ot peace imposed being such as to keep the country in everlasting subjection. A President enjoys the executive power, and legis- lative functions are vested in a Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, elected by the people. REECE has the honor of being in the van of European civilization and power, but in the seventh century before Christ a rival sprang up in Italy, which in the course of time attained such vigor that Greece at last was humbled to the condition of a Roman province. From 200 B.C. to 100 A.D. the Roman Empire enjoyed its greatest glory, extending its power until almost all Europe came under its rule. From the unconquered portion to the north, however, poured legions of barbarians, who overran the Roman Empire and laid upon its ruins the foundations of modern Europe. What are known as the dark or middle ages of European history lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century, and these are pregnant with historic interest, the extension of the Christian Church, with the accompanying development of rational civili- zation, being accomplished during those centuries. Many valuable inventions made during this period assisted in the beneficent work, among the most important of which was that of printing. Among the most advanced of European nations during this time were the republics of Italy, which led the world in commerce, the arts and civilization. Such is a general summary of the continent's history up to the end of the middle ages. Fuller facts regarding individual national progress during and subsequent to this period will be found under the proper heads elsewhere. GREAT BRITAIN. 273 ■i l W-^-T . ^^ jf /aaaaaaaaaaaBaaBaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaM f n ^ ' ' ' — "* * — |^#^ Gl^BAUT BRITAIN. X MaBBaaBBBBaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaalaaaaaaaaaaaii' [HE island now known as Great Britain was known to the ancients previous to the date at which its written history begins, the Phoenicians, Carthagin- ians and Massilians having visited its shores in their trading vessels. It was not, however, until the year 55 B.C. that its real history commenced, with the conquest of the country by Julius Caesar, and the establishment there of the Roman rule, which lasted until A. D. 420, when the pres- sure of Rome's enemies caused the withdrawal of the legions from Britannia — the name which Ctesar gave to the island in the stead of Albion, by which it had formerly been known. The departure of the Romans left the British a prey to the Picts and Scots, whose incursions, aided by internal dissen- sions among the British chiefs, re- duced the country to a condition of anarchy. One of these chiefs, seek- ing assistance to enable him to cope with the northern invaders, effected nn alliance, in A. D. 446, with Hen- gist, a prince of the Jutes, who, with Horsa, his brother, after driv- ing back the Picts and Scots, turned his arms against the Britons, whom they overcame in a series of san- guinary battles. In 457 Hengist declared himself King of Kent, and in the course of time the con- quest of England was fully ac- complished by the Saxons, Jutes and Angles, who established three Saxon, one Jutish and four Anglian kingdoms. About the year 830 the ruling power was consolidated, and Egbert, ruler of the Saxon kingdom, Wessex, became King of all England. During his reign began the invasions of the Danes, who, gaining increased power after the death of Alfred the Great in 901 , held the country from 1017 to 1041, when the crown reverted to the Anglo-Saxons and to Christianity, which had already been introduced in the person of Edward, surnamed the Confessor. His reign was merely nominal, the country being governed by Danish and English Earls, and when he died one of these, Harold, Earl of Wessex, seized the throne, which was soon wrested from him by William, Duke of Normandy, in France, who defeated him in the battle of Hastings, and established the Norman line of Kings. The Norman invasion was followed by the division of QUEEN'S CASTLE, BALMORAL the lands among William the Conqueror's followers, as feudal lords, the foundation thus being laid of a rich and powerful landed aristocracy, which has continued to successfully defend its ascendancy in spite of all opposition. As years went by the Normans and Saxons became merged into one people. In the court, French manners and the Norman-French language prevailed, while the Saxon tongue remained in use among the laboring classes ; but the writings of Chaucer fixed the English language, which, however, had received a strong impression from the invaders. The reigns of the Norman and Plantagenet monarchs were a series of contests between the Kings and the Barons, and the concessions which the latter wrung from royalty constitute some of the strong- holds of British liberty. One of the most important of these was the Magna Charta, which the Bar- ons forced King John to sign at Runnymede in 1215, and which secured to the English people two great rights : first, that no man should suffer arbitrary imprison- ment ; second, that no tax should be imposed without the consent of the National Council. In 1265 King Henry III. was imprisoned by the Barons, and the first English Par- liament was convened ; and though, in the same year, his son Edward defeated the Barons and restored his father, the latter was glad to conciliate his foes, and confirmed the great charter. During Ed- ward's reign Wales was conquered and annexed to England, and Scotland was menaced, but preserved her integrity through the skilful generalship of William Wallace and Robert Bruce. The shaping of the English Parliament was greatly, advanced during this reign, the National Council taking its moderrf form by the separation of the greater Barons from the tenants-in-chief, who thereafter took part in Parliament only through representatives. In 1295 the first session of the Commons in a separate chamber was held, and in 1296 was passed the statute providing that no tax should be imposed which was not sanctioned by the Barons, Bishops and Burges- ses. Popular government made another step forward in the reign of Henry IV., the first King of the house of Lancaster, t£= X K~ 274 GREAT BRITAIN. in the enactment of the statute granting the parliamentary right of election for counties to all freeholders, and the recog- nition of the two houses of Parliament as bodies possessing distinct privileges, which were not to be interfered with by each other. The reform of church abuses, which had been inaugurated by Wycliff, was opposed by Henry IV., while Parliament passed the act for the punishment of heretics, which for two centuries, almost, was made the instrument for the affliction of unutterable cruelties. The aspirations of the house of York to the throne led to the sanguinary civil con- flicts known as the Wars of the Roses. The Yorkists triumphed in 1461, and in Henry VII. 's marriage the two houses were joined together. The Tudor dynasty thus formed produced some remarkable reigns. Henry VIII., who in the early part of his reign earned the title of " Defender of the Faith," for his loyalty to the Pope, broke with Rome later, and assumed the title of " Head of the Church," and in 1535 the Papal authority was set aside by act of Parliament. In the reign of his daughter, Queen Mary, a devout Catholic, a strong effort was made to undo the work of reformation in England. The legislation of Henry VIII., and of the regency which suc- ceeded him, was repealed, and many who opposed the new deal were burned at the stake. Dying without issue, Mary was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister, Elizabeth, who restored the supremacy of the Church of England, which about this time accomplished the reform of the service books of the church, and of its doctrines, which resulted in the preparation of the thirty-nine articles, in substantially the same form as they exist at present. The nation was threatened in Eliza- beth's reign by the Spanish Armada, which Philip II. of Spain fitted out for England's invasion, but which, overtaken by a storm, was dispersed, and its great vessels made an easy prey for the lighter and more manageable English ships. Under Elizabeth Ireland was subjected, commerce with India established, and colonies planted in America. The Stuart family of Scotland succeeded that of Tudor, and with them culminated the struggle between royal preroga- tive and popular right. The power of the feudal Barons had already been destroyed, and the bulwark of British law and liberty now was the middle class. The Stuart monarchs, James I. and Charles I., by no means understood the spirit of their age, and their constant exercise of despotic power brought them in collision with the united trading and laboring classes. King Charles attempted to dispense with the Parliament, and ruled for many years without one, but in 1642 the people arose against him, and in 1645 the Roundhead (Puritan) army, under Oliver Cromwell, overthrew the Royalist forces. The King was imprisoned and executed, and Cromwell, declining the title of King offered him by Parliament, ruled the country as H.ord Protector of the Commonwealth. Under this great man the power of England increased greatly. At his death, in 1659, his son, an amiable man of moderate capacity, succeeded him, but resigned his power in the following year. This paved the way for the return of the Stuarts in Charles II., a vicious monarch, whose reign saw further conflicts between the King and Parliament, which, however, in 1679, showed their oppo- sition to his will, and passed the Habeas Corpus act. His brother and successor, James II., worked persistently for the overthrow of constitutional government and the establishment of despotic regal power with the Roman Catholic Church as the State religion, and fared no better than his predecessors, being forced to abdicate to make room for William of Orange, whose acceptance of the crown was made subject to limita- tions inspired by Parliament, which passed an act arranging for the succession, while the Bill of Rights guaranteed the lib- erty of the country. Under Queen Anne, the English armies under the famous Marlborough won splendid victories on the continent against France. In 1707 the union with Scotland was consummated. With George I., who succeeded her, came in the Hanoverian dynasty, during the early years of whose rale efforts were made to re-establish the Stuart line, whose hopes were finally crushed at Culloden in 1746. The reign of George II. was marked by the acquisition of India and Canada. En- gland's colonial possessions were largely increased during the earlier yearsof George III., but later on the persistent attempts to tax the American colonists drove them to successful revolu- tion and the formation of the United States of America. The intellectual brilliancy of the Parliamentary leaders of this epoch is one of its striking features, the destinies of the nation being in the hands of such men as Pitt, Fox, Burke and Sheri- dan. The successes of Napoleon in Europe alarming England, she joined with the other powers in a war whose object was to replace the Bourbons on the French throne. The prolonged con- flict was ended by the battle of Waterloo in 1815, in which Napoleon was defeated by a British army under Wellington and a Prussian army under Blucher. During these wars En- gland's victories at sea, under Admiral Nelson, constitute the brightest page in her naval history. In 1798 the Irish, assisted by the French, rebelled, but were subdued, and in 1801 occurred the passage of the act of union between Great Britain and Ireland. George IV., a regal profligate, succeeded him, and in the reign of William IV., who followed, was passed the first reform bill, which placed the political power in the hands of the people. Three years before his death, which occurred in 1837, the decree was ordered abolishing slavery from British territory. He was succeeded by the present sov- ereign, Queen Victoria, whose reign has proved one of the most remarkable, as well as beneficent, of all the British sov- ereigns. Born in London, May 24, 1819, she was only 18 years old at the time of her accession. In February, 1840, she was married to her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, with whom she sustained very happy conjugal relations until his death, in 1861, since which time she has remained a widow. The earliest event of importance in her reign was the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1845. In 4847 a famine occurred in Ireland, which was followed by a large emigration from that country. The Chartist agitation followed in 1848, and in 1853 the Crimean war commenced, in which England and France allied themselves with Turkey against the encroachments of Russia. It lasted from January, 1854, until March, 1856, when the Russians, having lost the fortress of Sebastopol, which was the key to their position, consented to a peace. The next serious employment of the English arms was that provided in the suppression of the Indian mutiny, which occurred in 1857-8, after which England assumed direct con- trol of affairs in that country. In 1868 the supplementary "7[ IRELAND. 275 reform bill was passed, and in 1870 the disestablishment of the Irish Church was accomplished. In the year fol- lowing, the peaceful negotiation of the differences be- tween the United States and Great Britain, caused by the acts of the rebel cruiser Alabama, resulted in an Alabama claims treaty. Amongst the minor wars of her reign were thoce against the Chinese, Abyssinians and Ashan- tees, the Afghanistans, Zulas and Boers, Egyptians and Mahdists, and Arabs. Great Britain is just now menaced by the defiant attitude of her Irish subjects, who, seeking to redress the wrongs which they have suffered, are in quasi rebellion against the Government. Assisted by political societies, whose ramifications extend to foreign countries where expatriated Irishmen have found homes, the plotters for Irish liberty are endeavoring, by acts of violence organized and accomplished in secret, to terrify the Government into granting the concessions they de- mand. The Government of Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. The executive function is vested in the sovereign, and the legislative in the Imperial Parliament. The succession to the throne is settled upon the descend- ants of Sophia of Brunswick, and no change in the "Act of Settlement" can be made without the consent of Par- liament. The heir apparent assumes the title of "Prince of Wales." The Parliament consists of the sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, and an act to obtain the force of law must be passed by all three. Membership in the House of Lords is hereditary. There are 537 members, including the two Archbishops and twenty-four Bishops of the Established Church of Eng- land. The House of Commons has 670 members — 495 for England and Wales, 103 for Ireland and 72 for Scot- land. Of these, 9 represent the universities, 377 the counties, and 284 the boroughs, The number of Parlia mentary electors in 1891 was 6,173,668; being 36,176 for the universities, 3,787,290 for the counties, and 2,350,202 for the boroughs. The members of the Cabinet Council are appointed by the sovereign, but responsible to Parlia- ment, and consequently their appointment is virtually made by the party in the majority. The sovereign ap- points the members of the Privy Council, the Lord Mayor of London being the only ex officio member, but public business is in reality conducted by the Cabinet Council. In Ireland the Crown is represented by a Lord Lieutenant. •m- ^r AA #? *•- ICELAND. ■♦■ ' T the present moment, on account of the strenuous ra effort the Irish are making to effect the liberation of their land, Ireland is commanding a great deal of attention. Christianity was introduced into the island in the fifth century, when St. Patrick, being taken a captive in war, was sold into slavery in Ireland, where he remained for five years. Twenty years later he returned there as a missionary, and for thirty years preached the truths of the gospel to its people, succeeding most remarkably in his mission as a Christian propagandist. From the eighth to the eleventh century was the period of Ireland's greatest compara- tive civilization. During this period she was far more advanced than England in learning and culture. Colleges flourished, and the arts were carried to a high degree of perfection. Unfor- tunately, while so well advanced in civilization, Ireland had not achieved what was at that time necessary for her salvation — a strong central government. On the contrary, it was divided up into a number of petty kingdoms, which had no secure bond of union. Hence, when the Plantagenet monarch of England, Henry II., made his raids in 1172, his conquest of the disunited country was a comparatively easy matter, taking into consideration the really warlike qualities of the Irish chiefs and Barons who ruled the land. The foothold thus gained was in the province of Leinster, and from that date England has asserted a fictitious claim to rule a people persistently unreconciled to any interference with home rule. It was under the Tudors, however, that the fate of the un- happy island was settled. There was no centralization in Ireland. Britain became great because the petty kingdoms were consolidated into one nation, while Ireland dwindled away and lost its splendid opportunity, through the calamitous influence of the tribe and the clan, in distinction from the country. For a long time the "English Pale," or the area of actual British rule in Ireland, was very limited. Henry VII. determined to extend it, but pursued his purpose only feebly. Henry VIII. was more intently bent on Irish subju- gation, and under his reign nobles and people felt the crushing hand of a tyrant. In 1542 he assumed the title of King, instead of Lord of Ireland, by virtue of an act passed by the Anglo-Irish Parliament in 1541, and about the same time some of the native princes were induced to acknowledge him as their sovereign and to accept peerages. Since then his suc- cessors have never ceased to hold fast both the shadow and substance of Irish sovereignty. In order that the national sentiment might be suppressed, the language, dress, customs and laws of the country were prohibited. The fact that Henry was at war with the Pope made loyalty to Rome an expres- sion of patriotism in Ireland. Very little favor was extended to the doctrines of the Reformation, either by the descendants of the old English settlers or by the native Irish, and when ^J 7-1 V 276 IRELAND. the English Government sought to introduce it great dissen- sions were stirred up. When Mary came to the throne, and Protestantism lacked the support of the Government, it almost immediately melted away. She was not disposed to abandon the island to itself by any means, but her personal sympathies were with the Irish in the matter of religion. Elizabeth was in sympathy, of course, with the Protestantism of her father rather than the papacy of her sister ; but she took a secular view of the Irish question, and under her the power of the British Crown was felt throughout the entire island. The old Celtic Constitution was rejected ; the tribal authority of the chiefs was taken from them, and the tribal system of property set aside ; English judges and English law were substituted for the old proceedings : the result of which, says Green, was that " the evicted natives withdrew sullenly to the lands which had been left them by the spoiler ; but all faith in English justice had been torn from the minds of the Irishry, and the seed had been sown of that fatal harvest of distrust which was to be reaped through tyranny and massacre in the age to come. " Very shortly before Elizabeth's death occurred the famous insurrection of Tyrone, who invited the Span- ,7 iards to assist him; but they were all defeated in 1620. Repeated rebel- lion tried the temper of the Government, which, in the reign of James I., seized the province of Ulster and divided it among such of his Scotch and English subjects as chose to settle there. In 1641 occurred More and Maguire's rebellion, in which an endeavor was .made to expel the Prot- estants from the island. From 1649 to 1656 the iron hand of Cromwell was laid upon the land. In the year of King Charles' execution, the Royalists being still' strong and rebellious in Ireland, Cromwell went there in. person as Lord-Lieutenant and Commander-in- Chief, and his measures were so cruel and sanguinary that the Island was, in nine months, completely crushed. He left in charge of it his son-in-law, Ireton, who completed the island's subjec- tion, and no disturbance of its tranquillity occurred until the revo- lution. The northern province, Ulster, was colonized by Scotch shortly after Cromwell's invasion. At the time of the revolution James II. received very generally the support of the Irish, while the Scotch and English colonists took the part of William and Mary. The struggle between oppressor and oppressed lasted for four years, and was ended by the bloody battle of the Boyne, fought July 1, 1690, and result- ing in the overthrow of the Irish, who, two years later, were again in utter subjection. From this time on the British ) SACKVILLE STREET, DUBLIN. Government systematically sought to destroy the Irish national sentiment. Penal laws were passed which imposed terrible restrictions upon the Roman Catholic population, and rebel- lions were frequent. Backed by the "Volunteers," Henry Grattan secured a free Parliament and the partial abolition of the heavy restrictions on Irish commerce. It was mainly through this patriot's exertions and influence that the stringent pressure of the penal laws against the Roman Catholics was relaxed. He steadily opposed the idea of a legislative union of the countries, and in 1800 he was elected to fight in Parliament for Irish liberty. Two years previous the country, driven to desperation by oppression, had been in revolt, and the year that saw Grattan's election saw also the crushing out of the attempt to secure Ireland's liberty. Not- withstanding his brilliant advocacy of the Irish cause, the oppressors were in the preponderance in Parliament, and the union was consummated January I, 1801. Since that time Ireland has not lacked for agitators to keep alive the national spirit and to fight for the amelioration of her condition. In 1829 the Catholic Emancipation act was passed, largely through ^^^__ the exertions of the great Daniel O'Connell, and later on a reform bill and a poor-law were en- acted. About the mid- dle of the present century a strong movement was on foot for the repeal of the union, and while it was in progress famine fell upon the land and whole counties were de- populated. In 1848 Smith O'Brien's abortive revo- lution was easily sup- pressed. More formida- ble since then have been the alternately secret and overt workings of the Fenian Brotherhood. Organized in 1859 m both America and Great Brit- ain, it held a congress at Chicago in 1863 that attracted much attention. Two years later another was held in Cincinnati, which represented a con- stituency of 80,00a In 1866 an attempt was made to conquer Canada, and in 1867 several Fenian riots occurred in Great Britain. It has been urged that these aggressive movements accomplished nothing. Directly they may have failed of great success, but indirectly they proved of immense value to the 1 1 Mb 1 .iuse. By far the greater part of the population of Ireland hold the Roman Catholic faith, and their taxation for the sup- port of the State Church was one of the leading causes of Irish discontent. It is not uninteresting to note that it was in 1869— two years after the first Fenian agitation — that the Episcopal State Church was disestablished and disendowed, and the endowment, except as used for annuities, dedicated to educational and other secular purposes. Important as was the V IRELAND. 277 concession, it did not satisfy the Irish people, who had placed national independence and autonomy as the goal of their combined struggles, and a powerful movement was inaugurated for securing reform in tenure of land and the relations of landlord and tenant. Under the lead of Mr. Parnell, Irish ideas as to the proper relation of Ireland to Great Britain were brought nearer to reali- zation than they ever before were within the last 600 years. His policy was to compel attention to Irish wants by obstruction of parliamentary business. By speaking on every topic before the House, he wearied the English members into action on Irish affairs. His first demand was for fixity of tenure for farmers, fair rent, and free sale. This was secured in 1881. But having, in 1S79, with Mr. Davitt, organized the Land League, with the object of inducing the tenant farmers to take a greater interest in the national movement, Mr. Parnell increased his demands upon the English Government and declared for Irish independence and a Parliament in Dublin. His arrest and imprisonment in Kilmainham jail, the outlaw- ing of the League, and the assassinations in Phoenix ■Park, in 1882, were striking events of this period. Toward the close of 18S5 Mr. ParnelPs persistence was rewarded by Mr. Gladstone's submission, and a Home Rule bill was the result. The advent of the Tories to power, in 1886, prevented the immediate realization of Mr. Parnell's hopes, though he succeeded in extracting, even from the victors, legislation which placed Irish tenants in a position of advantage over other tenants in any part of the world. An alleged fac-simile letter, pub- lished by the London Times, representing Mr. Parnell as consenting to the Phoenix Park murder, was shown after a protracted trial to be a forgery. It was at this period that he reached the top of his career and the height of his popularity. The cloud thrown upon the Irish patriot's life by a divorce in 1890, in which Mr. Parnell figured as co-respondent, had important results for the Irish party, introducing dissension and causing ulti- mately Mr. Parnell's expulsion from the leadership at Mr. Gladstone's demand. Mr. Parnell died Oct. 6, 1891. In 1892 the party in Parliament numbered 30 Parnellites, against 54 anti-Parnellites led by Justin McCarthy. Ireland is represented in the British House of Com- mons by 103 members, and in the House of Lords by 28 representative Peers, who are elected and hold office for life. Its executive consists of a Lord Lieutenant and Privy Council, nominated by the Crown. English rule is enforced throughout the country with the assistance of an armed military constabulary numbering over 12,000 -M 18 "^ 278 -7 SCOTLAND -f4DI» n» i i«i* t tniim ' H"t»«i*« *> n B g ? ■ , » ' ^^1 # Scotland. # [REVIOUS to the union with England, Scotland, as an independent country, had attracted considerable attention. In the middle of the ninth century the Scots acquired a predominance in North Britain by revolution. A lineal descendant of Ardan, a powerful prince who more than once successfully invaded the English borders, named Kenneth, claimed the British realm. Under his son, Malcolm II., the Scotch acquired the Merse and Teviotdale from the Earl of Northumbria. Malcolm III., who succeeded, had a long and prosperous reign, in which Scotland made great strides forward, both polit- ically and socially. English customs were introduced, owing to his long residence in England and his mar- riage with an English princess, and the En- glish language began to make headway on account of the large immigration from England which took place. During the succeeding reigns of Edgar, Alexander I., and David, who was a great reformer in both clerical and sec- ular affairs, the En- glish influence in- creased. One of the ablest and best of Scottish kings was indei 111., who, oy a treaty with Norway, added the Isle of Man to bit dominions, together with other of the Western Sea. A dispute over the crown followed the death of his granddaughter in 1290, and the decision l>etween the claimants, Jialiol and Bruce, was left to Kin;; Edward I. of England, who entered the country with an army, deposed Baliol and instituted English government. A prolonged strug- gle for Independence followed, in which the heroic deeds of Wallace and Bruce gained for the Scotch a deathless reputation VIEW OF 1 DINBt for valor and patriotism. During succeeding generations the history of Scotland was one prolonged story of interminable civil and border warfare, and of occasional invasions from England. Amicable relations between the Crown and the nobles were first accomplished during the reign of James IV., whose gay and elegant court seduced the warriors from the field and left the peasantry to attend undisturbed to the peace- ful and profitable occupation of husbandry. Fisheries were encouraged, a navy built and commerce promoted, while the King's marriage with Margaret, daughter of the Tudor Henry VII., laid the foundation of the union of the two kingdoras. Henry VIII. sought to con- quer the country, and in the war v James IV. was pro- voked into declaring against him the Scotch navy was destroyed, and its armies de- feated on Flodden Heights. The King niong the slain. . isequently James V., was then a minor, and during the regency which en- sued the countr- into a wretched «. Hemarrieda dauglneroftlie French Duke of Guise, the fruit of which mar- is the unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots, whose son, James VI. of Scotland, became Jan .-and, thusuniting the two countries. The overthrow of the Stuart family and other events v hich happened from the accession of James VI. to the '1 throne, down to ratification of the act of union by the Scottish Parliament in 1707, are told in the history of Great Britain given elsewhere. Scotland retained, on its admisa the union, its church system and its laws. It is governed by the Imperial Parliament, to which it elects 72 commoners. V _-' £1= s v GERMANY. ^ / 2 79 iaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaasaaaaaaaaBaBBaaaBBBaB&s + Germany. + *ZK1 BBBBBESBBEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEL^EEEEEJ respect. HEN Julius Caesar was on his way of exploration through Europe, which led him through Gaul and into Great Britain, he avoided rather than sought to measure arms with the Germans, whose fighting he tasted of and then learned to A conflict between the Romans and Germans was, KINO'S PALACE, BERLIN. however, inevitable, and the freedom and independence of the nation was firmly established by Arminius, who crushed the invaders in the historic battle of Teuto- berger, which occurred B.C. 9. About 500 years later, Clovis, moving westward, established the Frankish Empire, which, under the famous Charlemagne, reached from the Raab, in Hungary, to the Ebro, in Spain, and from the Eider, in the north, to the Tiber, in the south. The division and subdivision of the empire created numerous duchies and principalities, and the ruler over all was generally the one who was able to secure the influence of the clerical leaders. Wars for the possession of the imperial crown and changes of dy- B| nasty were frequent. The empire lasted until 1273, when Count Rudolph of Haps- burg began his reign as King, destroyed the power of the nobles and laid the foundation of the family which still reigns over Austria. In the reign of Charles V. the power of Ger- many was extended so that it included Belgium, Spain, the Netherlands, Austro-Hungary and Italy, and she became the ruling power in Europe. This reign was also remarkable for the beginning of the Reformation. In 1521, at the Diet of Worms, Luther made his famous defence ; at the Diet of Speyer was made the formal protest of his supporters against decisions unfavorable to them, while at the Diet of Augs- burg their creed was publicly announced. Religious dis- sensions occupied the country for about fifty years after the retirement of Charles V., in 1556, and in 1618 the Thirty- Years' War broke out. At first the Protestants were defeated, but under Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, they rallied, and Germany was secured forever in her religious freedom by the peace declared at Westphalia in 1648. In 1675 the Elector of Brandenburg vanquished the Swedes at Fehrhellin and laid the foundation of the Prussian monarchy, the name of Prussia being assumed when Frederick I. was crowned King in 1701. Numerous wars occurred in the next one hundred years, aad constant mutations occurred in the map of Germany. The young kingdom of Prussia, under the famous Fredericks, developed rapidly into a first-class power, and in the great wars, especially that which led to the downfall of Napoleon, her generals and soldiers gained many important victories. During the Napoleonic wars Germany lost a large portion of y '-:*m HEIDELBERG, her territory, fully half of it being lost by the Peace of Tilsit in 1806, when Napoleon formed the Rhenish Confederation under French protection, and the German Empire was for- mally dissolved. Subsequent to the return of the Bourbons 280 GERMANY the affairs of Germany were regulated in accordance with a plan drawn up by Metternich, whose influence then predomi- nated throughout Europe. In 1833 the Zollverein was estab- lished, an important event as being in the direction of a united Germany. The confederation of the German States was alter- nately swayed by Austria and Prussia. In 1849 Frederick William IV. of Prussia was tendered the imperial crown by the Diet of Frankfort, but declined to accept it. His succes- sor, William I., early evinced a desire to rule in accordance with constitutional views, but when, in 1862, the Government declined to pass certain laws relating to the army, he created Bismarck Minister of State and instituted a violent reaction. In the following year Prussia laid claim to the Danish duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which Denmark disputed, and, war following, the Prussian arms were victorious and the two countries were annexed. This action was opposed by Austria, who sought to have them placed under the rule of a branch of the Danish royal family, and in June, 1866, war was declared against Prussia, whose splendidly organized army, armed with the needle-gun, which was at that time a novelty in warfare, completely routed the Austrians at Sadowa. Austria with- drew entirely from the German confederation and acknowl- edged the political and other changes which Germany had undergone at Prussia's hands. The work of German unifica- \k>n was now further advanced. The North German Confed- eration was formed, its Constitution, modified in parts, was made to cover the whole German Empire, and treaties were effected with the South German States. France, jealous of the growing power of Germany, became alarmed when she saw that the unity of her traditional foe in the East was fast being realized, and the relations of the two countries became day by day more strained. A conflict was inevitable, and the issue was furnished by the question of supplying a ruler for Spain, whose throne was at that time tenantless. The crown was tendered by the Spaniards to Prince Leopold of Hohen- zollern, who declared his willingness to accept it. The French Government, hoping to gain a diplomatic victory of great political consequence, demanded of King William that he should command the Prince to withdraw his acceptance of the Spanish crown. This the King declined to give, and when the Prince himself renounced the crown the French Govern- ment demanded of William a declaration that he approved of the renunciation and that he would not in the future permit of the Prince's candidature. This William declined to give, and on July 19, 1870, France declared war against Prussia. In a very few days it became apparent that the haste with which the French diplomats had brought about the war was not war- ranted by the condition of the country's military and naval affairs. From the beginning it was apparent that, while the Prussian armies were in a high state of efficiency, those of France existed to a large extent only on paper, were poorly equipped and very defectively organized. The fight opened at Saarhruckcn, where the French gained a slight advantage, but the defeats of Weissenburg and Worth completely changed the aspect if affairs. The French armies withdrew into France, and the German battalion! streamed over the fron- tier, following up eagerly the advantages they had secured Bazaine, the French commander-in-chief, after conducting several unsuccessful battles, was locked up in Metz with a large army. The main body of the French army, led by Napoleon III. and commanded by Marshal MacMahon, sought to relieve Bazaine, but were checked at Sedan and over- thrown. Napoleon surrendered and was sent in captivity to Wilhelmshohe. The war should have ended here, as the German hold upon France was so complete that no hope was left to her. The Parisians, however, would not accept the situation. A pro- visional government was formed and the defence of the capital, pending the formation of a new army, decided upon. The Empress Eugenie escaped to England. September 19 the German armies invested Paris, the idea being to starve the city out, and January 26 the siege was raised and the Germans took possession. At Versailles, February 26, a preliminary peace was signed, by which Alsace and Lorraine were to be ceded and a war indemnity paid to the Germans. The peace was ratified by the French National Assembly, and Paris was evacuated. Thus it will be seen that the war which France waged against the unification of Germany resulted in its accomplishment. The treaties by which the unity was secured were concluded between Northern and Southern Ger- many in December, 1870, and January 18, 1871, while the victorious German armies were thundering at the gates of Paris, the King of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of Ger- many as Kaiser Wilhelm I. The Government of Germany is a limited monarchy. The German Empire is a confederation of sovereign States, with largely representative governments. Although the Emperor is limited in certain relations, he is given large power in others. By the terms of the Constitution, which bears date April :o, 187 1, all the States of Germany form an eternal union for the protection of the realm and care of the welfare of the German people. In the King of Prussia, who bears the title of Deutscher Kaiser (German Emperor), is vested the supreme direction of the military and political affairs of the Empire. The Kaiser "represents the Empire internationally," and can declare war, if defensive, and make peace ; can enter into treaties with other nations, and can appoint and receive em- bassadors. To declare war, if not merely defensive, he must have the consent of the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, in which body, together with the Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm, are vested the legislative functions of the Empire. The Reichs- tag represents the German Nation, and its members, 397 in numl>er, are elective by universal suffrage and ballot for terms of three years. The Bundesrath represents the individual States, and its members, numbering 58, are appointed for each session by their respective governments. The Bun- desrath and Reichstag meet in annual session, convoked by the Emperor. All laws must have a majority of both houses, and niust be approved by the Emperor and promulgated by the Chancellor of the Empire. =& ^5U/F0Rl*N> ft AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 28l V USTRIA'S early history will be found under the head of Germany. The Government under which the Aus- tro-Hungarian Empire now exists will receive at- tention here. About the end of the eighth century Charlemagne founded a Margraviate in Lower Austria which, in 1156, became a Duchy, and three centuries later an Arch-Duchy. Maximilian II., son of Emperor Charles V., of Germany, became Emperor in 1564, with a dominion over Austria, Hungary and Bohemia. It was not until the eighteenth century that Austria came to the front as one of the great European powers, and attained a preponderating influence in the conduct of German affairs. In the year 1806 the reigning Emperor, Francis, renounced the title of Emperor of the Romans and became the first Emperor of Austria. In the seven years which followed, Napoleon worried the country, but he was courageously resisted, and the territories which he took from her were restored in 181 5 by the Congress of Vienna, together with the Tyrol, Dalmatia, Lombardy and Venice, and the Illyrian provinces. Several insurrections in the Austro- Italian provinces occurred during the last year of Emperor Francis' reign, and the maintenance of the confederation was shown to be a very difficult matter, far beyond the ability of his son, Ferdinand I., who succeeded in 1835. The crafty Metternich almost entirely dictated the national policy during his reign, which ended by his abdication in 1848, when the thione was given to his nephew, Francis Joseph. During this .year occurred the Hungarian revolution, led by Kossuth. In 1859 t ne relations of Austria and France were broken off, but after a warfare of two months the two Emperors, Francis Joseph and Napoleon III., consummated a peace by which Austria surrendered Lombardy, Italy was made a confedera- tion under the Pope, and Tuscany and Modena were restored to their rulers. The Constitution which Kossuth and his com- patriots struggled for in 1848 was granted in 1867. In i860 the first Constitution of Austria was promulgated, which was followed by a patent in 1S61, upon which was based a charter that went into effect in 1867. Hungary's independence was acknowledged, and July 8, 1867, the Emperor was crowned King of Hungary, vhich countr; pledged itself to contribute to the national revenues. In 1864 Austria combined with Prussia in the occupation of the Danish provinces of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg, which terminated in their acquisition; but, quarrelling afterward with Prussia over the question of their disposition, she went to war with that power. This adventure was freighted with disaster, and the peace which followed was only purchased at the cost of Venetia, the fortresses of the Quadrilateral, the recognition of the dissolution of the German Confederation, and the payment of a large indemnity. After the close of the Turko-Russian war of 1877-8, the Austrian Empire was enlarged by the acquisition of Bosnia, Herze- govina and Novi-Bazar. By the present Constitution each of the two countries, Aus- tria and Hungary, has its own parliament, ministry and govern- ment, the connecting links being a common sovereign, army, navy and diplomacy, together with a controlling body known as the Delegations. The latter form a parliament of 120 mem- bers, equally divided between the two countries, the delegates being chosen by the local legislatures, the latter bodies having two branches, substantially the same as the Senate and House of the United States Congress. The local legislature or diet is called Reichstag in Hungary, Reichsrath in Austria. The delegations of each country sit in a body by themselves, possess- ing co-ordinate authority and power; but if they cannot agree upon measures while thus acting separately, they meet as one body, and the final vote is binding upon the entire empire. This imperial diet is confined in its jurisdiction to foreign affairs and war. There are three Ministers for the whole em- pire, namely, the Ministers of War, of Foreign Affairs and of Finance. There is a ministr) in Austria and another in Hun- gary. The former consists of v'e Interior, Public Education, Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Finance, Agriculture, Com- merce, and National Defence. The Hungarian departments or executives are: Presidency of the Council, Finance, National Defence, Ministry near the King's Person, Interior, Educa- tion and Public Worship, Justice, Communications and Public Works, Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, and the Ministry of Croatia and Slavonia. The Imperial Cabinet is responsible to the Delegations, the local cabinets to their respective diets, the Reichstag and Reichsrath, as the case may be. V- ^A ■f X :«v *« (2 _ ^ ! imHIIMIHHMHmillll M HHH ?=3g Belgium. ^ ~— ! l I ti'i IT II MmM ii I i ijij t i +*4i**m I ** ' "TC^P^ST* " ' ' ELGIUM, the most densely populated country in Eu- rope, was in its earlier days a favorite bone of con- tention for the European powers, and frequently be- came the battle-field upon which their claims were settled. The Burgundians, the Austrians and the Spaniards successively ruled it, and in Napoleon's time it came under French rule. In 1S14 a union between Holland and Belgium took place, which proved very unpopular with the Belgians, and shortly after the Paris revolution of 1830 they rose against the Government in such force that the troops ordered to quell the uprising found themselves unable to do so. Brussels, the capital, and other large cities fell into the hands of mobs, who destroyed much valuable property. A separa- tion of the States followed, and the differences between them were finally settled by a convention of the great powers in London. The dissolution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands was proclaimed, and in 1831 Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg entered Brussels as the Belgian King; but the kingdom was not recognized by all the States of Europe until 1839, when the treaty was signed which established peace between Leopold and the King of the Netherlands. Leopold I. died in 1865, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Leopold II., who still reigns. Belgium has long been the scene of a struggle between the priests a"" 1 osed to be settled on liberal principles, but since then there has been another keen struggle between the Progressionists and the Ultramontanes, and in 1875 Belgium was the scene of serious religious riots, in which many persons taking part in processions were injured by mobs which attacked the demon- strations. The Government of Belgium is a limited constitutional monarchy, which was established in its present form by the revolution. The broadest principles of freedom and liberality are its foundation; power comes from the people, and is re- strained by law. Republican equality and simplicity pervade all institutions. No act of the King is valid unless it has the approval of one of his Ministers. The law-making power is vested in the Legislature, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives, who are elected in the proportion of one to every 40,000 inhabitants. The law is administered by local and provincial tribunals, with courts of appeal in the principal cities. The provinces, each of which has a Governor who is named by the King and a Provincial Council, are divided for civil purposes into arondisscments, justice of peace cantons, and communes. The provincial councils guard the interests of the different provinces, direct taxation, superintend public improvements and prepare budgets. *8* I7OLLAND. (THE NETHERLANDS.) -Hr -h* -f~M- FTER being ruled for four centuries by a number of princes who were subject to either France or Ger- many, the Netherlands, in the fourteenth century, came almost entirely under the rule of the Duke of Burgundy. At that time the country Ml rich, prosperous and happy, the controlling interest of the State resting in the great commercial cities, which were in the enjoy- ment of almost republican freedom, and renowned for the splendor and wealth which they acquired under the Bnrgundian # rule. About the middle of the sixteenth century an attempt to bring under the power of the Inquisition the Netherland Protestants, who had taken early a part in the Reformation, was stoutly resisted. Concessions were made which produced I temporary quiet, but Philip II., who was King at the time, entered upon the work of crushing Protestantism, and carried it 011 with mere i' his ferocious policy entailing the execution of large Dumber! of the aristocracy who had aided the rebellion. The Prince of Orange, having made alliance » J- HOLLAND. 285 with the Protestant powers, waged war against the oppressor. However, the assassination of the Prince in 1584 for the time being dashed their hopes of success, and the war ended. His son, Prince Maurice, carried on the war later with success. In 1648 war with Spain ended, and the Netherlands achieved their independence. Foreign conquest occupied the attention of the Dutch even when occupied with domestic troubles, and they have advanced greatly in prosperity. The colonial possessions of the country are very important, consisting mainly of islands in the East Indies ; portions of Borneo, Celebes and Sumatra, in Asia; and Dutch Guiana and Curacoa and several islands in America. Like Belgium, the Government of the Netherlands is a limited constitu- tional monarchy, with the executive vested in the King, CITY OF AMSTERDAM. their standard was planted on several of the East India Islands and on the American continent. A great naval power, they for many years disputed with England the supremacy of the seas. The events which led to the separation from Bel- gium are described in the history of that country. Since that occurrence the Netherlands, with the exception of wars with her colonies, have enjoyed a prolonged peace, during which w ith a Council of State nominated by him, and the Minis- ters of the Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, War, the Colonies, Marine and Justice. Legislative authority rests in a Parliament, consisting of two chambers, known as the States-General. The governors of the provinces, the burgo- masters of cities, towns and villages, and many other officials, are appointed by the King. 2b^ / 71 r v%.n.nAXt.u .t»vVk« f GalTowa; 8 Longitude West 5 .from Greenwich 4 , . v> v\V V f ■&. - t»\fcV Wfc. IV NORWAY AND SWEDEN. «1 H Roi^way and Sweden. •M-4 — °-*-c — » «, <- jORWAY was a collection of petty tribes up to the time of Harold Harfager, who, in 863, began the work of unification. Attempts to introduce Chris- tianity met with little success up to the time of Olaf Skatkonung, who inaugurated a crusade against the Pagan Finns, destroyed the Pagan temples, and laid the foundations of the city of Trondhjem. In the early part of the eleventh century Canute, the Danish King of England, con- quered Olaf and assumed the C: jwn. Wars with Britain fol- lowed, and Ireland was invaded. On the water the prowess of the Norsemen was remarkable, and for years they scourged the seas, but the defeat of Haco V. off the west coast of Scotland, and his death later in the Orkney Islands, were fol- lowed by a period of national depression. National industries were checked, foreign wars exhausted the exchequer, and in two years following 1347 the plague prevailed through the land, carrying off more than half the people. Not only its nationality, but also its language, passed away during this period, and when, in 1380, the crown descended to the son of Olaf III., a union of the two countries was accomplished which lasted for over four centuries. Near the close of the fourteenth century Margaret effected the conquest of all Scandinavia, and the three kingdoms became one under the treaty of Calmar, which remained in force until 1523, when Sweden emancipated herself from the union with Denmark, and gave to Gustaf Vasa, who helped on the deliverance, the crown. For more than two centuries thereafter Norway was merely a province of Denmark, but about the beginning of this century the national prospects brighto.ied, M,ien Charles XIV. of Sweden was on the throne. ne Danes acknowledged Norway as a Swedish dominion, and the two countries were united August 14, 1814. In 1818, Napoleon's General, Berca- dotte, was elected to the throne, and under him and the succeed- ing generations of his dynasty, which still rules, great advance- ment has been made in the direction of liberal government. SWEDEN'S modern history is almost indissolubly connected with that of Norway. During the rule of Gustaf Vasa, who headed the successful revolt against Denmark, the country enjoyed great prosperity. In succeeding reigns the country was at war almost constantly, and the successes of the great Gustavus Adolphus are among the most glorious of the nation's annals. In 1743, in a war with Russia which had lasted two years, Sweden lost Eastern Finland to that power. A new con- stitution was decreed in 1809, when Gustavus IV. was forcibly deposed in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. The union with Norway, in 1814, which has already been mentioned, ends the distinctive histories of both countries. In 1855 Russian encroachments were threatened, but an alliance which Norway and Sweden effected with Great Britain and France, by wnich the former engaged themselves never to cede < r sell territory to Russia, secured the guarantee by the two utter powers of their future territorial integrity Yhougn naving a common ruier, the treaty of union between Norway and Sweden leaves each of them free, independent, indivisible and inalienable. The Government, of which Oscar II. is now the head, is a constitutional hereditary monarchy. Legislative authority lies in the Storthing — an assembly of deputies which meets annually, and whose members are chosen by indirect election. It meets of its own authority and divides itself into two chambers — the Lagthing, practically a Senate, and consisting of about two-fifths of the entire Storthing, and the Odelsting. A Council of State gives con- sent to the declaration of war, making of peace or conclusion and abrogation of treaties by the King, who is required to pass some months of each year at Norway and to be crowned at Trondhjem. ■+-*«- fg r^-w t*«$ *■• — 5> M Denmai^. < & ■* * " * * «■ — 5 3 *N the days of the Norsemen Jutland was occupied by a number of sea-faring chieftains, who divided their time between war among themselves and piracy upon out- siders. In the tenth century these bold marincr-war- riors had made their way as far as the coasts of Scotland and Normandy, carrying terror into such places as they vis- ited. After having paid England one or two fixing visits, thej came to stay in ioiS, when the Danish King Canute added that country to his dominions in the east. The Danish tenure was of short duration. Anarchy arose in Denmark afl departure, and in 1042 his dynasty became extinct, and his sister's son, Bvend I.stiidscn, succeeded. Foreign war* ■_ FRANCE. 289 rr and internal dissensions enfeebled the land, and a powerful aristocracy arose who oppressed the people, reducing them almost to a condition of slavery. In the reign of Canute VI. and Valdemar II. the power of Denmark grew until its regal authority extended over Holstein, Pomerania and a large por- tion of North Germany. The Baltic became little more than a 1 tanish inland sea, and heavy tolls were exacted of all for- eign vessels which entered it. After the death of Valdemar, in 1241, internal disquietude possessed the country, which rap- idly lost its possessions and prestige. The third Valdemar, however, retrieved the nation and regained many of its pos- sessions. Dying in 1375, he was succeeded as regent by his daughter Margaret, who had married the King of Norway and was at this time his widow. Her rule, by the treaty of Cal- mar, was also extended to Sweden and Norway, and the union of the three countries lasted until 1523, when the Swedes arose in insurrection against Erick, and the two crowns were sepa- rated. Up to the year 1660 the crown was, to a large extent, elective, but in that year Frederick III., aided by the people, who arose against the nobles, assumed the supreme power, forming an absolute monarchy with right of succession. For a century the peasantry were kept in a condition of serfdom, but its abolition was accomplished by Christian VII. in the eight- eenth century. Wars on her own account or in alliance with other nations kept Denmark busy until 1848, when an insur- rection arose in Holstein which brought the country to the verge of ruin. Prussia lent the insurrectionists a portion of her army, but the revolution was put down and a peace was concluded in Prussia in 1850, and in 1852 a protocol was drawn up in London returning the duchies of Holstein and Schles- wig to Denmark. A final settlement of the question was not yet reached, however, and when, in 1863, the King died sud- denly, the Duke of Augustenberg laid claim to the throne, supported by Prussia, Austria and other German States. The duchies were occupied by their troops, and in the war which Denmark brought to expel them her armies were defeated, and in 1864 King Christian IX. surrendered Holstein, Schles- wig and Lauenberg to the conquerors. The despotic form of government which was established in 1660 lasted until 1S49, when Frederick VII. signed a charter acknowledging the principle of limited monarchy, and made the future government dependent upon the Rigsdad (Congress), consisting of two elective houses, the executive power resting in the King and his Ministers. The Rigsdad consists of two houses — the Landsthing, corresponding to the United States Senate and having the privilege of discussing the budget, and the Folkething, similar to the United States House of Repre- sentatives, which administers local affairs. Certain members of the Landsthing receive their nomination from the Crown for life, the remainder being elected indirectly by the people for eight years. The members of the Folkething are elected directly for a term of three years. All male citizens over 30 years of age who are not paupers enjoy the privilege of vot- ing. With the King as its presiding officer, the executive body comprises the President of the Council, who is also the Minis- ter of Finance, and the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Inte- rior, Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Justice, and for Iceland, War and Marine. FLANGE. ^OUR centuries after the invasion of Julius Caesar, which made ancient Gaul a Roman province, the country, being deserted by its conquerors, was invaded by the Franks, whose leader, Clovis, in the sixth century, established the French monarchy. The Mero- vingian dynasty, which he founded, was succeeded by the Car- lovingian, whose greatest ruler, Charlemagne, extended his empire until it included Italy and a large portion of Ger- many. The House of Capet succeeded, and ruled from 987 to 1328, and that of Valois, which followed, from 1328 to 1589, and during all these years, while the power of the nobles was checked by the growing wealth and influence of the burghers, the monarchy gained in strength. In 1589 the Bourbon dynasty was founded by Henry IV., who wassucceeded by Louis XIII., an indolent monarch, who left the conduct of affairs to his powerful Minister, Cardinal Richelieu. The reign of Louis XIV., which followed, was in many respects a brilliant one, but freighted with misfortunes which did not appear until after its close. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes, by which religious freedom had been secured, led to banishments and persecutions, which cost the country many of its leading indus- tries. The court's reckless prodigality in the erection of mag- nificent buildings and the conduct of gorgeous spectacles, together with more or less successful wars, swelled the national debt to an enormous extent, and this burden crushed the French people during the succeeding reigns, and was a potent cause of the revolution of 1788. The reign of Louis XV. added to the national burden, and the evil influences of his mistresses led to a foreign policy which cost France her colonial possessions and the loss of her fleets and armies abroad. His successor, Louis XVI., an amiable but weak monarch, lacked the ability to cope with the difficulties of his position, and, after VL ^L K 292 FRANCE. he had reigned for fourteen years, in 1788 was begun a revolution by which the whole framework of society in France was over- turned. The bourgeois, or commoners, finding their powers checked by the combined clergy and nobility, in 1789 consti- tuted themselves as the National Assembly, and proceeded to the formation of a Constitution. Troops being ordered to oppose them, in Paris, July 12, an insurrection broke out. A national guard and revolutionary municipal boards were formed, and July 14 the Bastile was stormed. August 4 the National Assembly abolished manorial and feudal rights, whereupon the aristocracy began to emigrate. The King and Queen were taken prisoners. A Constitution was prepared by the Assem- bly, to which the King gave his assent, as he did also to another which was formed later. The opposition of foreign courts to the revolution aroused the pop- ular anger, and the King and Queen were executed. The Reign of Terror succeeded, the absolute power being placed in the hands of a Committee of Public Safety, whose excesses were terrible. Worship in accordance with the Christian religion was abolished, and that of Reason substituted. This caused dissensions within the convention itself, and when the last of the Jacobin leaders, Robespierre, perished upon the scaffold to which he had sent hundreds of victims, they were without a leader. In 1795 the convention adopted a new Con- stitution, which placed a Direc- tory of five in charge of the national executive. The radical Democrats, combining with the Royalists, organized an insurrec- tion against the new Constitution which was quelled by General Napoleon Bonaparte, whose qual- ities had already, at the early age of 26, brought him rank and dis- tinction. The mob of Paris was subdued, but the Directory had a difficult task before it. England, Austria and Prussia were com- bined against the Republic, whose armies, however, achieved victories for it in foreign countries and made its name dreaded as well as respected. At home the Royalist interest made headway, and in 1 797 they gained a major- ity in the representation. The Directory took severe mi surrounded the Tuileries with troops and ordnance, arrested the Royalist members, declared their election illegal, and ban- ished them from the country. Financial difficulties also adder! to the burden of the Directory. The public debt was more than the nation could pay, and the State was declared bank- NOTRE DAME, PARIS. rupt and two-thirds of its obligations repudiated. Internal dissensions among its members lessened the prospect of the Directory's accomplishing any marked improvement. 'In this emergency Napoleon, who had secretly left Egypt, where the English fleet had nullified his Eastern victories, ap- peared suddenly in Paris, and, effecting an alliance with one of the disaffected parties in the Directory, secured its over- throw November 9, 1799, December 27, a new Constitution was offered to the people, which they sanctioned, and Napoleon, as First Consul, was entrusted with the administration of civil and military affairs, with the appointment of all public officials and with the proppsition of all public measures. Early in 1800 he occupied the Tuileries with his wife, Josephine, whom he had married in March, 1796, and he established a court, whose extravagance was hardly likely to incur the popular dis- pleasure as long as his adminis- tration continued to be marked by such wise measures as were passed during the earlier part of his rule. The re-establishment of the church, in accordance with a Papal concordat ; the founda- tion of the Bank of France, with the restoration of financial order; the return of the emigrants ; the establishment of a sound system of popular education, and the codi- fication of the laws, were hailed with joy by the people, who saw their wisdom and appreciated the good results to follow. At the head of the Empire he aspired to the control of Europe. One after another Italy, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland and Ger- many came under his control. He dictated terms of peace to the Emperors of Russia and tria and to the King of Pn For ten years his star ruled in the ascendant. The decline came in 1S14. when Paris was entered by the allied enemies of France, and Napoleon was forced to Elba in exile. The Bourbon dynasty was restored, and a year later ' Icon reappeared and gathered around him an army of enthu - followi -.s attended him at first, but, June iS, im;. lie wis thoroughly defeated at Waterloo, and the Bourbon restoration was finally accomplished. In 1830 war was com- nuiHul with Algeria, which country was, after some J fighting, ceded to France. In 1848 the Bourbons were again driven out and a Republic established, with Napoleon III., a nephew of the Emperor, as President. This lasted less than three years. In December, 1S51, Napoleon, by the / V RUSSIA. 293 infamous coup J'ctat, seized the absolute power, setting aside institution, and shortly afterward was crowned Emperor. The imperial prestige was sustained by the wars with Russia and Austria, which last secured France the Italian provinces of Savoy and Nice, but the ill-fated attempt to establish an empire in Mexico, and other failing enterprises, caused it to wane. The plebiscite ui 1S70, which was intended to secure the popular endorsement of the Napoleonic policy, was not flat- tering to the Empire, which found itself in 1S70 forced into a war with Prussia, the leading events and results of which will be found in the history of Germany. This last experiment of imperial government, which cost France millions of money, thousands of lives and two provinces, has, for the time being, overcome the French admiration for centralized power, and the Republic which was established after the war is still a stable and popular government. The legislative power in France is vested in a Legislative Corps, consisting of a Senate and a House of Deputies. The Senate consists of 300 members; 225 of whom are chosen for terms of nine years by the departments and colonies, and seventy-five for life by the National Assembly. The members of the Chamber of Deputies number 532 — one to every 100,000 inhabitants — and are elected by universal suffrage. The ex- ecutive power is vested in a President, elected for a term of seven years by a joint vote of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. He has power to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies on the advice of the Senate. The Secretaries of State, or Ministry, nine in number, are responsible to the Chambers for the political conduct of the Government. The President is responsible in cases of high treason only. Every Frenchman twenty-one years of age has a right to vote.. "* "Is"''** Russia. f HE Greeks and Romans, as is evidenced in the writ- ings of some of their best known authors, had gained some knowledge of the Sarmatians and Scythians, who occupied the rivers Don and Dnieper. Shortly after the commencement of the Christian era the native inhabitants were carried before the invasion of Goths and Huns from the East. The Slavonians are recorded as having driven the scattered Finns northward and settled down to the establishment of the Russian people. The country for a long period remained subdivided into provinces, each of which was practically independent of the remainder. Cen- tralization of power was accomplished from time to time, but only to be again broken up, until in 1462 Ivan I. began to reign, and in the forty-two years in which he held the sceptre succeeded so ably in throwing off the Tartar yoke, and in unit- ing the principalities under his sway, that he must be regarded as the founder of the Russian nation. His successor, Ivan II., sometimes called the Terrible, or the Cruel, on account of the massacre which he ordered, in which 60,000 inhabitants of Novgorod, suspected of treason, were slain, advanced the work which his father had inaugurated, finally broke the power of the Tartars, and cultivated commerce and the arts as well as warfare. Perhaps the greatest of his peaceful achievements was the effecting of a commercial treaty with Queen Elizabeth, by which the English merchant marine, who had discovered the sea passage to Archangel, instituted trading relations with the northernmost parts of the Russian dominions. Under Peter the Great, Russia threw off her barbarism and took her place among the civilized nations of Europe. Though lacking education commensurate with his position, he had the sense to see the shortcoming and to remedy it, and his studies taught him the lesson of his country's greatest needs. On assuming £= the government he had the army reorganized in accordance with European military tactics. Seeing the necessity of naval power, and lacking a seaboard, he wrested the Sea of Azof from the Turks. Travelling incognito in foreign lands, he studied their arts and sciences and learned their trades, putting his knowledge to good use when he returned home again. Upon a site located on a strip of land he took from the Swedes, he laid the foundation of the modern capital, St. Petersburg, which he passed the last years of his life in beautifying. Dy- ing in 1725, he was succeeded by his Empress, Catherine, who continued his policy. During the reign of Catherine II. the first partition of Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia took place. She was succeeded by her son Paul, who still fur- ther advanced the interests of his country, now acknowledged to be one of the great European powers. In the reign of Alexander I. Russia was the balance of power in Europe. He was the father of the Holy Alliance — the compact entered into at Paris September 26, 1815, by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and Prussia, joined by most of the European powers, which bound them to exclude forever every member of the Bonaparte family from any throne in Europe; also to stand by each other in the maintenance of their royal prerogatives and the general peace. It was during his reign that the inhabi- tants of the city of Moscow destroyed it by fire rather than have it give shelter to the invader Napoleon. His successor, Nicholas I., saw the nation engaged in a struggle with the combined armies of Great Britain, France, Italy and Turkey. Sebastopol, the stronghold of the Russians in the Crimea, was taken, and the Russian ambition to control the whole of the Black Sea checked for the time being. Under Alexander II., who succeeded him, was accomplished the liberation of the serfs in 1861 , the humane policy being dictated rather by reasons 19 souls in European Russia. The Rus- sians have always maintained the national credit. The main portion of the revenue comes from excise duties on beer, spirits and salt ; in addition to this there are a light poll-tax and a pro- tective customs tariff. <**-£ > i « # ■ — *> :£" -#—*<- — 5*i Italy. -:-:::-:- -£: -» h jg — J^ - ^<- pTALY, the successor of the r.ncient Roman Empire, has a history which runs back into the ages whose events are only matters of tradition. The Virgilian poem which tells of the founding of the Roman State by a band of Trojan refugees, and the story of the wolf-suckled twins, Romulus and Remus, are delightful legends. However, the foundation of the city is generally conceded to have occurred B.C. 753, when the kingdom was established which lasted until B.C. 509, when it was overthrown in the reign of Tarquin the Proud, and a republic established which lasted for nearly five centuries. During these eventful years the kingdom of Tarquin had grown into a mighty empire, yet not without suffering great national disasters. In the year 390 B.C. occurred the Gallic invasion, with the burning down of Rome by that terrible foe ; from 343 to 290 B.C. raged the wars with the Samnites, who threatened the Roman power, but were finally subjugated ; in 275 B.C. occurred the battle of Beneventum, by which the previously victorious Pyrrhus was overcome ; in 216 B.C. was fought and lost the battle of Canna;, by which the Cartha- ginian General, Hannibal, after destroying 80,000 of the Roman troops, came in sight of Rome's conquest, but lost his opportunity through delay; in 186 B.C. the enmity between Rome and Carthage culminated in the destruction of the latter city; in ill B.C. began the Jugurthine war, in which the powerful Numidian was overthrown after a five years' struggle ; in 88 B.C. began the Milhridatic war, which ended five years later in the overthrow of the King of Pontus, who sued for peace Such were a few of the leading events which occurred between the regal and imperial eras 01 Roman history. They bring the reader to a period when Scylla, overcoming his rival, Marius, in civil war, seized the government and reigned as Dictator for three years. In the year 60 B.C. was formed the first triumvirate, when Julius Caesar, Pompey and Cr.wus were invested with the government. Caesar's wars of discovery in Gaul and Britannia followed, and then came the battle of Pharsalia, in which he defeated Pompey. Two years later Caesar assumed the dictatorship, and in 44 B.C. he was slain in the Senate house by the assassins, Brutus, Cassius and others. Then followed the second triumvirate, and then the battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated ; then the love episode between Cleopatra and Marc Antony, who, frittering away the opportunity to win the imperial prize at Rome, suffered defeat and death at Actium. In 27 Octavius established the Empire, under the title of Augustus Caesar, at which time the city of Rome is supposed to have had about 700,000 population, while that of tlii pim is believed to have been not less ihan 100,000,000. Tliaii followed a line of Emperors, some of them wise and benevolent, others of them rapacious and cruel. Of the latter was the famous Nero, who proved the most bloodthirsty of tyrants. Under him began the persecutions of the 1 ti.ins. lie was accused of having set the city on fire for the pleasure to be derived from witnessing the conflagration. Of the former was Trajan, under whose lieneficent administration iiuu h wis dime to civilize the ruder portions of the Empire, while the condition of the city and its inhabitants was ,;■ ameliorated. In the reign of Constantine the Great the Chris- tian religion was first acknowledged. He made himself a champion of the church by issuing the decree of Milan, in w*"'"h he gave it imperial license and avowed himself a believer in ns doctrines. Entering Rome in triumph in A.D. 312, he became the first Christian sovereign of the world, and after defeating the Pagans in their fortress of Byzantium he became sole Emperor of the entire Roman Empire He transferred his capital from Rome to Constantinople, where he reigned until the year 337. His son Julian, who succeeded him, had been educated a Christian, but reverted to the old Pagan faith ; but the next Emperor Jovian, restored the Christian faith. In 3S3 the Roman Entire had three Emp*erors, who soon were at war, and the victor, Theodosius, divided the Empire into Eastern and Western at his death, in 395, putting one of his sons at the head of each. From this division resulted the Roman and the Greek churches. Roman imperialism reached its last stages in the fifth century. Alaric with his Northern hosts marched into Rome, wrought his pleasure there, and retired from it after twelve days of sack. Rome had fallen, and such events as are further mentioned may be regarded as belonging to Italian history proper. In the fifth century Venice was founded by fugitives fleeing before Attila. In the eighth century a Germanic tribe threatened Rome. In the ninth Charlemagne conquered Lombardy and assumed the title of Roman Emperor, the control of the city, however, being taken by the Pope. The German Rings conquered the northern portion of Italy, while the Byzantine Emperors and the Saracens ruled the southern portion until the uprising of the Xormans. Several of the Italian cities, however, increased so in strength and riches as to be able to achieve their inde- pendence, and chief among these was Venice, which com- manded the Adriatic Sea and kept back the Turks from the invasion of Western Europe. In the eighteenth century Austria obtained large portions of Italy's northern territory, while the republics of Venice and Genoa dwindled away. The remainder of the land was divided among petty sover- eigns, who enjoyed life until the terrible days of the French revolution, after which Napoleon divided Italy into four republics, next establishing it as a monarchy, placing first his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, and then Murat, over it. After the battle of Waterloo the final reconstitution of Italy was decreed by the Congress of Vienna Almost all the old boundaries and the old tyrannies were restored, followed by the outbreak of the Carbonari, whom the Austrians subdued. In 1848, by a simultaneous insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, the great revolution was inaugurated. Supported by the Pope and the King of Sardinia, it was successful, and Lom- bardy wasannexedtoSardinia. In the yearfollowing.however, Austria regained that territory. After an unsuccessful revolt in Milan in 1853, and in Sicily in 1856, the French effected an alliance with the Sardinians in 1859, and Austria was defeated in the great battles of Magenta and Solferino, which were followed by the hasty and inconclusive peace of Villa- franca, which left Venetia to Austria, gave Lombardy to Sicily, and left unsettled the question of the Grand Duchies. Savoy and Nice were ceded to France, which still holds them, while Parma, Modena and the Sicilian provinces were incor- porated with Sardinia. March 17, the law by which Victor Emmanuel assumed the title of King was promulgated. May 6, Garibaldi joined, with 1,000 men, a revolution which had broken out in Sicily. Declaring himself Dictator, he headed the revolt and speedily conquered the Two Sicilies. March 14, 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared King of Italy by the first Italian Parliament. In the same year, on June 6, occurred thedeath of Cavour, who was the originator as well as the director of the Sardinian policy which resulted in Italian liberation. In 1866 Italy and Prussia united their forces against Austria, and Venetia was ceded to the Italians. Attempts were made by Mazzini and Garibaldi to drive the French from Rome, but they remained there until the war with Prussia. In 1867 the French army began to be with- drawn from Rome, and three years later the last detachment had left the Pontifical territory. September 20, 1870, the Italian army entered Rome, and October 9 the Papal States were declared part ot the Kingdom of Italy. King Vic- tor Emmanuel strengthened and consolidated the king- dom, and, dying in 1878, was succeeded by his son Hum- bert, who still reigns. Italy is a limited monarchy, with a Senate appointed by the King for life, and a Chamber of 508 Deputies, elected by popular suffrage for a term of five years. The lynching of eleven Italian members of the Mafia in New Orleans was the cause of a diplomatic controversy between Italy and the United States in 1891. K- ^ 30 Longitude East 3ft from Greenwich 40 vvn>\A %, w, v t»\tvtd. 300 SPAIN. +K*-gHM ECORDED history gives the Phoenicians the credit of having first established colonies upon the shores of Spain, which at that time was occupied by Celtic [ tribes. Later appeared the Greeks, who called the country Iberia, which name gave way to that of Hispania, from which the modern name is derived, when the Romans took possession of the country. After them the Carthaginians appeared, conquering a stronghold upon the country and establishing cities, one of which, Cartagena, situated upon the Mediterranean coast, is now a handsome city of 80,000 inhabitants. After the Punic wars the Romans again obtained possession of Spain, which readily improved the opportunity offered of advancement in civilization. In the reign of the Emperor Constantine, Christianity, which was introduced earlier, became the general religion. In the year 409 the country was overrun by vast hordes of barbarians who crossed the Pyrenees and made a clean sweep of the country, and in 412 the Visigoths invaded it, and a Gothic monarchy was established by their King, Athaulf, in Catalonia. Its first written laws were given to Spain by one of the Gothic dynasty of kings. In 711, the Moors subjugated a large por- tion of the country, and held the southern part of it as a dependency of their North African dominions. From A. D. 717, their Spanish territory was governed by Emirs, appointed by the Caliph of Damascus. Under the independent dynasty which the Moors established Southern Spain flourished in agriculture, commerce and the arts and sciences. Wars oc- curred constantly between the Moors and the Gothic princes, who had maintained possession of the Cantanabrian territory, but the Christian kingdoms continued to grow in power, and, uniting at last, they succeeded in driving the intruders from the country. In the Kingdom of Granada the Moors made their final stand, but at last they succumbed to the troops of Ferdi- nand and Isabella. Of the Christian States at this time Arragon and Castile were by far the most powerful, and in time their sway extended all over the country. Ferdinand II., the last of the Arragon sovereigns, by his marriage with Isabella, Queen of Castile, followed by the conquest of Granada in 1492, and of Navarre in 1502, accomplished thus the unification of Chris- tian Spain, which now entered upon its most glorious epoch. Spanish discovery gave America to the civilized world, and, Spanish conquest extending her rule over Naples, a large portion of North, Central and South America, the new Kingdom at once attained rank as one of the great powers of the world. New riches were secured by Cortez' conquests in Mexico, and Pizarro's in Chili and Peru, but in the reign of the Philips the decline of Spanish power began and accelerated. Portugal had been conquered in 1581, but in 1640 she obtained her independence, and during this period Spain suffered other serious diminishments of power and resources. The reign of Charles III. promised to bring the country back to something like its old glory, but his successor embroiled the country in inglorious wars which cost it its valuable possession of Loui- siana, in America, ceded to France in 1800, while England destroyed the Spanish navies. Ferdinand VII. was removed from the throne by Napoleon, who placed his brother Joseph in his stead. England, at that time at war with Spain, ac knowledged Ferdinand as King, and joined the Spaniards in their endeavors to drive out the Bonaparte, and lent the sup- port of its armies under Wellington. Ferdinand's rule was re-established, but his reign was marked by insurrections which cost the country very dearly. His daughter, Isabella II., suc- ceeded him, but her political and personal misconduct brought about many rebellions, that of the Carlists in 1834-9 ^'"C ,ne most serious. In 1868 she was driven from the throne and forced to fly to France, and two years later Prince Amadeo of Italy, the second son of King Victor Emmanuel, was elected by the Cortes and declared King. A year later he abdicated, whereupon Don Carlos, a grandnephew of Ferdinand VII., claimed the throne, and made an unsuccessful attempt to gain possession of it. A democratic federal republic was then declared and a President elected, who had two successors within three months. Castelar, who had been elected in September, 1873, resigned in 1874. The Cortes dissolved, and General Serrano was charged with the duty of forming a new ministry. He coped successfully with the Carlists, who were then making strenuous efforts to gain a foothold, and retained executive power until Januarv, tb>7<;, when Alfonso XII., son of the ex-Queen Isabella, who had been declared King at SantaiuUr the month previous, landed in Spain and took the field against Don Carlos. He was finally victorious. Don Carlos surren- dered his claim to the throne, and the young King at once devoted his attention to the work of reorganizing the Govern- ment and the development of the country. He died in 1885. In June, 1876, a Constitution was proclaimed, which pro- vides that the Government shall be a constitutional monarchy, giving the executive authority to the King and placing the lative power in theCortcswith the King. The Cortes comprises a Senate, which is divided into three classes, and a Congress, consisting of Deputies, one of whom is allowed to every 50,- 000 inhabitants. Spain is now under the repen Queen Maria Christina, widow of Alfonso XII., their son, Alfonso XIII., being a minor. ^a M^^^^^^^ ^.*^^\*^ Z DNnahnianlkaliahDhakioBaliniaioBa6D8oBaBaBaAiaSaiaB&} ~«£I* IKE Spain, Portugal was early inhabited by the Celts, I ^ who were succeeded in turn byJ'Phcenicians, Cartha- ginians and Greeks, who built cities along the coast which formed the nuclei of cotonies. Like Spain, too, it suffered from Vandal and Visigothic invasion. In the eighth century the Moors conquered the country, which they held until about the end of the eleventh century, when Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon drove out the invaders. It was the son of Henry of Burgundy, Don Alfonso Hen- riques, who established the Portuguese monarchy, after defeat- ing the Moors at the battle of Ouriquein 1139. Eight years later the Moors were deprived of Lisbon, and a century later they were entirely driven from the country. Alfonso's successors proved able monarchs, and under their rule the country advanced rapidly. During the reign of King John I. began the era of Portugal's superiority in seamanship, which made Lisbon a city of such vast commercial power. In 141 5 the country gained its first foothold abroad, when the sea-captain Zarco discov- ered the island of Madeira. Later on, Portuguese sailors discov- ered the Azores and Cape Verde. In i486 Bartholomeu Dias discovered, and in the following year Vasco da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and pursuing his journey reached Malabar. Still more important for Portugal, as events turned out, was the discovery by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, in 1500, of Brazil, which was followed by the formation of a colony which has since developed into the Empire of Brazil. A dispute with Spain over a question of succession brought about a war with that power, and for sixty years thereafter Portu- gal remained in subjection to her neighbor on the Iberian Peninsula. In 1640, however, the Duke of Braganza headed a Portuguese revolution, was successful, and ascended the throne as John IV. In 1S07, the Government havingtaken sides against Napoleon, the latter invaded the country, declaring it part of France, and the throne vacant. When the French soldiers arrived, the Regent, John Maria Joseph, Prince of Brazil, who ruled in the place of Queen Maria, who was insane, sailed for Brazil. At Napoleon's downfall he appointed his son, Dom Pedro, Regent of Brazil, and returned to Portugal. In 1822 Dom Pedro became Emperor of Brazil, the succession being accomplished without bloodshed, and a few years later he came into possession of the crown of Portugal also, which he surren- dered to his daughter, Donna Maria, preferring to remain at Rio Janeiro. Civil war arising not long afterward, the British interfered, and since then they have held the country in a con- dition of semi-subjugation. The Government is a hereditary constitutional monarchy, with the legislative power vested jointly in the sovereign and a Cortes which comprises a Chamber of Peers and a Chamber of Deputies, of which the King nominates the former for life and the people elect the latter. *** + Switzerland. * ^RIGINALLY occupied by Celts, Switzerland became a Roman province and was held as such for several centuries, until successive invasions of German tribes occurred. In the fifth century the Burgundians, Goths and Allemanians divided the province among but in the century following the Franks captured it. Christianity was introduced in the seventh century by Irish monks, and monastic institutions were founded. In the latter part of the ninth century Switzerland was taken them, •c s •- 19* from the Franks, Germany gaining the northern and Bur- gundy the southern portion of the land. An alliance was formed later by Zurich, Berne and Basle against the neighbor- ing powers which held the country, and a brave endeavor in the direction of independence was made. Attempts by Aus- tria to incorporate the Swiss Cantons with her domain were nobly opposed, and the war which followed, lasting 200 years, sundered the relations of Germany and Switzerland. Imperial power was assumed in 1273 by Rudolph of Hapsburg, a Swiss aU S*v* 77 ~7 3°4 TURKEY. nobleman, and in 1291 the Cantom of Uri, Unterwalden and Schwyz formed a league against foreign oppression. In 1315 this was established as a perpetual confederacy, and in the course of time other Cantons joined them. Lucerne, Zurich, Giants, Zug and Berne by 1353 had become members of " The Perpetual League of the Old Places of the Confederacy," which was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation. In 1415 the inhabitants of the Cantons invaded and annexed parts of the Austrian territory, and three years later they annexed Ticino. In 1481 Solothurn and Freiburg were admitted, which was followed by internal dissension, lasting until 1499. Two years later Basle and Schauffhausen were admitted, as was also Appenzell in 1513. There were now thirteen Cantons, and the true independence of the State was established. In 1531 war broke out between the Catholics and the Protestants, and the former were victorious. Berne and Zurich managed to main- tain the neutrality of Switzerland during the Thirty Years' War, and in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 Switzerland was acknowledged as an independent State. At the time of the French Revolution Switzerhnd was invaded by two French armies, which captur .d the city of Berne and proclaimed the Helvetic Republic, designating Aarau as the capital. In 1S02, civil war dividing the Cantons, Napoleon undertook to reor- ganize the country, and the people accepted his suggestions, but in 1809 a new Constitution was formed which added three new Cantons — Geneva, Vallais and the Prussian principality of Neufchatel — to the nineteen which had been framed by Napoleon. The European powers ratified this change and declared the perpetual neutrality and inviolability of the Con- federation. During the excitement aroused by the French Revolution agitations in the direction of liberty resulted in the reorganization of cantonal constitutions, which were made more liberal and democratic. Religious troubles reappeared in 1S34 and lasted for some years, finally resulting, in 1S47, in the expulsion of the Jesuits and the suppression of the monas- teries, which excited the anger of some of the powers which attempted to intimidate Switzerland. In 1848 Neufchatel declared her independence of Prussian control, which nine years later was acknowledged. Switzerland made, in 1S60, an unavailing protest against the annexation of Savoy to France. By the revised Constitution of 1874 it is provided that all the rights of sovereignty not transferred to the Confederation shall be exercised by the twenty-two Cantons. Every Canton's Constitution is guaranteed if it is republican in form, if it has been adopted by a majority of the people, and if it can be revised on a demand of the majority of the voters. There is a Federal Assembly which comprises a National Council and ' a Council of States. The executive authority is exercised b_v « Federal Council, which has seven members, each of whom has a department. The President and Vice-President of the Fed- eral Council, also President and Vice-President of the Con- federation, are chosen for one year only and are selected from the Council by its members. •^ T<^-3— — ;s— a) -1 » ! N 1330 begins the Ottoman career of conquest. About that time Orcan, leader of a tribe inhabiting the Altai Mountains, led his hardy Janizaries against Nicomedia and Nicola. He called the gate of his palace the Sub- lime Porte, and himself Padisha, both of which expres- sions are still extant. His successor located his capital at Adrianople, and during his rule the Turks fell "under the relent- less hand of Tamerlane, who, in 1402, routed them in battle, but effected no permanent occupation of their territory. Re- covering from the rude assault, the Turks, in less than a gener- ation, greatly humiliated the Byzantine Empire, which ceased to exist later, giving way before the irresistible Mohammed II., who transferred the seat of empire from Adrianople to Con- stantinople. The capture of Constantinople was followed by other important cities in Eastern Europe, and during the next century the Turkish Empire constantly grew in power. Greece and Arabia were added to the domain of the Porte. The glory of Islam culminated in the reign of the third Sultan of Stam- boul, Solyman the Magnificent, which lasted from 1520 to 1566. His ambition was to conquer Western Europe jnd establish the Crescent throughout the continent, and for many years it looked as though he would succeed. He did extend ik. © TURKEY. 305 his empire considerably, but his grand hope was destined for non-fulfilment. He died in Hungary, where he was conduct- ing a victorious campaign, in 1481, and with his death began the decline of the Ottoman Empire. It was by no rapid national decay that the Turk fell from his high estate under Solyman to his lowly condition under Abdul Hamid, the pres- ent ruler. For centuries Turkish incursions carried terror into the lands of Russia, Hungary, Poland and Italy, while the whole of Europe felt apprehensive of Ottoman supremacy. It was not until near the close of the eighteenth century that the tide set in steadily against the Turk. Catherine of Russia was the first to bring the Crescent low, but England and France objected to the partition of the empire between Russia and Austria, and obtained for the Sultan terms of peace which secured the autonomy of the Ottoman Empire. This has been main- tained since by the friendly interposi- tion of the anti- Russian powers, who see that so long as the Sultan of a people who have lost all aggressive ambition rules at Constantinople the "balance of power" is safe. In the war with Russia in 1877-8 Turkey suffered a very seri- ous loss of terri- tory, the treaty of Berlin reducing her area from 1,742,874 square miles to 1,116,848 square miles, and her population from 28,165,000 to 21,000,000. Turkey in Europe was re- duced more than one-half in both territory and population, the cessions under the treaty being as follows : Bulgaria, Eastern Roumelia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Roumania, Ser- via, etc., and parts of Thessaly and Epirus. In the same VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE. year, too, the island of Cyprus .vas placed under British con- trol. As to the Government of the Ottoman Empire, it can generally be said that the precepts of i.he Koran are the foun- dation of its fundamental laws. Absolute power is vested in the Sultan, as long as his acts remain in conformity with Mo- hammedan doctrine. Forms of constitutional limitation upon the arbitrary authority of the Sultan have been adopted recently, but in point of fact the legislative and executive departments of the Government are in the hands of his Sub- lime Highness, and the functions of law are directed by two officers, the Grand Vizier, who looks after secular affairs, and the Sheik-ul- Islam, who is the head of the church. There is a body or class known as the Ulema, which com- prises the " Mufti," or interpreters of the Koran, the judges and high functionaries of the law. " Bey " is a general term, apply- ing to all important civil officers, while " Pasha " is the de- signation of tax- gatherers and other officers who are both military and civil in ' function. A ministerial coun- cil, or cabinet, called the" Divan, "which is presided over by the Grand Vizier, exists, comprising eight ministerial departments, namely, War, Finance, Marine, Commerce, Public Works, Police, Justice and Education. The empire is divided into vilayets, under Governors, of which there are four in European Turkey, exclusive of the district of Constantinople. Cruelty and ve- nality are the main qualities of the Governors, whose rule is very arbitrary. 20 7 f ■$• Gl^BEGE. # [UT little remains to-day of the glories which once belonged to this most remarkable and interesting country. Of the early history of Greece but very little authentic knowledge is available. Hellen was claimed by the Greeks as their common ancestor, the popular belief being that from his sons, Dorus, .- ^aAPAN.W .o*o- ^LTHOUGH containing a vastly larger population than any other of the continents — its inhabitants in fact outnumbering those of the remainder of the earth — Asia, on account of her not having come to any great extent under the influences of modern civilization, is as weak in power as she is strong in numbers. In ancient days this was different: the world's his- tory was then largely framed by its Asiatic sons, who contended successfully against Egypt and Greece, and later on helped to build up the glory of the Macedonian and Roman Empires. It was from the regions north of the Caspian Sea that the Huns came, and, following the star of empire, marched westward and settled down in various parts of Europe. Over the plains of the Slav swept the victorious armies of Timour and Genghis Khan, and later the Caliphs, at the head of their Arabian troops, carried the Koran and the sword throughout Asia, Europe and Africa, and established religious nationalities which are, to a certain extent, formidable even in this day of their decadence. Before their march the Roman Empire gave way, and the Turkish dominion raised, which for so many yean held other European powers in awe. With a imputation of 825,0,54,000, as compared with that of Europe, 357,379.000, it MM as though the day must come when Asiatic supremacy will exist as a fact. Asia has a great deal to learn, however, of the modern spirit and system of government, before it can hope to cope with the more persistent, audacious and intelligent continent to the west of it ?r? 3f- CHINA— JAPAN. 309 4HHHHHHH HHHHMHHHHHHM # ©HINA. # ^♦ ' iiit ' i ' ini^ ' iiii'i' i ii tuiio ti mimm ittttti ua i i i a «|* «M ml ). > ? i- n -i ? > «o» MYTHOLOGY, rather than history, must be cred- ited with the earlier chronicles of the Chinese, whose actual record, however, extends back 2,400 years previous to the Christian era, and contains the record of a great flood, which many have supposed to be identical with the deluge of the Pentateuch. Certain it is that the Great Wall, which extends 1,250 miles along the northern boundary of China, was erected 250 years before the Christian era, when the Tsin dynasty was founded by Chwang-Siang. In the thirteenth century a Mongol dynasty was formed by Genghis Khan, after his capture of Pekin. European visits began in this century, when Marco Polo reached China by the overland route. Portuguese and Dutch traders followed, and in the seventeenth century En- gland visited the country, and after several unsuccessful negotia- tions the East India Company was allowed, in 1684, to trade with the natives. But little was done, however, until the opium trade set in, at the beginning of the present century, and soon attained enormous proportions. An attempt was made by the Chinese Government to exclude the pernicious drug, but the traders of the East India Company evaded the restrictions placed upon its entry, and this led to the Anglo- Chinese war, known as the opium war, which closed with the treaty of Nankin and the opening of five ports — Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai — to the British in 1842. American trade with China was inaugurated in 1784, when the ship Empress made a successful voyage from New York to the Celestial Empire. In 1844 the first American treaty of amity and commerce between the United States and China was negotiated at Macao, and in 1867-8 a more impor- tant one was negotiated by the Hon. Anson Burlingame, which was revised in 1880, in order that an understanding might be reached with the Chinese Government in relation to the emi- gration of its subjects to this country, where opposition to Chinese cheap labor had been aroused in California and other sections. Such treaties as the Europeans have with China have been wrested from that country by force of arms, and during a war in i860 the French troops captured the Em- peror's summer palace, at Pekin, and carried off several millions of dollars' worth of booty. The most important event of modern domestic Chinese history was the Taeping revolution, which lasted from 1851 to 1864, and had for its object the overthrow of the Manchoo or foreign dynasty. Serious anti-Christian riots occurred in 1891, in which many missionaries and other foreigners were killed and their property destroyed. An Emperor rules China, aided by the Interior Council Chamber, which is mainly composed of high nobles. The provinces are governed by Imperial Governors and Executive Boards. Bribery and corruption prevail throughout the civil service, which is a monstrous institution. Competitive exam- ination is the basis of the service, the intention being to secure for official positions the most intelligent and best educated men of the empire. 5apan. f-g*.* ORIGINALLY inhabited by a race known as the Ainos, who had a written language and were fairly advanced in civilization, the island of Japan subsequently fell into the hands of the Mongols, the present occupants being akin to the Chinese, whom they resemble in appearance. According to Japanese history, the ruling dynasty claims twenty-five centuries of unbroken succession, descent being claimed from the first Mikado, Timmu Tenno, who was reputed to have been of divine descent. Buddhism was intro- duced into Japan in the sixth century. Marco Polo was the first European to write of Japan, and the first Europeans to land upon its shores were Portuguese mariners. About the middle of the sixteenth century one of the smaller islands was visited by Fernam Mendez Pinto. In 1549 St. Francis Xavier landed and introduced Christianity, and he was followed by many others. In 1615 the priests were exiled, and nine years ^b K 310 BRITISH INDIA. later all foreigners except the Chinese and the Dutch were expelled from the island, and the emigration of natives was prohibited. In 1637 the massacre of the Christians began, and for over two centuries Japan was left to itself. In 1854, however, Commodore Perry, of the United States Navy, effected a commercial treaty with Japan, which resulted in opening Japanese ports to American ships, and after a struggle with the old court party the civilization of the West began to grow in popular favor, liberal ideas struck root, and national progress was evidenced in a number of valuable reforms. In 1868 the executive power of the Japanese Government was concentrated in the Mikado, and since then the work of ad- vancement has gone on very rapidly, promising to open up to American enterprise a large field for the exportation of her machinery and other manufactures. Absolute power in temporal and spiritual affairs is vested in the Mikado. He is assisted in government by an Executive Ministry and a Privy Council ; and, since 1890, by a Na- tional Parliament of two Houses. The House of Peers consists of 10 life members, 139 elected nobles, 59 im- perial nominees, and 44 elected men of mark : the House of Representatives contains 300 elected members. ■ fr* 'I' i * 3 »- Bi^ish India. cgp=^ ARLY Indian history, extending back millions of years, is composed of a confused mass of fabulous chronicles. Research by careful historians leads to the belief that the Aryan Hindoos settled the coun- try some fifteen centuries before the Christian era, at which time the Brahminical religion and the social institution of caste are believed to have been in existence in undeveloped shape. About five centuries before Christ the northwestern provinces of the country were conquered by the Persian mon- arch Darius, and later Alexander the Great invaded India and conquered some of its provinces. In the eighth century the province of Scinde and the Southern Punjaub were invaded by the Mohammedans, who were later expelled by the Hindoos. In the beginning of the eleventh century they returned and conquered all Northern India. At the close of the sixtceenth century occurred the invasion of Tamerlane. In 1526 Baber, the Mogul Sultan of Cabul, invaded India, and established the Mogul dynasty, whose strength culminated with Aurungzebe, who subdued almost the entire peninsula, and Mohammed Shah. In 1739 occurred the invasioa of Nadir Shah, King of Persia, who overcame the empire and occupied Delhi, from which city he removed enormous stores of precious stones and metals. The restoration of the Mogul dynasty was followed by'another incursion of the Mahrattas, who in the eighteenth century were entirely overthrown by the Afghans. European attention was at last called to the country, and in the sixteenth century settlements were made upon the coast by Portuguese explorers whom the Dutch expelled later. Great Britain, rep- resented by the East India Company, effected settlements during the seventeenth century, and in the middle of the eighteenth came into conflict with the French, who had also gained a foothold, and after a hard struggle overcame them. Under Lord Clive the British troops vanquished the Emperor of Delhi and the King of Oude, and gained possession of Bengal, Berar and other provinces, which acquisitions were added to as years went by. For many years British rule was quietly submitted to by the natives, its enforcement being accomplished by the army of native troops, under English offi- cers, armed by the East India Company. In 1857 a revolt occurred, and the Kings of Delhi and Oude, at the head of the rebellious Sepoys, threatened for eighteen months to wrest the mastery of India from England. Fright- ful massacres, attended with indescribable atrocities, were per- petrated by the rebels, and the measures of reprisal adopted by the English were hardly less terrible. After the rebellion had been crushed the British Government assumed direct con- trol of the country, the East India Company being deprived of a monopoly which had brought in an annual revenue of many millions. Since then the British have largely advanced their Indian frontiers. In 1876 Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. The Government, which regulates the affairs of about 300,000,000 of people, is practically a military despotism, which is made possible by the division of the native popula- tion into Hindoos and Mohammedans. A Governor-General, appointed by the ruler of Great Britain, holds the executive authority and acts under the English Secretary of State for India, who is advised by a Council, a majority of whom are appointed by the Crown. Lieutenant-Governors of the prov- inces and minor officers are appointed by the Governor-General. The officials are almost all Englishmen. Self-government pre- vails in the villages and townships, which lev)' and expend their own taxes under a system which has prevailed in India forages, and wliicli provides the only exception to the rule that all power rests in the hands of the resident Europeans. sw AFGHANISTAN AND I3ELOOCHISTAN— PERSIA. "7 .3" ^BxaBxg(xaxi^xax)S/ii(xisxaxaE(xaxg&xisxgByii(xsx)BX)$ixgBxa Afghanistan and Beloochistan. m xaxaxaxa&xaxisxisxaxaxaxisxiBxiSxaxsxgBxaxgsxaxa x*g — #>•■ ' S a nation, Afghanistan, although only dating from ' 1747, when the successful soldier Amhed Khan assumed regal power, and possessing but a small territory and population, has, by her wars with for- j^ 3 - ' eign powers, so impressed the world with the warlike character of her people, that her history possesses a unique interest. Amhed Khan's most important war was with the Mahrattas, whom he overthrew in 1761, and when he died, twelve years later, he left to his son, Timour, an empire reach- ing from the Indus to the Oxus, while Khorassan, Beloochistan and Scinde acknowledged his rule' as tributary provinces. After Timour came anarchy, and the Punjaub and Scinde were lost, while Persian encroachments endangered the country. Diplo- matic relations with the English, who regard Afghanistan with peculiar interest, as being the "key to India," were opened in 1809, and a permanent English resident at the Ameer's court was appointed in 1837. The relations of the two coun- tries failed to remain friendly, and in 1838 Lord Auckland, the Governor-General of British India, declared war against the Ameer, Mohammed Khan, who was defeated. Satisfied with the invasion they had accomplished, the English with- drew, leaving an army of occupation behind them. In 1841 Akbar Khan, son of the deposed Ameer, organized a con- spiracy against the English occupants of the country, which resulted in the murder of the British Resident and Envoy, after which the invaders promised to leave the country, Akbar Khan agreeing to provide them with an escort. This promise was not kept, and the army, together with camp-followers, the whole amounting to about 26,000 people, while leaving the country by way of the Khyber Pass, in the depth of winter, were attacked by the fanatical tribes of the districts, who killed men, women and children. Of the whole host only one man escaped to convey the tidings to the nearest British port, Jelalabad. An expedition was immediately fitted out in India, and the country was desolated, the fortresses of Ghurzee and Cabul being taken. Notwithstanding this terri- ble lesson, the Afghans, in 1846, allied themselves with the Sikhs against the British, and raised a revolt in the Punjaub, which was quelled only after severe fighting. The present Ameer, Abdur Rahman Khan, maintains the throne amid vicissitudes caused by the insurrections led by his own rela- tives. In 1879 the inhabitants of Cabul arose in revolt, and assassinated the British Resident and a large number of other foreigners, which led to a war in which the British arms, after desperate fighting, were successful, and British influence in the national policy was firmly established. The Government of the country is a monarchy. The natives are divided into clans, ruled over by chiefs. Revenue is raised by taxation, an officer collecting it in each province^ Justice is administered in the towns by the Cadis. Beloochistan, a country lying to the south of Afghanistan, is not considered of strategic value by either British or Rus- sians. In 1839 the British stormed the capital and killed the ruler, after which they occupied the country for several years. In 1854 a treaty was formed between England and Beloo- chistan, and another in 1876, by which Beloochistan be- came a British protectorate, the Khan binding himself to oppose all the enemies of Great Britain, and to have no relations with other foreign States. 'c++ * E?EI^SIA. * -^ UTHENTIC Persian history begins with the revolt under Cyrus against Astyages, the Median King, which resulted in the foundation of the Persian Empire. Joining with Cambyses and Darius, Cyrus subdued Lydia and Asia Minor, and crowned his career by the capture of the city of Babylon, the metrop- olis of Assyria. Darius carried the Persian arms to the bor- ders of Thrace, but was defeated at Marathon, and his son Xerxes was not less unfortunate. About 330 years before the Christian era Persia was invaded by Alexander the Great, of Macedon, who extinguished the empire, which up to his com- ing had ruled the world. After Alexander's successors came the Parthian dynasty, which was overthrown in the third cen- tury, when the ancient laws and religion were re-established ^L .}I2 ARABIA— PALESTINE. under a descendant of the famous Cyrus, and the Sassanidae dynasty thus formed ruled with great energy until 628 A. D., when its last representative was slain, and the country fell a prey to the Mohammedan Arabians until 868, when a native dynasty was established. A Mongol invasion occurred in the thirteenth century, and in the fourteenth Tamerlane swept the land with his Tartar followers. Of the Suffavean dynasty which succeeded, the most famous representative was Nadir Shah, who invaded India and carried away $100,000,000 worth of spoils from the city of Delhi. Of late years Persia has not been able to do anything worthy of her ancient glories. Rus- sian encroachments havedeprived her of important provinces. In 1 856-57 sheengaged in war with England and was defeated, w hich event led to a friendly feeling towards that country which, doubt- less, prompted the Shah, Nasr-ed-Din, in 1874* to visit Europe. The Government of Persia is an unlimited despotism, the Shah being absolute in his monarchial powers. Direct taxa- tion defrays current expenses, and the country is free from national debt. Law, as laid down in the Koran, is adminis- tered by mollahs (judges), whose decisions are given in accord- ance with the side of the case which possesses the greater power to bribe the court. • <£>«"* pI^ABIA. -^^ MiLAIMING descent from Ishmael, the Arabs have L always been and still are a wandering, wild, uncon- trolable peop:e, whose career and present condition I seem to fulfil the angelic prophecy. The aborigines of Arabia were p-obably the Cushites, who passed into Africa and were succeeded by a race descended from Abraham. After the destruction of Jerusalem large num- bers of Jews entered Arabia, which subsequently welcom- ed the doctrines of Mohammad, with whose coming the history of the country really begins. Becoming united, they grew in power until in Europe, Asia and Africa empires were brought under their dominion. While producing impor- tant changes in the destinies of other nations, Arabia her- self underwent no great improvement, and when her day of conquest was over the Turks found her an easy prey, and in the sixteenth century captured Yemen, which they lost a century later. The Portuguese, too, conquered Muscat, while the Russians gained some temporary advantages in Arabia. In the eighteenth century the Wahabees made their appearance, and, though Mehemet Ali checked their progress, their in- fluence is still felt throughout the land. Hedjaz and Yemen are now under Turkish rule; while much of the remaining country is under British influence, exercised in the case of Oman through the Sultan of Muscat. *W* * Palestine. * f RIGINALLY inhabited by distinct nations, of whom the Canaanites, Amorites, Jebusites, Kenites and Perizites were the principal, and whose origin is not known, the land of Palestine was Invaded by the Israelites after their escape from the hands of their Egyptian masters and their wanderings in the wilderness. Acting under the divine command, as interpreted to them by their leaders, they entered upon a merciless war of extermina- tion of the idolatrous tribes who inhabited the land, which they partitioned off as follows: The tribes of Reuben' and Gad and one-half the tribe of Manasseh took the territory east of the Jordan ; Judah, Simeon, Dan and Benjamin occupied the southern portion ; Zebulon, Asher and Naphtali obtained the northern division ; while the other half of the tribe of Manas- seh, together with Issachar and Ephraim, secured the central portion. Being provided for by tithes, the I.cvitcs in their priestly function, were not given any separate territory, but were scattered among the various cities of the other tribes. For over three centuries the tribes were ruled by Judges raised to that dignity by the people for valorous deeds in war or display of qualities of statesmanship, and during this time the nation was practically a confederation of republics, their bond of union being made up of their common origin, language and religion, and the twr-pWBnl danger of invasion by external foes. Among the most famous of the fifteen Judges who ruled the land were Gideon, Jcphtha, Barak, Samson, Deborah, V PALESTINE. "7 3'3 Eli, and Samuel, who was the last of the Judges and the first of the Prophets, but the two latter exercised also priestly functions. Although their rule was satisfactory, the people clamored for a King, and the monarchy was established with Saul, a Benjaminite, as ruler. A great warrior, he led the hosts of Israel in a succession of victories, but his merciful treatment of a conquered people brought about the opposition of Samuel. The King's son-in-law, David, having slain the Philistine giant Goliath in battle, became suddenly popular, and, as he was taken up by the priestly party, he first aroused the jealousy and then incurred the enmity of Saul, who caused him to flee from the country. With an army of brother out- laws David made war upon the Philistines, who had befriended him in his hour of need, and on the death of Saul and his son, Jonathan, his tribe of Judah proclaimed him King. Saul's son, Ishbosheth, was acknowledged by the remainder of Israel, and a civil war followed, which was ended by the death of Ishbosheth, and the assumption of the sovereignty by David. Under KingDavid war was actively pursued against the natives. Jerusalem was wrested from the Jebusites, and the Israelitish domain extended south and west to Egypt and north to the land of the Phoenicians. With the last-named people, who had attained a high degree of civilization and were learned in the arts and sciences, the Hebrews remained on terms of friendship. David's successor, Solomon, raised the power of Israel to its pinnacle of glory. Under his rule commerce and trade were cultivated, the country was fortified, profitable foreign alliances were made, and the beautiful Temple of Jeru- salem was built. Great attention was paid to the military arm of the government ; the army was enlarged and strengthened, and with its aid neighboring nations were kept in subjection and forced to pay heavy tribute. Internal disorder followed the death of Solomon, whose last days were not marked by the wise and strong government which preceded, and under the rule of his son, Rehoboam, the heavy taxation of the people induced, a revolt of ten tribes, who proclaimed Jeroboam King in Israel, which comprised the land beyond Jordan and that to the north of Benjamin. Judah and Benjamin alone remained loyal. Many wars between the rival nations followed. Under licentious Kings the people of the ten tribes waxed in wickedness, until about 700 years B.C. the Assyrians swept down upon them, destroyed their capital of Samaria and car- ried the people into captivity. No record of their fate exists. They disappeared entirely from history, though every now and then some one or other of the nations of the earth is recog- nized, according to Biblical prophecy, as being the identical " ten tribes " of Israel. In Rehoboam's reign Judah was invaded by the Egyptians, who pillaged the temple. Wars with the bordering nations occurred from time to time, and civil war was frequently aroused by the misrule of wicked Kings, whom even the fierce denunciations of the great Prophets could not entirely restrain. Weakened by these causes, the country came under tributary subjection to the Babylonian Empire, and the downfall of the people was brought about by the revolt of Zedekiah, who declared the nation independent, and defended gallantly but unsuccessfully the capital, Jerusa- lem, against the Babylonian armies. In 588 B.C. the city was captured, its walls and temple destroyed, and its citizens carried into Babylon, where they remained captive for seventy years. Their return to their native land was permitted when the Babylonians were vanquished by the Medo-Persians, and Darius, Ahasuerus and other Kings allowed them to rebuild their city and temple, and granted them many additional privi- leges. Under these favorable conditions they increased in strength and numbers, and when, about two centuries before Christ, the Syrians sought to prohibit the Hebrew religion, they arose in arm's and fought for their religious liberty with such courage and vigor that the period of these wars, extend- ing from 167 B.C. to 105 B.C., is looked upon as the heroic era of Jewish history. Forty years later, however, the Romans conquered the country, and Judea became a province of that great power. Native rulers, known as tetrarchs, were given slight local power, but they were powerless to check the oppressions of the conquerors, and sixty-six years after the birth of Christ, whose earthly ministry was made while the people were in the depths of misery, the Jews rebelled and brought upon their country a scourge in the shape of Roman armies under Vespasian and Titus. After a four years' siege, during which the inhabitants endured indescribable sufferings with unparalleled fortitude, Jerusalem fell ; the temple was once more abased ; such of the inhabitants as survived were sold into slavery ; the Hebrew nation as such passed out of existence. After the Roman rule passed away the Byzantine monarchs held the country. Christianity becoming wide- spread, Palestine became a centre of religious interest as the birthplace and scene of the ministry, death and resurrection of the Savior. Thousands of pilgrims visited the " Holy Land," and the rebuilding of Jerusalem was commenced. In the earlier half of the seventh century Palestine was conquered by the Mohammedan Arabs, but in 1099 the warriors of the first Crusade captured the sacred city, and made Godfrey of Bouillon King of Jerusalem, who extended his territory until it comprised the whole of Palestine. This lasted twenty years only, and after further crusades against the Saracens, in which the Christians were more or less successful, the latter were, in 1 291, expelled by the Mame- lukes, who ruled the land until 15 17, when it fell into the hands of the Turks, who still hold it. Several efforts have been made to have the European Jews return to their father- land, but they have declined to abandon the profitable occupa- tions elsewhere to become the agricultural colonists of a not very fertile land. Under Turkish rule Palestine is part of the province of Syria, and comprises the sub-pashalics of Acre and Jerusalem. %■ rzs^zr ~N9 V- 3»4 SIAM— AFRICA. ^ ;if t f •••••••* HM€- Si AM. *MH ♦n i m i N« _ JlARLY in the seventeenth century the Spanish, Portu- \M*! i guese, Dutch and French obtained admission to the 3L a Siamese ports, and England shared their privileges about half a century later. Each of these nations made strenuous endeavors to gain the preponderating influence over the Siamese, and the French seemed for many years the favorites ; but in an outbreak which occurred several of their missionaries and traders were slaughtered, and this event was followed, on the part of Siam, by the inauguration of a policy of exclusiveness, which lasted until about fifty years ago, when Great Britain, France and the United States made treaties with Siam. The rotal dignity is nominally hereditary ; but each sovereign appoints his own successor; and besides, about the court is the Coun- cil of State, which, when the King dies, may defeat his will about the succession of the throne. There are laws to which the King must conform, and which render the Government, in effect, a constitutional monarchy. aJSMl ECOXD only to Asia in point of size, the continent Tlkl^l of Africa, including the islands contiguous to its shores, has an area of 11,854,000 square miles, yet is the least important of all the great divisions of the globe, judged by the standard of civilization and commercial prosperity. It is only within a few years past that the true quality of the interior of Southern Africa has become known, through the researches of European and American explorers in the "dark continent." Attempts to colonize were begun by the French, on the west coast, in the seventeenth century, and. at the Cape of Good Hope (the southern extremity of the continent, which was first doubled by Vasco da Gama) the Dutch established a port in 1650. An English trading company, a century later, also located here. The earliest explorers were James Bruce, who in 1772 visited Abyssinia and discovered the sources. of the Blue Nile, and Mungo Park, who ascended the Niger in the earlier years of the present century, and was killed in 1806 in the kingdom of Houasa by the natives. The desire to discover the source of the Great Nile has impelled several explorers to pierce Central Africa. Up to his time, the most successful of these was Dr. David Livingstone, who travelled in 1849 through the country watered by the Zambesi, and made a vast number of important discoveries. Burton, Speke and Baker, in their hunt fur the Nile's headwaters, discovered lakes Tanganyika, Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyanza, which were also visiied by Livingstone, who defined the great water system of the Luala.be or Chambexe. Henry M. Stanley, an American journalist, acting in the capacity ef special correspondent of the New York Herald, visited Africa on a commission to find Livingstone, who had not been heard from for some years, and in 187 1 he discovered him at Ujiji in great destitution, but still anxious to prCM forward into the continent, for which he had organized a new expedition. In iS73 Livingstone died, and in the following year his body was brought home and interred in Westminster Abbey. Stanley, after parting with Livingstone, explored the Congo and has since made discoveries which place him In the front rank of African travelers. Commerce is following fast in the footstep* of these adventurous men, and the colonization of the fer- tile territories they have visited and described is only a matter of time. In 1890 France owned 2,300.34s square miles; Germany, 1.035.7:0; Great Britain, 1,909,445; I tnlv, 360,000; Spain, 310,000; Portugal. 774,993; while the Congo Free State comprised 1.000.000, and Liberia about 14,30a •- TV EGYPT— UPPER AND LOWER NUBIA. 315 5-^L Jm <^=r-S:i Ggypt. ( ert^T JiGYPT is another of those countries whose prehistoric E&J. I ages are wrapped in mystery as impenetrable as the sources of her Nile, whose exact location long baffled the most enterprising of explorers. Great interest attaches to the country's early annals, but the stories of the dynasties which succeeded Menes, the founder of Memphis, of the rule of the Pha- raohs, and the Ptolemies and thr Cleopatras, though pregnant with true historical interest, cannot here be told, and it will suffice to quote the language of a graceful historian, who wrote : " It (Egypt) attained a high position for wealth and the institutions of civilized society when all the surrounding countries dwelt in the darkness of barbarism. It had a well organized and efficient government long before the na- tional greatness of the Hebrews." Moslem rule prevailed in the country after their conquest of it in 639. The Caliphs were expelled by the Turcomans, who gave way before the Mamelukes in 1250, whose rule continued until 1517, when Selim, Sultan of Turkey, put an end to their dominion and organized the land as a dependency of Turkey. For over two centuries the descend- ants of the vanquished Mameluke chieftains opposed the Turks. A descent upon Egypt was made by the French under Napoleon in 1798, but they were obliged to withdraw, and the Mamelukes were not over- come until the treacherous massacre of their leaders established the Pasha in quiet upon his vice- regal throne. Mehemet Ali, from an obscure position as an Egyptian villager, rose to the position of Viceroy, after a severe conflict with the Ottoman forces, and under him the country made great advancement, and, while nominally tribu- tary to Turkey, Egypt enjoyed nearly all the attributes of an independent nation. He died in 1849, and in 1863 BBBBBBBBEBBBBBBBBBBBEBBBEBB "^-a Ismail came to the throne, a man of such Oriental extrava- gance, both in public improvements and personal expenditures, that he became bankrupt, and his abdication was brought about by the combined pressure of his English and French creditors. His son, Mehemet Tewfik, succeeded him, but the actual control of the nation was placed in the hands of an International Commission of Liquidation. The burden of paying the interest on the enormous national debt which Ismail rolled up, amounting at the close of 1890 to about $535,000,- 000, rests heavy upon the Egyp- tian people, and the rebellion against Tewfik, under Arabi Bey, and the war which England waged against the Egyptians, in support of the Khedive, are of too recent occur- rence to require more than a passing mention. Of late years the influ- ence of England and France- — Egypt's largest creditors — has alter- nately predominated in the manage- ment of Egyptian affairs, but the success of the English arms in the late war, in which the French de- clined to participate, has made the country virtually a protectorate in the hands of England, whose con- trol of the Suez Canal is a matter of vital importance to that power. *3H A STREET IN CAIRO, EGYPT In 1820 the Egyptian Viceroy Mehemet Ali pursued the Mam- elukes southward and into Nubia, where they took refuge. In the following year he conquered the country and made it an Egyptian province. By the rebellion in the Soudan, Nubia was brought under the sway of the Mahdi ; it is now subject to his successor, Khalifa Abdullah el Taashi. K 316 rr ABYSSINIA— CAPE COLONY. >••••••>••••• • •!•■#»••••••• t M t U t If pBYSSINIA. M>m « llll l liM I MI I I II » » <• ' $3 ||ARLY tradition says that the famous Queen of Sheba included part of this country within her realm, and that its subsequent rulers were descended from her. Fabulous as is the early history of the country, there is no doubt that its people had, even in remote antiquity, made great advancement in civiliza- tion. In the middle of the fourth century Christianity was introduced and made great headway. A couple of centuries later the Abyssinians invaded Arabia and conquered a portion of the southwestern province of Yemen. In the tenth century the reigning dynasty was overthrown by a Jewish princess, after which the country remained in anarchy for three cen- turies, when the restoration of the empire, under Icon Amlac, brought about an improved condition of affairs. In the fifteenth century friendly relations were cultivated with the Portuguese, under the influence of whose missionaries the royal family adopted the Roman Catholic religion. In 1541 the Turks threatened the country, and the Portuguese assisted the Abyssinians, but were defeated ; and in 1542 it was invaded by the Gallas, a race from the south, who conquered and held a great part of it. Although fairly well received at first, the Roman Catholic religion failed to gain a strong hold upon the people, who, in 1632, arose against the priests, and, after killing many of them, expelled the remainder. Theodore, who became King in 1855, proved a sagacious and energetic monarch, and under him Abyssinia was extended over several adjacent prov- inces, which had for years maintained their independence. A misunderstanding occurring between him and Great Britain in i860, he imprisoned the British Consul, with some missionaries, and treated them cruelly for some years. In 1868 a British army, under Lord Napier, invaded the country, captured Theodore's stronghold, Magdala, and released the prisoners. Theodore, when the battle turned against him, committed suicide, and the country broke up into various petty States; which, however, under Menelek of Shoa, are being again brought together. . =?f& ^l_ (§APE (sOLONY. -:\ IM* i486 Bartholomeu Dias, a Portuguese navigator, discov- ered the Cape of Good Hope, which Vasco da Gama sailed round in the following year. About the middle of the seventeenth century the Dutch planted colonies near the Cape, conquering and enslaving the natives. Increas- ing in numbers and growing in strength, the colonists, in 1795, rebelled against the mother country, whereupon the Prince of Orange sent an English fleet which established British rule. In 1802 the colony was restored to the Dutch, who, by 1806, had extended their domain eastward to the Great Fish River V- and westward nearly to the Orange River. In that year the ISritish again took possession of the colony, which they have since retained, though not without great difficulty and expense, the native Kaffirs, a handsome and warlike race, proving a stubborn enemy, in the attempted subjugation of whom several sanguinary wars have been waged. Government at the Cape w.\> established, as it now exists, in 1853, when the authority was vested in a Governor and an Executive Council approved by the Crown, while a Legislative Council of t w enty- two members and a House of Assembly represent the people. ?i ^r K~ MADAGASCAR— THE BARKARY STATES. 317 tJtJLJLJLJLJL^LJLJLJLJLJLJLJLJLJt f CQadagasgar. 4 BaBaBaBaBaBaEaBaBaEaBaBaBaEaBaEBa 3>-.<*o- >••' JARTLY from national sentiment, but more as a matter of interest, the Dutch settlers at the Cape of Good Hope, after the acquisition of their country by Great Britain in 1806, emigrated in large numbers and, moving north and east, conquered from the warlike Zulus the country which is now known as Natal, and settled there. More than 10,000 of the Boers, as they were called, had thus wandered away when the British colonists made claim to the territory which they had occupied, and in 1842 took possession of it. Others of the emigrant Boers set- tled on the table-land region to the north of the Orange River and founded 1 the Orange Free State, whose President, in 1848, made an attempt to drive out the British residents, but was defeated and driven from the country. In 1851 the British organized a colony of the Free State, but in 1854 they aban- doned the enterprise and permitted the Boers to organize a government and guaranteed them complete independence. A third attempt by the Boers to establish a republic resulted in the colonization of the Transvaal, whose independence was acknowledged in 1852. Success crowned this effort until the year 1877, when, the republic becoming bankrupt, annexation to Great Britain was suggested as a remedy. A vote was taken which resulted in the British taking possession of the country. Many of the resident Boers claimed that only a minority of the inhabitants voted upon the annexation question, and an emigra- tion westward began, which resulted in the settlement of the Great Namaqua land, on the Western Coast north of the Orange River, a movement which was checked by the British, who claimed that the land was under their jurisdiction. In 1880 the Transvaal Boers, who had had enough of British rule, attempted to re-establish the republic. War ensued and an army which the British sent from Natal to quell the uprising was defeated with great loss. Further engagements with the Boers proved disastrous to the British, who finally abandoned the attempt to crush the republic Among the minor countries of Africa is Liberia, a negro republic on the grain coast of Upper Guinea. Liberia is the original accomplishment of an association known as the Ameri- can Colonization Society, of which Henry Clay was President, and whose object was the foundation of a colony of emanci- pated American slaves. Failure attended the earliest attempt of the society, but, having obtained a suitable location in i>_m, operations were commenced which resulted sua town, which was called Monrovia, after the President of the United States then in office, was started, and a lot of land was given to each settler. In 1847 Liberia declared an independent republic, which in the following year was recognized by Great Britain and, later on, by others of the European p Although the prime object of the founders of the republic has never been realized, comparatively few emancipated slaw ing left America to settle there, Liberia has enjoyed great prosperity and a healthy growth. Contiguous negro trilK> have been included within its territories, which contain about 18,000 Americo-Liberians and 1,050,000 aborigines. A President, Senate and House of Representatives are charged with the government of the republic. k- _N K OCEANICA. 319 Sierre Leone, a British colonial settlement adjacent to and north of Liberia, was settled in 1787 by a body of several hundred destitute negroes who had been removed from London by a society of philanthropists. Three years later they were joined by over a thousand negroes from Nova Scotia. Although so near to the negro re- public founded under American auspices, the latter is far healthier than Sierre Leone, which, perhaps, accounts for its falling far short of the progress accomplished in Liberia. The Congo Free State has sprung out of the dis- coveries of Stanley and the explorations of the Interna- tional Association, founded at Brussels for the opening up to civilization of the Congo and its tributaries. Its autonomy was recognized during 1884 and 1885 by the leading powers of Europe, and by the United States, conditioned upon its maintaining the principles of free trade. There are twelve territorial divisions, the capital being Boma. The central government is at Brussels, and consists of the King of the Belgians as sovereign, and three departmental chiefs. On the Congo there is an Administrator-General and several European adminis- trators of stations and districts. The rest of West Africa is variously "protected" by England, France, Germany and Portugal. sCEANICA, sometimes called Oceania, is the name applied to the fifth division of the globe, which com- prises the Australian Continent and a majority of the islands lying between the Indian Ocean and the r^° China Sea on the west, and the American Continent on the east. So vast is the number of these islands that only the historical facts relating to the largest of them can be mentioned. Australia comes under its own head. New Guinea was discovered by the Portuguese in 1 5 1 1 . It is now divided between Holland, England and Germany ; the German portion is called Kaiser Wilhelm's Land. Borneo, which, until the naturalist Wallace's explorations proved that New Guinea had the greater area, was believed to be the largest island in the world except Australia, was discov- ered in 1578 by the Portuguese. In 1690 they effected a settle- ment, but were soon driven out from it. In 1702 and 1774 England made unsuccessful attempts to colonize the island, but of late years she has managed to acquire a controlling influ- ence over the northwestern coast of the island. Sumatra, Java, Celebes ate among the larger single islands, while among the most important groups are the Malay Archi- pelago, in which these are included, and almost all of which have been subjugated by the Dutch, the Spaniards, the Portu- guese and the British ; the New Hebrides and Polynesia, which general terms include, among others, the Hawaiian, which is one of the most important in the Pacific Ocean. In 1829 the inde- pendence of these islands was acknowledged by the United States, who were followed in 1843 by the British, and in 1844 by the French. Queen Liliuokalani, who succeeded Kalakaua, and is in many respects a progressive ruler, is the present sovereign of the islands. New Caledonia, an island lying to the east of Queensland, was taken possession of in 1853 by the French, who established there a naval station and a penal colony, which are still main- tained. New Zealand was first visited by the Dutch navigator Tas- man in 1642. A colony was first established in 1840. Gold fields were discovered in 1857 which brought a large immigra- tion. Executive authority is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown ; there is also a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Tasmania, formerly known as Van Dieman's Land, ceased being a penal colony in 1853, since which time its population and prosperity have largely increased. A Governor appointed by the Crown holds the executive; there are also a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. >&^^'&^m®> l \ " 320 ^r AUSTRALIA. -<32==5 # pUSTI^ALIA. # .^.„.-.. v Utaiv Mills DAT ™*\\\\V.,lpoW N.VEfrno, HoofcSl . fiuip I/'., , , 1 DeerirtK isneeck I WiirrfBtfrfj { B* Iff fil.-ftabl^ S *^| Mi/ft-attleb. t&g Vem -JH Vgf™ ±JW<*to/l\ A A -. V ,-simoreiand ^Harris %^*f^X\ Teterlwro. ' WtpH' MASSACHUSETTS (Bay State) — First settled by Buff* lish at Plymouth. Hanks first in cotton, woolen and worsted goods, cod and mackerel fishing; second in commerce; third in manufac- tories, printing and publish- ing; fourth in silk goods; fifth in soap and in wealth; sixth in iron and steel; seventh in population; ninth in agricultural im piemen! |* twenty-fifth in miles of rail- way; forty-second in square miles. Manufactures leather and morocco, bleaching and dyeing, fiour and meal, lum- ber and furniture, mol and sugar refining, machiu- ery, ship building, animal and vegetable oils, fish in- dustry. Industries. — M anufac- tures and commeref engage the attention inU. The State second in commerce, third in manufacturing middle and western are fertile. Farms are cultivated. The cod mackerel fishing is portent industry, the ranking first in this indt 1 Salaries of State Officers. Governor t&jHH I.t Governor a^Oflfl f State S JSM arer &■!■■■ Auditor Attorney Gen Chief Justice T &M 6 Asso. Justices.. District Judge 4.'»0 Senators and / $050 pctfl Representath 1 i * * 3 Col. Int. Rev.,$: Col. of Cus.. I Naval Officer RHODE ISLAND (Little Rhody)— First settlement by the English, Providence, 1636. Ranks second in cotton, flax and linen goods; twentieth in weattfcfl thirty-third in population- forty-sixth in square miles; forty-seventh in miles of railway. " Industries — The State is largely engaged in manufacturing, cotton and woolen goods being the largest. It has considerable commerce. Farming is done to some little extent; the chief productions are grains, fruit, butter and cheese. Salaries of State Officers. Governor S31 000 Commissioner of Public Schools Lieutenant Governor 600 Chief Justice tary of State _ 2,500 General Treasurer 2,500 State Auditor Insurance Commissioner 2,500 Railroad Commissioner 1,000 Attorney General . 3,500 Adjutant General (500 CONNECTICUT (Nutmeg State)— First settlement by the English, at Windsor, 1635. Ranks first in clocks; third in silk goods; fourth in cotton eighth in tobacco; fourteenth in wealth; twenty-third in population; thirty-ninth in miles of railway; fortv-fourth in square mile*. Manufactures cotton and woolen goods, hardware, worsted, bleaching and dyeing, jewelry, plated ware, leather goods. 4 Associated Justices 4jb^H is and Representatives $1 per day; mileage g < District Judge Appraiser of Customs. Clerk 3 Collectors. 2 Industries. — Agriculture and manufact u ring ate carried on to a considerable extent by its in- habitants. Sev- eral extensive granite and free- st on e quarries are successfully worked, as are also mines of sil- ver, lead, copper ;uul iron. Many of t he towns SO exten- sive coasting trade and for- eign commerce with the West Indies, Salaries or State Offi- j, — Gover- nor, ?4,ckx>; l.t. (iovernor, $500 ; Scc'y of S $1,500; Trcasur- «r, $1*500; Comp- troller, $1,500; Bd. of Kducat'n, $3,000; Adjutant I ■ ■ $1,200; Ins. 1 «'5°°i 3 *h •*■; f3yooo;Cbiei $4,000; Sen Kept. $300 a n d niile- ag«; I>ist. Judge, $3,500; 1 CoL. Int. . $3,000; 13 Dspuj »Soo to $!,• 775; Stmpd Agent, $1,500. 306* NEWYORK (Empire State) — First settlement by the Dutch at New York (New Amsterdam), 1614. Ranks first in valu e of manufacto- ries, population, soap, print- ing and publishing, hops, bay, potatoes, buckwheat, milch cows, and wealth ; second in salt, silk goods, malt and distilled liquors, and barley; third in agri- cultural implements, iron ore, iron and steel, oats and rye; fourth in wool and miles of railway; twenty- seventh In square miles. Industries. — In popula- tion, wealth and commerce New York is the first in the Union. The commerce ex- tends to all parts of the world. Manufacturing is large, and constantly in- creasing. Agriculture is one of the chief pursuits, wheat and corn being the staple productions. The. develop- ment of the salt springs of the interior is also one of the industries of the State. Its magnificent system of canals and railroads has done much to increase its domestic trade. Salaries of State Of- ficers — Governor, |io,ooo and house; Lieut. Governor, l5,ooo; Secretary of State, $5,000; Treasurer, $5,000; Comptroller, $6,000 ; Attor- ney General, $5,000 ; Chief Justice, $10,000; Senators and Representatives, $1,500 and 10 cents mileage; 3 District Judges, $4,000; Pension Ag't, $4,000; Postage Stamp AgH, $2,500; Division Superinten- dent Railway Service, $2,500; 12 Collectors Internal Reve- nue, $2,750 to $4,000; Collector Customs New York, $12,000; Superintendent Assay O., $4,5°°- NEW JERSEY (Jersey Blue)— First settlement by the Dutch at Bergen, 1620. Ranks first in fertilizing marl, zinc, and silk "goods; fourth in iron ore; •fifth in iron and steel; sixth in buckwheat, manufactories, and soap; seventh' in rye; twelfth in wealth; nineteenth in population; twenty-sixth in miles of railway; forty-third in square miles. Manufactures: molasses and sugar refilling, flour, machinery, leather and leather goods, hats, caps and clothing, woolen arid cotton goods, bleaching and dyeing, glass. Industries: The commerce of the State is small, its manufactures large and various. Its shad and oyster fisheries are extensive. Mining is also a leading industry. But its chief industry is agriculture and market gardening, the State being one immense garden, the, mildness of its climate being such that small fruits are very productive, and being adjacent to the markets of New York and Philadelphia, farmers and fruit raisers find large profits from their labor. Salaries of State officers. Governor, $10,000; Secretary of State, $6,000; Treasurer, $6,000; Comptroller, Jj6,ooo; Atty. Gen., $7,000; Supt. Pub. Inst., $3,000; Adjutant Gen., $1,200; Librarian, $2 000; Chief Justice, $[0,ooo; 8 Asso. Justices, $7,000; Chancellor, $10,000; Senators and Representatives, $500 a year; District Judge, $3,500; Superintendent Lite Saving Service, $1,800; 39 Keepers, $700. PENNSYLVANIA (Keystone State)— First settlement, English, Philadelphia, 16S2. Ranks first in rye, iron and steel, petroleum and coal; second in wealth, population, manufactories, buckwheat, potatoes, printing and publishing; third in miles of railway, niilch cows, hay, soap; fourth in oats and tobacco; fifth in silk goods, wool, malt and distilled liquors; sixth in salt, copper, and agricultural implements; eighth in horses and sheep; thirtieth in square miles. Industries: Pennsylvania ranks next to New York in wealth, population and manufactures. The people are largely engaged in agriculture, mining and £ MAP OP NEW JERSEY Area Sq mlles7,45_5 manufa c tu r e s ; wheat, corn, or- chard fruits, pota- toes, butter and wool are the chief prod ucts. The farms are gener- al 1 y large and well conducted. The manufacto- ries are very ex- tensive, and com- prise a great va- riety of articles; iron, cotton and woolen goods be- ing the leading articles. In the production of coal and iron Pennsyl- v an i a surpasses all other States. Sal ar 1 es of State Officers — Governor $ 1 o,- 000; Lieut. Gov., $3,000; Secretary of State, $4,000; Treasurer, $5,000; Auditor General, $3,000; Attorney General, $3 ,500; Chief Justice, $8,- 500; 6 Associate Justices, $ 8, o 00; Senat'rs and Rep- resentatives, $ 1,- 000 for 100 days, $10 per day, mile- age 5 cents; 2 Dis- trict Judges, $4,- 000; 2 Pension Agents, $4,000; 10 Collectors Inter- nal Revenue, $2.- 375 to $4.5°°; Co '- lector Customs Philadelphia, $8,- 000. 307* DELAWARE mine Hen State)— Fir ut by Swtdc a Capo Ilenlopcn, J627. Ranks twenty-first in orchard products; t h i rt y- third in wealth ; thirty- seventh in population; forty- fifth in square miles; forty- sixth In miles of railway. Industries — The principal pursuits are agriculture and mining-. Fruit jjmws in . Consider* manufacturing- is done In the northern part of the State. SALARIES of State Offi- ( i HS-(iov., $2,000; Sec'y of State, $1,000; Treasurer, $i,- 700; Auditor, $1,200; Adjt. General, $200; Attv. Gen., $1,500; Supt. Public Ins., In- state Librarian, J550; Chief Justice, $3,000; Chan- cellor, $3,000; 3 Asso. Jus- tices, $2,5005 Senators and Kenresentati ves, $3 per day and mileage; District Ji dge, $3,500; District Attorney, $200 and fees; Collector of Internal Revenue, $2,875. Salaries of State Officers — Governor, $4,500; Ranks first in peanuts; second in tobacco; eighth in salt and iron ore, fourteenth -st in square miles. Industries: Agriculture is the leading industry; tobacco, re vast; the mountains containing rich deposits of coal and iron, valuable marble. MARYLAND.- I t bv the E: Hanks ftfltj^^H in fisheries; fourth in c Seventh in I in copper; ninth i thirteenth in wcalth;tw. third in populati first in miles ol thirty-ninth in sq Manufactures: F I and meal, cooper smell sugar and molasses reri; cotton goods, Inmber furniture, malt and di>: liquors, tobacco and cigars, canned oysters, fish and tables, ing, printing and nublis; Fniu sthiks. — The c industry is agriculture: wheat and tobacco being the leading product^ large qnantitil other cereals are prod Manufacturing is la Mining of coal is extent The foreign commerce 1 ■ State is carried on chiefly through the city of Balti- more, which has all th- vantages of a seaport. The chief exports are tobacco, flour, canned fruits and oys- ters. Secretary of State, $2,000; Treasurer, $2,500; Comptroller, $2,500; Attorney General, $3,000; Chief lusticc, $3,500; 7 Associate justices, $3,500; District juo'ge, $4,000; Senators and Representatives, $5 per day and mileage; 2 Collectors Internal Revenue, 1 to $4,500; Collectors of Customs, $7,000; 2 Collectors, $250 to $1,200 and fees; Auditor, $2,500; Naval Officer, $5,000; Surveyor, $4,500. VIRGINIA (Old Dominion)— First settlers, English, Jamestown, 1607. in population; sixteenth in wealth; eighteenth in miles of railway; thirty-first wheat, corn and potatoes being the great staples. The mineral resources are vast; the mountains containing i.„_ slate and stone quarries, with important salt springs. The leading manufactures are prepared tobacco and flour. The unlimited water power with rich mineral deposits must sooner or later make Virginia a great manufacturing State. Salaries of State Officers— Governor, $5,000; Lieutenant Governor, $000; Secretary of State, $2,000; Treasurer, $2,w. Auditor, $3,000; Sec. Auditor, 2,000; Attorney General, $2,500; Superintendent Public Instruction, $2,500; Adjutant General, $600; Commissioner of Agriculture £300; ^""^"fl ent of Land Office, $1,300- President Supreme Court, $3,250; 4 Judges Supreme Court, $3,000; 2 District Judges, $3,500; Senators and Representatives, $540 per year; 5 Collectors Internal Revenue, $3,000 to $4,500. WEST VIRGINIA (Pan Handle State)— First settlers English, Wheeling, 1774. Admitted to Union, 1863. Ranks fifth in salt and coal; eighth in buck- wheat, iron and steel; twenty-ninth in population; thirty-fourth in miles of railway; thirty-eighth in square miles. Industries — Agricu 1 1 u r e is the leading in- dustry, the prin- cipal staples be- Ing tobacco, wheat and corn. The mountain pastures are well adapted to stock raising. Its min- eral resources are rich deposits ot coal, iron and numerous oil wells and salt springs. Sala ries of State Officers — Governor, $2,- 700; Secretary of State, $1,000 and fees; Treasurer, $1,4 00 ; Auditor, $ 2, 000 and fees; Superintendent of Schools, $1,- 500; Attv. Gen., $1,300; Presiding J u d g e Supreme Court, $2,250: v _ so, iate Judges, $2,250; Senators and Representa- tives, $4 p< 1 mile.!- District J u d g c, $3,500: 1 titer. ltev« 908* NORTH CAROLINA (Old "North State)— First settlers, dish. Cowan river, 1650. Ranks tirst in tar and tur- pentine; second in copper; third in pea nuts and tobacco; fourth in rice; ninth in cot- ton; fifteenth in population; twentieth in. miles of rail- way; twenty -third in wealth; twenty-sixth in square Industries — Agriculture is the leading industry, the thief articles being corn, wheat, tobacco, sweet pota- toes, oats, rice and cotton. Vast forests furnish three times as much pitch, tar and resin as all the other States together. Valuable go) d mines are extensive; wrought iron, copper and coal also abound. Salaries of State Offic e r s — Governor, $3,- 000; Secretary of State, $2,- 000; Treasurer, $3,000; Audi- tor, $1,500; Attorney Gener- al, $2,000; Superintendent Public Instruction, $1,500; Adjutant Gen., $600; Com- missioner of Agriculture, $1,200$ State Librarian, $750; Chief Justice, $2,500; 2 Asso- A. ciatc Justices, $2,500; Sena- tors and Represents $4 per day, mileage 10 cents; 4 Collectors Internal Reve- nue, $2,500 to $3,750; 64 Depu- ty Collectors, $300 to $1,700. SOUTH CAROLINA (Pal- metto State) — First settlers, English, Ashley river. 1 Ranks first in phosphates and rice; fifth in cotton; twentieth in population; twenty-eighth in miles of railway; thirtieth in wealth; thirty- seventh in square miles. Industries — Agriculture is the principal industry, the State producing a larger amount of rice than any other State. "Sea Island Cot- ton" is of the finest quality, and superior to all other, and is raised on several isl- ands along the coast of this State and Georgia. Corn, oats, wheat, sweet potatoes and tobacco are extensively raised. The export of rice and cotton is large. But few manufactures are as yet es- tablished in the State,though considerable attention is be- ing given to them. Salaries of State Officers— Governor, $3,500; Lieut. Governor, $1,000; Secretary of State, $2,100: Treasurer, $2,100; Comptroller General, $2,100; Attorney General, $2 ; ioo; Superintendent Public Instruction, $2,100; Commissioner of Agriculture, $2,100; Adjutant and Inspector General, $1,500; Chief Justice, $4,000; Associate Justices, $3,500; Clerk of Supreme Court, $1,000; Senators and Representatives, $5 per day, mileage 10 cents; District Judge, $3,500; Collector of Internal Revenue, $3,250. GEORGIA (Empire State of South) — First settlement, by the English, Savannah, 1733. Ranks second in rice and sweet potatoes; third In cotton and molasses; fourth in sugar; seventh in mules; tenth in hogs, thirteenth in population; fifteenth in miles of railway; nineteenth in square miles; twenty-fifth in wealth. Industries— The leading industry is agriculture, the products being corn, rice, cotton and sweet potatoes, and manufacturing, in which it leads all other Southern States, having fine facilities. Gold, iron, marble and slate abound. Salaries of State Officers— Governor, $3,000; Secretary of State,$2,ooo; Treasurer, $2,000; Comptroller General, $2,000; Attorney General, $2,000; Com- missioner of Agriculture, $2,500; Chief Justice, $2,500; Associate Justices, $2,500; Senators and Representatives, $4 per day and mileage; 3 District Judges, 43,500; Div. Supt. Railway Service, $2,500; Collectors Internal Revenue, $2,500 to $3,125; 24 Deputy Collectors, $300 to $1,700; Customs Surveyor, $1,000 and fees. Admitted to the Union, 1845. Ranks third in sugar and molasses; vay; thirty-fourth in population; thirty-sixth in wealth. FLORIDA (Peninsula State) — First settlement, by the Spaniards, at St. Augustine, 1565. tixth in rice; tenth in cotton; twenty-first in square miles; twenty-seventh in miles of railv Indus t rif. s — The inhabitants confine the m- selves to agricul- ture. The chief products are cot- ton, sugar cane, rice , corn and sweet potatoes, and tropical fruits of great variety. There is consid- erable trade also in lumber. Salaries of State Officers — Gov'nor, $3,500; Lieutenant Gov- ernor, $500; Sec- retary of State, $1,500; Treasurer, $2,000; Comptrol- ler, $2,000; Attor- ney General, $1,- 500; Superintend- ent Pub. Instruc- tion, $1,500; Adju- tant General, $1,- t;oo; Land Com- nfissioner, $1,200; Chief Justice, $3,- [00; 2 Asso. Just's 13,000; Senators and Representa- tives, $6 per day and 10 cents mile- a g e ; 2 District Judges, $3,5°° \ Collector Internal Revenue, $3,000; Surveyor Gen'ral, $1,800; Chief C'k., $1,600. 309* ALABAMA-First settle- ment, by the French, at Mo- bile, 171 1 . Admitted to the ' T ni'>n, 1819. Ranks fourth in cotton, fifth in mules and I lata, sixth in sugar, t.cvcnth in rice and iron ore, tenth in bituminous coal, uteenth in population, nineteenth in miles of rail- way, twenty-sixth in square miles and twenty-eighth in ■wealth. I j rsxRiES — The com- merce of the State is consid- erable, its manufacturing in- terests are increasing rapid- ly, chiefly cotton ana cotton (roods, yarn, thread, iron, eather and lumber. Its min- ing interests are very COD* siuerable; but the principal industry is agriculture, cot- ton and corn being the lead- i n g productions; other ? grains, sugar cane, rice and obacco are also produced. Salaries ok State Offi- cers — Governor, $3,000; Sec, State, $1,800; Treasurer, $2,- 100; Auditor, $1,800: Attor^y Gen., $1,500; Supt. Pub. Ins. $2,250; Librarian, $1,500; 3 K. K. Corners, $2,000 to $3,- 500; Chief Justice, $3,000; 2 per day and 20 cei age; 3 Dirt. Judfft 2 Collectors ! ■ C. llJQOOtot Admitted to the 1 Ranks Mrcond in- in rice, sixth in molasses, seventh in m eighteenth in pnpul. - -fnurth in mi!' railway and twenty-ninth in square miles and wealth. IlfDUSTKIfta— Mississippi is aJiit ■ ly am ag- ricultural State. Great «, tities of rice, corn and 1 and sweet potatoes are duccd. Many tropical fruita grow in abundance. The la- bor is largely performed by colored persona. Horses, mules, swine and cattle are extensively raised. Salaries or State Offi- cers — Governor, $4,000; Lt. Governor, $800; Scc'y State, $2,500; Treasurer, $2,500: Au- ditor, $2,500; Attorney Gen- eral, $2,500; Supt. Pub. Edu- cation, $2,000; Commissioner Agriculture, $1,000; Land Commissioner, $1,000; Adjutant General, $500; Librarian, $Soo; Chief Justice, $3,500; 2 Associate Justice*, $3,500; Senators and Representatives, $400 a year; 2 District Judges, $3,500; Collector Internal Revenue, $2,750. KENTUCKY (Corn Cracker State) — First settled by English, Boonesboro, 1775. Admitted to Union, 1702. Ranks first in tobacco, fourth in malt and distilled liquors, sixth in hogs, seventh in corn, eighth in rye, coal, mules and population, fifteenth in wealth, twenty-third in miles of railway and thirty-fourth in square miles. Industries: Agriculture is the main pursuit. Wheat, con, hemp, flax and tobacco are the staple productions. Fruits of an excellent quality/ abound. Horses and cattle are reared in grea,t numbers. Thousands of swine fatten in the woods. Mining is carried on to a large extent. Manufacture* and commerce receive much attention. Kentucky produces nearly one-half the tobacco raised in the United States. Salaries of State officers: GoTernor. $cjooo; TENNESSEE (Rig Bend State)— First settlers, English, Fort London, 1757. Admitted to Union, 1796. Ranks second in peanuts, third in mule-:, sixth in tobacco, seventh in copper and hogs, ninth in corn, twelfth in population, eighteenth in wealth, twentv-hrst in miles of railway and thirty-second in square miles. Industries: Agriculture is the most important industry, the great staples being wheat, cotton, corn, hemp and tobacco. In the production of the State ranks third. The iron and coal interests are growing rapidly, and will in time prove one o< its richest resources. The marbles ol the State are esteemed for their color and variety. Immense numbers of swine and mules are raised in the State. The manufac tu r 1 n g Industries are more developed than in any of the Southern central A large Internal com- merce is carried on through the ids and riv- ers of the State. Salaries of State Officers ■ rnor, $4,000; S< 1 n t;iry State, $1,800 and fees; Treasurer, $2,700; Comptroller, $2,- OO; Att'v Gen'l, 13,000; Supcrin- t Public Instnicti'n.$i,coo; Adjutant (ien'l, $1,200; Committer ■ $-.- 500; 3 Rat! iissi o ners, $2,000; Librarian, Chief Jus- tice, flLf.cxm; Sens- 1 1 1 I ives, $4 per day ami to cents a m lie; ]D > * 3*5 °° » I LT *■ I» t . ; I rn.il Krv- enue, $2,250 to $4,- 375* 310* LOUISIANA (Creole Stata] — First settlement, by the Fremh, at Iberville, 1699. Admitted to the Union, 1S1*. Ranks first in sugar and mo- third in rice; ninth in salt; twenty-second in popu- lation ; twenty-seventh in wealth; twenty-eighth i n square miles; twenty-ninth In miles of railway. IXDUSTR IBS— H Ol dl n (J, as , the outlet to the tppi Valley, the State to control both the forti^n and domestic trade of this large and rich section. Hence commerce is large and important. The manufactur- ' rests are compara- tively small, except in sugars and molasses. Agriculture is the chief pursuit. This I lie only part of our country producing sugar in large quantities. Cotton is largely cultivated, Louisiana ranking fourth in its produc* tion. The rice crop is also large. Indian corn and other cereals are also produced to a considerable extent. Tha tropical fruits arc abundant. Salaries of State Officers. Governor $4,000 Lieut. Governor,. $8 per day Treasurer 82,000 Sec'y of State 1,800 Auditor 2,500 Attorney General 3,000 Adjutant General 2,000 Supt. Pub. Ins 2,000 Com. Ag. and Immig, 2,000 Chief Justice 5,000 4 Associate Justices 5,000 Senators and Represen- tatives, $4 per day & mil'ge 2 Dist. Judges, $3,500 to $4,500 Col. of Customs New Orleans 7,000 TEXAS (Lone Star State) — First settlement, by the Spaniards, at San Antonio, 1692. Admitted to the Union, 1845. Ranks first in cattle and cotton and square miles; second in sugar, sheep, mules and horses; sixth in miles of railway; seventh in milch cows; eighth in rice and hogs; eleventh in population; nine- teenth in wealth. Industries: Stock raising is the leading industry, Texas ranking first in this production. Agriculture extensively engages tne attention of its inhabitants; corn, wheat and the other cereals are raised in the northern part; sweet potatoes, sugar cane, tobacco and tropical fruits in the southern part. Its commerce consists of exports of cotton, hides and live stock. The State has vast resources that have not, as yet, been fully developed; an abundance of most valuable timber, large deposits of coal, iron and salt, and other useful minerals. Salaries of State Officers. Governor $4,000 Lieutenant Governor $5 per day Secretary of State 2,000 Treasurer 2,500 Attorney General. 4.000 Adjutant General 2,000 Land Commissioner 2,500 Railroad Commissioner $3,000 Chief Justice 3,500 2 Associate Justices 3,500 Senators and Representatives $5 per day and mileage 3 District Judges 3,500 Collectors Internal Revenue $2,500 to 2,750 17 Deputy Collectors $300 to 1,850 ARKANSAS (Bear State)— First settlement, by the French, at Arkansas Post, 16S5. Admitted to the Union in 1836. Ranks fifth in cotton, ninth in n 12/ £ \ mules, twenty- second in miles of railway, twenty- fifth in population and in square miles, thirty-first in wealth. Industri es — The mineral re- sources f t h e State are very large, and receiv- ing much atten- tion. Stock rais- ing is extensive. Agriculture is the chief industry: corn, cotton ana wheat being the leading produc- tions. Oats, tobac- co, sweet potatoes and fine fruits are also produced to a considerable ex- tent. Salaries of State Officers —Governor $Z,W0 Sec. State, $i,Soo; Treasurer, $2,250; Auditor, $2,250; Att'y Gen. $1,500; Sup. Public Inst., $1,600; La'dCom., $i,Soo; Chief Jus., $3,000; 2 Associate justices, $3,000; Senators and Rep- resentativeSj $6 a day; 2 Distr*ct Judges, $3, 500 ; District Attorney, $200 and fees; 2 Asst. District At- torneys, $1, 200, $1,000 ; Collector Internal Rev'nue, $2,750; 10 Deputy Collectors, £1,200 to $1,500. 311* OHIO (Buckeye State) — First settled, by the English, M Marietta, 1788. Admitted to Union, 1803. Ranks iirst in agricultural implements and wool, second in petro- leum, iron and steel, third in population, wheal, sh ee p, COal, malt and distilled li- quors, fourth in printing and publishing, salt, soap and wealth, fifth in milch cows, hogs, horses, hay, tobacco, Iron ore and miles of rail- way, thirty-third in square miles. In-oustkiks— The agricul- tural interest is very large. Cnat crops of wheat, corn, oats, barley, hay, potatoes, garden ana orchard products are raised; also flax, tobacco and grapes. Coal and iron mining are extensively car- ried on in the eastern and southern parts, and large numbers of live stock are sent to the Eastern markets. It is the foremost State in sheen raising, the wool pro- duction being more than 20,000,000 pounds a year. In manufacturing it ranks as the fourth State in the Union. Its commerce by lake, river, canal and railroad traaJ^^H tation is very large. (J wealth, population and pt*M gressiveness the State tsfcoJ front rank, being the third in population. Salaries of State Officer*. Governor $8jMM Secretary of State ftjNN Treasurer SJMM Auditor SjMH Attorney General &>MM School Commissioner. UHV Supt. Ins. Department. UHH Railroad Com SJQtl Secretary Board Agr. . l^M Com. Labor Statistics. :.v,. Sector* ami Rep- resentatives, $5 a day, ralli ■ d; -• District .. $4,0 o o ; Pension ■ Collectors Inter- nal Hev'ue, $i,i25 to $4.5" I ■istotns, $7,- OO 1] Auditor, $i,- 200; Appi miner, $J,00O. 81*1 MICHIGAN (Wolverine State)— First settled, by the French, ;it Detroit, 1650. Ad- mitted to the Union, 1837. Ranks first in copper, lum- ber and salt, second in iron ore, third in buckwheat and wool, fifth in hops and pota- toes, sixth in wheat, barley and wealth, seventh in agri- cultural implements, ninth in oats, population and miles of railway and twentieth in square miles. IXDUSTRXSS — Agriculture, mining, lumbering, manu- facturing and commerce command the attention of the inhabitants. Large crops of wheat, corn, oats and po- tatoes are produced, as also treat quantities of wool, utter and cheese. Fruit raising is extensively fol- lowed, the value of the or- chard products exceeds that of New Jersey or California. The copper mines of the State are the richest known and are extensively worked. The production ot hawed lumber is greater than that of any other State. The value of manufacturing exceeds $100,000,000. The fisheries form one of the secondary, yet important sources of wealth, large quantities be- ing taken for home use and export. Salaries of State Officers. Governor $1,000 Lieut. Gov $3 a day Sec'y of State $ 800 Treasurer 1,000 Auditor Gen 2,000 Sunt. Pub. Inst'n 1,000 Adjutant Gen 1,000 Sec'y Board Agr 1,500 Insurance Com 2,000 Railroad Com 2,500 Immigration Com 2,000 Chief Justice 4,000 Senators and Repre- sent, $3 a day, 10c. a mile 2 District Judges $3,500 Pension Agent 4,000 4 Col. In. Re v. $3,875 to 2,625 third in barley WISCONSIN (Badger State)— First settlement, by the French, Green Bay, 1660. Admitted to the Union, 184S. and potatoes, fourth in rye and buckwheat, fifth in oats and agricultural implements, seventh in iron, steel and wool, eighth in nay ana miicn cows, ntntn in copper, tenth in wealth, eleventh in miles of railway, sixteenth in population and twenty -third in square miles. Industries: The chief industry is agriculture, with large crops of corn, wheat, oats, barley, hay, potatoes and hops, as the staple productions. Live stock is largely raised. In the production of wool and cheese it is among the leading States. The manufacturing interests are large and increasing. The great pine forests in abundance, and the most valuable timber, lead, iron, zinc and marble mines are extensively worked. Lakes Michigan and Superior and the Mississippi afford great natural highways for commerce. Salaries of State Officers. Chief Justice 5,000 4Associate Justices 5,000 2 District Judges 3,500 Senators and Representatives, $500 per year [and 10 cents mileage MINNESOTA (Gopher State)— First settlement, by Americans, Red River, 1812. Admitted to the Union, 1S58. Ranks fourth in wheat eighth in oats and hay, twelfth in miles of railway, thirteenth in square miles, seventeenth in wealth, twenty-sixth in population. Governor $5,000 Secretary of State 5,000 Treasurer 5.000 lev >ad Railroad Commissioner $3,000 Pension Agent S4.000 Indian Agent 1,500 4 Collectors Internal Revenue $2,750 to 4,500 23 Deputy Collectors $300 to 1800 Collector of Customs $1,000 and fees nd barley, Industri e s — The leading in- dustries are: 1. Agriculture, the staple produc- tions being corn, wheat and oats, while other ce- reals are largely raised. 2. Lum- bering, great quantities of lum- ber are sawed in this State, and immense rafts of logs are floated down the Missis- sippi to be sawed in other States. 3. Manufactu ring, the principal arti- cles being sawed lumber and flour. Salariesof State Officers — Gov'or, $5,000; Lieut. Governor, $600; Sec'y State, '3,500; Treasurer, 3,500; Auditor, l,ooo; Attorney eneral, $3,500; S u pe ri ntendent Public Instruct'n, $2,500; Adjutant General, $ 1,500; Public Examiner, $3,000; Insurance Commis'r, $2,000; Commissioner of Statistics, $2,000; Railroad C o m- missioner, $3,000; St ate Librarian, $2,000; Chief Jus- tice, $4,500; Sena- tors and Repre- sentatives, $5 per day and 15 cents mileage; District Judge, $3,500. 313* IOWA (Ilawkcyc State)— First settlement, by the French Canadians, Burling- ton, 17S8. Admitted to the Union, 1S46. Ranks first in hogs, second in miles of railway, milch cows, oxen and other cattle, corn, hay and oats; third in horses, fifth in barley, sixth in pota- toes and rye, seventh in coal and wheat, tenth in popula- t i o n, eleventh in wealth, twenty-fourth in square miles. Industries — Agriculture and mining are the leading pursuits. The State takes a leading position in the pro- duction of wheat, corn and cattle. The manufactures are important, and show great progress annually. Salaries of State Officers. Governor « Lieut. Governor 1#M Sec'y of State 2J0O Treasurer 2J0O Auditor 2^10 Attorney General [and |B t isfll Superintendent Public Instruction $2^00 3 Railroad Com'rs ; Librarian 1.500 Chief Jastice 3,000 4 Associate Justices... 3jtw Senators and Represen- tatives $550 per year a District Judges $3,500 Pension Agent... 4 Collectors Internal Revenue.... $2^00 to 4,500 NEBRASKA— First settlement, by Americans. Admitted to the Union in 1867. Ranks eighth in corn and barley, ninth in rye, fourteenth in miles ot railway, fifteenth in square miles, thirtieth in population, thirty-second in wealth. Industries — Beef cattle and other live stock are raised in great numbers upon the grazing section. Corn, wheat and other cereals and fruit growing are carried on extensively and with great success. The cheap and fertile lands offer great inducements for settlement to emigrants. Salaries of State Officers. Governor $2,500 Lieut. Governor $10 a day Secretary of State $2,000 Treasurer 2,500 Auditor Public Accounts 2,500 Attorney General 2,000 Superintendent Public Instruction 2,000 Secretary Board of Agriculture 1,000 THE DAKOTAS— Settlement, by Americans, at Pembina. Organized as a Territory, 1861. Admitted into the Union as two States, North and South Commissioner of Public Lands $2,000 Chief Justice 2^00 Senators and Representatives $3 a day and 10 cents mileage District Judge $3,500 Collector Internal Revenue Surveyor General 3 Indian Agents $1,2* to LflOO Dakota, 1 885). Ranks third in gold and square miles, ninth in silver, thirteenth in miles of rail- way, thirty-ninth in pop illation. Special census of Dakota in 1885, showed a popula- tion of 415.610. In 1800 the popula- tion of N. Dakota was 1S/.71.J; and the population of S. Dakota was 328,808. The total assessment of property in 1886 was $106,400,549, and in 1SS7, $157,- 084,365. Salaries op State Officers —North Dakota— Governor, $3,000] I-ieut. Gmernnr, $1,000; Secretory of State, I • Auditor, . ia,ooo; Treasurer,ia,ooo; Com. Ins., $. Att*y General, $0,000; Bapt, Pub. lnstruc'n, $ See H. EL Corns., $j,ooo; Chief Jus- tice, $4,500; Asso. Justice, $4.v South Dakota— Governor, | . Lieut. Gov,, $ooo\ I ' v of State, $1,8001 Auditor, Si ,8oo;Treasarer, $ 1, Son; Bapt Poo. lnstruc'n, S . PUD. I. and, lljBOO; Attornty- Gi'tht.iI, f\ £0O| Com, Labor, $1,- o<«o; Tub. Exam* iner, $1,^00, •814 MISSOURI (Pennsylvania pf the West)— First settle- ment, by the French, at Stc. Genevieve, 1764. Admitted to the Union, 1S21. Ranks first in mules, third in oxen, bops, corn and copper; fifth In population, sixth in iron Ore, wool, milch cows and horses ; seventh in oats, eighth in wealth, wheat and tobacco, ninth in sheep and potatoes, tenth in miles of railway, sixteenth in square miles. Industries — Agriculture Is the leading occupation. Mining is extensively car- ried on in the section south Of St. Louis. The iron re- sources of the State exceed that of any other. The man- ufacturing interests are large and increasing. The chief agricultural products are KANSAS (Garden of the West)— Settled by Americans. Admitted to the Union, 1861. Ranks fifth in cattle, corn and rye, railway, ninth in hogs, horses, wheat and coal, fourteenth in square miles, twenty-first in population, twenty-fourth in wealth. Industries — Agriculture and stock raising form the chief pursuits of the inhabitants. Every variety of cereal and farm quantities. Nearly 2,000,000 acres are mineral lands. Three-fourths of the State is suited for agriculture. Salaries of State Officers. great crops of corn, wheat, rye, tobacco, hemp and grapes. Salaries of State Officers. Governor $5,000 Sec'y of State 3,000 Treasurer 3,000 Auditor 3,000 Attorney Gen 3,000 Adjutant Gen 2,000 Supt. Public Schools.. 3,000 Register of Lands 3,000 3 Railroad Com'rs 3,000 Supt. Ins. Dep't 4,000 Chief Justice 4,500 Senators and Repre's, $5 a day, mileage and $30 2 District Judges 83,500 5 Col. In. Rev. $2,250 to 4,500 Surveyor of Customs, St. Louis 5,000 seventh in hay and miles of products is raised in great Governor $3,000 Secretary of State 2,000 Trt :;isin er 2,500 Auditor 2,000 Attorney General , 2,500 Superintendent Public Instruction 2,000 Secretary Board of Agriculture 2,000 Insurance Commissioner , 2,500 COLORADO (Centennial State) — First settlement, by Americans, near Denver, about Ranks first in sil- 3 Railroad Commissioners State Librarian Chief Justice... . , 2 Associate Justices , Senators and Representatives. District Judge Pension Agent Collector Internal Revenue. . . . , .S3 Organized as a Territory, 1861 $3,000 1,500 3,000 3,000 per dny and 15 cents mileage $3,500 4,000 2,750 Admitted to the Union, 1S76. v e r, fourth i n gold, eighth i n square miles, seven tee th in miles of railway, th irty - fifth in population and wealth. Industries — About one-third of the State is good agricultural land and easy of irrigation, bring- ing fourth bounti- ful harvests of all the cereals. As a grazing and dairy country it is un- surpassed, its nu- tritious grasses h a v i ng peculiar advantages for herding. Its chief production is min- ing; in its yield of gold and silver it is the leading State of the Un- ion. Sa laries of State Officers Govern'or, $5,000; Lieut. Governor, $1 ,000; Secretary of State, $3,000 ; Treasurer, $3,000; Auditor, $2,500; Attorn -y Gen'ral, $2,000; Chief Jus- tice, $5,000; 2 As- sociate Justices, $5,000 ; Senators and Representa- tives, $4 per day, 15 cents mileage; Dist. Judge, £5,- 500; Collector In- ter'l Rev., $2,875; Sur. Gen., $2,500; Ute Indian Agt., $1,400. 315* NEVADA(Sage Hen State) ,-First settlement, by Amer- icans, ir. 1850. Admitted to the Union, 1864. Ranks second in gold, fourth in sil- eventh in square miles, thirty - seventh in wealth, thirty-eighth in population, fortieth in miles of railway. Industries— The leading industry is mining. The mines of the State yield over three-fifths of all the silver produced i n the United States. Stock raising is also largely followed, having a large amount of fine pasture land. Salaries of State Officer** Governor IVJOt Lieut. Governor 2,509 Sec'yof State X009 Treasurer . 1,099 Comptroller Attorney General 3.009 Superintendent Public Instruction -/JQO Chief Justice <.JX* iate Justices... 6/309 - 1 and Represen- ts a day, 40c. mileage District Judge 3,509 Surveyor Gen Chief Clerk 2.009 Draftsman 1,909 Collector Inte'nal'Rcv enue 2,375 CALIFORNIA (Golden State) — First settlement, by the Spaniards, 1769, at San Diego. Admitted to the Union, 1S50. Ranks first in barley, grape cultoftjfl gold and quicksilver, second in wool and square miles, third in hops, fifth in wheat and salt, seventh in silk goods, eighth in soap and silver sixteenth 111 miles of railway, twenty-fourth in population. Industries: Mining, manufacturing, stork raising and agriculture form the principal indu-' the State. Commerce is extensive with China, Japan, the East Indies and Australia, and with other States and Territories. The State ranks first in the culture of the grape, and one of the foremost in wheat raising. No State in the Union has developed so rapidly. Salaries of State Officers. Governor $o,000 Secretary of State 3,000 Treasurer 3,01 a t Comptroller 3,000 Superintendent Public Instruction 3,000 Attorney General 3,000 Surveyor General 3,000 State Librarian 3,000 District Judge i$|^| Senators and Representatives 98 a day, 10 cents mileage and $3 3 Collectors Internal Revenue $3,125 to Collector Customs, San Francisco Pension Agent Superintendent of Mint yer 3.UU9 OREGON— First settled, by Americans, 1811 MAP OP CALIFORNIA Arw nq.mllw l»,»w Territory organized, 1848. Became ■ State in 1S59. fifteenth in wheat, thirty-second i n miles of railway, thirty-fourth i n wealth, thirty-six in population. iNDL'STRI E S — Agriculture, stork raising and lum- bering are the chief pursuits; wheat being the .ii tii H 1 4 the former, while must of the ce- reaif of the Mid- dle States flour- ish. Cutting tim- ber from the im- mense pine for- t the State gives employment :it munbera of inhabitants. s a l aries op State Offii — Gov'nor, \ 1 Secret " Auditor ,V Comp- troller, $ 1, <; 00 ; I teasurer, $8 O O; Superintendent 01 PoDllc Instruct*!). $i*S°p; st.it. 1 I l'r;iriaii,(ii .*- Justice, Jj.ooo; -* \ ■ 1 1 . I and Re] tiv.s, f$ a da t J II d g e. $ 3, 5 00; Dl $ a 00 ami fees; (. t) or Int. ■ ■ 1 at, |-\5oo. 316* Ranks seventh in fisheries, tenth in sqi MONTANA Ranks fourth in silver »nd square miles, fifth in gold, fifteenth in cattle, thirty-sixth in miles of rail- vnv and forty-fourth in pop- ulation. The population of Montana, according to cen- sus of 18S0, was 39,159, but in 1884 the total vote cast for delegate to Congress was 26,otK,, and in 1886, 32,26:!. In 1890 the population num- bered 132,159. First settle- ment, by Americans, 1852. Organized as a Territory, 1864 Admitted to the Union in 1S89. I £^£5 2L- _JJU3K> a .p_a. Fl<,t!,r,).l :■„ Martina <-■>■. waAtagtai MAP OF 1 MONTANA Area ■ij.infTes 145,310 Salaries of State Officers. Governor $5,000 Secretary 3,000 Treasurer 3,000 Auditor 3,000 Supt. Public Inst'n . . . 2,500 Chief Justice 4,000 2 Asso. Justices,, 4,000 Senators and Repre'es [$4 per day, 20c. mileage Surveyor Gen $2,500 ChiefClerk 1,800 Chief Draftsman 1,600 Collector Int. Rev 2,500 5 Deputy Collectors In- ternal Revenue 1,600 Assayer 2,500 Melter 2,250 IDAHO— Ranks sixth in gold, seventh in silver, twelfth in square miles, forty-third in miles ot railway, forty-fifth in population. 84.3^5. First settlement, by Americans. 1S42. Organized as a Territory, 1863. Admitted to the Union in 1890. Salaries of Territorial Officers. Population, lSoo, Governor $3,000 Secretary 1,800 Treasurer 1,000 Auditor 1,800 Librarian 250 Chief Justice 3,000 2 Associate Justices 3,000 WASHINGTON— Ranks eighth in gold, seventeenth in square miles, forty-first in population, forty-second in miles of railway. to territorial cen- Senatorsand Representatives $4 per day and 20c. mileage 2 District Attorneys $ 2 5° and fees Collector Internal Revenue $2,250 3 Deputy Collectors $1,400 to 1,600 Assayer , 2,000 Assistant Assayer 1,440 Population, according sus in 1085, 127,- 292; U. S. Census 1890,349,300. First settle ment, by Americans, at Astoria, 181 1. Or- ganized as a Ter- ritory, 1853. Ad- m i 1 1 e d to the Union, 1889. Salaries of State Officers Gov'nor, $4,000; Secretary, $2,500; Treasurer,$2,ooo; Auditor, $2,000; Su peri ntendent Public Instruct'n, $2,500; Librarian, $400; ChT Justice, $3,000; 3 Asso'ate Justices, $ 3,0 o o; Senat'rs and Rep- resentatives, $4 a day and 20 cents mileage; Survey- o r General, $2,- 500; Chief Clerk, $1,800; C'f Drafts- man, $1,700; Col- lector of Customs, $1,000 and fees; Collector Intern , l Revenue, $2,250 ; 3 Deputy Collect- ors Internal Rev- enue, $1,200 to$i,- 600. 317* ARIZONA Ranks fifth in silver, sixth in square miles, eighth in sheep, ninth in gold, thirty- eighth in miles of railway, forty-third in population. First explored, by the Span- iards, in 1526. Organized as Territory, 1863. Salaries of Territorial Officers. Governor $2^50 Secretary lfW Treasurer 1,000 Auditor i.rjoo Supt. Public Iost-n 2Mfl Librarian tjQO Chief Justice 3.0W 2 Asso. Justices 3,000 Senators and Repre- sentatives. .$4 per day [and 30 cents mileage 3 District Judges $3,000 Collector Int. Rev. 2 Deputy Collectors... [•1,600 to 1,700 Clerk 1,100 UTAH— Ranks third in silver, tenth in gold, eleventh in square miles, fifteenth in coal, thirty-fifth in miles of railway, thirty-eighth in population. First settlement, by Americans, at Salt Lake City, 1S47. Organized as a Territory, 1850. Salaries of Territorial Officers Governor $2,000 6ccrctar y 1,800 Treasurer cqq Auditor 1,500 Superintendent Public Instruction j 50Q Librarian 250 Chief Justice 3(00o NEW MEXICO 2 Associate Justices $3,000 Senators and Representatives , ..$4 per day and 20 cents mileage District Attorney , . .$250 and fee* 1 1 United States Commissioners fee* Collector Internal Revenue $2,500 2 Deputy Collectors $1,600 to 1.800 Ranks fifth i n square miles, eighth in silver, eleventh in gold, nineteenth in • be« p, twenty- second in cattle, thirtieth in miles of railroad, for- tieth in popula- tion. First settle- ment, by the Spaniards, at Santa Fe, 1537. Organized as ter- ritory, 1850. Salaries of Ter ritorial Officers — Governor, $2,600; Secretary, $1,800; Treasurer,$2,ooo; Auditor, $2,000; Com. Immigra'n, $900; Librarian, $600; Ch'f Justi. e, $3,000; 2 Asm 1 .[slices, $3,000 ; Senttori and Keprescntatlv r s, $4 a day and 20c. mileage; Collect- or Internal Kive- nue, $2,500; 2 Dep- uty Collectors In- ternal Revenue, $1,200 to $ 1,700; Surveyor Gener'l, $2,500; Translator and Chief Clerk, 93,000, 318* WYOMING Ranks ninth in square miles, twelfth in cattle, fourteenth in gold, sixteenth in coal, forty-fourth in miles of rail- way, forty-sixth in popula- tion. First settlement, by Americans, 1867. Organ- ire il as a Territory, Admitted to the Union in iSoa. Salaries of State Officers. Governor $2,600 Secretary 2,000 Treasurer 2,000 Auditor , 2,000 Supt. Public Instr'n.,,. 2,000 Librarian 400 Chief Justice 3,000 2 Associate Justices... 3,000 Senators and Repre*s, [$4 a day, 20c. mileage Zo\. Inter. Rev 82,000 2 Deputy Col. Int. Rev. [$1,400 to 1,500 Surveyor Gen 2,500 Chief Clerk 2,000 Chief Draftsman 1,800 THE INDIAN TERRITORY was originally set apart as a reservation for peaceful tribes. Organized in 1834, Dut not und er tne same forms of govern- ment as the other Territories. The lands are held in common by the Indians, each being allowed to cultivate as much as desired, and whites can hold land only by marrying an Indian. Grazing and agriculture are the leading industries. Oklahoma was opened up to white settlers in 1889. Ranks eighteenth in square miles and forty-fifth in miles of railway. Indian Agencies. ARAPAHOE. Agent $ 900 CHEYENNE. Agent «. $2,200 Physician 1,200 KAW. Superintendent $1,600 Physician 1,200 KIOWA AND COMANCHE. Agent : $1,000 Physician 1,000 OAKLAND. Superintendent $1,000 3 Teachers 600 MEXICO AND CUBA. The Republic of Mexico comprises twenty -seven States, a Federal District and the territory of Low- er California. Agri culture, mining and stock raising constitute the principal in- dustries. The cli- mate in the ele- vated interior is mild and health- ful, but along the coast it is very hot and pestilen- tial. The Mexi- cans are a very mixed race, about one - tenth being Creoles, descend- ants of Spanish colonists. 319* ONTARIO Is the most important Province of Canada. Principal products, grain, fruit, lumber, petroleum, copper and Iron. The population of Ontario is one-third of the whole Dominion. Toronto, the capital, is the nana* factoring and educational center. The population of this Province is largely of British descent. W3j£~T Nort r. h „ w r er " ""<__ ONTARIO "^ MAP OF ONTARIO ^ YfTOWVlVV^- QUEBEC was originally settled by the French, and the present population is largely composed of descendants Voyagers. The capital, Quebec, is the oldest city in the Dominion. Its fortifications were at or considered, next to Gibraltar, the strongest in the world. Nevertheless, the fortress was captured by General Wolfe. The metropolis, Montreal, is noted fur its churches. MANITOBA Is a great wheat-growing country, and furs are also a leading product. The first settlers, 1731, were French, and Kn^Iish traders first made their appears 1767. The Province is now traversed by the I Pacific Railway. 1 erj Mvarc in winter, but n.illy hoi in 'iiiniiuT. The soil is such that wheat ripens in no days. 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Conquest ence Invasion resisted International and poli T V iVSC l±t MILITARY and NAVAL STRENGTH of VARIOUS GKINTRIES. Based on the numerical strength of the respective armies on a war footing; where more than one number is given, besides the number of war vessels, the first represents the standing army. NORWAY and SWEDEN 64,000 War footing^ 5^9.510 116 Vessels V K" COMPARATIVE AREA IN SQUARE MILES I STATES * FOREIGN COUNTRIES. A DICTIONARY OF DATES. 337 rMMM^»^^l'« n mCTIONRKY DF- DRIES, i^^&^^X^%^^\^k^&^^ Th rt World's Progress as shown in an Alphabetical Record of Notable Events and Discoveries. <> ■ * — <> Air-Balloons invented by Gusmac, a Jesuit, in 1729. Revived in France by M. Montgolfier, in 1783- Air-Guns invented by Guhr, of Nuremberg, in 1656. Air-Pumps invented in 1650. Algebra, known in Europe in 1300; in general use in 1590. Almanacs 6rst published in 1470, by Martin Hku.-,, at Buda. The first almanac in England was printed at Oxford, in 1673. Alien and Sedition Acts passed by Congress in 1793 ; expired, by limitation, Jan. 26, 1801. Alphabet. The Ionic alphabet was introduced 399 years before Christ. Before this time the Greek letters were but sixteen in number. Anaesthesia discovered 1844. Anchors invented in 587. Anti Slavery Society (American) organized Dec. 6, 1833, at Philadelphia. Argand Lamps invented by Aime Argand, of Geneva, about the year 1782. Arquebus introduced about 1520, and remained in use until after 1567, when the matchlock sup- planted it. In 1630 the flint lock was invented, and the musket was introduced. Ban kin g. The first bank in Europe was the Bank of Venice, 1171. The Bank of England was established in 1694, the Bank of North America, 1781. Barometers invented in 1626; wheel barometers in 1668, phosphoric in 1675, pendant in 1695, and marine in 1700. Battering-Ram invented 441 years before Christ. Bayonets invented at Bayonne in 1670. First used in England in 1693. At first these had wooden handles fitting into the guns, but in 1699 the socket bayonet was introduced. Bellows. — Strabo informs us that the invention of bellows is due to the Scythian philosopher, Anacharsis, who lived in the time of Solon. Bells invented by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, in Campagnia, in or about the year 400. They were first used in France in 550, in Greece in 864, and in the churches of Europe in 900. In Switzer- land they first appeared in 1020. Blankets first mads in England in 1340. Blood, circulation of, discovered in 1619. Blue (Prussian) first made in Berlin, in 1704. Bombs invented at Venlo, in 15S8, and used first in the service of France in 1634. Books, in thctr present form, were invented by Attalus, king of Pergamus, in 887. Boots invented 907 years before Christ. Boston Fire Nov. 9, 1872. Loss, $73,600,000. Bread first made with yeast by the English about 1650. Bricks first used in England by the Romans. In 1625 their regular size was fixed by Charles I. Bridges. The first bridge of stone in England was ihat built at Bow, near Stratford, in 1087. Buckles invented about 1680. Bullets of stone used in 1514. Iron bullets first mentioned in 1550. 23 Bullion (Assaying of) introduced in 1354. Butter. — The first mention of butter is that of Herodotus, who, in describing the Scythians, says : " These people pour the milk of their mares into wooden vessels, cause it to be violently stirred or shaken by their blind slaves, and sep- arate the part that arises to the surface, as they consider it more valuable than that which is col- lected below it." Soon after the death of Hippoc- rates, we read that the Greeks thought the but- ter which the Thracians ate a wonderful kind of food. The ancient Ethiopians appear to have used butter as food. The ancient Germans were butter-makers. Calico-Printing and the Dutch-loom engine first used in 1670. Camera Obscura invented by Baptista Porta, in 1515. Canal. — The first English navigable canal was finished in 1134. Candles of tallow took the place of prepared splinters of wood in 1290. Cannon invented in 1130. First used by the English in 1346; used first in England in 1445; in Denmark in 1354; by the Spaniards in 1406. The first iron cannon were made in England, in 1 547 ' Caps first worn in 1449. Cards invented for the amusement oi Charles VI., in 1380. Carriages introduced in England in 1580; in Vienna in 1515. Chain Shot invented by De Wit, Dutch Ad- miral, in 1666. Chess invented 608 years before Christ. Chicago Fire, Oct. 8-n, 1871. Loss, $290,- 000,000 ; about 250 persons perished, and 98,500 rendered destitute ; 25,000 buildings destroyed. Chimes on Bells invented at Alvest in 1487. Chimneys first introduced in England in 1200, but at first only in the kitchen or large hall. China made at Dresden, in Saxony, in 1706 ; at Chelsea (England) in 1752; by Mr. Wedgwood in 1762. Civil Bights Bill passed by Congress 1866. Civil Service Reform Bill introduced in congress Jan. 20, 1867. Act for rules to be pre- scribed by the President for civil service exam- inations passed March 3, 1871, and commis- sioners for that purpose appointed June 28, with G. W. Curtis as chairman. Clay's Compromise, tariff, 1833; slavery, 1850. Clocks, called water-clocks, were first used in Rome 158 years before Christ. Clocks and dials were first put up in churches in 913. In 801 clocks were made to strike the hours by the Arabians, and by the Italians in 1300. A strik- ing-clock was used at Westminster in 1368. The first portable striking-clock was made in 1530. Richard Harris, of London, invented clocks with pendulums about 1641 . To distinguish these from dials, they were first called sun- " nocturnal, or night-dials." Repeating clocks and watches were invented by a maker named Barlow in 1676. Coaches. Covered carriages appear to have been used by the old Romans. In the year 1588, Duke Julius of Brunswick published an act against riding in coaches. Philip II, of Pomtr- ania-Stettin, published a similar document in 1608. Coaches appear to have been used in France very early. An ordinance of Philip the Fair, issued in 1294, for suppressing luxury, for- bids citizens' wives to ride in coaches. Coaches were first used in England in 1565, the first being that made for the Earl of Rutland. In 1601 an act was passed to prevent men riding in coaches, on the scoreof its effeminacy. Coaches began to be common in 1605, and were petitioned against by the saddlers and others. Hackney coaches introduced in 1634. In 1661, a stage coach was two days going from London to Oxford, and the "Flying Coach" was thirteen hours, even in summer weather, when the roads were at their best. Coal first dug for fuel in 1234. Coin. Silver was first coined by Phidon, King of Argos, 869 B.C. In Rome, silver money was first coined .269 B.C. Gold and silver coins first used in the East. Coin first used in Britain 25 B.C., and in Scotland not until 248 years later. In 1101, round coins were first used in England. Silver halfpence and farthings were coined in the reign of John, and pence were the largest cur- rent coins. Gold was first coined in England in 1087; in Bohemia in 1301. In 1531, groats and half-groats were the largest silver coin in Eng- land. Gold was first coined in Venice in 1346. Shillings were first coined in England in 1068. Crowns and half-crowns were first coined in 1551. Henry III introduced copper money into France in 1580. Copper money introduced into England by James I in 1620. The process of milling coin introduced in 1662. The mint of the United States of America was established in 1793- Coining with a die first invented in 1617, and first used in England in 1620, Compass (Mariner's) invented in China 1120 B.C.; used in Venice 1260 ; improved at Naples in 1302. Its variations observed in 1500; its dipping in 1576. Copyright. The copyright law was first passed by Congress in 1791, the term being made four- teen years ; amended, and term extended to 28 years, with renewal for 14 more, in 1831. Cotton. The first raised in the United States was in 1621, in Virginia ; first exported from U. S. in 1747. Cotton Gin invented in 1793, by Eli Whitney. Culverins first made in England in 1534. Daguerreotypes first made in France, 1839. Declaration of American Independence, 1776; recognition, 1782. Delf (or Delft) earthenware invented at Firenze in 1450. Diamonds first cut and polished at Bruges in j 489. Dice invented 1500 B.C. Dinning Needle invented by Robert Norman, Distilling first practiced in 1150. Diving-Bell. This machine appears to have been known in 1509, and repeated mention of its use occurs in historical chronicles from that date. Electric Light. Invented at London, in 1874, by two Russians, Lodyguiu and Kosloff. The 4v H IK 338 A DICTIONARY OF DATES. Tablochkoff candle proved successful in 1878 in lighting the streets of Paris. In the United States, the Sawyer-Man light appeared in 1878, and Ldison began his expenments in electric lighting in the same year. Emancipation Proclamation. January i, i86j. Engraving* on metal invented in 1423 ; on cop- Mf la iui. Improved process introduced by Prince Rupert ot Palatine in 1648. Engraving process for tints invented by Barablc, a French- man, in 1 761. Engraving on wood invented at Fl.im.lers in 1423, and revived in 1511 by Albert Durer. Engraving on glass invented at Paris in 1799, by Uondicr. Envelopes for letters were first used in 1839. Etching' on copper with aqua fortis was intro- duced in 151a. Ether was first used in surgical operations in 1844. Express. The first American express was ope- rated between New York and Boston, in 1821, by W. F. Harnden. False Hair introduced by the courtesans in Italy, and first brought into England from France in 1572. Fenian Raids into Canada, May 31. 1866; re- sumed February 3, 1870. Filibustering- raids of Wm. Walker, 1853-60. Fire Engines, to force water, existed in very ancient times. The first of the kind now in use, but of a vastly inferior character, was invented by two Dutchmen, each named Jan van der Hcide. at Amsterdam, in 1518. In 1657 an im- 5 roved engine was introduced at Nuremberg by ohn Hantsch. Fire-engines were first known at Paris in 1699. The first volunteer fire com- pany in America was the Union of Philadelphia, about 1736. Flag. The American flag was first used by Washington at Cambridge, January 1, 1776. Fortification. The present mode introduced about 15^0. Forks are, comparatively speaking, quite a modem invention. They were first known in Italy toward the end of the 15th century. They began to be known in France by the end of the i6tli century. Introduced in England in 1608. Free Soil Party. The first national conven- tion was held at Buffalo, Aug. 9, 1848. Fugitive Slave Law passed by Congress, Sept. 12, 1850. Gamut in music invented by Guy L'Aretin in 102 s. Gas was first evolved from coal by Dr. Clayton in 1739. Its first application, as an illuminating medium, was made by Mr. Murdoch, in Corn- wall, England, in 1792. Sir H. Davy, before a committee of the House of Commons, declared it was not practicable to light London with gas. The first display of gaslight was in Birmingham, on the occasion of the peace rejoicings 0*1802. It was introduced for lighting the shops and streets of London, generally, in 1814. In the United States it was introduced in 1822, in Boston. Gilding, with gold leaf, invented in 1273. Glass introduced into England, by Benedict, a monk, in 674. First used in England, for bottles, etc., in 1557. The first plate-glass, made at Lambeth, In 1673. Window glass first made in England in 1557. Grist Mills invented in Ireland in 314. Gunpowder was invented by the monk Schwartz in 1310, although used by the Chinese A.D. 80. The Byzantines used Greek fire AD. 668. Guns invented in 1330; used by the Moors at the siege of Algcciras, in Spain, in 1344 ■ at the battle of Crccy in 1546, and at the siege of Calais in the year following. Adopted by Denmark in 1354; used by the Venetians, at se», against the Genoese, in 1377. First used by the Spanish in 1106. The early English guns were first made ot brass In 1635 ; in : 547 they were made of iron. Bombs and mortars were invented in 1543. Hartford Convention (anti-war), Dec.15,1814. Handkerchiefs were first manufactured at Pais- lejTj In .->■■, lund, in 1743. Heraldry originated in the year 1100. Homoeopathy was introduced into the United btaUj in 1825. Horseshoes- Although the ancients protected the hoots of their horses with some covering, horseshoes, of the kind now known, were not in general use until the ninth century. Hour-Glasses invented in Alexandria 240. Hydrometer. The oldest mention of this in- strument belongs to the 5th century, but its invention has been attributed to Archimedes. Infallibility. The dogma of Papal Infallibility promulgated^ 1870. Inoculation for small-pox, first tried on crimi- nals in 172:. Vaccine discovered by Dr. Jcnner in 1796, Insurance. The first fire insurance office in America was in Boston, 1724. The first for Ufa insurance in London, 1772 ; the first American, in Philadelphia, in 1812. Marine insurance dates back to 2598 in England, and to 1721 in America. Interior Department established March 3, 1849. Jesuits. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1541. Judiciary Act passed by Congress Feb. 13, 1801. Knitting: Stocking's invented in Spain about >55o. Knives were first used in England about 1550. Know-Nothing" Party (American) arose in New York in 1853. National platform adopted and candidate for the Presidency (Fillmore) in 1856. Lace. The knitting of lace is a German inven- tion, first known about the middle of the 16th century. Lamp (Sir Humphry Davy*s safety) for pre- venting explosions by fire damp in coal mines, 1815. Lanterns invented by Alfred the Great 800. Leyden Jar invented in 1745. Liberty Party, national convention at Buffalo, Aug. 30, 1843. Library. The oldest American library is that of Harvard College, Cambridge. 1638. The first subscription library was established at Phila- delphia in 1731. Lig'htning'-rods were first used by Benjamin Franklin about 1752. Life-Boats invented by Greathead, who received a premium from Parliament in May, 1802. Linen when first made in England was regarded as a great luxury, and was very costly. A com- pany of linen-weavers from the Netherlands was ■Ji.shcd in London in 1386. Lithograph) j Printing* first brought into Eng- land in 1S01 . Magic La .items invented in 1253. Magna Charta signed 1215. M agmify in g- Glasses first made in England by Roger Bacon 1260. Maps and Globes invented by Anaaimandcr 600 B.< I Marble Paper. A German invention belonging to the 17th century. Matches. Friction matches first used in 1839. Mecklenburg* county, N. C, Declaration of Independence issued May 31, 1776. Medicinal Simples first brought Into Europe, from the but, in 1200. Microscopes BrW u*ed in Germany in 16.11 . lm proved by Torricelli in 1624. Military Academy, West Point, founded by Congress March 16, leot. Missouri Compromise passed March 3, iftso, and rep 1, 1854- It restricted slavery to south of 36 jo\ Mirrors (Silvering) invented by Praxiteks aaS years I Monroe Doctrine declared in the iniwg.i of President Monroe, Dec. 2 # 1825. Mormons arrived at Salt Lake V-Ocy, Utah, July 24, 1847. Musical Notes invented in 1070 ; iraprovedi j3 o ; printed 1502. Nantes, Edict of, tolerating Protestants, issued April 13, 1598; revocation, Oct. 33, 1665. Needles first made in England by a native of India in 1545; re-invented by Christopher Green- ing in 1560. Netherlands, revolt of, 1565 to 1580. New Orleans, Battle of, Jan. 8, 18x5, Jackson defeating the British. Captured by Farragut April 26, 1862. Newspaper. The first authentic newspaper was printed in 1404; first daily, Franltfort Gazette, 1615. The first English was the Weekly Arutes, 1622; the first in France, Gazette at France, 1631 . The first advertisement appeared in 1648. The first American newspaper was printed in Boston, Sept. 25, 1690, and was called Publick Occurrences, Foreign and Domestic. The first continuously printed in America was the Boston News Letter, 170a; first daily, The Pennsylvania Packet, 1784. Nullification Ordinance passed by South Carolina Nov. 19, 1832, The proclamation of Presi lent Jackson denouncing the same was issued Dec. 10, 1832. Omuibuses were first used in New York in 1830. Organs were invented in 750. Ostend Manifesto, issued Oct. 21, 1854. Paper Hang-ins*. The invention of hangings of paper to take the place of other more costly hangings, has been attributed to a manufacturer of paper hangings, named Breitkopf, of Leipsic. That kind known as velvet-paper is said to have been invented by Jerome Lanyer, an English- man, who received a patent tor it in 1634, al- though the invention has also been claimed for Francois, a Frenchman, who is asserted to have introduced it at Rouen in 1620. Paper made of cotton, in use in 1000. Made of linen rags in 1319. First introduced in FjfjyM* in 1588. White paper first made there in 1690. Paper was made from straw in 1800. Paper Money first used in America in 1740, and revived in 1788. Parchment invented by King Attalus, of Per- gamus, 807 B.C. Patent Big-ht Law first enacted in U. S., April 1 5 . ' 79°- Paving with Stones first introduced at Paris in 1 186. Philadelphia was founded by William Penn in 1682. Kiou., native American and Irish, May 6 to 8, 1844. Penny Post introduced for London and its sub- urbs by an upholsterer named Murray in 1681. Adopted by the government in 1711. First set up in 1774 in Dublin. Carried out on an enlarged scale in 1794, and made a twopenny post in 1801. Pens. The style, or point or bone and metal, which was used for writing on tables coated with wax, gave place to the reed, pointed and split, and used as a pen with some colored liquid*. These were gradually abandoned in favor of quill* The first known record of quill* being used for pens is that of Isidore, who died in 630* but supposed to have been introduced at an earlier date. The substitution of steel for quill pens took place early in the present century, yet, strange to say, nothing is known with certainty of the person who first invented the metallic pen Phonograph Invented in 1877 by T. A. Rdfooa. Phosphorus bsl made in 1677. Photographs were first produced in England in 1803 ; perfected in 1841. Pianoforte invented about 1710 in Italy. Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, Mass., Dec si, iteo, although the date is commonly gives as Dec. 22. _\ V A DICTIONARY OF DATES. 7 339 Pins were brought from France, and first used in England by Catherine Howard, Queen of Henry VIII. Before that time both sexes used ribbons, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, hooks and eyes, and small skewers made of gold, silver, and brass. Pins were first made by machinery in America in 1832. Pii>6S Of Lead, for water, first cast in 1539. Pistols first used by the cavalry in 1544. Pitch, and tar first made from pit coal at Bristol in 1779. Plaster of Paris. Casting with it from the face invented in 1470. Porcelain of Saxony greatly improved in 1767. Port- Holes introduced for ships of war in 1545. Post-Office first established between Vienna and Brussels in 1516. Posts established regularly between London and all the principal towns throughout England in 1635. Postage stamps were introduced in England in 1840; in the United Stales in 1847. Pottery improved greatly by Wedgwood in 1763. Printing- The Assyrians and Babylonians used clay tablets, and wooden blocks were used by the Chinese as early as 952. Printing from movable types was invented by Faust in 1441, and made public by Gutenberg m 1454, although the invention is also claimed for L. Koster of Haarlem as early as 1423. The first Bible was printed by Faust and Schoffer in 1456, and they also printed the first book with date, a Latin Psalter, in 1457. Wooden type first introduced into England, by William Caxton, a London merchant, in 1477. The first English press was set up in Westminster Abbey, where it remained until 1494. The first American book, " Escala Espiritual," was printed by Juan Hablas, Mexico, about 1535. The first press in the United States was that of Stephen Daye, at Cambridge, Mass. , 1639. Printing in colors was first introduced in 1626. Pyramids first erected about 2170 B.C. Quicksilver first used for refining silver ore in 1540. Railroad. The first passenger railroad was opened in England Sept. 27, 1825; the first in America, Baltimore and Ohio, 1828, although freight was moved by rail at the granite quarries of Quincy, Mass., as early as 1826. The first steam railroad was operated in the United States in 1830, from Albany to Schenectady — 16 miles. Reformation in Germany, 151 7; in England, 1532- Republican Party. The first convention was held at Pittsburgh, Feb. 22, 1856. ' Resumption of Specie Payments in the United States — Act approved 1875; took effect Jan. 1, 1879. Ribbon Looms. It has been asserted that these looms were first known to the Swiss, but others claim their invention for a German in the town of Dantzic in the 16th century. Ruling 1 -Machines invented by a Dutchman in London in 1792. Saddles. Pliny informs us that one, Pele- thronius, was the first to introduce a piece of leather fastened to the back of a horse for the accommodation of its rider. For a long time these cloths and pieces of leather were regarded as unmanly, ana were, therefore, regarded by soldiers with great scorn. The old German races despised the Roman cavalry for riding on such effeminate contrivances. Saddles of the kind now used appear to have been in use in 385. Side-saddles first used in 1380. Previous to their introduction women always rode astride. Sailcloth, first made m England In 1590. Salting* Herrings after the Dutch method first used in 1416. Saltpeter first manufactured in England, in 1625. Saws. The inventor of the saw is said, by the old Greek writers, to be Talus or Perdox. Pliny ascribes the invention to Dcedalus,but Hardouin affirms that the passage in which he does so refers to Talus, and not to Daedalus. Talus was the son of a sister of Doedalus, and the invention is said to be due to his using the jawbone of a snake to cut through a piece of wood. His master grew jealous of the honor Talus won by this in- vention, and caused him to be privately put to death. Sedan Chairs introduced into England in 1734. Sewing 1 ^Machine first patented in England, in 1755. The first complete machine was con- structed by an American, Elias Howe, in 1846. Sextant invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 1550. Shay's Rebellion, in Massachusetts, 1786-87. Sleeping 1 - Cars were first used in 1858. Pull- man's patent dates from 1864/ Soap first made in London and Bristol in 1524. The first express mention of soap appears in Pliny and Galen. The former speaks of it as an invention of the Gauls. Speaking-Trumpets invented by Kircher, a Jesuit, in 1652. Spinning*- W heel invented at Brunswick, 1530. Spectacles invented by Spina, a monk, of Pisa, in 1299. Stamp Act enacted March 22, 1765; repealed March 19, 1766. Statutes of the United States first revised and codified in 1873. Steam. The steam engine boilerwas discovered by the Marquis of Worcester, in 1663. New- commen's engine was patented in 1 705, and the in- vention was perfected by James Watt, in 1773. The high pressure engine was invented by an American, Oliver Evans, in 1779. The first steam vessel of which there is any record was that of Papin (France), in 1707. Then follow those of Jonathan Hulls (England), 1736; Will- iam Henry (Conestoga river, Pa.), 1703; James Rumsey (Md.), 1786; John Fitch (Delaware river), same year. In 1806 Robert Fulton con- structed the Clermont, which plied regularly be- tween New York and Albany, at a speed of five miles per hour. The first steamer crossing the Atlantic made the voyage from Savannah to Liverpool in twenty-five days, A.D. 1819. Steel. The invention of steel is of very great an- tiquity.!; the Jtcocss of hardening iron is de- scribed inthe Old Testament (Isaiah xliv, 12). The helmet of Hercules, described in Hesiod, appears to have been of steel. Homer refers to the process of hardening steel by immersing it, while red hot, in cold water. Stereotype Printing: invented by William Gid, agoTdsmiih, of Edinburgh, in 1735. Stirrups, according to a statement made by the Emperor Mauritius, were first used in the 6th century. Hippocrates and Galen speak of a disease which, in their time, was occasioned by long and frequent riding, because the legs hung down without any support. Sugrar is first mentioned in 625 by Paul Eginetta, a physician. It came originally from China and the East; was produced in Sicily in 1148, in Madeira in 1419, in the Canary Islands in 1503. and in the West Indies by the Portuguese ana Spaniards in 1510. In 1641 it was cultivated at Barbadoes. Sugar-refining was first carried out by a Venetian in 1503, and this process was adopted in England in 1569. Sugar cane was first cultivated in the United States in 1751, near New Orleans, the first sugar mill being con- structed in 1758. Sunday Schools were first established by Robert Raikes, Gloucester, England, in 1781. Sun-dials invented 558 B.C. The first in Rome, 308 B.C., was that erected by Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours. Tanning: Leather. A new and more expedi- tious method than that previously in use was invented in 1795. Tax. The first tax levied on the people was by Solon, 540 B.C. Tea first known in Europe in 1610, being brought from India by the Dutch. Tel etrraphs (mechanical) invented in 1687. First used by the French in 1794, and by the English in 1 796. The first electric telegraph was operated from Paddington to Drayton, England, in 1835, the same year in which Morse's telegraph was invented. The first telegraph line in operation in America was between Baltimore and Washing- ton in 1844. The first submarine cable was laid in 1851, between Dover and Calais, and the first Atlantic cable was operated in 1858. Telephone. A. Graham Bell first presented a speaking telephone at the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, in 1876. Telescopes. The first reflecting telescope made on the principle discovered by Sir Isaac Newton in 1692. Thread first made at Paisley in 1732. Thermometers first invented by Drebel, a Dutchman, in 1620 ; improved by Reaumur in 1730, and by Fahrenheit in 1749. Tobacco was first introduced into England, from Virginia, in 1583. Union of England and Scotland, 1707; Great Britain and Ireland, 1801, Vaccination. See Inoculation. Ventilators first introduced by the Rev. Dr. Hales in 1740, Violins of the modem kind invented about 2477. Introduced into England by Charles II. "Wall-papers first used in Spain and Holland in 1555. Flock or velvet wall-papers were first used in 1620. War Ships. In 1814 Sir Robert Seppings in- troduced various most important improvements for the construction of war ships. The lower parts of the frames of ships of war were then, for the first time, filled in, a system of diagonal trussing was introduced, the stern was altered in form, so that it no longer remained open to the fire of an enemy, and the upper decks were en- larged. Sir W. Symonds altered them so as to decrease the quantity of ballast required in 1832. In the International Exhibition of 1851 various improvements in this direction were shown, but freat iron-cased ships were not then thought of. n July, 1854, the first of a new class of screw, fin vessels was launched for use during the ussian war. To operate with these, vessels of iron were constructed to bombard the fortresses in the Baltic. The first French iron-cased ship was a frigate called the"Gloire," and this was quickly followed by the first English ship of that kind, the " Warrior." Since then vessels of this kind have been subject to a variety of alter- ations and experiments tending to improve both their strength and their sailing qualities. The first battle between iron ships of war occurred in the war for the Union, the Merrimac and Mon- itor being the contestants. Watches were invented at Nuremberg in 1477, and were first introduced into England from Germany in 1577. Water Mills for grinding corn are said to have been invented by Relisarius when Rome was be- sieged by the Goths in 555. Pliny, however, mentions wheels turned by water. Weather-Cocks. The earliest mention of a weather-cock is that made by Vitruvius, con- cerning that on the tower built at Athens by An- dronicus Cyrrhestes. Wild-Fire invented by a Greek in 663. Wilmot Proviso, to restrict slavery, offered in the House of Representatives, Aug. 8, 1846, by David Wilmot, of Pa. Wire invented at Nuremberg in 1351. Wire-Drawing'. The first record we have of this art is probably that contained in Holy Writ, where we are told that gold was beaten and cut to threads, so that it could be interwoven in cloth. The present mode of forming metallic threads, that known as wire-drawing, was first known in the 14th century. Woolen Cloth. Although the making of woolen cloth is one of the most ancient arts, its manufacture was not known in France until 1646, when it was made at Sedan. It was first made in England in 1331, but was not dyed or dressed until 1667. Yellowstone National Park established by Act of Congress, Feo. 28, 1871. "* a > 34© SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT. =7?F |E are all children of one Father, and His works it should be our delight to study. As the child, standing by its parent's knee, asks explanations alike of the simplest phenomena and of the most profound problems, so should man, turning to Nature, the living, visible oracle of his Creator, continually ask for knowledge. In scientific language, Nature is defined as "the united totality of all that the senses can perceive ; " in the language of theology, it "embraces everything that cannot be made by man," hence is synonymous with " God's crea- tion." In Nature there is no such thing as chance. Every effect has its cause, as Nature herself is but a name for an effect whose cause is God. When Newton observed an apple fall to the ground he asked the cause, and in answer to his inquiry came one of the grandest discoveries of science — a discovery which let in a flood of light upon the human mind, and led the way to the true knowledge of many things theretofore shrouded in error or mystery. Montgolfier first conceived the idea of air-balloons while watch- ing fogs floating in the atmosphere, and all the wonderful discoveries of science may thus be traced to simple phenomena, carefully pondered and diligently studied in all their bearings as to cause and effect. " Nature," says Whipple, " does not capri- ciously scatter her secrets as golden gifts to lazy pets and luxurious darlings, but imposes tasks when she presents opportunities, and uplifts him whom she would inform. The apple that she drops at the feet of Newton is but a coy invita- tion to follow her to the stars." The greatest philosophers have been those who have clung to the demonstrative sciences, and have held that a simple truth, well ascertained, is greater than the most ingenious theory founded upon questionable premises. The discoveries of Newton have borne the searching test of time because he snatched at nothing, leaped over no chasm to establish a favorite dogma, but learned to read Nature correctly by regarding the merest trifles as well as the highest phenomena. Thus he discovered a letter in each atom, a word in each blade of grass, a sentence in each phe- nomenon, and in the volume thus composed he read the wisdom and the power of the Almighty. Every flower, every ray of light, every drop of *7 * -'-. ^ SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT. i£ 7 34i dew, each flake of snow, the lowering cloud, the bright sun, the pale moon, the azure of the heavens by day and the twinkling stars of night, all are eloquent of the great Hand that made them. From the earliest ages man has sought to read the open leaves of the book of Nature, but even now, after centuries of research and dis- covery, he does not grasp it all, cause and effect being followed up step by step until the mind is lost in the search. One discovery only leads to another, and the scientist of twenty centuries hence will be compelled to acknowledge that one-half of the wonderful book is still a mys- tery. However, all may peruse its pages, and all will find pleasure and profit in observing what is daily going on around them in earth, sea and sky. It is, indeed, only by a study of the material world that discoveries are accom- plished. Let an attentive observer watch a ray of light passing from the air into the water, and he will see it deviate from the straight line by refraction. Let him seek the origin of a sound, and he will discover that it results from a shock or a vibration. This is physical science in its infancy. In the pages following it is purposed to pre- sent in brief and entertaining form much useful as well as practical scientific knowledge. It has been sought to convey to the mind of the un- initiated, in as simple and practical a way as possible, a general idea of the various branches of science, as well as to state scientific facts briefly and in proper consecutive order, in such a manner that the advanced student may freshen his memory and revive his interest. Technical terms have been avoided as much as possible, and where they are used of necessity the con- text will furnish ample explanation. When a person who is a stranger seeks to be directed to some point in a large and poorly laid-out city, whose streets, courts and places start from everywhere and end nowhere, cross- ing each other in a perverse and confusing man- ner, it were worse than useless to attempt to. give him all the directions at once. The better way would be to point out to him the general direction, and then let him inquire as he pro- gresses on the journey. In this connection it may be said that there is nothing so conducive to loss of time as short cuts to those who are not familiar with them. They generally verify the axiom that " Haste makes waste." With these introductory remarks we will take the reader to the broad fields of Science, and point out to him the general direction of the respec- tive paths, noting in our way the most promi- nent turns, and if our readers desire more spe- cific information we will refer them to the writings of those great men who have devoted their lives to the solution of Nature's problems, and have enabled us to give the reason for many things which, but for their genius and unremit- ting labors, would still be shrouded by the veil of ignorance. Among the various works that have aided in the familiar exposition of science presented in this work may be mentioned the following : " Les Recreations Scientifiques," by Gaston Tissandier ; " Astronomy," in the series of New Works on Physics by J. A. Gillet and W. J. Rolfe ; " Physik und Meteorologie," by Dr. E. Lommel; "The Teacher's Examiner," by A. H. Thompson ; " Guide to Familiar Science," by Rev. E. C. Brewer ; " Lockyer's Solar Physics," Newcomb's " Popular Astronomy," etc., etc. We desire in an especial manner to thank Pro- fessors Rolfe and Gillet for the use of a number of beautiful and accurate astronomical illustra- tions from their excellent work. K~ 342 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS. THE FORCES OF NATURE, AND THE LAWS WHICH GOVERN THEM. THE ELEMENTS OF NATURAL SCIENCE. = ■" nATURE is revealed to us by objects and by phenomena. An object is a thing which occupies space and which is susceptible to feeling and to sight. The heavenly bodies may also be classed as objects, although we cannot touch them. Phenomena include those results which are perceptible by only one sense, as thunder. Light and sound may also be classed as phenomena. A stone is a natural object. We take it up, open our fingers, and it falls. The motion of that object is a phe- nomenon. We know it falls because we see it fall, and it possesses what we term weight ; but we cannot tell why it possesses weight. A cause of a phenomenon being independent of human will is called a force, and the stone falls by the force of gravitation, or that natural law which compels every material object to approach every other material object. A single force may produce a great number of phenomena. Nature being revealed to us by objects, and by means of phenomena, we have two branches of science extending from such roots, namely, Natural History, the Science of Objects; and Natural Philosophy, the Science of Phenomena. Both of these branches have been subdivided thus : ZoSlogy, referring 10 Animals. 1 B l logy. Botany, referring to Plants. ) M ineralogy, 1 refcrring to Mineralj# etc . Geology, J Physics. Phenomena without essential change of the objects. Chemistry. Phenomena with change of the objects. Physiology. Phenomena of animated objects. The two great divisions comprehend, in their extended senses, all that is known respecting the material world. We have spoken of objects. Objects occupy space. What is space ? Space is magnitude which can 1* conceived as extend- ing in three directions — length, breadth and depth. MATTER occupies portions of space, which is infinite. Matter, when Natural History. Natural Philosophy. finite, is termed a body or object. A molecule is the smallest portion of a body which we can conceive of as retaining it; identity. An atom is a division of a molecule. Suppose we take a quantity of water and conceive it to be divided until we reach a limit. The last particle which we could call water would be a molecule. Now let a current of elec- tricity be passed through a quantity of water, and it is separated into two gases, essentially different from each other, and differ- ent from water. A given quantity of water will produce a certain quantity of gas, the proportion in volume of the two kinds being as 1 to 2. If one pint, say, of water produces one volume of one gas, and two of the other, one-half pint would produce one-half the arount of one gas and one-half the amount of the other, and so on down until we have made the ultimate division, which, for convenience, we call a molecule. Then we can truly say that the molecule is composed of fwt parts of one gas and one part of the other, and for convenience we call these parts of the molecules, atoms. Physics deals only with masses and molecules. Chemistry deals with atoms. When we tear a piece of paper in pieces, or grind it to a pulp, we separate molecules and have effected a physical change only. When we burn the paper in the fire we lepanta atoms and have effected a chemical change. In the first case we have effected a change of form, but the matter is identically the saaie. In the second case, the gases and ashes produced by the burning are totally different, and the paper has lost its identity. The sounding of a bell and the falling of a stone axe physical phenomena, for the object which causes the sound or the fall undergoes no change. Heat is set free when coal bums, and tins disengagement of heat is a physical phenomenon; but the change during combustion which coal undergoes is a chemical phenomenon. K Vf NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS. 343 The General Properties of Matter Are magnitude, impenetrability, inertia, divisibility, porosity, elasticity, compressibility, expansibility and indestructibility. Magnitude is the property of occupying space. Size is the amount of space a body fills. Every body has three dimensions — length, breadth and thickness; and, in order to measure these, some standard of measurement is required. Impenetrability is the property of so occupying space as to exclude all other bodies ; for no two bodies can occupy the same space at the same time. We sometimes speak of one sub- stance penetrating another. Thus, a needle penetrates cloth, a nail penetrates wood, etc. ; but on a moment's reflection it will be plainly seen that they merely push aside the fibers of the cloth or wood, and so press them closer together. Inertia is the property of passiveness. Matter has no power of putting itself in motion when at rest. A body will never change its place unless moved, and if once started will move forever unless stopped. It is difficult to start a wagon because we have to overcome its inertia, which tends to keep it at rest. When the wagon is in motion it requires as great an exertion to stop it, since then we have again to overcome its inertia, which tends to keep it moving. Inertia causes the danger of jumping from cars when in motion. The body has the speed of the train, while the motion of the feet is stopped by contact with the ground. One should jump as nearly as he can in thg direction in which the train is moving, and with his muscles strained, so as to break into a run the instant his feet touch the ground. Then with all his strength he can gradually overcome the inertia of his body, and after a few feet can turn as he pleases. Divisibility is that property of a body which allows it to be separated into parts. It would be impossible to find a particle so small that it still could not be made smaller. Practically speaking, there is no limit to the divisibility of matter; but philosophers hold that there is in theory. When we attempt to show how far matter can be divided, the brain refuses to grasp the infinity. A pin's head is a small object, but it is gigantic com- pared to some animals, of which millions would occupy a space no larger than the head of a pin. These tiny animals must have organs and veins, and those veins must be full of blood globules. Prof. Tyndall says a drop of blood contains three millions of red globules. But there is something even more astonishing than this. It is stated that there are more animals in the milt of a single codfish than there are men in the world ; and that one grain of sand is larger than four millions of these animals, each of which must be possessed of life germs of an equal amount, which would grow up as it grew to maturity. This carries us back again, and " Imagination's utmost stretch In wonder dies away." Porosity is the property of having pores. By this is meant not only such pores as are familiar to all, and to which we refer when, in common language, we speak of a porous body, as bread, wood, unglazed pottery, a sponge, etc., but a finer kind, as in- visible to the eye as the atoms themselves. These pores are caused by the fact that the molecules of which a body is com- posed are not in actual contact, but are separated by extremely minute spaces. Elasticity is classed both among the general and the specifis properties of matter. It is thought that all bodies have elas- ticity, yet some have it in such a degree that it serves to dis- tinguish them from other bodies. Compressibility is that property of matter by virtue of which ifmay be made to occupy less space. It is a result of porosity, the molecules being pressed closer together. Expansibility is the opposite of compressibility. Indestructibility is the property which renders matter inca- pable of being destroyed. No particle of matter can be annihi- lated, except by God, its creator. We may change its torm, but we cannot deprive it of existence. The Specific Properties of Ivj't.er Are those which are found only in particular kinds of matter. The most important are ductility, malleability, tenacity, elas- ticity, hardness and brittleness. A ductile body is one which can be drawn into wire. Some of the most ductile are gold, silver, and platinum. A malleable body is one which can be hammered or rolled into sheets. Gold is the most malleable or all metals, and can be beaten into sheets 1315^ of an inch in thickness. Copper is so malleable that it is said that a workman, witn his hammer, can beat out a kettle from a solid block of the metal. A tenacious body is one which cannot be easily pulled apart. Iron is the most tenacious of the metals. There are three kinds of elasticity — elasticity of compression, elasticity of expansion, and elasticity of torsion. Solids — Liquids — Gases. Matter is present in Nature in three conditions. We find it as a solid, a liquid, and a gas. To test the actual existence of matter in one or other of these forms our senses help us. We can touch a solid, or taste it and see it. But touch is the test. A solid is a body whose molecules cohere so that their rela- tive positions cannot be changed without the application of con- siderable force. A solid will retain any shape given it. A liquid is a body whose molecules cohere so slightly that their relative positions may be changed on the application of slight force. A liquid will assume the form of the vessel con- taining it, and the free surface will always be horizontal, each molecule seeking its lowest level by the force of gravity. A gas is a body whose molecules separate almost indefinitely from each other. Essentially there is no difference between a gas and a vapor. The term gas is generally applied to those bodies which are ordinarily in a gaseous state, and the term vapor to that which is formed by heating a liquid or solid. Steam is the vapor of water, but it is a gas as much as oxygen or hydrogen. The Forces of Nature. Force is a cause — the cause of motion or* of rest. It requires force to set an object in motion, and this object would never stop unless some other force or forces prevented its movement =^ Kr 344 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- PHYSICS. beyond a certain point. Force, therefore, is the cause of a change of *' state " in matter. The forces of Nature are three in number — gravity, cohesion, and affinity, or chemical attraction. Gravity. Gravity, or gravitation, is the mutual attraction between dif- ferent portions of matter acting at all distances — the force of attraction being, of course, in proportion to the respective mass of the bodies. The greatest body, so far as our purposes are concerned, is the earth, and the attraction of the earth is gravity, or what we call weight If we jump from a chair we shall come to the floor, and if there were nothing between us and the actual ground, sufficient to sustain the force of the attracting power of the earth, we should fall to the earth's surface. In a teacup the spoon will attract air-bubbles, and large air-bubbles will attract small ones, till we find a small mass of bubbles formed in the center of the cup of tea. Divide this bubble, and the component parts will rush to the sides of the cup. Two balls of equal magnitude will attract each other with equal force, and will meet, if not opposed, at a point half-way between the two. But they do not meet, because the attraction of the earth is greater than the attraction they relatively and collectively exercise toward each other. If the size of the balls be different, the attraction of the greater will be more evident. FALLING BODIES. Gravity is the cause of the phenomena of falling bodies, be- cause every object on the surface of the earth is very much smaller than the earth itself, and, therefore, all bodies fall toward the center of the earth. On the earth a body, if let fall, will pass through a space of sixteen feet in the first second ; and as the attraction of the earth still continues and is exercised on a body already in rapid motion, this rate of progress must be pro- portionately increased. The space a falling body passes through has been calculated, and found to increase in proportion to the square of the time it takes to fall. For instance, suppose you drop a stone from the top of a cliff to the beach, and it occupies two seconds in falling. If you multiply 2 by 2 and the result by 16, you will find how high the cliff is — 64 feet. The depth of a well can be ascertained in the same way, leaving out the effect of air resistance. But if we go up into the air, the force of gravity will be diminished. The attraction will be less, because we arc more distant from the center of the earth. This decrease is scarcely, if at all, perceptible, even on very high mountains, because their size is not great in comparison with the mass of the earth's sur- face. The rule for this is that gravity decreases in proportion to the square of the distance. So that if at a certain distance from the earth's surface the force of attraction be I, if the distance be doubled the attraction will be only one-quarter as much as be- fore — not one-half. Gravity has exactly the same influence upon all bodies, and the force of the attraction is in proportion to the mass. AH bodies of equal mass will fall in the same time in a given dis- tance. Two coins, or a coin and a feather, in vacuo, will fall together. But in the air the feather will remain far behind the coin, because nearly all the atoms of the former are resisted by the air, while in the coin only some particles are exposed to the resistance, the density of the latter preventing the air from reach- ing more than a few atoms, comparatively speaking. Drops of water falling from the clouds do not strike with a force proportional to the laws of falling bodies. This is because they are so small that the resistance of the air nearly destroys their velocity. If it were not for this wise provision, a shower of raindrops would be as fatal as one of minie bullets. The weight of a body varies on different portions of the earth's surface. It will be least at the equator : (1 ) because, on account of the bulging form of our globe, a body is there pushed out from the mass of the earth, and so removed from the center of attraction ; (2) because the centrifugal force is there the strongest. It will be greatest at the poles : (1) because, on account of the flattening of the earth, a body is there brought nearer its mass and the center of attraction ; (2) because there is no centrifugal force at those points. At the center of the earth the weight of a body is nothing, because the attraction is there equal in every direction. THE CENTER OF GRAVITY. The center of gravity is that point on which, if supported, a body will balance itself. In our daily actions are found many physiological applications of the center of gravity. When we wish to rise from the chair, we bend forward, in order to bring the center of gravity over out feet, our muscles not having sufficient strength to raise our bodies without this aid. And when we walk, we lean forward, so as to bring the center of gravity as far in front as possible. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Specific gravity is the weight of a substance compared with the weight of the same bulk of another substance. It is really a method of finding the density of a body. Water is taken as the standard for solids and liquids, and air for gases. THE TENDULUM. The pendulum consists of a weight so suspended as to swing freely. Its movements to and fro are termed vibrations or oscillations. The path through which it passes is called the arc, and the extent to which it goes in either direction is styled its amplitude. As " heat expands and cold contracts," a pendulum increases in length in summer and shortens in winter. Therefore, a clock loses time in summer and gains in winter. CENTRIFUGAL AND CENTRIPETAL FORCE. Centrifugal force, which means "flying from the center," is the force which causes an object to describe a circle with uni- form velocity, and fly away from the center. The force that counteracts it is called the centripetal force. To represent its action, an ordinary glass tumbler may be used. The tumbler should be placed on a round piece of card- board, held firmly in place by cords. Some water is then poured into the glass, and it can be swung to and fro and round, without the water being spilt, even when the glass is upside down. Al NATURAL PHILOSOPHY -PHYSICS. 345 V Cohesion. Cohesion is the attraction of particles of bodies to each other at very small distances apart. Cohesion has received various names in order to express its various degrees. For instance, we say a body is tough or brittle, or soft or hard, according to the degrees of cohesion the particles exercise. We know if we break a glass we destroy the cohesion ; the particles cannot be reunited. Most liquid particles can be united, but not all. Oil will not mix with water. The force of cohesion depends upon heat. Heat expands everything, and the cohesion diminishes as temperature in- creases. There are some objects or substances upon the earth the particles of which adhere much more closely than others, and can only be separated with very great difficulty. These are termed solids. There are other substances whose particles can easily be divided, or their position altered. These are called fluids. A third class seem to have little or no cohesion at all. These are termed gases. ADHESION. Adhesion is also a form of attraction, and is cohesion existing on the surfaces of two bodies. When a fluid adheres to a solid we say the solid is wet. We turn this natural adhesion to our own purposes in many ways — we whitewash our walls, and paint our houses ; we paste our papers together, etc. On the other hand, many fluids will not adhere. Oil and water have already been instanced. Mercury will not stick to a glass tube, nor will the oiled glass tube retain any water. We can show the attraction and repulsion in the following manner : Let one glass tube be dipped into water and another into mer- cury; you will see that the water will ascend slightly at the side, owing to the attraction of the glass, while the mercury will be higher in the center, for it possesses no attraction for the glass. If small, or what are termed capillary (or hair) tubes, be used, the water will rise up in the one tube, while in the other the mercuiy will remain lower than the mercury outside the tube. The law of adhesion is what necessitates the spout on a pitcher. The water would run down the side of the pitcher by the force of adhesion, but the spout throws it into the hands of gravitation before adhesion can catch it. Affinity, or Chemical Attraction. Affinity, or chemical attraction, is the force by which two different bodies unite to form a new and different body from either. This force will be fully considered in Chemistry. It is needless for us to dwell upon the uses of these forces of Nature. Gravity and cohesion being left out of our world, we can imagine the result. The earth and sun and planets would wander aimlessly about ; we should float away into space, and everything would fall to pieces, while our bodies would dissolve into their component parts. Motion. Motion is a change of place. Absolute motion is a change without reference to any other object. Relative motion is a change with reference to some other object. Rest is either absolute or relative. Velocity is the rate at which a body moves. Force, as has been said, is that which tends to produce or destroy motion. The principal resistances to motion are friction, resistance of the air, and gravity. Friction is the resistance caused by the surface over which a body moves. If the surface of a body could be made perfectly smooth, there would be no friction ; but in spite of the most exact and complete polish, the microscope reveals minute projec- tions and cavities. Momentum is the quantity of motion in a body. Two laws of motion : I. A body once set in motion tends to move forever in a straight line. 2. A force acting upon a body, in motion or at rest, produces the same effect, whether it acts alone or with other forces. Circular motion is a variety of compound motion produced by two forces, called the centrifugal and the centripetal. The former tends to drive a body from the center ; the latter tends to draw a body toward the center. Reflected motion is produced by the reaction of any surface against which an elastic body is thrown. Curved motion. — Whenever two or more instantaneous forces act upon a body, the resultant is a straight line. When one is instantaneous and the other continuous, it is a curved line. And when a body is thrown into the air, unless it be in a vertical line, it is acted upon by the instantaneous force of projection and the continuous force of gravity, and so passes through a line which curves toward the earth. Machines Enable us to apply and direct the forces of nature. The lever and the inclined plane, and their modifications, the screw, the wedge, the wheel and axle and the pulley, constitute the elemen- tary forms of machinery. Power or energy, multiplied by the distance through which it moves, equals the weight, load or resistance multiplied by the distance. The fundamental law is, that what is gained in power is lost in time or distance. Thus, two pounds of power moving through ten feet equals twenty pounds moving through one foot. A lever is an inflexible bar capable of turning on a fixed point. The force used is called the power, the object to be moved, the weight, and the fixed point or pivot, the fulcrum. There are three kinds of levers, as follows: I. Power at one end, weight at the other, fulcrum between them. 2. Power at one end, fulcrum at the other, and weight between them. 3. Fulcrum at one end, weight at the other, and power between them. The compound lever consists of several levers connected together in such a way that the short arm of one acts upon the long arm of the next, and so on. The wheel and axle is a modification of the lever in which the center of the axis of the wheel is the fulcrum, the distance from the rim of the wheel to the axis, or the length of the crank, the long arm, and the distance from the circumference of the axis to its center, its short arm. Theputley is a modification of the lever in which the distances / \ *V~ o -■ K 346 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- PHYSICS. from the axis to the circumference represent equal arms of the lever. No advantage is gained in a fixed pulley except change of direction. By means of a number of movable pulleys the power distance is increased, the cord having to pass through a greater distance to gain greater power. The inclined plane is a smooth, hard surface inclined so as to make an angle with direction of the force to be overcome. Comparing it with the lever, the length corresponds to the long arm and the height to the short arm. The wedge is simply a movable inclined plane, its power depending upon friction as well as upon its form. The screw is an inclined plane wound around a cylinder. Perpetual Motion. Nothing can be more utterly impracticable than to make a machine capable of perpetual motion. No machine can pro- duce power ; it can only direct that which is applied to it. We know that in all machinery there is friction ; hence, this must ultimately exhaust the power and bring the motion to rest. These principles show the uselessness of all such attempts. HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRAULICS. Hydrostatics treats of liquids at rest. Its principles apply to all liquids, but water, on account of its abundance, is taken as the type of the class, and all experiments are based upon it. Liquids transmit pressure in all directions. Pascal's law is as follows : Pressure exerted anywhere upon a mass of liquid is transmitted, undiminished, in all directions, and acts with the same force upon equal surfaces, and in a direction at right angles to those surfaces. A necessary inference from this law is that surfaces of vessels sustain a pressure proportional to their area. A practical application of Pascal's law is the hydrostatic press, more generally called the hydraulic press. This is a very powerful machine, by means of which a pressure of several hun- dred tons may be obtained. Artesian wells are so named because they have been used for a long time in the province of Artois, in France ; they were, however, employed by the Chinese, from early ages, for the pur- pose of procuring gas and salt water. These are on the principle above stated, that liquids press equally in all directions — that water " always seeks its level." By boring through strata of rocks, or earth impervious to water, and striking a basin of water which has descended from a greater height, through a porous strata, a well is formed which throws water to almost the height of the fountain head, being retarded only by friction and resist- ance of the air. The surface of standing water is said to be level ; this is true for small sheets of water, but for larger bodies an allowance must be made for the circular figure of the earth. The spirit level is an instrument used by builders for leveling; it consists of a slightly curved glass tube, so nearly full of alco- hol that it holds only a bubble of air. When the level is hori- zontal, the bubble remains at the center of the tube. Modern engineers carry water across a river by means of pipes laid under the bed of the river, knowing that the water will rise on the opposite side to its level. The ancients appear to have understood this principle, but were unable to construct pipes capable of resisting the pressure. Hydraulics treats of liquids in motion. In this, as in hydro- statics, water is taken as the type. In theory, its principles are those of falling bodies, but they are so modified by various causes that in practice they cannot be relied upon, except as verified by experiment. The discrepancy arises from changes of temperature, which vary the fluidity of the liquid, from friction, the shape of the orifice, etc. A fall of only three inches per mile is sufficient to give motion to water, and produce a velocity of as many miles per hour. The Ganges descends but 800 feet in 1,800 miles; its waters require a month to move down this long inclined plane. A fall of three feet per mile will make a mountain torrent Barker's Mill consists of an upright cylinder with horizontal arms, and with apertures in the opposite sides, the cylinder being so arranged as to turn easily. When water is poured into the cylinder, the pressure being equal in all directions, it would remain at rest, did it not flow out at the orifices, thus relieving the pressure on the one side, causing the arm to move in the opposite direction and the cylinder to revolve. The Turbint water-wheel is a practical application of this principle. PNEUMATICS Treats of the general properties and the pressure of gases. Gases have weight, compressibility, expansibility and elas- ticity, and the principles of transmission of pressure, specific gravity and buoyancy of liquids apply to them as well. The pressure of the air has l)ecn several times referred to. The force of air can very soon be shown as acting with considerable pres- sure on an egg in a glass. By blowing in a small wine glass, containing a hard-boiled egg, it is possible to cause the egg to jump out of the glass, and with practice and strength of lungs it is not impossible to make it pass from one glass to another. The force of heated air ascending can be ascertained by cutting a card into a spiral and holding it above a lamp or a stove. The spiral, if lightly poised, will revolve rapidly. The barometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure of air, and consists essentially of an apparatus, first used by Torn- celli, who took a glass tube about a yard in length, closed at one end, and filled it with mercury. Placing his thumb over the closed end, he immersed it in a vessel of mercury. Removing his thumb, the mercury sank until it stood at the height of 30 inches. The space above the mercury was as nearly a complete vacuum as has ever been attained. By this experiment he proved that the pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the weight of a column of liquid which it will sustain. The barometer is used to indicate the weather, and to measure the height of mountains. Three opposing forces act on the air, viz.: gravity, which binds it to the earth, and the centrifugal and the repellant (heat) forces, which tend to hurl it off into space. Under the action of the latter forces, the atmosphere, like a great bent spring, is ready to bound away at the first opportunity ; but the attraction of the earth holds it firmly in its place. JM K NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS. 347 "7[ h4r The rise and fall of the barometric column shows that the air is lighter in foul and heavier in fair weather. In fair weather, the moisture of the air is an invisible vapor, mingled with it, and adding to its pressure, while in foul weather the vapor is sepa- rated in the form of clouds. The common pump is an application of air pressure. The piston, or sucker, being raided, the water is forced up the tube by the pressure of the air on the surface of the water in the well, there being no resistance in the tube, for the piston lifts out the air. As the piston descends, the valve in it opens upward and allows the water to pass through above the valve, which, closing as it rises again, the water is lifted out and more is forced into the tube below. Owing to the necessary imperfection of the parts, water cannot be raised by atmospheric pressure more than about 27 feet. The air-pump is a machine for removing the air from within a vessel. It consists of a cylinder supplied with a valve open- ing inward and one opening outward, and a piston fitting accu- rately. When the piston is raised, the air rushes into the cylinder through the first valve to fill the vacuum. As the cylinder descends, the air closes the first valve and opens the second, and is driven out, every stroke of the piston thus removing a portion of air. The escape valve may be in the side of the cylinder or in the piston itself. The siphon consists of a tube, bent in the shape of a letter U, with unequal arms. Fill the siphon with water, closing both ends with the fingers. Insert the short arm in a vessel of water, with the long arm on the outside, with its end lower than the end of the short arm. The column of water in the long arm will run out by its own weight, and the tendency would be to produce a vacuum in the bend of the tube, but the water is forced up by the pressure of air through the short arm, and thus the stream is kept up so long as the outside arm is lower at its orifice than the orifice of the inside arm. The flow may be started by exhausting the air from the long arm by suction, and then it will not be necessary to fill the siphon with water. ACOUSTICS. Acoustics treats of the doctrine of sound. The term sound is used in two senses — the subjective, that which has reference to our mind ; and the objective, that which refers only to the objects around us. In the subjective sense, sound is the sensation produced upon the organ of hearing by vibrations in matter. In this use of the word, there can be no sound where there is no ear to catch the vibrations. In the objective sense, sound is those vibrations of matter capable of producing a sensation upon the organ of hearing. In this use of the word, there can be a sound in the absence of the ear. An object falls and the vibrations are produced, though there may be no organ of hearing to receive an impression from them. The velocity of sound depends on the elasticity and density of the medium through which it passes. The higher the elastic- ity, the more promptly and rapidly the motion will be trans- mitted, since the elastic force acts like a bent spring between the molecules. The greater the density, the more molecules to be set in motion, and hence the slower the transmission. Sound travels through the air (at the freezing point) at the rate of 1,090 feet per second. A rise in temperature diminishes the density of the air, and thus sound travels faster in warm and slower in cold air. Through water sound travels at the rate of 4,700 feet per second. Water is denser than air, and for that reason sound should travel in it much slower; but its elasticity, which is measured by the force required to compress it, is so much greater that the rate is quadrupled. Sound travels through solids faster than through air ; and the velocity in iron is nearly ten times greater. Under ordinary circumstances, all sounds travel with the same velocity. When a sound-wave strikes against the surface of another medium, a portion goes on while the rest is reflected. The law which governs reflected sound is that of reflected motion — the angle of incidence is equal to that of reflection. The air at night is more homogeneous than by day ; conse- quently, sounds are heard more clearly and farther than in the daytime. If two sounds meet in exactly opposite phases, and the two forces are equal, they will balance each other, and silence will ensue. Thus, a sound added to a sound will produce silence. In the same way, two motions may produce rest ; two lights may cause darkness , and two heats may produce cold. The difference between noise and music is only that between irregular and regular vibrations. Whatever may be the cause which sets the air in motion, if the vibrations be uniform and rapid enough, the sound is musical. If the ticks of a watch could be made with sufficient rapidity, they would lose their individuality, and blend into a musical tone. Wind instruments produce musical sounds by means of in- closed columns of air. Sound-waves run backward and forward through the tube, and act on the surrounding air like the vibra- tions of a cord. The Telephone is an instrument which has, in a few years, come into almost general use, and which is beginning to rival the electric telegraph as a means of rapid communication. By means of it articulate speech or other sounds are reproduced at great distances. In the acoustic, or string telephone, it is only necessary to have a membrane which can be set in vibration by the impulses of the air made by the voice on an instrument, and a string or wire attached to it to carry the vibrations to a similar membrane at the other end. This second membrane gives back to the air the same kind of vibration received at the other end. In the electric telephone the vibrations of the membrane cause changes in the electric current, produced by a battery, these changes being capable of reproducing the same kind of vibrations in the membrane at the opposite end. The Microphone is an instrument which, in its main features, consists of a carbon " pencil," so suspended that one end rests upon a carbon " die." The instrument, being connected with a telephone by the circuit wires, will reproduce faint sounds very distinctly. The upright carbon is thrown into vibrations by the impulse of the sound, which alternately lengthens and shortens it. This, by impairing or strengthening the connection of the Y- K 348 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS. circuit, alternately lessens and strengthens the force of the cur- rent. Corresponding to these electric changes, the membrane of the telephone vibrates and gives out sound. It is so sensitive that the walking of a fly on the sounding-board may be dis- tinctly heard at the telephone, and the ticking of a watch sounds like blows of a hammer. The Phonograph is an instrument which registers the differ- ent vibrations produced by sound, and reproduces them in cor- respondence with this registration. It consists of a mouth-piece and vibrating membrane, the same as the telephone, with a needle attached to the center of the membrane, the vibrations of which cause the needle to make impressions on a strip of tin foil, rolled on a grooved revolving cylinder. By so adjusting the machine that the needle may retrace its path on the tin foil, the membrane is set in vibration again and the sounds are given back exactly as they were received. Articulate speech, as well as all other noises, is reproduced with wonderful distinctness. With the Photophone, sounds may be heard at a distance by means of light. Changes are produced in the electric current by the light falling on a plate of "selenium." With this excep- tion the principle is the same as in the ordinary telephone. The Audiphont is an instrument to convey sound to the ear, to supplement it when partial or temporary deafness has occur- red. The instrument has the appearance of a large, black fan, is made of vulcanized rubber, and consists of a long, flexible disc, supported by a handle. To the upper edge of the " fan " are attached cords, which pass through a clip on the handle. If the person who wishes to hear by means of the audiphone will hold the fan against the upper teeth — the convex side of the fan outward — he or she will hear distinctly, for the vibrations of sound are collected and strike upon the teeth and bones, and act upon the auditory nerves from within, precisely as the vibra- tions act from without through the auricle. The Topophone, an apparatus for discovering the position of a sound, is based upon the well-known theory of sound-waves. It is claimed for this apparatus that it stands in the same relation to the sailor as his old and trusty friends the compass and sextant, as it will tell him whence a sound arises, and this in a fog is no mean advantage. The whole theory of the topo- phone, however, depends for its usefulness upon the same note being sounded by all horns and whistles. The note C treble, caused by about 260 vibrations per second, has been found most applicable, and if all whistles and fog-horns can by law be compelled to adjust themselves to this note, the topophone will prove a real and lasting benefit. OPTICS Is the science which treats of light and vision. Light is a vibratory motion, like sound and heat, transmitted through a medium called tthtr. This medium is a very elastic substance surrounding us, and constituting a kind of universal atmosphere, diffused throughout all space. It is so subtle that it fills the pores of all bodies, eludes all chemical tests, passes in through the glass receiver and remains even in the vacuum of an air- pump. A luminous body is one that emits or sends forth light. A non-luminous body is one that reflects light, and is visible only in the presence of a luminous body. A medium is any sub- stance through which light passes. A transparent body is one that offers so little obstruction to the passage of light that we can see objects through it. A translucent body is one that lets some light pass, but not enough to render objects visible through it. An opaque body is one that does not transmit light. The three great laws governing light are : I. Light pastes off from a luminous body equally in every direction. 2. Light travels through a medium of uniform density in straight lines. 3. The intensity of light decreases as the square of the distance increases. The velocity of light is about 185,000 miles per second. This is so great that, for all distances on the earth, it is practically in- stantaneous. When a beam of light from a luminous body falls upon the surface of an opaque body a portion is reflected and a portion absorbed. When light passes from one medium to another of different density it is refracted, that is, bent out of its regular course. Diffraction of light is caused by a beam of light passing along the edge of some opaque body. As the waves of ether strike against it, they put in motion another set of waves on the oppo- site side which interfere with the first system. The rainbow is formed by the refraction and reflection of the sunbeam in drops of falling water. Halos, coronas, sundogs, circles about the moon, the gorgeous tinting at sunrise and sun- set, are all produced by the refraction and reflection of the sun's rays when passing through the clouds in the upper regions of the atmosphere. The phenomenon familiarly known as the " sun's drawing water" consists merely of the long shadows of broken clouds. The mirage is fully explained under the nead of Physical Geography. If a sunbeam be passed through a prism the light is decom- posed and appears as a band of seven colors, viz.: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. These are called the colors of the solar spectrum. A lens is a transparent body, generally of glass, having one or two curved surfaces. A convex lens converges the rays of light, or brings them to a focus at a point, varying in distance, accord- ing to the degree of convexity. A concave lens causes the rays of light to diverge. If the eye be placed at the point where the rays from an object are brought to a focus by a convex lens, the object will appear magnified, while the same object seen through a concave lens will appear diminished. A " burning glass " is a convex lens, converging the rays of the sun. Rays which pass through a lens near the edge are brought to a focus sooner than those near the center; therefore, when an image is clear around the edge, it will be indistinct at the center, and vice versa. This wandering of the rays from the focus is termed spherical aberration. Chromatic aberration is caused by the different refrangibility of the several colors which compose white light. The violet, being bent most, tends to come to a focus sooner than the red, V- 2\ K~ NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS. 349 rr which is bent least. This causes the play of colors seen around the image produced by an ordinary glass. It is remedied by using a second lens of different dispersive power, which counter- acts the effects of the first. Microscopes are of two kinds — simple and compound. The former consists of a double convex lens ; the latter contains at least two lenses. Telescopes are of two kinds — reflecting and refracting. The former contains a large, metallic mirror, which reflects the rays of light to a focus ; the latter, like the microscope, contains an object-lens which forms an image. The opera-glass contains an object-glass and an eye-piece. The latter is a double concave lens. This increases the visual angle by diverging the rays of light, which would otherwise come to a focus beyond the eye-piece. The camera used by photographers contains a double convex lens, which throws an inverted image of the object upon the ground glass screen. - The three kinds of mirrors are plane, concave and convex. The first has a flat surface; the second, one like the inside, and the third, one like the outside of a watch crystal. The general principle of mirrors is that the image is always seen in the direc- tion of the reflected ray as it enters the eye. HEAT Is now known to be a series of vibrations, or vibratory motions, as sound vibrations, which we cannot hear nor see, but the effects of which are known to us as light and heat. In other words, heat is now believed to be the effect of the rapid motion of all the molecules of a body. If this motion be increased the body is said to be heated ; if decreased, it is cooled. Cold is a merely relative term, indicating the absence of heat in a greater or less degree. The sources of heat are the sun, moon and stars, mechanical and chemical action. The greater part of the heat of our globe comes from the sun, and only a very minute quantity from the other heavenly bodies. Great heat may be developed by mechanical action, as friction and concussion. Count Rumford caused water to boil by the friction of metals. A blacksmith can make a piece of iron red hot by hammering. The flint strikes fire from the steel, particles of the metal being torn off and heated to redness. Chemical action is seen in the combus- tion of fuel, the union of oxygen with carbon and hydrogen. All bodies expand under the effects of heat, for by its addi- tion the molecules are urged into swifter motion, and therefore pushed further apart, increasing the size of the body. Hence the law, " Heat expands ; cold contracts." If heat be applied to a liquid, the temperature rises until the boiling point is reached, when it stops. The expansion, how- ever, continues until the motion is so violent as to overcome the cohesive force and to throw off particles of the liquid. When we heat water, the bubbles which pass off first contain merely the air dissolved in the liquid ; next bubbles of steam form on the bottom and sides of the vessel, and, rising a little distance, are crushed in by the cold water and condensed. In breaking they produce that peculiar sound known as "simmering," and ascend higher and higher as the temperature of the water rises, until at last they break at the surface, and the steam passes off into the air. Any substance which increases the cohesive power of water elevates the boiling point, and for this reason salt water boils at a higher temperature than fresh water. Evaporation is a slow formation of vapor, which takes place at all ordinary temperatures. It is hastened by an increase of surface and a gentle heat. This principle is made useful in the arts for separating a solid from the liquid which holds it in solution. Vacuum pans- are largely employed in condensing milk, in the manufacture of sugar, etc. ; and are so arranged that the air above the liquid in the vessel may be exhausted, and then the evaporation takes place very rapidly, and at so low a tempera- ture that all danger of burning is avoided. Absorption and reflection are intimately connected with radi- ation. A good absorber is also a good radiator, but a good reflector can be neither. Snow is a good reflector but a poor absorber or radiator. Light colors absorb less and reflect more than dark colors. White is the best reflector, and black the best absorber and radiator. On the Desert of Sahara, where " the soil is fire and the wind is flame," the dry air allows the heat to escape through it so readily that ice is sometimes formed at night. The dryness of the air at great elevations accounts, in part, for the coldness which is there felt so keenly. The thermometer is an instrument to measure the tempera- ture by means of the expansion of mercury. The principal scales used are : Fahrenheit's, in which the space between the two fixed points, boiling and freezing, is divided into 180 degrees ; the Centigrade, in which this space is divided into loo degrees; Reaumur's, in which it is divided into 80 degrees. Mercury freezes only at 39 Fahr. below zero, and consequently it is most generally used in thermometers. Alcohol is used only for very low temperatures. Water changes from the liquid to the gaseous state, or boils, at the level of the sea, at a temperature of 2 1 2° F. As we ascend above this level the pressure of the atmosphere is less, and it boils at a lower degree. The steam engine is a machine for using the elastic force of steam as a motive power. There are two classes of engines — the high-pressure and the low-pressure. In the former the steam, after being employed to do its work, is forced out into the air; in the latter it is condensed in a separate chamber by a spray of cold water. As the steam is condensed in the low- pressure engine a vacuum is formed behind the piston, while the piston of the high-pressure engine acts against the pressure of the air. The governor is an apparatus for regulating the supply of steam. When a machine is going too fast, the balls fly out by centrifugal force and shut off a portion of the steam ; when too slowly, they fall back, and, opening the valve, let on the steam again. The fly-wheel, by its inertia, serves to render the movement of the machinery uniform. YL a! tc 35° NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS. -~A MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. Magnetism is that branch of science which treats of the properties of the magnet. Certain specimens of iron ore have the property of attracting iron and some of its ores, and are called natural magnets or loadstone. When freely suspended they will point to the poles. An artificial magnet is a magnet- ized piece of steel, either straight or bent in the form of a horseshoe. The production of magnetism by induction is a curious phenomenon. If a permanent magnet is brought near a hand- ful of iron nails it will attract them to it, and as soon as a nail becomes attached to the magnet it becomes a magnet itself and attracts another nail, which in turn becomes a magnet and attracts another, and so on, the magnetic power of each new nail attracted becoming constantly less than that of the preced- ing one. It is not even necessary that the nail should absolutely touch the magnet in order to assume this magnetic power, for it will be transmitted through short spaces from one to the other. This power which a body acquires by being brought near a magnet is called magnetic induction. An important fact in this connection is that when a coil of iron wire is made to sur- round a permanent magnet it becomes magnetic itself by induc- tion, and is capable of inducing magnetism in another bar of iron surrounded by it. This principle is made practical use of in the construction of the telephone and magnetic telegraph. The greatest electric power of a magnet is at its ends, which are called poles. The end pointing to the north, when sus- pended, is the north or positive pole, the other being the south or negative. Like poles repel, and unlike poles attract each other. The compass is a magnetic needle used by mariners, survey- ors, etc. It is very delicately poised over a card, on which the " points of the compass " are marked. The needle does not often point directly north and south. The "line of no varia- tion," as it is called, runs in an irregular course through the United States from Cape Lookout, across Lake Erie to Hudson's Bay. East of this the variation is toward the west, and west of it it is toward the east. The earth itself is a great magnet, and this explains why the needle points north and south. A dipping needle is one which is free to turn in a vertical plane. At the equator it is horizontal, but as it is carried toward the north it dips, or inclines toward the center of the earth. At a place near Hudson's Bay it stands vertical. This is called the north magnetic pole. It does not coincide with the geographical pole. Electricity is that science which unfolds the phenomena tad laws of the electric fluid. Electricity may be generated by means of friction, percussion, heat, chemical action, cleavage, and by magnets. The effects of electricity in its various forms are manifested as attraction, repulsion, light, heat, violent com- motions and chemical decomposition. The first method of producing electricity, discovered in the earlier ages, was by rubbing amber, and so the term electricity was derived from the Greek word elektron, signifying amber. It was afterward found that certain other substances, when rubbed, assumed electrical properties, and would attract or repel other materials. This electricity produced by rubbing or fric- tion can be held for a considerable length of time, and hence it has received the name of stationary or statical electricity. This is the only form of electricity that we can store up and keep for a time. What is known now as the storage battery does not really store up electricity, but only energy, which can be trans- formed into electricity at will. Dynamical electricity, or electricity in motion, circulates only in a conductor or along a wire, and cannot be held. It was first discovered by Galvani in experimenting on frogs' legs, and hence it is often called galvanic electricity. It is now ordinarily produced by means of galvanic batteries and dynamo machines. The third form of electricity is called magnetic electricity, or magnetism. According to the generally accepted theory, there are two so- called electrical fluids, and these two are commingled in equal proportions in all bodies ; and hence all the processes for getting electricity must result in pulling these two electrical fluids apart, and in taking a portion of one away from a body. These two fluids are called, one positive and the other negative electricity. It is found that when two bodies are electrified with the same kind of electricity they repel each other; but when the two bodies are charged with opposite kinds of elec- tricity, or when one body is charged with either kind while the other is left in its normal condition, then the two bodies attract each other. When a piece of sealing-wax is rubbed it manifests electrical properties for some time, but certain other substances, like metals, for instance, after being rubbed in the same manner, show no electrical properties, and this is because the electricity easily gets away from them. Thus we find that while certain substances remain electrified for some time, others do not, and hence these bodies are named conductors and non-conductors. These terms are not absolute, but only comparative. The metals, carbon, gypsum and acids are called good conductors, while amber, glass, sulphur and silk are poor conductors. If we want to insulate electricity and keep it from running off into surrounding objects, we surround the object containing it with a poor conductor. Thus, the glass insulators on telegraph poles prevent the electricity from leaving the wires and running off into the ground, and the non-conducting materials placed around the wires of the Atlantic cable so protect it that a small charge of electricity will carry a message from here to Europe. Great difficulty is experienced in experimenting with statical electricity, because it so easily gets away. All substances are conductors to a greater or less degree, including the dust in the air and the moisture in the atmosphere. Perfect insulation and a warm, dry air are, therefore, favorable conditions for holding statical electricity. The rexson it was not used earlier for prac- tical purposes was because it was so difficult to manage. The electricity which is produced on glass by friction is called vitreous or positive, while that produced in the same manner on shellac ur sealing-wax is called resinous or negative electricity. All bodies are, as has been said, charged with an equal amount of the two electrical fluids called positive and negative, but when a body is electrified these two fluids are separated so that one VL — ~7 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— PHYSICS. 351 remains in excess of the other. There is always a passage of the electrical fluid in two directions, along a conductor, but when the direction of the current is spoken of, it is the direction of the positive current that is always meant. Statical electricity can also be produced by pressure, as when certain crystals are firmly pressed together ; by cleavage, as when two layers of mica are split apart; and by heat, as well as by friction. It may also be produced by torsion. It is found that the charge of electricity, if collected in a spherical body, is on the outside, and not within the body; and if it is not a spherical body, the electricity collects chiefly at the part most nearly pointed. Electrical Machines. Machines for producing statical electricity are usually based on the friction method. The old-fashioned machine consisted of a circular glass plate, which was rotated between two cushions, and the electricity thus produced was taken off and carried to a metallic cylinder, called the prime conductor, by means of metal points. Silk and glass as insulators prevented the electricity from running off into neighboring objects. More recently machines have been constructed on the principle of induction, as illustrated in the electrophorus. The Leyden Jar. The condensation of electricity is illustrated in the Leyden jar. This is a sort of bottle, lined up to a short distance from its top, both inside and outside, by tin-foil, and in the stopper is a brass knob, which is connected with the tin-foil on the inside of the jar by a chain. When the knob is charged with positive elec- tricity from a machine, it collects on the tin-foil inside the jar, while a corresponding amount of negative electricity collects on the outside of the jar. By this means a large amount of elec- tricity may be collected and held by the jar until discharged, by making connection between the tin-foil on the inside and that on the outside of the jar. The electricity is held, not on the tin-foil, but on the surface of the glass. This is proved by means of a jar that can be taken to pieces after being charged. Although the two pieces of metal which lined the inside and outside are now brought in contact, yet when the whole is put together again, the charge is found to remain, and it is discharged by connecting the knob with the metal lining of the outside. All that these metal linings accomplish here is to make a large conducting sur- face over the whole of the glass upon which the electricity collects. The discharge of electricity from such a jar, or a battery of several of them connected, produces a variety of results. The spark will pass through a thin plate of glass or a card, and make a hole in them by disrupting them ; or, in passing through points of metal, it heats them to a high temperature and vaporizes them, so that we get luminous effects from them. Lightning Is only the discharge of a Leyden jar on the grand scale upon which Nature performs her operations. Two clouds charged with opposite electricities, and separated by the non-conducting air, approach each other. When the tension becomes sufficient to overcome the resistance, the two forces rush together with a blinding flash and terrific pea!. The lightning moves along the line where there is the least resistance, and so describes a zig-zag course. If we can trace the entire length, we call it chain light- ning ; if we only see the flash through intervening clouds, it is sheet-lightning ; and if it is the reflection of distant discharges, we term it heat-lightning. The report of thunder is caused by the clashing of the atoms of displaced air. The rolling of the thunder is produced by the reflection of the sound from distant clouds/ Sometimes the clouds and the earth become charged with opposite electricities, separated by the non-conducting air. Lightning-rods are based on the principle that electricity always seeks the best conductor. Providence has provided a harmless conductor in every leaf, spire of grass, and twig. A common blade of grass, pointed by Nature's exquisite workmanship, is three times more effectual than the finest cambric needle, and a single pointed twig than the metallic point of the best constructed rod. The duration of the lightning flash has been estimated at one- millionth of a second. Some idea of its instantaneousness can be formed from the fact that the spokes of a wheel, revolved so rapidly as to become invisible by daylight, can be distinctly seen by a spark from a Leyden jar. Wheatstone considered the ve- locity of lightning through a copper wire to be 288,000 miles per second. Lightning sometimes passes upward from the earth, both quietly and by sudden discharge. Dynamical Electricity. Now, a few words in regard to dynamical electricity. Galvani discovered, in experimenting on frogs, that when two pieces of metal, like copper and zinc, were placed in contact with the frog's leg and their ends connected, a movement of the leg would take place. Volta developed the voltaic pile, which at first consisted of alternate layers of zinc, wet paper, and copper, piled one on top of the other in varying numbers. It was found that when the top layer was connected with the bottom one, by means of wires, a current of electricity was set up. It became understood then, that the electricity was produced by the chem- ical action of the water in the paper on the zinc, and so more solvent fluids came to be used instead of water, and cloth was substituted for the paper. The Galvanic Battery Is simply a combination by which we produce this chemical action, and zinc is the metal acted upon. If a piece of copper and a piece of zinc be placed in water, containing a little sul- phuric acid, and the ends of the copper and zinc be brought together, or connected by wires, a current of electricity will be established between them. A spark may be seen in the dark if the two wires are brought near together, but not in actual con- tact. This electricity is produced by the chemical action of the acid on the metal, and is called voltaic or galvanic electricity. A glass vessel containing the metals and acid is called a cell, and several cells connected together constitute the battery. The metal plate in which the chemical action is greatest is called the positive plate, and the other the negative plate. The free ends of the wires are called electrodes. The one attached to the posi- tive plate is the negative electrode, and vice versa. J^ Q k. K - 35 2 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — PHYSICS. While zinc is universally used for one element, the second element in the battery may be composed of different kinds of metals, according to convenience. A difficulty in using zinc as the positive element was soon found in the fact that little local currents were set up between it and the impurities contained in it, and this caused an unneces- sary waste of the zinc. So it became customary to amalgamate the zinc in order to prevent this local action of the fluid upon it. The next improvement made was to prevent the little bubbles of hydrogen from collecting on the surface of the copper, thus keeping the liquid from coming in contact with it in all parts — that is, to prevent the "polarization" of the copper. For this purpose certain substances came to be used to absorb the hydrogen. The first of these substances was the sulphate of copper as used in the Daniells battery. This consisted of a copper vessel containing a porous cylinder in which was sus- pended a rod of zinc. Dilute sulphuric acid was contained in this cylinder, and in the copper vessel outside of the cylinder was placed a solution of the sulphate of copper. In this battery the hydrogen set free decomposes the sulphate of copper, form- ing with it sulphuric acid, and sets free copper which collects on the copper element. Grove's battery consists of a glass vessel containing a porous cup, surrounded on the outside by a coil of amalgamated zinc, and on the inside is suspended a rod of platinum, instead of copper. The vessel outside of the porous cup is filled with dilute sulphuric acid, and inside with strong nitric acid. The nitric acid absorbs the hydrogen set free by the sulphuric acid and zinc. In the bichromate battery, the bichromate of potash dissolved in sulphuric acid is used to absorb the hydrogen, and chromic acid is formed. So the three substances in use for absorbing the hydrogen in different kinds of batteries are sul- phate of copper, nitric acid and bichromate of potash. Bunsen suggested the use of gas carbon to take the place of the copper. His battery consists of a cylinder of carbon immersed in a vessel containing nitric acid, and within this cylinder is a porous cell containing sulphuric acid, in which the zinc is suspended. To avoid using the porous cups, the force of gravity has been brought into play in the construction of the so-called '* gravity battery." This consists of a glass vessel with plates of copper at its bottom, and upon this crystals of sulphate of copper are scattered, while over all is poured pure water, in the upper por- tion of which is suspended a plate of zinc. A very little sulphuric acid is added to start the battery, mid then its action will keep up. Gravity here keeps the two liquids apart — the solution of sulphate of copper at the bottom, and the dilute solution of sulphuric acid at the top. This battery produces a constant current, and will run for a very long time. The Leclanche battery consists of a porous cup containing sal ammo- niac, in which is suspended a rod of zinc, and this cup is surrounded by the oxide of manganese as a depolarizer, immersed in which is the carbon. This battery is used when a current of electricity is desired for a very short time at once, as in striking burglar alarms, signal bells, etc. The galvanic bat- tery is now being replaced for many purposes by dynamo-electric machines. Electrolysis and Galvanoplasty. A current of electricity passed through certain substances will decompose them, and this process is called electrolysis. Water may, for example, lie thus separated into two gases, oxygen and hydrogen. The process of depositing metals by means of elec- tricity is known as galvanoplasty. Electroplating, sometimes called galvanizing, is the process of coating one metal with another by means of a galvanic battery. Gold and silver are deposited most readily on German silver, brass, copper, or nickel silver, the last mentioned being a composition of copper, zinc and nickel. Vessels to be plated with silver, for example, are thoroughly cleansed, and then hung in a solution of silver from the negative pole, while a plate of silver is suspended on the positive pole. In about fire minutes a mere " blush" of the metal will be deposited, which perfectly conceals the baser metal and is susceptible of a high polish. A vessel is gold-lined by filling it with a solution of gold, sus- pending in it a slip of gold from the positive pole of the battery, and then attaching the negative pole to the vessel; while the current passing through the liquid causes it to bubble like soda- water, and in a few moments deposits a thin film of gold. Electrotyping is a process much used in copying medals, wood cuts, type, etc. An impression of the object is taken with gutta-percha, or wax ; the surface to be copied is brushed over with black-lead to render it a conductor. The mold is then suspended in a solution of sulphate of copper, from the negative pole of the battery; a plate of copper is hung opposite on the positive pole. The electric current decomposes the sulphate of copper ; the metal goes to the negative pole and is deposited upon the mold, while the acid, passing to the positive pole, dissolves the copper, and thus preserves the strength of the solution. The Electric Light, Telegraph, Etc. If a strong current of electricity is sent along a good con- ductor, it passes very easily ; but if passed along a poor con- ductor, it makes it hot. This is the principle upon which is based the incandescent electric light. A current sent over a fine thread of carbon heats it to a white heat, and thus produces a brilliant light. The same principle holds in the arc light, where the air acts as the poor conductor. Here two pointed sticks of carbon are placed in contact until a current is started through them, and then they are gradually separated for a short distance, when the resistance offered by the air to the passage of the elec- tricity from one point to the other heats them to incandescence, and small particles of carbon in a state of combustion are broken off and carried through the air, thus causing an arc of light between the carbon points. The incandescent electric light and the arc light form two systems of electric lighting. The galvanometer is the most convenient method of measuring a current of electricity. This is a rotating needle, around which the current is passed. The electric telegraph is an arrangement for sending messages by means of signals made by breaking and closing a voltaic circuit. The telephone, microphone, etc., have been explained under the head of Aeon ■■■. / ^J NATURAL PHILOSOPHY — CHEMISTRY. 353 -E^EK CHEMISTRY. Ij^^F -*£3-*H=&- /YHEMISTRY is the science of atoms. It detects their rela- l/j tive power, their laws of combination and their means of ' decomposition. It enables us to understand the construc- tion of bodies, and is one of the most instructive and useful studies. As astrology preceded astronomy, so alchemy paved the way for chemistry. For centuries learned but misguided men sought in vain the " elixir of life," a universal medicine to enable man to attain the longevity of the antediluvians, and groped for the "philosopher's stone," which, it was believed, could turn the baser metals into gold and silver. Gradually, however, the fallacy of alchemy was revealed, until Chemistry enlightened the world and demonstrated that it is impossible to change one element into another. In nature we have simple and compound bodies, and the former are called elements. These must not be confounded with the so-called elements — earth, air, fire and water, which are really compound bodies. An element in chemistry is any substance which cannot be separated into two or more distinctly different substances. The number of these simple elements at present recognized is 65, divided into non-metallic and metallic. The non-metallic elements are called "metalloids." The list of the elements is as follows : Non-Metallic Elements. O H N CI I F C s p As Si B Se Te Oxygen Hydrogen*! Nitrogen > Gaseous Chlorine J Iodine Fluorine Carbon Phosphorus Arsenic* Silicon Boron Silenium Tellurium Bromine Fluid Metals. Aluminium Al Antimony (Stibium) ... Sb Barium Ba Bismuth Bi Cadmium Cd Caesium Cs Calcium Ca Cerium Ce Chromium Cr Cobalt Co Copper Cu Didymium D Erbium E Gallium Ga Glucinum Gl Gold Au Indium In 1- be ■ o c « ...16 .. 14 - 35 ..127 ..19 . . ia .. 32 •• 3i •• 75 .. 28 .. 11 •• 79 ..129 .. 80 • 27 .122 •137 .210 .112 •133 . 40 .141 • 52 • 58 • 63 • M7 • 7° • 9 .197 .113 Metals. (continued.) © E « Iridium Iron Lanthanum , Lead Lithium Magnesium Manganese Mercury , Molybdenum Nickel Niobium (Cdlumbium). Osmium Palladium Platinum Potassium (Kalium) . . . Rhodium , Rubidium Ruthenium Silver (Argentum) Sodium (Natrium) Strontium Tantalum Terbium Thallium Thorium Tin (Stannum) Titanium Tungesten (Walpam). . Uranium , Vanadium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium ..198 .. 56 •■*39 .'.207 • 7 .. 24 55 Ir . Fe . La . Pb , Li . Mg.. Mn .. Hg .. .200 Mo ... 96 Ni ... 58 Nb ... 94 Os . 199 PI ...106 Pt ...197 K ... 39 Rh . . . 104 Rb ... 85 Ru . ..104 Ag ...108 Na ... 23 Sr ... 87 Ta ...182 Tr ... Tl Th Sn Ti W U V Y , .204 ,.230 ..118 .. 50 ..184 ..240 i. 51 ■ • 93 Zn ... 65 Zr ... 80 * Sometimes considered a non-metallic and sometimes a metallic sub- stance. The term "combining weight" requires a little explanation. Water, for instance, is made up of oxygen and hydrogen in certain proportions. The proportions are in eighteen grains or parts of water, sixteen parts (by weight) of oxygen, and two parts (by weight) of hydrogen. These are the weights or pro- portions in which oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water, and such weights are always the same in these proportions. Chemical combination always occurs for certain substances in certain proportions which never vary in those compounds, and if we wish to extract oxygen from an oxide we must take the a gg re g a te amount of the combining weights of the oxide, and we shall find the proportion of oxygen; for the compound always weighs the same as the sum of the elements that compose it. To return to the illustration of water. The molecule of water is made up of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. One atom of the former weighs sixteen times the atom of the latter. The weights given in the foregoing table are atomic weights, and the law of their proportions is called the Atomic Theory. An atom in chemistry is usually considered the smallest quantity of matter that exists, and is indivisible. A molecule is supposed to contain two or more atoms, and is the smallest por- tion of a compound body. The standard atom is hydrogen, which is put down as 1, because we find that when one part by weight of hydrogen is put in combination, it must have many more parts by weight of others to form a compound. Two grains of hydrogen, combining with sixteen of oxygen, makes eighteen of water, as we have already seen. The red oxide of mercury contains sixteen parts by weight of oxygen to two hundred parts by weight of mercury (we see the same numbers in the table); these combined make two hundred and sixteen parts of oxide. So, to obtain sixteen pounds of oxygen, we must get two hundred and sixteen pounds of the powder. It is the same all through, and it will be found by experiment, that if any more parts than these fixed proportions be taken to form a compound, some of that element used in excess will remain free. Lime is made up of calcium and oxy- gen. We find calcium combining weight is forty, oxygen sixteen. Lime is oxide of calcium in these proportions (by weight). When we wish to express the number of atoms in a compound, we write the number underneath when more than one; thus water is H 2 O. Sulphuric acid, H 2 S0 4 . In chemistry we have acids, alkalis and salts, with metallic oxides, termed bases, or bodies that, when combined with acids, form salts. Alkalis are bases. 24 _M • The Seasons. our globe which is illuminated by the sun at various times. It will be easily understood that the poles have six months day and six months night. When the earth is at an equinox, one- half of the surface is illuminated and the other half in shade ; therefore the days and nights are equal. But when the north pole turns more and more toward the sun, the south pole is turning away from it in the same ratio, — the days and nights re- spectively are getting longer and longer, and at the north and south poles day and night are continuous, for the small spaces round the poles are, drring a certain period, wholly in sunshine and shade respectively. When the earth is in Libra, and also when in Aries,* the rays •When we say Iliat the earth is in Libra, wc mean that a spectator placed at the sun would tee the earth in that part of the heavens which is occu- pied by the sign of Libra. See Zodiac (Dictionary of Astronomical Terms). strike vertically at the equator, and more and more obliquely in the northern and southern hemispheres, as the distance from the equator increases, until at the poles they strike almost horizon- tally. This variation in the direction of the rays produce* a corresponding variation in the intensity of the sun's heat and light at different places, and accounts for the difference between the torrid and polar regions. As the earth changes its position, the angle at which the rays strike any portion is varied. For in- stance, take the earth as it enters Capricornus, and the sun in Cancer. He is now overhead 23^° north of the equator. His rays strike less obliquely in the northern hemisphere than when the earth was in Libra. Let six months elapse : The earth is now in Cancer and the sun in Capricornus ; and he is overhead 23^° south of the equator. His rays strike less obliquely in the southern hemisphere than before, but in the northern hem- isphere more obliquely. These six months have changed the direction of the sun's rays on every part of the earth's surface. This accounts for the dif- ference in temperature be- tween summer and winter. At the equinoxes one- half of each hemisphere is illuminated; hence the name equinox {trquus, equal, and nor, night). At these points of the orbit the days and nights are equal over the entire earth, each being twelve hours in length. When the earth is at the summer solstice, about the 21st of June, the sun is overhead 2$%" north of the equator, and if its ver- tical rays could leave a golden line on the surface of the earth as it revolves, they would mark the Tropic of Cancer. The sun is at its furthest northern declination, ascends the highest it is ever seen above our horizon, and rises and sets 23^3° north of the east and west points. It seems now to stand still in its northern and southern course ; and hence the name solstice ( sol, the sun, sto, to stand). The days in the north temperate zone are longer than the nights. It is our summer, and the 21st of June is the longest day of the year. In the south temperate zone it is winter, and the shortest day of the year. The circle that separates day from night extends 23^* beyond the north pole ; and if the sun's rays could in like man- ner leave a golden line on that day, they would trace on the earth the Arctic Circle. It is the noon of the long, six-months polar day. The reverse is true at the Antarctic Circle, and it is there the midnight of the long, six-months polar night. / =^ 1 £- K y ASTRONOMY. 3 6 3 The earth crosses the aphelion point the 1st of July, when it is at its furthest distance from the sun, which is then said to be in apogee. The sun, each day rising and setting a trifle further toward the south, passes through a lower circuit in the heavens. We reach the autumnal equinox the 22d of September. The sun being now on the equinoctial, if its vertical rays could leave a line of golden light, they would mark on the earth the circle of the equator. It is autumn in the north temperate zone, and spring in the south temperate zone. The days and rights are equal over the whole earth, the sun rising at 6 A.M., and setting at 6 p.m., exactly in the east and west where the equinoctial intersects the horizon. The sun, after passing the equinoctial — "crossing the line," as it is called — sinks lower toward the southern horizon each day. We reach the winter solstice the 2ist of December. The sun is now directly overhead 23^° south of the equator; and if its rays could leave a line of golden light, they would mark on the earth's surface the Trop- ic ot Capricorn. It is at its furthest southern declination, and rises and sets 23^° south of the east and west points. It is our winter, and the 2 1 st of December is the shortest day of the year. In the south temperate zone it is summer and the longest day of the year. The circle that separates day from night extends 23^° beyond the south pole; and if the sun's rays in like manner could leave a line of golden light, they would mark the Ant- arctic Circle. It is there the noon of the long six-months polar day. At the Arctic Circle the reverse is true; the rays fall 23^° short of the north pole, and it is there the midnight of the long six- months polar night. Here, again, the sun appears to us to stand still a day or two before retracing its course, and it is therefore called the winter solstice. The earth reaches its perihelion about the 31st of December. It is then nearest the sun, which is, therefore, said to be in peri- gee. The sun rises and sets each day further and further north, and climbs up higher in the heavens at midday. Our days gradually increase in length, and our nights shorten in the same proportion. On the 21st of March the sun reaches the equi- noctial, at the vernal equinox. He is overhead at the equator, and the days and nights are again equal. It is our spring, but in the south temperate zone it is autumn. We are nearer the sun by 3,000,000 miles in winter than in summer. The obliqueness with which the rays strike the north temperate zone at that time prevents our receiving any special benefit from this favorable position of the earth. We notice that we do not have our great- est heat at the time of the summer solstice nor our greatest cold at the time of the winter solstice. After the 2 1st of June, the earth, already warmed by the genial spring days, continues to receive more heat from the sun by day than it radiates by night ; thus its temperature still increases. On the other hand, after the 21st of De- cember, the earth continues to become colder, because it loses more heat during the night than it receives during the day. As the sun is not in the center of the earth's orbit, but at one of 'Us foci, that portion of the orbit which the earth passes through in going from the vernal to the autumnal equinox comprises more than one-half the entire ecliptic. On this account the summer is longer than the winter. The velocity of the earth varies in different portions of its orbit. When passing from the vernal equinox to aphe- lion, the attraction of the sun tends to check its speed; from that point to the autumnal equinox, the attrac- tion is partly in the direction of its motion, and so in- creases its velocity. If the axis of the earth were perpendicular to the ecliptic, the sun would always appear to move through the equinoctial. He would rise and set every day at the same points on the horizon, and pass through the same circle in the aeavens, while the days and nights would be equal the year round. There would be near the equator a fierce torrid heat, while north and south the climate would melt away into temperate spring, and, lastly, into the rigors of a perpetual winter. Moon by Earth-light. ^ L K 364 ASTRONOMY. If the equator were perpendicular to the ecliptic, odd results would follow. To a spectator at the equator, as the earth leaves '.he vernal equinox, the sun would each day pass through Fig. It. Telescopic View of the Full Moon. a smaller circle, until at the summer solstice he would reach the north pole, when he would halt for a time and then slowly return in an inverse manner. In our own latitude, the sun would make his diurnal revolu- tions in the way we have just described, his rays shining past the north pole further and further, until we were in- cluded in the region of perpetual day, when he would seem to wind in a spiral course up to the north pole, and then return in a descending curve to the equator. The sun and moon appear flattened when near the horizon, because the rays from the lower edge pass through a denser layer of the atmosphere, and are, therefore, re- fracted about 4' more than those from the upper edge. The effect of this is to make the vertical diameter appear about 4' less than the horizontal, and so distort the Ggure of the disk into an oval shape. The dim and hazy appearance of the heavenly bodies when near the horizon is caused not only by the rays of light having to pass through a larger space in the atmos- phere, but also by their traversing the lower and denser part. The intensity of the solar light is so greatly di- minished by passing through the lower strata, that we are enabled to look upon the sun at that time without being dazzled by his brilliant beams. The glow of light after sunset, and before sunrise, which we term twilight, is caused by the refraction and reflection of the sun's rays by the atmosphere. The diffused light of day is produced in the same manner as that of twilight. The atmosphere reflects and scatters the sunlight in every direction. Were it not for this, no object would be visible to us out of di- rect sunshine ; every shadow of a passing cloud would be pitchy darkness ; the stars would be visible all day ; no window would admit light except as the sun shone directly through it, and a man would require a lan- tern to go round his house at noon. The blue light reflected to our eyes from the atmos- phere above us, or more probably from the vapor in the air, produces the optical delusion we call the sky. Were it not for this, every time we cast our eyes up- ward we should feel like one gazing over a dizzy preci- pice ; while now the crystal dome of blue smiles down upon us so lovingly and beautifully that we call it heaven. THE MOON. "Fancy," says Lockyer, "a world without ice, cloud, rain, snow ; without rivers or streams, and there- fore without vegetation to support animal life ; — a world without twilight or any gradations between the fiercest sunshine and the blackest night ; — a world, also, without sound, for, as sound is carried by the air, the highest mountain on the airless moon might be riven by an earthquake inaudibly." If it were possible to reach the moon, as Jules Verne's travelers did, we should find a very irregular and corrugated / 1* r' - \mV "* imam Fig. 13. A Map of the Moon. YL =7? ASTRONOMY. L~ 365 surface — plains and mountains without water. There being no atmosphere, we should be able to see the stars in the day- time. The appearance of our earth from the moon, and the beauty of the stars in the unclouded and waterless space around the satellite, must be very grand, as depicted in a measure, in the illustration (Fig. 11). When we look steadily at the full moon through a telescope we perceive upon its surface dark and light tracts, called " seas," though they are dried'up now. Thus, we hear of the " Sea of G Fig. 14. The Moon's Path through Space. Serenity," the " Sea of Storms " and the " Sea of Tranquility." The hill ranges extend for hundreds of miles, and the elevation reaches 30,000 feet, and even more. The so-called craters do not resemble volcanoes when viewed closely, but appear like basins or valleys surrounded by lofty hills. One great plain, called Copernicus, is more than fifty miles across. The moon moves around us in 271/. "]h. 43m. 11.461*. Its diameter is about 2,160 miles, and it is much less dense than our earth, and so the force of gravity is less there than here. Its mean distance from us is 238,833 miles. The moon goes through certain changes or phases every twenty-nine days or so ; and while rotating on its own axis our satellite goes round the earth, so that we only see one side of the moon, inasmuch as the two motions occupy almost exactly the same length of time. So we generally see the same space of the moon, though at times there is a slight variation. This movement or swaying of the central point is called the moon's "libration," and is an optical effect, due to the inequalities in the motion of the moon in its orbit, and to the inclination of its equator and orbit to the ecliptic. The Phases of the Moon. The moon, as we have seeH, revolves around the earth in the same time as she turns upon her own axis, and always presents one side to us when she appears. Any one can ascertain this if he will put a candle upon a round table, and walk round it facing the candle. The experimentalist will find that he will turn upon his own axis as well as turn around the table. Thus we shall see how the moon changes. The time intervening between one " new " moon and another is 291/. 12.4. 44m. 2s., and is termed a synodic revolution. This is longer than the sidereal revolution, because the earth is also moving in the same direction, and the moon has to make up the time the earth has got on in front, as it were. So the moon travels nearly thirteen times round the earth while the latter is going round the sun. The revolutions of the moon have been a measurement of time for ages, and her varying appearances during lunation are always observed with interest. The illustration (Fig. 15) will assist us materially. The sun's rays fall in a parallel direction unon the earth and moon, and let us suppose that S is the sun in the diagram and T the earth ; c at the various points is the moon, the capital letters, A, B, C, etc., indicating the planet as she appears from the sun, and the small letters show- ing how she appears to us from the earth. Let us suppose that the sun, earth and moon are in conjunction — that is, in a direct line. The phases C and G are the moon's " quadratures." At A we see the sun shining on the moon, but we only have the dark side. It is then " new moon." But by degrees, as she goes round in her orbit, we perceive a small crescent- shaped portion, lighted up by the sun at B and b. At . K 3 68 ASTRONOMY. inclined, they appear broader. The inner ring may be formed of vapor, but the outer ones are of something more solid, as indicated by the shadows they cast upon the planet, and it casts upon them at certain times. Saturn possesses eight moons, seven of them revolving in orbits on the plane of the rings but one more inclined. Saturn, on account of its distance, shines with a feeble, but steady, pale yellow light, which distinguishes it from the fixed stars. Its orbit is so vast that its movement among the constellations may be easily traced through one's lifetime. It requires two and a half years to pass through a single sign of the zodiac; hence, when once known, it may be easily found again. As the earth and Saturn occupy different portions of their orbits, the distances between them at different times may vary 200,000,000 miles. The light and heat of the sun at Saturn are only ,J 5 that which we receive. The axis of the planet is inclined from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit about 31 . The seasons, therefore, are similar to those on the earth, but on a larger scale. . m Jvt ^ ^^^ ^fc^> tj$8*^ r ~ ' Fig. 19. Saturn and his Rings. The sun climbs in summer about 8° higher above the horizon, and sinks correspondingly lower i n winter. The tropics are 1 6° further apart, and the Arctic and Antarctic circles 8° further from the poles. Each of Saturn's seasons lasts more than seven of our years. There is about fifteen years' interval between the autumn and spring equinoxes, and between the summer and winter solstices. For fifteen years the sun shines on the north pole, and a night of the same length envelopes the south oole. URANUS. Uranus was discovered by Herschel, in 1781, and has been called after its discoverer, and sometimes the " Georgium Siclus." It revolves at an enormous distance from the sun — viz. : 1,753,- 000,000 of miles. It takes about eighty-four of our years (30,686 days) to go round the sun, and possesses four moons. It is very much larger than the earth— about four times the diameter, and forty times its volume. We can only speculate concerning its physical constitution, which is assumed to be similar to that of Jupiter, while the changes of temperature and seasons must vary immensely. Uranus has four moons, called Ariel, Umbriel, Ti- tania and Obcron. The outer pair can be seen without much difficulty. NEPTUNE Is the far-off sentinel at the very outposts of the solar system. The existence of this planet was determined by calculation before it had been seen at all. Uranus was observed to be dis- turbed in his orbit, moving sometimes faster than at others; and even before Uranus had been discovered Saturn and Jupiter had been seen to be afiected by some body in the system. Lever- rier determined to ascertain the cause of this, and came to the conclusion that some other planet was influencing Uranus. The Newtonian theory here received a most convincing proof. While I.everrier was calculating, Mr. Adams, of Cambridge, leaped to the same conclusion, and wrote the result of his calculations to Professor Airy, and the planet was seen, but not reported upon. Meantime Leverrier published his calculations, and the observers at Berlin detected the new planet in September, 1846. Very little can be said concerning Neptune, as its distance is too great for observation. It has one moon, which moves round the planet in 5 d. 21 h., and is of great size. THE ASTEROIDS, OR MINOR PLANETS. The Asteroids are smaller planets circulating outside the orbit of Mars. They are all at distances from the sun ranging between 200,000,000 and 300,000,000 miles, the periods of sidereal revolution ranging from 1,100 to 3,000 days. Consequently their years are from three to nine times as long as ours. Nearly 335 of these minor planets have been dis- covered, and they are all very much smaller than the earth, some, indeed being only a few miles in diameter. In olden times astronomers noticed a very considerable gap between Mars and Jupiter, which was remarkable when the regular progression of the distances between the planets was remembered. The discovery of Ceres in 1801 led to other discoveriee, and now we have nearly two hundred asteroids. Pallas was discovered in 1802; Jrso, 1804; Vesta, 1807; Astr.*a, 1845, and since 1848 every year has added to the list. The hypothesis that all these asteroids are fragments of one large planet which has been destroyed was started by Olbers; and in confirmation of this view it has been determined that the asteroids have essentially the same character. The orbits of these minor planets are different from the larger " wanderers," and cross each other, so that a collision may one day ensue. Vesta is the first in order in the system, and revolves in 1 ,325 days, at a mean distance of 225,000,000 of miles from the sun. Juno and Ceres take each about four of our years to revolve in their orbits, at greater distances still, averaging 260,000,000 of miles. Pallas and Ceres are most alike in their periods and distance from the sun. The principal asteroids are only about. 300 miles in diameter. METEORS. Meteors are small erratic bodies rushing through the planet- ary system, and, getting hot in the process, appear in the atmosphere surrounding our earth as "shooting stars." Some ■ falling bodies have reached the earth, and such are k_ -» — »* "Iv ASTRONOMY. 369 called "aerolites" or "meteorites." Numbers, of course, are burnt up before they reach us, and who can tell what destruction such a catastrophe may represent, or whether it be or be not an inhabited world which has thus been plunged to destruction by fire ? They are of a metallic or stony nature. On certain nights in August and November it has been calculated that these meteors Fig. Jo. An Exploding Meteor. will appear. They fall from certain constellations, after which they are named ; as Leonides, from Leo, in the November displays. The star showers sometimes present the appearance of a beau- tiful display of rockets. Millions of them rush round the sun, and when, as occasionally happens, our earth comes near them, we have a grand display of celestial fireworks. It is estimated that the average number of meteors that traverse the atmosphere daily, and which are large enough to be visible to the eye on a dark, clear night, is 7,500,000; and if to these the telescopic meteors be added, the number will be increased to 400,000,000. In the space traversed by the earth there are, on the average, in each volume the size of our globe (including its atmosphere), as many as 13,000 small bodies, each one capable of furnishing a shooting star visible under favorable circumstances to the naked eye. COMETS. It has been lately suggested that there is a great degree of affinity between comets and meteors — in fact, that a comet is merely an aggregation of meteors. Comets have been supposed to be bodies of burning gas. Their mass is very great, and their brilliant tails are many millions of miles in extent. In their orbits, they differ greatly from the planets. While the latter are direct in their wanderings, comets are most irreg- ular and eccentric. When first seen, the comet re- sembles a faint spot of light upon the dark back- ground of the sky. As it comes nearer, the brightness increases and the tail begins to show itself. The term comet signifies a hairy body. A comet consists usually of three parts : the nucleus, a bright point in the center of the head; thecoma (hair), the cloud-like mass surrounding the nucleus ; and the tail, a luminous train extending generally in a direction from the sun. It is not understood whether comets shine by their own or by reflected light. If, however, their nuclei consist of white-hot matter, a passage through such a furnace would be anything but desirable or satisfactory. It is to Halley that the discovery of the elliptical orbit of comets is due. A comet had been observed in 1607, and Halley made a calculation that it would reappear in 1757. The expected visitor passed the perihelion in 1759. This comet, on its appear- ance at Constantinople, is said to have cause-i much consterna- tion, and Christians regarded it as a ''sigiV for the Turks had just then captured Constantinople and were threatening Europe. Halley's comet was last observed in 1835. Encke's, Biela's and the comets of 1843 and 1858 are com- paratively recent. Others came in 1861, 1874, 1883. In 1881 two comets appeared. Some comets of antiquity were very remarkable, and are reputed to have equaled the sun in magni- tude. One tail is usually supposed to be the distinguishing mark of a comet, but in 1 774 one appeared with six tails, arranged something like a fan. Sometimes the tail is separated from the head. Some comets appear at regular intervals, and their approach can be determined with accuracy. Of course we only see those which are attracted by the sun, or those which Fig. ai. Various Forms of Comets. revolve in the solar system. There must be thousands of other comets which we never see at all. The comet of 1680 pursued its course for two months at a 25 K- 37° ASTRONOMY. velocity of 800,000 miles an hour. The tail was estimated to extend 123,000,000 of miles, and a length of 60,000,000 of miles was emitted in two days. This comet appeared B.C. 34, and again at intervals of about 575 years, and will reappear about 2255. Biela's comet was the cause of much anxiety in 1832, for a collision with the earth was feared. A month, however, inter- vened between the period at which the comet was expected at a certain place in the system and the earth's arrival at that spot, and so the comet was 60,000,000 miles away when the collision was apprehended. What the effect of such a collision would Pig. H. Orbits of the Comets. be, cannot be said. Wonderful atmospheric phenomena and increased temperature would, however, certainly result. If comets, as is believed, consist partly of solid particles, a collision would certainly be unpleasant; but their weight is probably a mere nothing compared to their vapory volume, which must be enormous. That the tails must be of a very attenuated medium, is evident, as the stars can be seen through them, although a very thin cloud will obscure a star. THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. This phenomenon, which may be seen in the western horizon on any clear winter or spring evening, after twilight, and also in the eastern horizon, just before daybreak, in summer or autumn, consists of a faint luminosity, extending out on each side of the sun, and lying nearly in the plane of the ecliptic. It can gen- erally be traced to about 90 degrees from the sun. growing fainter as it rises above the horizon. In a very clear tropical atmosphere, however, it forms a complete ring, ami may In- traced all the way across the heavens. These appearances seem to indicate that it is due to a lens-shaped appendage surrounding the sun and extending a little beyond the earth's orbit. Various attempts have been made to explain the phenomenon, but the most probable theory is that it is due to an immense number of meteors revolving round the sun, and which lie mostly within the earth's orbit, each reflecting a sensible portion of sunlight, but far too small to be separately visible. THE FIXED STARS. Those stars which shine with a clear, distinct light, and visibly change their position with respect to the others, are called planets, and these have been fully described according to their order in our solar system. Those stars which apparently re- main immovable, and shine with a shifting, twinkling light, are termed fixed stars, although it is now known that they also are in motion. Arcturus, for instance, moves at the rate of fifty miles a second, and others less, but only the rates of a few are known. In the daytime we cannot see the Mars because of the supe- rior light of the sun ; but with a telescope they can be traced, and an astronomer will find certain stars as well at noon as at midnight. When looking at the sky from the bottom of a deep well or lofty chimney, if a bright star happens to be di- rectly overhead, it can be seen with the naked eye, even at midday. In reality, we never see the stars. This assertion seems par- adoxical, yet it is strictly true. So far are the stars removed from us that we see only the light they send, but not the sur- face of the worlds themselves. The number of the stars is beyond our calculation. Those visible only in the telescope amount to millions, and are called telescopic stars. The stars visible to the unaided eye amount to about six thousand. There are more visible in the southern than in the northern hemisphere. The magnitudes of the stars range in classes according to the brightness of the stars observed, for this is really the test from the first magnitude to the sixth ; after that the telescopic stars are seen up to the fifteenth or sixteenth. We can only see about three thousand stars at one time from any place, although, as remarked above, many millions may be observed with a good telescope, and as many more, probably twenty mil- lions, are invisible. The Motion of the Heaven- ly Bodies. Attentive observation of the* starry heavens will convince us that all the visible stars describe circles which are the smaller the nearer the stars are to a certain point of the heavens, P (Fig. 23). Near this point there is a toler- ably bright star, the Pole-star, which appears to the eye as always occupying the same position. A line, P P', drawn from the star through the center of the earth, C, represents the axis The Celestial Axis. V ASTRONOMY. 371 Fig. 34. around which all the heavenly bodies perform their apparent motions. The part of the celestial axis, PP', passing through the earth, is the earth's axis; the North Pole,/), is on the same side as the Pole-star, and the South Pole,/', is on the opposite side. Thus //' is the earth's axis, and the line aq, the plane of which cuts the earth's axis at right angles, is the equator, equally dis- tant from both poles. Now if we suppose the plane of the equator to be extended to the heavens, we have the celestial equator, A Q, or equinoctial, dividing the heavens into the northern and southern hemispheres. The equinoctial cannot be actually described or made visible, but its line of direction may be imagined by observ- ing the stars through which it passes. By assigning to an observer stations on the earth's sur- face differing in relation to the earth's axis, the aspects of celestial phenomena will be essentially modified. One of these stations may be supposed to be, for example, at one of the two poles, at /, or at any point of the equator, as at q, or, finally, on any portion of the earth's surface which lies between the pole and the equator, as, for example, 0. The Constellations. At a very early period in the history of astronomy the observers of the heavens grouped stars together in fancied resem- blances to men and animals, and these constellations, as they are termed, are com- binations of fixed stars. Many of the con- stellations are familiar by name to every- body. Illustrations of some of the more interesting are given. We shall find that the forms are in greater part due to the imagination of the ancients, and do not bear our. our ideas of the animals, etc., they are supposed to represent, while at the same time they cross and recross with other con- stellations in the skies in a very puzzling manner. The twelve maps of the stars pre- sented in subsequent pages will, however, enable us to gain a knowledge of the con- stellations as they appear on the sky on any night during the year. The arrangement of the constellations is plunged in the obscurity of ages, but B.C. 370 there were forty-five thus grouped. The brighter stars have all proper names, but most of the names have dropped entirely out of astronomical use, though many are popularly retained. The brighter stars are now generally designated by the letters of the Greek alphabet alpha, beta, gamma, delta, etc., — to which is appended the genitive of the Latin name of the constellation. Thus Aldeboran would be designated as Alpha Tauri. When the letters of the Greek alphabet are exhausted, those of the Roman alphabet are employed. The fainter stars in a constellation are usually designated by some system of numbers. Doable and Multiple Stars. Many stars which appear single to the naked eye are really double when seen through the telescope, that is, they are composed of a Pairs of stars are not considered The Constellation Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, contain ing the Great Dipper, or Charles' Wain. Fig. 35. Virgo (The Virgin). pair of stars lying side by side, double unless the components are so near together that they both appear in the field of view when examined with a tele- scope. When what appears as a single star is resolved into more than two components by the telescope, it is called a multiple star. New and Variable Stars. There are many stars which undergo changes of brilliancy, sometimes slight, but occasionally very marked. These changes, in some cases, are apparently irregular, and in others periodic. All such stars are said to be variable. Algol, in the constellation Perseus, is a variable star, whose period is now known to be 2d. zoh. 49 m. Mira, in the constellation Cetus, is generally invisible, but at intervals of about eleven months it shines forth as a star of the second or third magnitude. The star 7 of the constellation Argo (Eta Argus), in the southern hemisphere, is perhaps the most remarkable variable star in the heavens. It was first observed by Sir John Herschel, while at the Cape of Good Hope. He says: "On the 16th of December, 1837, my astonishment was excited by the ap- pearance of a new candidate for distinction among the very brightest stars of the first magnitude in a part of the heavens where I was certain that no such brilliant object had ever been seen. * * * I finally became satisfied of *7^=? _M ASTRONOMY. ■!■', ;^7 HYAOtS raitots » ■ ? . •■> 1 ,-■ its identity with my old acquaintance Eta Argus, although its light was nearly tripled." It continued to increase until January 2, 1838, then faded a little till April following. In 1842 and 1843 it blazed up brighter than ever, and in March of the latter year was second only to Sirius. Dur- ing the twenty- five years follow- ing it slowly but steadily dimin- ished; in 1867 it was barely vis- ible to the naked eye, and the next year it vanished entirely from the unassisted view, and has not yet begun to recover its brightness. Fig. 26. Orion and Taurus. ,, New or tempo- rary stars are such as have suddenly appeared, and even become very brilliant, and then faded away and disappeared. They are now classified by astronomers among the variable stars, their changes being of very irregular and fitful character. In 1572 an apparently new star appeared in Cassiopeia, and was first seen by Tycho Brahe on November It, when it had attained the first magnitude. It became rapidly brighter, rivaling Venus in splen- dor, so that good eyes could discern it in full daylight. In December it began to wane, and in the following May it had disappeared entirely. Kepler's star, first seen in October, 1 604, in Ophiuchus, began to fade in the following winter, but remained visible throughout 1605, disappearing entirely early in 1606. It was noted for its bril- liant scintillation. Astronomers suppose that this star also ap- peared in 393, 798 and 1203, which would make it a variable star with a period of a little over 400 years. In May, 1 866, a star of the second magnitude suddenly appeared in Corona Borealis, and this is the most striking case of the kind in recent times. Distance of the Stars. Snch is the distance of the stars that only in a comparatively few instances has any displacement of these bodies been detected when viewed from opposite points of the earth's orbit — that is, from points 185,000,000 miles apart — and then only by the most careful and delicate measurement. Half of the above dis- placement, or the displacement of the star as seen from the earth instead of the sun, is called the parallax of the star. In no case has a parallax of one second as yet been discovered. The distance of a star whose parallax is one second would be 206,265 times the distance of the earth from the sun, or about 19,000,000,000,000 miles. It is quite certain that no star is nearer the earth than this. Light has a velocity which would take it seven and a half times around the earth in one second ; but it would require more than three years to reach us from the distance named. If the Almighty, in his inscrutable wisdom, should blot all the stars out of existence, it would be more than three years before we should miss a single one. The star a in the constellation of the Centaur is supposed to be the nearest of the fixed stars, and it is estimated that it would take its light about three years and a half to reach us. It has also been esti- mated that it would take light over 16 years to reach us from Sirius, about 18 from Vega, about 25 from Arcturus and over 40 from the Pole-star. The stars named, however, are comparatively near to us, and there are many so far removed that their light requires a thousand years to reach the earth. Proper Motion of the Stars. The discovery of the real motion of the stars, called their "proper motion," is due to Halley. He noticed that three very bright stars, Sirius, Aldeboran and Arcturus, were not in the places assigned to them. The stars have come to be universally denominated as fixed because they seem to retain their relative positions from year to year. Although moving at the rate of many miles a second, their distance is so enormous that, in the majority of cases, it would be thousands of years before this rate of motion would produce a suf- ficient displacement to be noticeable to the unaided eye. In the course of ages, bow- ever, a marked change in the configura- Com» Berenices (Berenices Hair). tion of the stars will be produced. The stars in all parts of the heavens are found to move in all directions, and with all sorts of ve- lodttn. When, how- ever, their motions are averaged, there is found to be an appar- ent proper motion common to all the stars. Those in the Fig. 38. Arcturus and Bootes. neighborhood of Hercules appear to be approaching us, and those in the opposite part of the heavens appear to be receding from us. In other words, all the stars appear to be moving FT A ASTRONOMY. 373 B0OT£S ~ s\ (7/7 ff ASTEFtlON yfez* lA If COR CAROL^. n away from Hercules and towards the opposite part of the heavens. Astronomers hold that this apparent common motion of the stars is due to the real motion the sun and the planets of his system through space. Wheth- er this motion of the sun is in a straight line or around some dis- tant center, has not been deter- mined, but it is estimated that our great lumin- ary moves along Fig. 39. Canes Venatici (The Hunting Dogs), his path at the rate of about 1 50,000,000 miles a year. In some cases, groups of stars, prob- ably forming connected systems, have a common proper motion, entirely different from that of the stars around and among them. The most remarkable instance of this kind occurs in the constellation Taurus. Proctor has shown that five of the seven stars forming the Great Dipper have a common proper motion, and he proposes for this phenomenon the name of Star-drift. NEBULAE AND STAR- CLUSTERS Fig. 30. Leo Are numerous in the heavens. The most important are those in Orion and in Andromeda. But there are other very beautiful "patches" of luminous matter, or cloud appearances, composed of stars invisible to the naked eye. There must be thousands of these star-clouds. The nebulae present the appearance of various forms — circu- lar, elliptical, annular and spiral. Sometimes one or more minute stars are enveloped in a nebulous haze, and are hence called nebulous stars. The great nebula of Andromeda is one of the few that are visible to the naked eye. One can see at a glance that it is not a star, but a mass of diffused light, and it has sometimes very naturally been mistaken for a comet. Its spectrum suggests that it is really an immense star-cluster, so dis- tant that the highest telescopic power cannot resolve it, yet in the largest telescopes it looks more like a gas than in those of moderate size. The great nebula of Orion, surrounding the middle star of the three forming the sword, has above all others excited the wonder of observers. In its center are four stars, easily distinguished by a small telescope, together with two smaller ones requiring a r nine-inch telescope to be well seen. Besides these, the whole nebula is dotted with stars. A good eye will perceive that what appears as a single star, instead of looking like a bright point, has a hazy appearance, due to the surrounding nebula. Huyghens first described the object in 1659. He says : " There is one phenomenon among the fixed stars worthy of mention, which, so far as I know, hag hitherto been noticed by no one, and indeed cannot be well observed except with large telescopes. In the sword of Orion are three stars quire close together. In 1656, as I chanced to be viewing the middle one of these with the telescope, instead of a single star, twelve showed themselves (a not uncommon circumstance). Three of these almost touched each other, and with four others shone through a nebula, so that the space around them seemed far brighter than the rest of the heavens, which was entirely clear, and appeared quite black ; the effect being that of an opening in the sky, through which a brighter region was visible." The Nebular Hypothesis. What is termed the Nebular Hypothesis was put forward by Laplace, and by it he endeavored to account for the regular development of the stellar system, which is supposed to have originated from an immense nebular cloud. This immense mass would rotate and contract, and the outer portions would separate and develop into rings like Saturn's rings. Then the rings break into separate portions, and each portion condenses into a planet, or the small "bits" travel round the sun like asteroids, and in this manner various systems were formed. This theory was considered to be quite exploded when stars were discerned in nebulae by the more recent telescopes ; but then the spectroscope came to our aid, and it was (The Lion). discovered that there were some nebulae which aresimply masses of glow- ing gas or aggre- gations of stones which are dash- ing against each other in so forci- ble a manner as to produce heat and luminosity. Proctor has put iorwara a hy- pothesis that the star or meteor showers are the original cause of the sidereal sys- ««•»»■ Corvu. (The Crow), tern, and that this rain of meteors has fallen for all time, grad- ually consolidating into orbs. Tffe — » >7 J c — K 374 ASTRONOMY. •* THE MILKY WAY Is a whitish, vapory-looking belt, and is composed of multi- tudes of millions of suns, of which our own sun itself is one, so far removed from us that their light mingles and makes only a fleecy whiteness. Philosophers have frequently discoursed upon this phenomenon, but all statements must remain more or less speculative. From Kepler's to the present time astrono- Fig. 32. A Spiral Nebula. mers have been considering the Milky Way, but an actual knowledge is still beyond us. It is agreed, however, that the galaxy is not a continuous stream, but a series of luminous patches, most extraordinary aggregations of stars, which it is not only impossible to count, but each of which appears to be independent of the others. " The sidereal system," says Proctor, in his Universe of Stars, " is altogether more complicated, altogether more varied in structure than has hitherto been sup- posed. Within one and the same region co-exist stars of many orders of real magnitude, the greatest being thousands of time* larger than the least. All the nebuUe hitherto discovered, whether gaseous or stellar, irregular, planetary, ring-formed, or elliptic, exist within the limits of the sidereal system. They all form part and parcel of that wonderful system whose nearer and brighter parts constitute the glories of our nocturnal heavens." And a little reflection will show how true this is. Not very long ago in the world's life the solar system was supposed to consist of one sun with a few planets wandering around him. Then some more were found, and they were called " satellites." For a long time man fancied he had reached the " ultima thule " of astronomy in these depths ; but the whole idea was changed when it was discovered that beyond Mars there lie the asteroids and the host of bodies in this solar system which we cannot do more than allude to. Then when we consider this " sun " of ours, which we think so enormous, and which keeps in subjec- tion and illuminates so many heavenly bodies, and when we reflect that there are in space, and visible, stars many times larger than our ruling orb, each a sun, and that our sun would, if placed where the great Sirius glows, be but a speck in the firmament, and his system invisible to our eyes, we may well wonder at the magnitude of the subject and bow down before the wisdom and power of Him " at whose sight all the stars hide their diminished heads." 4«f H» ■ A DICTIONARY OF ASTRONOMIGAL DEFINITIONS. -i»ofo-2- Apbelion. That point of a planet or comet's orbit which is most distant from the sun; the opposite point is called the perihelion. Apogee. The point of a planet's orbit farthest from the earth. (Generally used only when speaking of the moon.) Apsides (plural of Afsis.) The two points of an orbit which are respectively the greatest and least distance from the central body. Axis. A real or imaginary straight line on which a body revolves or is supposed to revolve. Azimuth. An arc of the horizon intercepted between the meridian of the place and a vertical circle passing through the center of any object. See Nadir and Zenith. Celestial Globe. An artificial globe represent- ing tin nt and the signs of the Zodiac in their places in the heavens. Celestial Sphere. The blue arch of the sky at it appears spread above us. Circumference. The line that goes round or encompasses a circular figure. Colures. Two circles dividing the ecliptic 'into four equal parts, and making the seasons. The "equinoctial colure" passes through the equi- noxes at Aries and Libra. The other, north and south, is the " solstitial colure." Conjunction. Planets are in conjunction with each other when in the same sign and degree. A planet with the sun between it and the earth is in conjunction with ihe sun. Declination. The distance of the heavenly bodies from the equinoctial measured as a meri- dian. In other words, latitude upon a celestial globe. The Tropics indicate the limits of the sun's declination. Degree. The 360th part of the circumference of a circle. Diameter. A right line passing through the center of a circle or sphere. Disc The apparently flat surface of a planet. Diurnal. Constituting the measure of a day. Diurnal arc. the arc described by the sun during the daytime or while above the horizon. Diur- nal circle, the apparent circle described by a celes- tial body in consequence of the earth's rotation. Ecliptic. The earth's orbit about the sun, or the sun s apparent path through the heavens. The sun, of course, does not actually move, and there- fore the track, or supposed circle, is really the earth's motion observable from the sun When the moon is near this circle eclipses happen. The ecliptic cuts the equinoctial at an angle of 83° a8', one-half being to the north and the other to the south of the equinoctial. The poles of the ecliptic are the points where the axis of the earth's orbit meets the celestial sphere. Elliptical. Oval or oblong, with roundedenda. Epicycle. A circle in the center of a greater circle. Equator. An imaginary great circle on the earth's surface, everywhere equally distant from the two poles and dividing the earth into two hemispheres. The equator cf tke heaven* it a great circle of the celestial sphere, coincident with the plane of the earth's equator, and 1 the equinoctial. 4^ rr 4t ASTRONOMY. 375 r Equinoctial. The plane of the equator ex- tended to the heavens. When the sun appears in that line the days and nights are of equal dura- tion — 12 hours each. This occurs about the 21st of March and the 23d of September. The term equinoctial is from the two Latin words eguaes, equal, and nox, night. Equinoxes. The points where the equinoctial and the ecliptic (the sun's apparent path through the heavens) intersect. The vernal equinox is the place where the tun crosses the equinoctial, commonly called "crossing the line," in going north, which occur* about the 21st of March. The autumnal equinox is the place where the sun crosses the equinoctial in going south, which occurs about the 21st of September. Horizon. The rational horizon is the great circle passing through the center of the earth, separating the visible from the invisible heavens. The sensible (apparent) horizon is the small circle where the earth and sky seem to meet. It is parallel to the rational horizon, but distant from it the semi-diameter of the earth. No two places have the same sensible horizon. Latitude. The distance from the ecliptic at a right angle north or south. Parallels of latitude are familiar circles parallel to the equator. Lati- tude and longitude upon a celestial globe are known respectively as declination " and " right ascension." Longitude. The distance in degrees, reckoned from the vernal equinox, on the ecliptic, to a circle at right angles to > Massing through the heavenly body whose longitude is designated. Lunar. Relating to the moon. Lunation. The period of a synodic revolution of the moon, or the period from one new moon to the next. Meridians. Circles passing through the poles at right angles to the equinoctial. Every place is supposed to have a meridian, but astronomers apply only twenty-four to the heavens, and they represent the sun's, or the planets', "move- ments " every hour— 15 being one hour, 360 being 24 hours. Nadir and Zenith. The poles of the horizon. The zenith is the point directly overhead, and the nadir the one directly under foot. Azimuth circles are circles drawn through these points. Nocturnal. Relating to night. Nodes. The opposite points of a planet where its orbit cuts the ecliptic or the earth's orbit. Occident. The western quarter of the hemi- sphere. Occultation. The hiding of a heavenly body from sight by the intervention of some other of the heavenly bodies. Opposition. A planet with the earth between it and the sun is in opposition. Orbit. The path described by a planet revolving round the sun. The plane of the orbit is an imaginary surface cutting through the center of the sun and the planet and extending to the stars. The inclination of an orbit is the plane of the orbit with reference to the plane of the earth. Orient. The part of the horizon where the sun first appears in the morning. Orrery. An apparatus illustrating, by means of small balls mounted on rods and moved by wheel- work, the size, motions, positions, orbits, &c, of the bodies of the solar system. Oscillation. Moving backward and forward, or swinging like a pendulum ; vibration. Parallax. The difference between the position of a body as seen from some point on the earth's surface and its position as seen from some other conventional point, as the earth's center or the sun. ParalleL A line which, throughout its whole extent, is equidistant from another line. Parhelion. A mock sun or meteor, appearing in the form of a bright light near the sun, and sometimes tingedcwith colors like the rainbow, with a luminous train. Penumbra. The shadow cast, in an eclipse, where the light is only partly cut oft" by the in- tervening body ; the space of partial illumination, between the umbra, or perfect shadow, and the light. Perigree. The opposite of apogee. Perihelion. That point in the orbit of a planet or comet in which it is nearest to the sun. Radius Vector. A line drawn from a planet to the sun, wherever the planet may be. Right Ascension. Corresponds to "longi- tude " on a celestial globe. Sidereal. ' ' Measured by the apparent motion of the stars. See Time. Sign. The twelfth part of the ecliptic or zodiac. See Zodiac. Solstices. The points in the ecliptic at which the sun is furthest from the equator, north or south, namely, the first point of Cancer and the first point of Capricorn, the former, about the 21st of June, being called the summer solstice, and the latter, about the 21st of December, the winter solstice. Spectroscope. An optical instrument used in determining the physical constitution of the heav- enly bodies by analyzing their light. Sphere. U An orb, or star. 2. The apparent surface of the heavens, which seems to the eye spherical, and in which the heavenly bodies ap- pear to have their places. Time. "Apparent" time is indicated by the sun ; " sidereal " time by the stars. Mean time is that marked by a perfect clock, giving every day in the year equal length. A sidereal day is the exact interval of time in which the earth re- volves on its axis. It is found by marking two successive passages of a star across the meridian of any place. This so absolutely uniform that the length of the sidereal day has not varied 1-100 of a second in 2,000 years. The sidereal day is divided into twenty-four equal portions, which are called sidereal hours, and each of these into sixty portions, termed sidereal minutes, etc. A solar day is the interval between two suc- cessive passages of the sun across the meridian of any place. If the earth were stationary in its orbit, the solar day would be of the same lend modern Greeks begin the day at sunrise. Transit. 1. The passage of a smaller heavenly body across the disc of a larger ; as of Venus or Mercury across the sun's disc. 2. The passage of a body over the meridian of a njitce, or through the field of a telescope. Vertical. Planets are vertical when direct overhead. Zenith. See Nadir. Zodiac A girdle entending 8° on each side of the ecliptic, in which space of 16 the planets move. The zodiac is divided into twelve parts of 30 each, called the " Signs." Their names are as under written : Northern Signs. Spring. Aries, the Ram, March. Taurus, the Bull, April. Gemini) the Twins, May. Summer, Cancer, the Crab, June. Leo, the Lion, July. Virgo, the Virgin, August, Southern Signs. Autumn. Libra, the Balance, September. Scorpio, the Scorpion, October. Sagittarius, the Archer, November. Winter, Capricornvs, the Goat, December, Aquarius, the Waterbearer, January. Puces, the Fishes, February. The signs are reckoned from the point of inter- section of the ecliptic and equator at the vernal equinox. The names were originally the names of the constellations occupying severally the divisions of the zodiac, by which they are now retained. In consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, however, the signs have, in pro- cess of time, became separated about 30 degrees from these constellations, and each of the Litter now lies in the sign next in advance, or to the east of the one which bears fts name. The con- stellation Aries now lies, for instance, in the sign «7 A. 37° HOW TO READ THE SKY. "7f 4 How *to ♦ Read *the • Sky. [ Half-Hours with the Stars: A Plain and Easy Guide to the Knowledge of the Constellations. , ■ < ■ WITB TWELVE MAPS OF TBS HEAVENS, TRUE FOB EVERT YEAR.-*— Br RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A.. F.R.A.B. IT is very easy to gain a knowledge of the stars, if the learner sets to work in the proper manner. But he commonly meets with a difficulty at the outset of his task. He provides him- self with a set of the ordinary star-maps, and then finds himself at a loss how to make use of them. Such maps tell him nothing of the position of the constellations on the sky. If he happen to recognize a constellation, then, indeed, his maps, if properly con- structed, will tell him the names of the stars forming the constel- lation, and also he may be able to recognize a few of the neigh- boring constellations. But when he has done this, he may meet with a new difficulty, even as respects this very constellation. For if he look for it again some months later, he will neither find it in its former place, nor will it present the same aspect, — if, indeed, it happen to be above the horizon at all. It is clear, then, that what the learner wants is a set of maps specially constructed to show him in what part of the sky the constellations are to be looked for. He ought, on any night of the year, to be able to turn at once to the proper map, and in that map he ought to see at once what to look for, toward what point of the compass each visible constellation lies, and how high it is »bove the horizon. And, if possible (as the present work shows is the case), one map ought to suffice to exhibit the aspect of the whole heavens, in order that the beginner may not be con- fused by turning from map to map, and trying to find out how each fits in with the others. It is to fulfill these requirements that the present maps have been constructed. Each exhibits the aspect of the whole sky at a given day and hour. The circumference of the map represents the natural horizon, the middle of the map representing the part of the sky which lies immediately overhead. If the learner hold one of these maps over his head, so as to look vertically upward at it, the different parts of the horizon marked in round the cir- cumference being turned toward the proper compass points, he will see the same view of the heavens as he would if he were to lie on his back and look upward at the sky, only that the map is a planisphere, and the sky a hemisphere. But, although this illustration serves to indicate the nature of the maps, the actual mode of using them is more convenient. Let it first be noted that, properly speaking, the maps have neither top, bottom, nor sides. Each map may be held with any part of the circumference downward; then the center of the map is to be looked upon as the top for that part of the circumference. The portion of the map lying beneath the center represents the portion of the sky lying between the point overhead and a cer- tain portion of the horizon — the part, in fact, co rre s ponding to the particular part of the circumference which is turned down- ward. Thus, if on any night we wish to learn what are the stars toward the north, we look for the map corresponding to that night. At the hour named the stars toward the north will be those shown between the center of the map and the top ; and, of course, we hold the map upside down, so as to bring the center above the northern part of the circumference. Again, it must be noted that, although the maps are neces- sarily arranged in a certain order, there is in reality no first or last in the series. The map numbered I. follows the map num- bered XII. in exactly the same manner that the latter follows the map numbered XI. The maps form a circular series, in fact. The only reason for numbering the maps as at present is that the map numbered I. happens to exhibit the aspect of the sky at a convenient hour on the night of January I . It will be found that the dates follow on with intervals of three or four days right round the year, the end of the year falling in the left-hand column of Map I., while the beginning of the year is in the middle column of the same map. It may be mentioned, in passing, that the dates have not been thrown in so as to fall regularly round the year, but correspond with the variations due to the earth's varia- ble motion round the sun. It will be seen at once that a map can always be found cor- responding to a convenient hour on any night of the year, except only in midsummer, when, on a few of the dates, night has not begun at the hour named. It was impossible, without spoiling the regularity of the dating, or adopting an inconveniently late hour for all the maps, to avoid this difficulty. But, as a matter of fact, the difficulty disappears at once when the student is told that on any date named under a map, the aspect of the sky two hours later than that named, is that represented in the following map. Thus, at eight o'clock in the evening of June II, the aspect of the stars is as shown in Map VI., but the stars cannot be seen, because it is still daylight ; at ten o'clock, however, on the same night, the aspect of the sky is that shown in Map V 1 1 ., as, indeed, the first date under that map shows. Next as to finding the north point, or any point of the com- pass which will enable the observer to determine the rest. If he is only familiar with the aspect of those seven bright stars of the Great Bear which have been called Charles' Wain, the Butcher's Cleaver, the Great Dipper, and by other names, he can always determine the north point by means of the two Stan called the pointers, since these seven stars never set In the HOW TO READ THE SKY. 377 explanation of each map it is shown where the Great Bear is to be looked for on each night, the observer being assumed to hare such a general knowledge of the direction of the compass- points as will suffice for the purpose of finding so marked a collection of stars. Thus the pole-star is found, and for the purpose of such observations as are here considered, this star maybe looked upon as marking the exact direction of the north. It is worth noticing that the stars called the Guardians of the Pole form no bad time-piece when used with the aid of such maps as the present. They revolve round the pole once in twenty-four hours (less about four minutes), in a direction con- trary to that of a clock's hands. But stars near the equator, whose motions are much more rapid, afford a yet better measure of time, if the direction of the south point is well determined. It will be well for the student to remember that the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn will at times appear among the constellations here shown. Venus and Jupiter can always be recognized by their superior light, and Mars and Saturn by the steadiness with which they shine. As they never appear, save among the zodiacal constellations, it becomes very easy to recognize them. The following list exhibits the names of all the stars of the first three magnitudes to which astronomers have given names ; at least, all those whose names are in common use : a Andromeda (Andromeda) Alphtratz. P " Mirach Mizar. y " Almach. a Aquarii (Aquarius — The Water- Bearer) Sadalmelik. P " Sadalsund. 6 " Skat. a Aauila (Aquila — The Eagle) Altair. P " Alshain. V " Tarazed. a Arietis (Aries — The Ram) Hernial. P " Sheratan. 7 " Mesartim. a Auriga (Auriga — The Waggoner, or Charioteer) .... Capetta. P " Menkalinan. a Bootis (Bootes) Areturus. P " Nekkar. * " Izar, Mizar, Mirack. V " Muphrid. a Canum Ven. (Canes Venatici — The Hunting Dogs) Cor Caroli. a Canis Majoris (Canis Major — The Great Dog) Sirius. P " " Mirzam. e " " Adara. a Canis Minoris (Canis Minor — The Little Dog) .... Procyon. P " " Gomeisa. a J Capricomi (Capricomus — The Goat) Secunda Ciedi. <5 " Deneb Algiedi. a Cassiopeia (Cassiopeia) Schedar. P " Chaph. a Cephei (Cepheus) Alderamin. P " Alphirk. V " Errai. a Ceti (Cetus— The Whale, or The Sea Monster) Menkar. P " Diphda. f " Baten Kaitos. » " Mira. a Columba (Columboe — The Dove) Phact. a Corona Bor. (Corona Borealis — Northern Crown). .Alphecca. a Corvi (Corvus — The Crow) Alchiba. 6 " Algores. a Crateris Alkes. a Cygni (Cygnus — The Swan) Arided, Deneb, Adige. P '< Albireo. a Draconis (Draco) Thuban. P " Alwaid. y " Etanin. P Eridani (Eridanus) Cursa. y " Zaurac. a Geminorum (Gemini — The Twins) Castor. P « Pollux. y " Alhena. 5 " Wasat. £ " Mebsuta. a Herculis (Hercules) Ras Algethi. (i " Korneforos. a Hydra (Hydra— The Water Snake) . . .Alphard, Cor Hydra. a Leonis (Leo — The Lion) Regulus, Cor Leonis. P " Deneb Aleet, Denebola, Deneb. y " Algeiba. 6 " Zosma. a Leporis (Lepus) Armb. a Libra (Libra — The Scales) Zuben el Genubi. P " Zuben el Chamali. y " Zuben Hakrabi. a Lyra (The Lyra — The Lyre) Vega. p " Sheliak. y " Sulaphat. a Ophiuchi (Ophiuchus — The Serpent-Bearer) . . . Ras Alhague. P « Cebalrai. a Orionis (Orion) Betelgeux. P " Rigel. y " Bellatrix. & " Mintaka. e " Alnilam. a Pegasi (Pegasus) Markab. P " Scheat. y " Algenib. , Enif. Homan. c " C " a Persei (Perseus) Mirfak. P " Algol. a PiscisAust. (PiscisAustralis — The Southern Fish) Fomalhaut. e Sagitlarii (Sagittarius — The Archer) A'aus Australis. a Scorpionis (Scorpio — The Scorpion) . Antares, Cor Scorpionis. a Serpentis (Serpens — The Serpent) Unukalhai. a Tauri (Taurus — The Bull) Aldeboran. P " Nalh, r) " Alcyone (Pleiad). a Ursa Majoris (Ursa Major — The Great Bear) Dubhe. p » " Merak. y " " Phecda. e " " Alioth. f " " Mizar. ri " " Alkaid, Benetnasch. t >• •' Talilha. a Ursa Minoris (Ursa Minor— The Little Bear) Polaris. P " " Kochab. a Virginis (Virgo — The Virgin) Spica, Azimech, Spica. P •< Zavijava. e " Vindemiatrix. •' *»Etf> •>• ^ .r.^'"/-. ' ■'»*/,„ I . ' I £ ' J i' An/u- • 8 °OTHERN HOR»l° H * An. W, af tO o'clock in the evening ; Feb. 22, 9:45; Feb, 26, 9.30 ; March 2, 9:15 ; March 6, 9:00 , March 13, 8:30 ; March 17. 8:15 ; March 21, 8:00. March 9. 848: ^T* HE Great Bear is now approaching the point overhead, but is V») easily recognized toward the northeast. The Pointers, as shown, indicate the pole-star toward the left, and considerably below them. The Guardians of the Pole now lie on the right of, and some- what below the pole-star. Vega shines just above the horizon, .immediately below them. Between lies the Dragon's Head; and we see the body and tail of the Dragon curving round between the head and the Guardians of the Pole. The upper part of Cygnus is now all that can be seen of this constellation, almost due north on the horizon. Further to the left, and well raised above the horizon, we see Cassi- opeia. Andromeda is now approaching the horizon, her head almost touching it toward the northwest. Next on the left is Aries, and above Aries is Perseus. Above Perseus is Auriga, Capella being almost due west Cetus has nearly set, only its head being visible above the horizon. Above Eridanus (now nearly set) is Taurus, very favorably situated for observation. The Pleiades lie due west, and Aldeboran — a brilliant red star — to their left. Orion is toward the southwest, bending forward toward the west. Above him, but somewhat to the left, are the Twins, Castor still uppermost. Below the Twins are the two Dogs, Canis Major toward the south-southwest, and low down. Cor llydr.v lies midway between the south and the southeast, and is well raised above the horizon. It is interesting to notice how blank this part of the heavens appears, so far, at least, as conspicuous stars are concerned. Toward the southeast is Alkes, the chief star in the Cup; and we notice the Crow just rising into view toward the left. Above we recognize Leo, the Sickle being now a conspicuous object. Virgo u partially into view above the eastern horizon. The cup- shaped group formed by the rive stars shown in the mapwas called by the Arabian observers, for reasons not yet explained, "The Retreat of the I fowling Dog." Bootes has now risen above the horizon, though as yet in a nCMabtnt position. Arcturus is a conspicuous object on the right of this constellation. Below the head and shoulders of Bootes notice the Crown, one star only of which ( Alphecca) is shown in the map. Doubtless this grasp of stars originally formed the right arm of Bootes. The constellation recently attracted much notice as the region in which a new star (or rather, an irregular variable) made its appear- ance a year or two ago. Hercules is gradually rising into view townni the northeast Map IY.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN APRIL .MQZiaOH NM3HJ»i».. So "THERN HOR»* oH ' March 21, at 10 o'clock in the evening ; March 24, 9:45 ; March 28, 9:30 ; April 1,9:15; April 5, 9:00; April 8, 8:45; April 12, 8:30; April 16, 8:15; April 20, 8:00. v^f HE Great Bear is now easily found, being nearly overhead. The VJy pole lies below the Pointers. The Guardians of the Pole are now somewhat higher than the pole toward the right. Below the pole-star is Cephus, and due west of him is Cassiopeia, the W gradually approaching its natural posi- tion. Andromeda's feet are to be seen above the southwestern horizon, anil toward the left Aries is setting. Above Aries is Perseus, now well situated for observation. The brilliancy of the Milky Way in this neighborhood is worth noticing. Due west is the Bull, above which lies Auriga. Orion is now approaching the horizon, and is prone toward his "western grave; " above him hang " the starry Gemini." Toward the left are the two Dogs. The Greater Dog is now set- ting. Cor Hydrae is somewhat to the west of south, itt Leo, due south, and with its handle vertical. Above is the Sickle rhe length of Hydra is now nearly raised above the horizon. Virgo has risen, and the brilliant Spica is a conspicuous object toward the southeast. Just above the horizon is the second star of the Scales. Due east is the Serpent just above the horizon. It must be noticed, however, that a part of this constellation lies on the further side of the as yet unrisen Ophiuchus. Serpens is the only constellation thus divided. Above Serpens is Bootes, still nearly recumbent. Coma Berenices and Cor Caroli occupy the positions severally accorded to them in the map. To the left of Serpens is Hercules, or Engonasin, the Kneeler, sup- posed by many to represent Adam kneeling on the head of the serpent, Draco. The Lyra has now nearly risen, in the northeast, immediately beneath the Dragon's head. Map V- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN MAY. ■ M OllHOH NM3HX«Om SOUTHERN HOR»I° H * April 20, at 10 o'clock in the evening ; April 23, 9:45 ; April 27. 9:30 ; May 1, 9:15; May 5, 9:00 ; May 9. 8:45 ; May 13, 8:30; May 17, 8:15 ; May 21, 8:00. \T* HE Great Bear, still overhead, is found immediately, and the (6) Pointers, which have now crossed over to the west of the zenith, point downward to the pole-star. The Guardians of the Pole are now higher than the pole, toward the right. Below the pole Cephus and Cassiopeia are seen, the former on the right. Andromeda has nearly disappeared ; and Perseus has passed the northwest, and is approaching the horizon. The Pleiades are just setting, almost due northwest; and above is Auriga. In the west we see Betelgeux, the sole star belonging to Orion, now visible. Above, and due west, are the twin stars Castor and Pollux. We have, in fact, the configuration described by Tennyson, speaking of the season we are considering: " It fell on a time of year When the shining daffodil dies, ntul the Charioteer And starry Gemini hang like glorious crowns Over Orion's grave, low down in the west." Canis Major has set, but the Lesser Dog is still above the horizon, to the left of and below the Twins. Cor Hydr.u is almost exactly toward the southwest, and above is Leo. Due south, tin Quadrangle of Corvus is seen, above which is " The Retreat of the lowling Dog," Spica shining conspicuously on the left, toward the south-southeast. Libra has risen into view, and somewhat to the east of southeast we see the first indications of the interesting southern con- stellation Scorpio. The vertical row of conspicuous stars formed by a part of Ophiuchus and the body of Serpens is well worth noticing. Above it is Bootes; to the left of which, and lower down, we see Her- cules, inverted. His head is marked by the upper alpha, the lower representing the head of Ophiuchus, the Serpent-holder — typical, some suppose, of the Messiah. The feet of the kneeling Hercules are on the head of Draco, whose body and tail extend upward, between the Guardians of the Pole and the Greater Bear. It is impossible not to e, from the configuration«of this constellation as now seen, that the ancients looked on the stars which form the Lesser Bear as forming a winj; of Draco. Beneath the Dragon's head we see the Lyre. The Swan has now risen above the horizon, and the cross belonging to this constellation is seen in an almost horizontal position. The brilliancy of the Milky Way at this part of its extent is well worth noticii the space between the stars a, /} and y Cygni, there is a distinctly- marked black gap in the Milky Way, which has been termed the Northern Coalsack. The extension of the Milky Way toward Cephas should also be noticed. Map VL-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN JUNE. HOIIMOH WM3HJV,.., SOUTHERN HOBIl° H ' May 21, at 10 o'clock in the evening; May 25, 9:45; May 28, 9:30; June 1, 9:15; June 5, 9:00; June 9, 8:45; June 13, 8:30; June 17, 8:15; June 21, 8:00. jT* HE last star of the Great Bear's tail is now just passing the point \G\ overhead. The Pointers are lowermost, and the pole-star is ^"^^ below, toward the right. The Guardians of the Pole are above the pole-star, a little toward the right. Below them is Cassiopeia, the W being now almost in the proper position of the letter. To the left is Perseus, Algol being quite close to the horizon. Further round to the left we see Capella and the other stars of Auriga low down toward the horizon. Not much higher are the twin-stars Castor and Pollux, Castor to the left, the feet of the twins resting on the horizon. It is interesting to compare the splendor of the sky near the horizon, from Gemini in the west-northwest, to Cassiopeia in the north, with the com- parative blankness of the part of the sky immediately above these constellations. Prsesepe is almost due west, about as high as Castor. Leo has come around so far toward the west that the tip of the Sickle just reaches that point of the compass. Below Regulus is Al Fard, now near setting. Virgo is now at her highest, Spica shining resplen- dently a little toward the west of south. Below Virgo notice Corvus and Crater, two of the neatest small constellations in the heavens. Due south, just above the horizon, is the head qf the southern constella- tion the Centaur. Above Virgo, and almost due south, we see Bootes, now nearly upright, and presenting a fine figure as with uplifted arm (the stars belonging to the Crown) he chases Ursa Major past the zenith. Returning to the neighborhood of the horizon, observe the brilliant red star An'ares, or Cor Scorpionis, lately risen above the southeastern horizon. Due southeast we see a fine line of brilliant stars formed by C, e and 6 Ophiuchi, and t, a and 6 Serpentis. These stars, with n Ophiuchi, and the stars y and /3 Serpentis, form a figure much resembling a saber, the cross-handle being formed by two stars not shown in the map. Nearly the whole of the large constellation Ophiuchus (the reader will remember how Milton says of a comet, that it "fired the length of Ophiuchus large") has now risen above the horizon. It requires some imagination to recognize in it the figure of a man holding a serpent ; but this is not the only instance in which the stars of a constellation bear little resemblance to the figure from which the constellation is named. Hercules is now nearly due east and high above the horizon. Toward the same quarter, but quite close to the horizon, Aquila is coming into view, the brilliant Altair scintillating finely. Lyra is above, Vega being almost exactly midway between the horizon and the point overhead. The leading star of Cygnus is toward the northeast, the length of the cross being still nearly horizontal. Between Cygnus and the point overhead is the head of the Dragon, the body and tail winding off toward the left and upward, above the Guardians of the Pole. On some of the dates named under this map the stars cannot be seen, as it is not yet dark. Therefore use Map VII. two hours later. F6r instance, on June 31, use Map VII. at ten o'clock, and similarly for the other davs at the end of June. Map VII -HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN JULY. ■ yQlHIOH MHSHlun*. *OOTH«RN HOHIXO*' June 21, at 10 o'clock in the evening ; June 25, 9:45 ; June 29, 9:30 ; Jul/ 3d, 9: It: July 14, 8:30; July 18, 8:15; July 22d. 8:00. July 7, 9:00; July 10, 8:45; y* HE Great Bear is now descending toward the northwest. The (6) Pointers lie nearly half-way between the point overhead and the ^"^ horizon, toward the northwest. Thus the pole-star lies to the right of the Pointers. The Guardians of the Pole have passed above the pole toward the left. Below the pole, and close to the horizon, we see Perseus on the right, and Auriga on the left. Capella is scin- tillating brilliantly, as are Castor and Pollux, which are now setting near the northwest, Pollux lowest and on the left. Pnesepe is nearly set, and will probably not be visible in the thick air so low down. - Leo is approaching the horizon, the Sickle being inclined forward. Above fj Leonis notice the Hair of Berenice, half-way between the horizon and the point overhead, and forming an interesting object at this eleva- tion. Bootes stands now in the northwest, high up above the horizon. Below Arcturus is Spica, and lower still, toward the right, the Crow and Cup are setting. The constellation Scorpio forms a magnificent object in the south. The stars which are assigned to this constellation in maps form but a portion of the original constellation, and it is not difficult to recognize in the arrangement of the stars now lying toward the south a resemblance to the figure of a scorpion with extended claws. Above Scorpio we see the group of stars compared to a saber, now no longer vertical, but inclined forward. " Ophiuchus large " it fully raised, and reaches from the horizon more than half way to the point overhead, and from the south to the southeast. Below his head (a.) we see Sagittarius just rising above the horizon; and above Ophi- uchus, Hercules extends right up to the point overhead. The three bright stars in the body of Aquila are now midway between southeast and east; the uppermost is y, the lowest ft, and the middle star is Altair. Above, toward the left, is Lyra, Vega being now raised far toward the point overhead. Below Vega is the head of Cygnus, and the cross of Cygnus is now in a position exactly horizontal, and also exactly midway between the point overhead and the horizon ; in other words, each of the stars a, y and /3 Cygni now has an elevation of forty-five degrees above the horizon. Below Cygnus, Pegasus is rising into view, three stars of the square being visible, and the nose of the horse (t ) due east. Andromeda has just risen above the northeastern horizon. Above her feet we see Cassiopeia, the \V still in its natural ?■ ition. Draco forms a curve round and above the Guardians of the ole, his head being to the east, and close to the point overhead. On the last three dates mentioned under this map it will be better to use Map VIII., two hours later. Map VIII- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN AUGUST. .MOltaOH NM3HJ,MO«i SO "THERN HOR«*° H July 22, at 10 o'clock in the evening; July 26, 9:45; July 30, 9:30; Aug. 3, 9:15; Aug. 7, 9:00; Aug. 11,8:45; Aug. 15, 8:30; Aug. 19, 8:15 ; Aug. 23, 8,00. 5?""" HE Great Bear is now in the northwest, and midway between (G) the point overhead and the horizon, the pole to the right of the Pointers. The Guardians of the Pole nave swung round above the pole-star toward the north-northwest. Below the pole is the head of the Charioteer, Capella still low down toward the right of the north point. Above the Lesser Bear is the body of Draco, his head almost exactly overhead. Below the Great Bear, Leo is setting, only a part of the Sickle being visible. Coma Berenices lies immediately above the tip of the Lion's tail (/?), and above Coma again is Cor Caroli and the poor constellation, the Hunting Dogs, of which Cor Caroli is the leading brilliant. Virgo is setting. To the left Spica is scintillating brilliantly, close to the horizon in the west-southwest. Bo5tes is now midway between the horizon and the point overhead, and inclining forward, his head and shoulders due west, his feet above Spica. In the southwest is Libra, close to the horizon. Above is Serpens, reach- ing to a point midway between the horizon and the point overhead. Between the head of the serpent (y, /3) and the zenith we see Hercules, reaching round from the south to the west, and still inverted. In fact Hercules is never seen upright in our latitudes. This kneeling figure must have been conceived by astronomers living in other latitudes, and at a time when the pole was very differently situated. Ophiuchus has now passed the south toward south-southwest, and Antares and the other stars of Scorpio lie toward the same quarter low down toward the 26 horizon. It is interesting to notice the portion of the Milky Way now brought into view toward the south. We see here the commencement of that part of the Milky Way which, by its superior brilliancy, as seen in southern latitudes, indicates the greater proximity of the galaxy in that direction. It is also interesting to notice how singularly the two branches of the Milky Way vary in splendor along the southern half of the semi-circle now above the horizon. Lyra is high up toward the point overhead, the stars /3 and y forming a pendant to the brilliant Vega. Below them, toward the southeast, and about half way between the horizon and the point overhead, is Altair, y and /? Aquila; lying almost in a vertical line, one above, the other below Altair. Low down toward the horizon are the zodiacal constellations Sagittarius (extending from south to south-southeast), Capricornus (extending past the southeastern quarter) and Aquarius, reaching nearly to the east. It is, indeed, noteworthy that from the northwest right round through south to the northeast, the horizon is occupied by zodiacal constella- tions, no less than eight of which are thus situated — though Pisces, hav- ing no conspicuous stars, is not marked in, in Map VIII. Cygnus is high up toward the east, and below Arided is the square of Pegasus. The left-hand start of the square is Alpherat, and Andromeda lies in a nearly horizontal position, her feet being toward the northeast. Above these is Cassiopeia, the right hand side of the W beginning to be th« highest. Below, and close to the horizon, is Perseus. Map IX.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN SEPTEMBER. .mOIHOH N1I3HHO, SOUTHERN HORIl° M- Aug. 23, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Aug. 27. 9:45 ; Aug. 31, 9:30: Sept. 4. 9:t5 : Sept. 8, 9:00; Sept. 12, 8:45, Sept. 15. 8:30; Sept. 19, 8:15; Sept 23, 8:00. *7~ m HE Great Bear is now passing toward the north, ami getting low C6) down. The pointers are to the right of the seven stars, and the pole-star lies above them, and toward the right. The Guardians of the Pole are to the left of, and scarcely higher than the pole-star. The Dragon passes between the two Bears toward the west, his head being still high above the horizon. Coma Berenices is setting between northwest and west-northwest. Iiodtes has passed the west, and forms a fine figure above that part of the horizon. The Northern Crown, with the brilliant Alphecca, is due west, about midway between the horizon and the point overhead. Above the Crown are the feet of Hercules. I lis head and shoulders are to the left of the Crown, and at alxiut the same height above the horizon. The Serpent lies between the shoulders of Hercules and the horizon. On the hit is •' Ophiuclius Urge," toward the southwest, and extending from the horizon halfway to the point overhead. The brill- iant Vega lies toward the same quarter, but much higher up. Aquila is due .south, Altair being about midway between the horizon and the point overhead. Close to the horizon, and extending from south-southwest to south, is Sagittarius. Next to him, on the left, is Capricornus, and next to that again is Aquarius, now covering a wide range of sky between Capricornus and Pegasus. In the lenith is Cygnus, the upright and cross-rod of the cross being now about equally inclined to the horizon. The square of Pegasus has passed the M the left-hand star being still Alphcrat, and Andromeda still in a horizon- J tal position. Cassiopeia is in the northeast, and raised somewhat more than halfway from the horizon toward the point overhead. Below Andromeda, Aries has fully risen ; and toward the northeast,] low down, we see the Pleiades again. Between them and Cassiopeia' lies Perseus. It is well to notice this constellation while in its present (wsition, and also the richness of the background of milky light in this neighborhood. The whole of this part of the heavens is full of I and contrasts strangely with the barren region close by, Iwtwcen the north point of the horizon and Cassiopeia. Auriga is rising above the north northeast horizon, and Capella is iK'ginning to scintillate le>s brilliantly as it rises above the denser strata of the atmosphere. Map X- HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN OCTOBER. SOUTHERN HOR«° H ' Sept 23, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Sept 26, 9:45; Sept 30, 9:30; Oct 4, 9:f5; Oct 8, 9:00; Oct 11,8:45; Oct 15, 8:30 ; Oct. 19, 8:15 ; Oct 23, 8,00. *7~* HE Great Bear is low down toward the north- northwest; the pole- \G) star lying above, and very little to the right of the Pointers. The Guardians of the Pole are now below the pole-star, on the left, and almost exactly midway between the horizon and the point overhead. The Dragon passes between the two Bears, and round to the left of the Guardians of the Pole. His head is toward the west-northwest, high up above the horizon. Cor Caroli is approaching the horizon, and Bootes is already half set. So, also, is Serpens in the west. But Corona is still well raised above the north-northwest horizon. Hercules is in the west, but extends over a wide range, from side to side. Vega is due west, and high above the horizon, the stars /3 and y lying to the left, at about the same height. Also at about the same height is the star /? of the Swan, and the Cross of Cygnus is now upright again, Arided lying near the point overhead. Altair is in the southwest, raised somewhat less than halfway from the horizon toward the point overhead. Below Aquila is Sagittarius. Next, to the left and somewhat higher, is Capri- cornus, and, next, Aquarius, in the south. A noted star, Fomalhaut, the most southerly first-magnitude star ever seen in this country, is now visible toward the east of south, and very low down. It is the chief star of the Southern Fish, a constellation not to be confounded w*fh the southermost of the Fishes. The Square of Pegasus is toward th» south- east, raised high above the horizon. Alpherat is still the most easterly star of the square, and Andromeda is still horizontal, though now well raised above the eastern horizon. The Sea Monster, Cetus, covers a wide range of the sky, low down, toward the east-southeastern horizon. The limits of the constellation, indeed, as defined by astronomers, extend from the east to the south-southeast. Aries is in the east, about half- way between Andromeda and the horizon. Taurus has now risen in the east-northeast, Aldeboran, the brightest red star in the htavens, scintil- lating brilliantly low down toward the horizon. Above the head and horns of Taurus is Perseus, and immediately above Perseus, raised three- quarters of the way from the horizon toward the point overhead, is Cas- siopeia, the W now almost on end, and having the points toward the right. Auriga has now risen in the northeast, Capella being almost ex- actly in that quarter, and raised somewhat more than one-fourth of the way toward the point overhead. Castor is just rising between the north east and the north-northeast Map XI.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN NOVEMBER. • hOZIMOH NMBHlMQn, S °OTHERN HORIION Oct. 23, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Oct. 26, 9:45 ; Oct. 30, 9:30; Nov. 3, 9:15; Mot. 7. 9:00; Hoy. 14, 8:30; No*. 18, 8:15 ; Hoy. 22, 8:00. /for. 10.8.-45; ^~* HE Great Bear is now due north, and at its lowest, the pole-star \G) lying above, and somewhat to the left of the Pointers. The ^"■"^ Guardians of the Pole are below and to the left of the pole star, and immediately above the last star of the Great Bear's tail. The head of Draco has now come to the northwest, and is not nearly so high above the horizon as it was a month ago. Due northwest, and almost on the horizon, is Alphecca, the other stars of the Crown being also very close to the horizon. Between Alphecca and the Great Bear the head and shoulders of Bootes are still to tie seen al>ove the horizon. In the west-northwest, close to the horizon, are the heads of the two giant constellation figures Hercules and Ophiuchus. The left Ii.uhI and brighter a marks the place of the head of the Serpent-bearer, who is now passing below the horizon. The whole of Hercules, on the other hand, is still above the horizon, and, as usual, inverted. Above is Lyra, and Cygnus now occupies a conspicuous position in the west, midway between the horizon and the point overhead, the cross being still nearly vertical. Aquila, the Eagle, is approaching the western horizon, Altair being in the west-southwest, and raised almost exactly one-fourth of the way toward the point overhead. Above Altair, and toward the left, is an interesting little constellation not marked in the map — Dclphinus. It will M raCOgBlMd at once, though consisting only of small stars, by the resemblance it presents to the figure of a dolphin leaping from the sea. Capricornus is in the southwest, low down, and next to it is Aquarius, covering a wide range of the sky, and reaching almost to the south. Below is Fomal- haut, nearing the south-southwest horizon. The square of Pegasus is now at its highest. Andromeda is still horizontal ; in fact, it is a peculiarity of this constellation that throughout its rise, from near the horizon to near the point overhead, the star Alpherat is always very nearly on the same level with a portion of the line joining the two stars •/ and 51, which mark the feet of Andromeda. This is true from the epoch indicated in Map VII. to that indicated in Map XI., or through one-third part of the constellation's Course round the pole. Cctus is now well raised above the south-southeast horizon. The star a ( Mcnkar) lies to the east of southeast. Immediately above this star is the head of Aries ; below it is Kridanus, now ri>ing in '.lie southeast. Orion also is rising, the three stars forming his belt almost upright toward the east. Above them is Aldeboran, and above that star arc .the Pleiades. Near the point overhead is Cassiopeia ; below Cassio- peia, and somewhat to the right, is Perseus; below Perseus, and to the \urij;a, with the brilliant Capella ; and below Auriga the twin stars Castor and Pollux have risen, Castor vertically above Pollux. Map XII.-HALF-HOUR WITH THE STARS IN DECEMBER . H qziaoHNa3iu^p w 8 °"THERN HORIZON Nor. 22, at 10 o'clock in the evening; Nov. 25, 9:45: Nov. 29, 9:30 ; Dec. 3, 9:15 , Dec. 7, 9:00: Dec. 10, 8:45 ; Dec. 14, 8:30 ; Dec. 17, 8:15 ; Dec. 21, 8:00. ^""* HE tip of the Great Bear's tail lies almost due north, and low \G) down. The Pointers are toward the north-northeast, and the pole-star is above, and towcrd the left. The Guardians of the Pole hang below the pole-star, slightly toward the left. Draco hangs below the Lesser Bear, extending around from right to left, where his body bends downward again. The head of Draco lies between north- west and north-northwest, raised almost exactly one-fourth of the way from the horizon toward the point overhead. Toward the left, slightly lower, is Vega, the companion stars (i and y lying on the left. Cygnus is in the west-northwest, the cross again upright, and Arided raised somewhat less than half-way from the horizon toward the point over- head. Above, very near the point overhead, is Cassiopeia. Low down, and somewhat to the right of the western point of the horizon, is Altair, with his companion stars /? and y, the former on his left, the latter on his right. The square of Pegasus is still high above the horizon, toward the west-southwest. The highest star of the square is Alpherat, and Andromeda now extends from this point lo the point overhead, close to which are both her feet. Aquarius is setting in the west-southwest. Cetus is due south, well raised above the horizon. The space below Cetus, quite bare of conspicuous stars, belongs to the southern constellations Sculptor and Fornax. Above Cetus is Aries, the star a due south, and raised nearly three-fourths of the way from the horizon toward the point overhead. Above the south-southeast horizon is Eridanus, covering a Urge space of the sky. Orion has now well risen above the southeastern horizon somewhat easterly. Above him is Taurus, the Pleiades now shining very conspicuously. Near the point overhead is Perseus, the star a being toward the east, and Algol toward the southeast. Below Perseus, somewhat to the left, is Auriga ; and below the brilliant Capella are to be seen the twin-stars Castor and Pollux, the constellation Gemini being now in a horizontal position, the feet of the twins (/t and y) resting on the Milky Way. Procyon has just risen above the eastern horizon. Toward the north- east the sky is almost blank. But low down may be s<:en two stars belonging to the Sickle in Leo, now rising above the northeastern horizon. K 39° PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. "71 OUR GLOBE, AS IT WAS AND AS IT IS; WEATHER AND CLIMATE; ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. OUR EARTH is, indeed, a world of wonders, and whether we penetrate its crust or explore its surface, we will ever find opportunity for study, and food for reflection. When wc were at school, and learnt the various countries of the world, we had maps showing us the several divisions of one realm from another. The mountains, lakes and other prominent features of each continent were conned and repeated, but we seldom, perhaps never, bestowed a thought upon the formation of the mountains, and the manner in which rivers ran down into, and through, lakes to the ocean. There were the moun- tains, there were the lakes, and rivers, and capes, and head- lands, and there they are still, to all intents and purposes, the same to see, to climb up, to sail down, as the case may be. But the maps of some countries have undergone visible changes. Territory has changed hands. Some powers have extended their dominions, while other countries have been dismembered. This study is called Geography — Political Geography — for it marks the political boundaries. The knowledge of the formation of hills, headlands, lakes, rivers, seas — their causes, constitution and effects ; how they rose, how they exist and wax or wane during the course of centuries — is Physical Geography. We must learn how this earth of ours has been gradually made fit for man's habitation, and what the various stages of its growth have been. We must consider plant and animal life upon our planet, and how the atmosphere affects them. All this is em braced In Physical Geography and its satellite sciences of Ge- ology, Meteorology, Climatology, Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology and Ethnology. Our globe is nearly round in shape. In the language of science, it is an oblate spheroid — that is, a body having the polar diameter shorter than the equatorial. That our earth is round is evident from the following facts : I. Men have circumnavigated it — that is, they have sailed in one continuous direction as nearly as the configuration of the land would permit, and have arrived at the point of starting. 2. When we stand on the shore, and observe a ship coming in from the sea, we notice that the tops of the masts are seen first, and lastly the h»ll, or body. The hull is hidden by the curved surface of the water. In traveling across extensive plains, in like manner, the tops of mountains are seen before their lases. 3. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the moon. This shadow is always circular. A spherical body is the only one which will cast a circular shadow in any position in which it may be placed. 4. The north star rises as we travel north, and declines as we go south, till we reach the equator, when it disappears. For the purpose of locating the different portions of the earth's surface, imaginary circles are employed. Every circle, whether great or small, is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. A great circle divides the earth's surface into two equal parts, or hemispheres ; a small circle, into two unequal parts. The equator is a great circle equally distant from the poles. A meridian circle is any great circle passing through the poles. A meridian is half of a meridian circle, extending from pole to pole. The points on the earth's surface at the ends of the axis are called poles. The one which is nearest a certain fixed star called the north star, is the north pole ; the other is the south pole. The circumference of the earth is the distance around it, and measures about 25,000 miles. The diameter of the earth is a straight line passing through its center, and terminating in opposite points of its surface. The equatorial diameter extends from any point on the equator to the opposite point, and is about 7,925^ miles long. The polar diameter extends from pole to pole, and thus coincides with its axis. Its length in miles is 7,899. The difference of length, about 26 Vi miles, is owing to the flattening of the earth, which brings each pole 13^ miles nearer the center than are the points that lie on the equator. 4^ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. & ~7\ 39 1 The latitude of a place is its distance from the equator, measured on its own meridian. Latitude is either north or south, and is reckoned in degrees (from o to 90), minutes and seconds. The latitude of places on the equator is o. The longitude of a place is its distance from some given merid- ian, measured on its own parallel. Longitude is either east or west, and is reckoned in degrees (from o to 180), minutes and seconds. The given meridian from which longitude is reckoned is called the first meridian. Every degree of latitude is equal to about 69^ statute miles. A degree of longi- tude, at the equa- tor, is also about (x) l /i statute miles; but, north or south of the equator, it becomes less and less as the merid- ians approach each other, and at the poles, where they meet, it is nothing. The polar cir- cles are the two parallels 23^ de- grees from each pole. The north- ern. polar circle is called the Arctic Circle; the south- ern, the Antarctic Circle. The tropics are the two parallels 23 X degrees north and 23^ degrees south of the equa- tor. The north- ern tropic is called the Tropic of Can- cer; the southern, the Tropic of Cap- ricorn. Zones are belts of the earth.bounded by the polar circles and the tropics. The North Frigid Zone, which lies north of the Arctic Circle, is 23^ degrees wide. The North Temperate, which lies between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer, is 43 degrees wide. The Torrid, which lies between the tropics, is 47 degrees wide. The South Temperate, which lies between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle, is 43 degrees wide. The South Frigid, which lies south of the Antarctic Cir- cle, is 23 J^ degrees wide. The circle 0/ illumination is the great circle which separates the light side of the earth from the dark. Day and Night. The earth has two constant motions : (1) its daily motion, or rotation on its axis (its shorter diameter), from west to east; (2) its yearly motion, or movement in a nearly circular path (called its orbit) around the sun. The length of time the; earth is turn- ing on its axis is called a day. Every part of the earth's surface being successively carried into light and shade, the daily rota- tion causes the phenomena of day and night. The length of time the earth is in passing around the sun is called a year. It turns on its own axis in the same time about 365X times.hence there are 365^ days in a year. As the earth re- volves from west to east, the sun will appear to travel from east to west. At the equator th e days and nights are always twelve hours long ; the farther a point lies from the equator, the longer are its longest day and its longest night. At the poles the year is made up of but one day and one night, each lasting six months. All places in about 66^£ de- grees of latitude, north or south, have one day in the year twenty- four hours long, and one night of an equal length. DAY AND NIGHT.— EASTERN HEMISPHERE. The Change of Seasons Is produced by the earth's revolution around the sun, in con- nection with the fact that its axis is constantly inclined to the plane of the ecliptic, and always points in the same direction. The earth's axis is constantly inclined 23^ degrees to the plane of its orbit. If this were not the case there would be no change of seasons; the circle of illumination would always be identical with some meridian circle. The sun's rays, reaching from pole to pole, would fall on each point of the earth's / K 39 2 PHYSICAL (iEOORAPHV. surface at the same angle throughout the year, and days and nights would everywhere be of twelve hours' duration. (See Astrontmy.) GEOLOGY Tells us about the external surface of the earth, its stones and rocks, and how they were formed, and generally something about the conformation of the crust of the earth and its history. As has been well said, " Geology is the Physical Geography of the past." " Everything must have a be- ginning," and the earth must have had a beginning, although the act- ual manner of the physical creation of our planet is a disputed fact. We are not about to discuss the religious side of the question.al- though we should undoubtedly find that Biblical teach- ing and Geology run side by side toward the same end, and the tes- timony of the earth andskybears witness to the di- vine hand that created the uni- verse, which we can trace back to the dim and dis- tant ages when " the earth was without form, and void; and dark- ness was upon the face of the deep." The DAY AND NIGHT.-WESTERN HEMISPHERE. Six Eras of Creation. It seems to be established that each of the six days of Creation was an era, a period, not of twenty-four hours, but of centuries, during which great changes and new appearances took place. The first of these eras was marked by the creation of light; the second, by the separation of vapors from the waters ; the third, by the separation of land from water, and the appearance of grass, herb, fruit and tree. On the fourth day, or rather in the fourth era, " Ciod made two great lights in the firmament of the heaven ; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night : and he made the stars also." In the fifth era were created fishes and birds — " great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abund. antly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind." In the sixth era appeared the beasts of the earth, and finally man, for whom the earth had now become a fit abode. The earth appears at one time to have been an intensely heated molten ball, surrounded by a hot atmosphere filled with vapors and gases. By degrees the outer part of this molten mass gave its heat into space, and portions of its matter became solid as they cooled. As the cooling proceeded, these solid masses grew larger, and at last blended in a thin crust. The vapor in the atmosphere was next con- densed, and thus was formed the great primeval ocean, covering the whole globe. From time to time this mighty ocean would break through weak places in the crust, and pour on the seething mass be- low. Great vol- umes of steam would then be formed, which would rend the solid barriers above it, and force through the open- ings thus made floods of melted rock, to flow over the earth, and, in course of time cool down into a new mineral deposit. In the lapse of ages, innumerable changes of this kind occurred on the surface. Continents were upheaved, and the waters finally subsided into the hollow places, carrying with them and depositing a sediment of rocky matter. The crust gradually be- came thioker, the surface assumed a form comparatively perma- nent, and only occasional eruptions showed that fiery heat and waves of molten rock still raged within. A succession of plants, marking distinct eras of vegetable life, were then called into being, ami different orders of animals were created — living and preying upon each other, and dying, as they t Al V "71 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 393 do now. The most simple forms of animal life appeared first ; then those of a higher organism ; and finally man, created in the image of God. If any one will take the pains to evaporate any saline solution in a capsule till it is about to crystallize, and observe attentively the pellicle of salt as it forms on the surface, an idea may be formed of our globe's physical history. First, a partial film will show itself in a few places, floating about and joining with others ; then, when nearly the whole surface is coated, it will break up in some places and sink into the liquid beneath ; an- other pellicle will form and join with the remains of the first, and as this thickens it will push up ridges and inequalities of the surface from openings and fissures in which little jets of steam and fluid will escape. These little ridges are chains of moun- tains; the little jets of steam, those volcanic eruptions which were at one period so frequent; the surface of the capsule is the surface of the earth, and the five minutes which the observer has contemplated it, a million years. The Drincipal agents in producing the constant changes going on within and upon our globe are the winds, the ocean, the rivers, and the forces at work within the earth. Land and water are to this day fighting for the mastery, as they did when the condensation of the vapors surrounding the earth formed the seas and oceans, leaving only the higher portions of the earth's mass exposed, and when the clearing up of the dense, dark clouds for the first time let in upon the earth's surface the glori- ous and vivifying rays of the sun, corresponding to the earliest record in the Bible of the acts of Creation : " And God said, let there be light: and there was light." But, perhaps, some reader may not think that the land and water of our earth are thus engaged. A very few minutes' re- flection, however, will suffice to confirm the assertion. Look at the lofty crags in the Alps, for instance. What has shattered those peaks, and sent the masses toppling down in stone ava- lanches to the lower slopes, and then into the valleys? — Water. Water has been in the crevices, and was frozen there ; in freez- ing it expanded and loosened the crags, which, forced asunder, gave an opening to more snow and ice, and so this powerful leverage, aided by the wind and storm, is disintegrating our mountains. It is the same by the seashore ; the cliffs are wearing away, and the sea approaches ; at other places the sea recedes from the land, as coral formation and embryo chalk cliffs are rising under the surface of the ocean. Lakes dry up, and the meadow or farm arises on the site, while other old spots are sub- merged. The rocky wall over which the Niagara River precipitates itself, is constantly wearing away under the impact of 700,000 tons of water every minute ; so that the falls are gradually re- ceding toward Lake Erie, at a rate variously estimated at from I foot to 1 )£ yards every year. They were once, and that, too, within the present geological period, at least four miles nearer to Lake Ontario than they now are. It is computed that the Mississippi carries annually into the Gulf of Mexico 400,000,000 tons of earthy matter — enough to cover an area of ten square miles to the depth of twenty-five feet. The winds transport loose sand, particularly on coasts ex- posed to their fury, and, driving it inland, heap it up in parallel ridges. Such sand-hills, or downs, as they are called, are very common near the ocean ; on the coast of England they have buried houses and farms. Rivers are constantly changing the earth's surface by wearing passages through the strata over which they flow, and by bearing incalculable quantities of earthy matter to the sea, to form new deposits at their mouths. No rest, no change of idea, but ever changing in physical ap- pearance, Nature goes on her wondrous way, working now as steadily, as harmoniously and as surely as she did before time was, and as she will continue to do when time shall be no more. And all the works of Nature, ever changing, yet ever the same, are recorded by the same Power that governs them. " All things," says Emerson, " are engaged in writing their his- tory. The planet, the pebble, goes attended by its shadow. The rolling rock leaves its scratches on the mountain; the river, its channel in the soil; the animal, its bones in the stratum ; the fern and leaf, their modest epitaph in the coal. The falling drop makes its sculpture in the sand or the stone. Not a foot steps into the snow or along the ground, but prints, in characters more or less lasting, a map of its march. Every act of the man inscribes itself in the memories of his fellows, and in his own manners and face. The air is full of sounds, the sky of tokens, the ground is all memoranda and signatures, and every object covered over with hints which speak to the intelligent" Rocks. We must entirely put away from our minds the idea that the earth we live on was created at once, or as it appeared to the first human beings. Our planet was prepared for man by degrees during millions of years. Therefore, supposing (as is supposed) that the earth came from the sun, we have all the material of the globe in a fused state. As the earth cooled, rocks were formed by pressure, and then water came, and now we can read " books in the running brooks, and sermons in stones," at our leisure. A rock, in geology, is any natural formation of earthy or stony material, whether in the form of sand, gravel, clay, mold, or a compacted mass. In regard to their form and position, the rock masses of the earth's crust may be divided into three classes — stratified rocks, unstratified rocks, and veins. Stratified recks are those that lie in layers, or strata. They compose the greater part of the land surface of the earth, form- ing not only vast plains, but whole mountain systems. To this class belong slate, sandstone, limestone, marl, chalk, etc. Unstratified rocks are irregular masses, formed, not by the deposit of sediment in beds or layers, but by the gradual cooling of melted matter. They embrace igneous and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks owe their orign to the action of heat, as the stratified rocks do to that of water. Basalt may be mentioned as an example of the igneous rocks. In some regions it consti- tutes immense beds, and in others forms gigantic columns, as regular as if wrought by art. 7F ^J v- «5 ^ K '7t 394 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Metamorphic rocks are such as were originally stratified, but afterward underwent a change of structure through the agency of heat or chemical action. Veins are rock-matter filling the cracks of fissures of other rocks. They vary greatly in size and extent. They may be regular or irregular in form, isolated or united in a complex net- work. The term drift is employed to designate the immense deposits of sand, gravel, clay and boulders, or loose rocks, which exist over a great part of the American continent. The origin of this material is referred to " Glacial Period" when, from some cause, a change of climate caused immense masses of ice, either in the form of icebergs or glaciers, to plow their way over the continent, bringing the material from the Archaean beds and depositing it over the existing formations, and at the same time scoring and grooving the underlying rocks. The Geologic Ages. There are seven great geologic ages, or divisions of time, known as the Azoic, the Silurian, the Devonian, the Carbonifer- ous, the Reptilian, the Ma.nmalian, and the Age of Man. Our knowledge of the plants and animals of the ages preceding the creation of man is derived from their remains dug out of the earth, and called fossils. The Azoic Age is the era, as its name implies, when there was no life, either vegetable or animal, cr. the globe. The crystal- line minerals and all the igneous rocks date back to this age, and hence they are destitute of fossils. During the Silurian Age, the second in atiquity, there was no terrestrial life ; but mollusks — animals with soft, fleshy bodies, without any internal skeleton, like the oyster and the snail — abounded in the waters. The oldest sandstone and limestone belong to this period. Its plant-fossils are sea-weeds. The Devonian Age was the age of fishes, remarkable for their thick, bony scales. The sea also teemed with shell-, corals and sea- weed; while the land, though yet limited in extent, began to be covered with vegetation. Insects, the earliest of terrestrial animals, now first appeared. The Carboniferous Age, or age of coal, is fourth. From colossal tree ferns, leaves and branches, deposited in successive centuries, were formed, by gradual decomposition under water, those vast coal-beds on which the industrial pursuits of the pres- ent day so largely depend. The animals of this age consisted mainly of insects of various kinds; and inferior tribes of reptiles. The Reptilian Age was marked by the great number, variety and size of its reptiles, the appearance and habits of which are known from the remains, found .buried in the rocks of this period. The rocks of this age are the freestones, extensively used for building, sandstone formations, intersected with ridges of trap of igneous origin, limestone and gypsum, laminated and plastic clays, and chalk-beds, containing layers of flint. The Mammalian Age was the sixth. The reptiles now dwin- dled in size and diminished in number, being succeeded by quadrupeds, some of which were much larger than any modern species. The deinotherium, mastodon, megatherium and fossil elephant were among the gigantic animals of this era, while the plants resembled those of the present time, palms, oaks, «"?pW. magnolias, etc., being found in the forests. The Age of Man is the last of the seven geologic ages. The huge monsters that gave the preceding period its peculiar character became extinct, and were replaced by smaller animals — those we see around. Man was created, and invested with dominion over the earth. This is the "era of the finished world — the era, also, of man's progress and preparation for an- other and a higher life." THE EARTH'S SURFACE. The earth's surface of an area of about 197,000,000 square miles, of which only about one-fourth is land. Lowlands are tracts, either level or diversified by hill and vale, not elevated more than 1,000 feet above sea-level. Deserts are extensive tracts destitute of water, and, consequently, of vegetation and animal life. Silvas are forest plains. Plains that produce grass, but not trees, are known in North America as prairies ; in South Amer- ica as llanos and pampas ; in Asia and Southeastern Europe as steppes. The desert of Sahara, as far as known, consists partly of table-lands and partly of low plains. It is interspersed with oases, or fertile spots, which are generally lower than the sur- rounding country; some of these are of considerable extent and well populated. A mountain is an elvation of land exceeding 2,000 feet in height. A A ill is less than 2,000 feet in height. A mountain-chain is a long, elevated ridge, or several moun- tains extending in a line. Mountains are of great use to man. They attract the clouds, condense their moisture, and store up in reservoirs the water received from them, sending it forth again in streams, from thousands of springs, to fertilize . the soil. They increase the surface of the earth, giving variety to its vegetable pro- ductions. They protect the adjacent countries from cold and piercing winds, and thus exert a favorable influence on their climare. An avalanche is a large mass of snow, ice and earth, sliding or rolling down a mountain. A water-shed is the mountain chain or ridge of land which separates one basin from another, and from which the rivers flow. A mountain pass is an elevated road crossing a mountain - chain through a natural opening or depression. Glaciers are immense masses of ice formed by the accumu- lated snows upon the mountain tops. They fill in vast valleys, and have an onward motion throughout like a liquid or semi- liquid body, Their course down the slopes is very slow, lnit, like rivers, they flow faster in the middle than at the bottom and sides. The lower extremities are constantly melting, form- ing torrents and mountain streams, while the upper parts are fed by the snows. Rocks of immense size are torn off and car- ried down by glaciers. They occur in the greatest numbers in the Alps. When a glacier reaches the ocecn large fragments are broken off and float away as itebtrgt. ** « ■- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 395 VOLCANIC PHENOMENA. That the interior of the earth has a high temperature, inde- pendent of the influence of the sun's rays, seems to be proven by many phenomena. The majority of scientists maintain that the center of the earth is a mass of molten material, and that conse- quently the temperature increases the nearer this center is ap- proached. This theory seems to accord with the facts in rela- tion to hot springs, artesian wells, volcanoes, etc., although it is maintained by some that these phenomena may be caused en- tirely by local chemical changes going on within the earth's crust. Hot Springs. Thermal or hot springs are most common in mountainous regions, and especially where the earth's crust is most broken and disturbed. Springs of every kind are formed by the rain or melted snow sinking into the earth and issuing from it again at a lower level. The fact that the water is sometimes hot, shows that it must have come in contact with heated rock material within the crust of the earth. They are found of every grade of temperature from that of slightly above the surrounding atmosphere, to the boiling point. They are found in all parts of the world, the most numerous, perhaps, in Europe. Geysers Are intermittent, spouting, hot springs, and have a temperature at the boiling point. They are found in Iceland, New Zealand, and in the " National Park " at the head waters of the Yellow- stone River in the Rocky Mountains. The most celebrated is the Great Geyser of Iceland. It con- sists of an immense well, or funnel, 10 feet wide at its mouth, and about 70 feet deep, surmounted at the surface with a basin 65 feet in diameter and 7 feet deep, formed by the deposit of mineral matter from the water. At intervals it sends up a col- umn of water and steam to the height of 100 feet. More re- markable even than the geysers of Iceland are some that are found in the " National Park." One, the Giantess, throws water to the height of 200 feet. Grasshoppers and other insects, and pieces of wood which fall into the waters, soon become in- crusted with quartz, which is held in solution by the water, thus permanently petrifying them. Volcanoes. A volcano is a mountain, or opening in the earth's crust, through which issue fire, smoke, ashes, lava, steam, etc. Vol- canoes may be distinguished as extinct and active. Extinct volcanoes are such as are now at rest, but were subject to erup- tions in former ages, as is shown by their form and structure, and the presence of craters. Active volcanoes are such as are either in a constant state of eruption, or have eruptions from time to time, with intervals of rest. Volcanoes throw out an enormous amount of material. Whole islands and portions of continents have been formed by volcanic action. Iceland is an example of a volcanic island. The lava, when it first issues from a volcano, is somewhat like melted iron running from a furnace, but soon cools on the surface and forms a black, porous crust. Sometimes the streams are so thick that the interior remains hot for twenty years. A terrific eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, A.D. 79, destroyed the flourishing cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae, and covered them with ashes and cinders to the depth of fifteen feet. About sixty eruptions of Mt. Etna are recorded. In 1669, a stream of lava from this mountain overflowed the ramparts of Catania, sixty feet in height, and destroyed a portion of the city. In 1832, several craters opened in the sides of the mountain, and a stream of lava eighteen miles long, one mile broad, and thirty feet deep, poured over the adjacent fields. In 1835, the terrible eruption of Conseguina occurred. It lasted three days, during which the light of the sun was obscured over half of Central America, and more than 40,000 square miles are said to have been covered with dust, ashes and lava. Fields of Fire. In some localities an inflammable gas issues from openings in the ground. This gas frequently becomes ignited and burns for some time. There is a region of this kind on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. This gas is supposed to be from the decom- position of vegetable matter by internal heat. Earthquakes. The second class of volcanic phenomena are earthquakes. These consist of vibrations or tremblings of the earth's crust, and are caused by movements in the fluid interior; but how these movements are produced, is as yet unknown. It is esti- mated that since the Creation earthquakes have destroyed thirteen million human beings. Scientists assert that not less than twelve shocks of earthquake are experienced in the United States daily, although, of course, they are but slight, and individ- ually unworthy of mention. An earthquake is generally preceded by unmistakable signs. The electrical condition of the air seems to be changed percep- tibly to both men and beasts — the former experiencing oppression and dizziness ; the latter uttering cries of distress, running wildly about, or otherwise manifesting uneasiness. The atmosphere is unnaturally still and hazy, and the sun seen through it looks like a ball of fire. The year 1868 was remarkable for the number and severity of its earthquakes. One of these occurred in the Sandwich Islands, destroying whole villages and many lives. One of the most terrible earthquakes on record occurred in South America, in August of that year. Its center of activity seems to have been at Arica, a seaport of Peru, which was completely destroyed, with two hundred of its inhabitants. The shocks extended throughout the Andes, from the United States of Colombia to Chili, and towns and cities were laid in ruins. It is estimated that more than fifty thousand persons lost their lives by this catastrophe. The great earthquake of Lisbon occurred November I, 1755. A rumbling sound beneath the surface was immediately followed by three shocks, so close together that they seemed but one, which threw down the principal part of the city; the sea _M -F= 39 6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. retired, leaving the bar dry, and instantly returned in a wave forty feet high, engulfing a great marble quay, to which multi- tudes had fled to escape the falling buildings. In the space of six minutes, thirty-five thousand persons perished. The most remarkable earthquake that has occurred in the United States is that of New Madrid, on the Mississippi, in 1811-12. For several months there was an incessant quaking of the ground, which, for a distance of three hundred miles, rose and sank in undulations. The most of the town was sub- merged. Readers will remember the earthquake which visited Java in 1882, and also that in Spain the lattei part of December, 1884, the shocks continuing into the middle of January, 1885. Accord- ing to the official record, the number of persons killed in Granada was 695, while 1,480 were injured. The crust of the earth is in some places gradually and slowly rising ; in other places it is sinking. The coast of North Amer- ica, from Labrador to New Jersey, is slowly rising. The southern part of Greenland is sinking. The Scandinavian pen- insula is sinking in the southern part and rising in the northern part. These changes are at the rate gf a few feet only in a hun- dred years. The cause is probably the slow contraction from cooling of the earth's crust. ISLANDS. About one-seventeenth of the land surface of our planet is in the form of fragmentary bodies, called islands. They may be considered as of two classes : Continental, those lying in the near vicinity of the continents, and really forming a part of the continental structure, and oceanic, those lying at a distance from the continents, in the midst of the oceans, and differing in struc- ture from the continents. Oceanic islands are all small and usually occur in groups. Their rock structure is essentially different from that of the conti- nents, and the vegetation and animal life generally peculiar. They may be divided into two classes — volcanic, or high, and the coral, or low. The volcanic islands are the summits of active or extinct vol- canoes projecting above the water. They are usually consider- ably elevated, with steep shores, and more or less circular in outline. Some have peaks of great height, as one of the Sand- wich Islands, with the peak of Hawaii, fourteen thousand feet above the sea level. Many of them have appeared within the history of man. Coral islands are among the most interesting phenomena o' Physical Geography. They owe their existence to the work oi colonies of small radiate animals called polyps. The structure of the polyp consists of a cylindrical or sack-like membrane, attached at the bottom to some solid body, and enclosing a second sack, which forms the stomach. At the top is an open- ing, or mouth, which is surrounded by thread-like organs called tentacles. When expanded, the polyp resembles a flower in form and often in the beauty of its color. The solid coral, which composes the reef, is secreted in the cavity between the outer and inner membranes, as the bones are secreted in the bodies of higher animals. Coral polyps multiply by eggs, to a certain extent, but chiefly by a process of budding similar to the branching of plants. Thus they grow into vast communities, in which generation succeeds generation, each individual leaving behind, as it dies, its contribution to the reef in the form of a small cell of carbonate of lime. The polyps cannot live out of water, and hence their work must cease at low water mark. Fragments of the coral structure are broken off and thrown upon the top of the mass by the waves, and thus in the course of time a reef, as it is called, is formed, projecting from the water. Upon this reef a vegetation finally springs up from the seeds which the winds and waves bring, and a soil is formed from the pulverized coral, drifted material and decayed vegetation. The reef-building polyps exist only in tropical regions, or where the water never gets below the temperature of 68° F. WATER. This all-important and ever-present liquid is a chemical com- bination of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen — eight parts of the former by weight being combined with one of the latter. When pure, it is destitute of color, taste and smell ; but, as it readily absorbs gases and dissolves many solids, it is seldom found in this state. The large body of water covering by far the greater part of the earth's surface is called the ocean. There is really but one ocean ; but the continents partially divide it into five basins, which we distinguish by different names, as the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans. The bottom of the ocean is supposed to be diversified with depressions and elevations — with low plains, plateaus and mountains — like the land; hence the depth differs in different parts. Some of the researches lately made by English explorers in regard to deep-sea beds have, however, led to the belief that there are no rough ridges, abrupt chasms nor bare rocks, and that the sea bottom, at great depths, is not affected by currents or streams — even by those of the magnitude of the Gulf Stream — its general appearance rather resembling that of the American prairies, and it is everywhere covered by a kind of mud. The greatest depth shown by soundings is eight and three-quarter miles. The mean depth of the whole body of the ocean is esti- mated at four miles. The color of the ocean is a beautiful sky-blue where the depth is great, but in shallow water, yellowish tints, reflected from the bottom, mingle with the blue, and produce a grayish green. Phosphorescence, one of the most beautiful of marine phe- nomena, is a brilliant light occasionally observed in the sea during dark nights, particularly in tropical regions. Sometimes the crests of the waves, the spray thrown up by the ship's bow, and the wake she leaves behind, look as if they were on fire. This phenomenon is produced by myriads of animalcules, which have the property of emitting light from their bodies, like fire-flics. A hundred of them have been found in a single drop of sea-water. -/I _M It PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 397 L The Oceanic Movements. The great body of the ocean is never at rest ; not only is the surface agitated by the winds, but even at great depths the wat.er moves from one region to another. There are four oceanic movements, viz.: waves, tides, cur- rents and whirlpools. Waves are ridges of water, produced by the friction of winds on the surface. Tides are alternate risings and fallings of the waters of the ocean. Tides are produced by the attraction of the moon and sun — principally that of the former — acting with different degrees of force on different parts of the earth. Were the moon the sole cause of the tides, they would always be of the same height ; but the sun also exerts an attraction, which, according as it acts with or against that of the moon, increases or diminishes the height of the tide. The currents are vast streams which traverse the ocean, and keep its waters in perpetual circulation. The principal of these are the Gulf Stream, the Equatorial, Japan, Antarctic and Arctic currents. The Gulf Stream. The most important of the oceanic currents is the Gulf Stream, so called from the Gulf of Mexico, out of which it flows into the Atlantic, through the Strait of Florida. It is from twenty-five to one hundred and fifty miles in width, and moves with a velocity of from one and one-half to five miles an hour, the water being much warmer than other parts of the ocean near it. Its color is of a deep indigo blue, strikingly different from the green of the surrounding ocean. A branch of this vast body of warm water, constantly flowing past the western coast of Europe, exerts a most genial influence on the climate. Even many miles in the interior the air is tempered by west winds, warmed by contact with this great stream. The Gulf Stream carries the heat of the Caribbean Sea across the Northern Atlantic to the shores of Scotland and Norway. This tropical river, flowing steadily through the cold water of the ocean, rescues England from the snows of Labrador. Should it, by any chance, break through the Isthmus of Panama, Great Britain would be condemned to eternal glaciers. The Equatorial Currents. An equatorial current crosses the Atlantic from the coast of Africa to the neighborhood of Cape St. Roque. It there divides into two branches, a northwesterly and a southwesterly, each of which follows the South American coast — the former making its way into the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. In the Pacific two equatorial currents are found — one north and the other south of the equator. The former, turning to the northeast near the Loo Choo Islands, continues under the name of the Japan current. The south equatorial current of the Pacific consists of two branches, one of which, striking the Australian coast, divides into a northwesterly and a south- westerly branch, as does the Atlantic equatorial current on the coast of Brazil ; the other, farther north, turns near the Caroline Islands, and reverses its course, crossing the Pacific again in a direction nearly due east to South America, under the name of the Equatorial counter-current. The Japan Current, In the Pacific, bears a remarkable resemblance to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic. Impelled by the Pacific equatorial cur- rent, it sweeps from the China Sea along the Asiatic island chains, in a northeasterly direction, toward the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the climate of which it improves, as the Gulf Stream does that of Northwestern Europe. Between the Japan current and the main land, a cold current sets in the opposite direction, as in the case of the Gulf Stream. The Antarctic Current, Which enters the Atlantic, runs in a northwesterly direction to the southern extremity of Africa, and thence along its western eoast until it joins the Equatorial near the Gulf of Guinea. That which sets into the Pacific flows along the South American coast, under the name of the Peruvian or Humboldt current, and is merged in the Equatorial west of the Gulf of Guayaquil. The Antarctic current, belonging to the Indian Ocean, runs along the western coast of Australia, and unites with the Equatorial just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. From the Arctic Ocean two cold currents set to the south, one on each side of Greenland. Uniting at the mouth of Davis Strait, they continue their southerly course as far as Newfound- land, where part of this broad Arctic river, as an under-current, flows beneath the Gulf Stream, and the rest, as a surface-current, keeps inside of this stream, close to the American shore as far south as Florida. Whirlpools are circular currents, which occur in certain localities. Inland Waters. The inland waters of the earth are springs, rivers and lakes. The rain or melted snow and hail which sinks into the earth, penetrates the crust until it reaches an impervious strata, when it runs along until it finds an outlet at the surface in the form of a spring, or gathers into underground reservoirs, some of which, by their peculiar formation, having an outlet in the form of a siphon, form intermittent springs. The drainage from the surface and the water from springs form small streams which unite to form rivers. When the water from streams and from the surface collects in depressions on the earth's surface, it forms lakes. Lakes may be divided into classes, as follows: (i) Those having inlets, but no visible outlets. (2) Those having outlets, but no apparent inlets. (3) Those having no apparent outlets or inlets. (4) Those having both inlets and outlets. The Caspian Sea, Aral Sea and Great Salt Lake are examples of the first ciass. Such lakes are usually salt. The water is either all lost by evaporation or is absorbed by the earth. Lakes of the second class are usually found in mountainous regions, and are the source of some large rivers. The water evidently comes from springs and rises until it runs over the basin. . Lake Albano, near Rome, is an example of the third class. Such lakes are usually situated in elevated regions, are supposed to be _M A«- lv 398 Tf? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the craters of extinct volcanoes, and are fed by springs. Lakes of the fourth class are by far the most common. When water evaporates, all impurities are left behind ; hence rain water is not salt like the ocean. The water of springs, rivers and lakes is, therefore, pure and fresh, unless it comes in contact with foreign matter that it is capable of dissolving. THE AIR. The earth is surrounded by an elastic fluid called air, which enters the minutest pores, and therefore exists in every substance. Air, like everything else, is attracted by the earth, hence it has weight, although experiments show that it is 815 times lighter than water. Air is essential to the transmission of sound, to combustion, and to life. CLIMATE. Climate is the state of the atmosphere in regard to tempera- ture, winds, moisture and salubrity. The climate of a place as regards temperature depends upon : Latitude. — The general law is that the amount of heat is greatest at the equator, and diminishes toward the poles. There are three reasons for this: 1. The sun's rays fall perpendicularly upon the earth at the equator ,- and more and more obliquely as we go toward the poles, a. The area covered by a given amount of heating power from the sun is smaller at the equator. 3. Where the sun's rays fall perpendicularly they pass through a less amount of atmosphere, and the absorption of heat is less. Attitude. — The decrease in temperature is about three deg. F. for every 1,000 feet of elevation. As the air receives most of its heat by radiation and reflection from the earth, and as the higher we go the less dense the air, the less heat is absorbed either from the earth or from the direct rays of the sun. Prevailing Winds. — Winds blowing from the tropical regions carry the heat with them, and conversely, winds from the polar regions lower the tem- perature. Whichever wind prevails throughout the year in a given place will consequently modify the temperature of that place. Length 0/ Day. — During the day the earth receives from the sun more heat than it radiates into space ; while during the night it radiates more than It receives. Hence a succession of long days and short nights results in an accumulation of heat, raising the average temperature and producing summer ; while long nights and short days result in a temperature below the average, producing winter. The heating power of the sun is greater in summer, because at that season it is shining more directly upon that part of the earth, and conversely in winter. In the tropical regions the inequality of day and night is very little, but increases toward the poles. The tempera- ture in the tropics is therefore more uniform. The length of day makes up for the lessened intensity of the sun's rays ; hence a place in high latitude may have at times higher temperature than a place within the tropics. Ocean Currents. — The warm waters of the tropical regions being brought toward the polar regions bring the heat with them, radiating it into space, and it is absorbed by the atmosphere. Mountain Ranges.— & mountain range will make a country near it warmer or colder, according as it shields it from a cold or warm wind. The Distribution 0/ Land and Water, — Land heats or cools rapidly, absorbing or emitting but little heat. Water heats or cools slowly, absorb- ing or emitting large quantities of heat. Hence the land is subject to great and sudden changes of temperature ; the water to small and gradual changes. Places situated near the sea have, therefore, a more equable i lim.itr. Character of Soil.'" Dry, sandy soil heats and cools more rapidly than wet and marshy lands; hence the latter will have a more uniform teni perature. Slope 0/ La nd.— Land which slopes so that the sun's rays will strike it nearer vertically will receive more heat. The south side of a hill is wanner In winter than the north side. In regard to winds the climate of a place depends upon : Temperature. — As winds are but masses of air set in motion by the unequal heating, the winds of any given place depend primarily upon the temperature, though not necessarily upon the temperature of that place. As the air is heated in the tropical parts of the earth by the sun, it rises, and colder air flows In from the polar regions to take its place ; hence the primary currents, which are modified in various ways by other causes. Rotation 0/ the Earth. — The winds are turned out of their course by the rotation of the earth in the same manner as the ocean currents. Land and Water. — The land becomes wanner during the day than the sea, and, the air rising, a cooler air flows in from the sea. At night the land parts with its heat more rapidly than the water and becomes cooler; then the wind sets the other way. Hence we have the land and sea breezes. Elevation o/the Land. — Mountains, as has already been stated, shelter places from winds. Some of the great plains are subject to almost constant winds. In regard to moisture, the climate of a place depends upon : Prevailing Wind. — If a wind blows from large bodies of water in a warm region it will be laden with moisture which will be likely to be precipitated on reaching a colder country. Mountains.— The contact of a moisture-laden wind with the cold sides of mountains will cause a precipitation of its moisture, and the regions beyond the mountains will not leceive it. Forests, by shading the earth, keep its surface cool, and this tends to con- dense the moisture. Cultivation 0/ the Soil, causing it to absorb 'moisture from the atmos- phere, and by capillary attraction in dry weather bring up moisture from below to the surface. Temperature. — Increased heat causes greater evaporation, and hence more moisture in the atmosphere. More rain falls within the tropics than in the temperate or polar regions. • Land and Water. — More rain falls on the coasts of a country than in the interior, because the winds are more moist. More rain falls in the northern hemisphere than in the southern because there is a greater diversity of land and water, the evaporation coming mainly from the ocean, and the condensa- tion from the diversified land surface. Isothermal lines are lines connecting places that have the same mean temperature. There is a line or limit of elevation, above which the surface is covered with perpetual snow ; this is called the snow line. WINDS AND WEATHER. Wind is air in motion. Winds have a purifying effect upon the atmosphere; they dissipate unhealthy exhalations; they transport vapors from the sea to moisten and fertilize the land ; they carry the seeds of plants far and wide, and thus extend the empire of vegetation ; finally, they waft our ships, and are, in some countries, made available as a motive power for machinery . The cause of winds is the difference of heat received from the sun in different places. The heated air expands, becomes rare- fied, and rises. The cooler air immediately rushes in from the surrounding parts, to restore the disturbed equilibrium. The trade-winds are so named because, by their regularity, they favor commerce. They are produced as follows: The equatorial regions being most intensely heated, a current of rare- fied air is there constantly ascending, while colder currents from the north and south set in toward the equator to fill its place. When these reach the ascending current, having in turn become rarefied, they follow it in its upward course, and thus air is with- drawn from the higher latitudes, and accumulated in the equa- torial regions. IVhirhtrinds are bodies of air that have a rotatory or spiral motion, and are usually caused by the meeting of contrary winds. "7 <5 W _^1 g . - ~A PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 399 When a whirlwind occurs on a sandy plain or desert, great quantities of fine sand are carried up to a great height in the atmosphere, and move with the revolving body of air, forming what are called sand-pillars. The Sirocco, which in some places is a warm, damp wind, in Madeira is a hot wind, and likewise in Sicily, where it is equally warm and damp like steam. The Simoon is a very hot wind, raising sand-storms in the deserts, and experience has shown it to be very prejudicial to life in consequence of the fine sand and the tremendous heat it carries with it. Then we have the Hurricane, from " Ouracan," of the Caribs ; the Typhoon, or Tae-fun, of China, so called from the dreaded god Typhon of Egypt ; and the Tornado and Cyclone — all violent winds, and circling round, causing, so to speak, whirlwinds, by which trees are uprooted and houses destroyed. In hurricanes, tornadoes, etc., the rotatory motion of the air is from right to left in the northern hemisphere, and from left to right in the southern. Water-spouts are whirled up by the winds in spiral columns of water, and when permitted to come near a ship at sea, or when they break upon land, which is seldom, are very destructive. Dew and Hoar-Frost. When air charged with moisture comes in contact with a solid surface colder than itself, aqueous vapor is precipitated on this surface as dew. The grass at night becomes cooled by rad- iation, and thus condenses upon its surface the vapor of the air. Dew will gather most freely upon those objects that are the best radiators, as they will the soonest become cool. Thus grass, leaves, etc., which need the most, get the most. Dew will not form on windy nights, because the air is con- stantly changing, and does not become cool enough to deposit its moisture. A heavy dew is a sign of rain, because it shows that the moisture of the air is easily condensed. If, during the precipitation of dew, the temperature falls to the freezing-point (32° F.), hoar-frost is formed. This consists of minute ice-crystals, and is nothing more than frozen dew. Frost will not form on cloudy nights, because the clouds act like a blanket, to prevent radiation, and keep the earth warm. Fogs. Fogs are formed when the temperature of the air falls below the dew-point («'. e., the temperature at which dew is deposited). They are found mainly on low grounds, and in the vicinity of rivers, ponds, etc., where the abundance of moisture keeps the air constantly saturated. Clouds. Clouds are collections of visible vapor suspended in the at- mosphere, at altitudes ranging from one to five miles. Vapor consists of particles of water so fine and light that they float in the air like dust. Mountains are " cloud-capped," because the warm air rising from the valley is condensed upon their cold summits. Clouds are constantly falling by their weight; but, as they melt away in the warm air below, by condensation they increase above. The nimbus cloud is a dark-colored cloud, from which rain falls. The stratus cloud is composed of broad, widely extended cloud-belts, sometimes spread over the whole sky. It is the lowest cloud, and often rests on the earth. It is the night cloud. The cumulus cloud is made up of large cloud-masses, looking like snow-capped rrfountains piled up along the horizon. It forms the summits of pillars of vapor, which, streaming up from the earth, are condensed in the upper air. It is the day cloud ; and, when of small size and seen only near midday, is a sign of fair weather. The cirrus cloud consists of light, fleecy clouds floating high in air. It is believed to be formed of spiculae of ice or flakes of snow. The cirro-cumulus is formed by small, distinct, rounded por- tions of the cirrus cloud, which separate from each other, leaving a clear sky between. It accompanies warm, dry weather. The cirro-stratus is produced when the cirrus cloud spreads out into long, slender strata. It forebodes storms. The cumulo-stratus presents the peculiar forms called " thunder-heads." It is caused by a blending of the cumulus with the stratus, and is a precursor of thunder-storms. Rain — Snow — Hail. When the minute vapor-particles of clouds combine and grow too heavy to float in the air, they are precipitated as rain — or, at a temperature below the freezing-point, as snow or hail. Snow is frozen vapor, with its particles aggregated in flakes. Hail is frozen rain. Snow is an important agent in the economy of nature. Being a non-conductor of heat, it protects the roots of the grasses and the winter grains from severe frosts. Collecting in great masses on lofty mountains and gradually thawing, it feeds streams, which carry fertility and wealth to extensive districts. Lightning and Thunder. Lightning is a discharge of atmospheric electricity, accom- panied by a flash of light. Heat-lightning is either the reflection of distant flashes on the clouds, or the frequent and therefore weak and silent discharge of electricity from the clouds through a moist atmosphere. Lightning cleaves the air with inconceivable rapidity, and leaves a vacuum behind it, into which the surrounding air rushes with great force, and with a loud, crackling sound, which we call thunder. Lightning and thunder take place at the same instant, but we see the former before we hear the latter. This is because light travels with much greater velocity than sound. Thunder-storms are most frequent within the tropics during the rainy season. The Aurora Borealis. The aurora borealis is a luminous appearance, which at times imparts wonderful beauty to the polar skies at night, and is also of occasional occurrence in the temperate latitudes. It is sup- posed to be produced by the passage of electric currents through strata of highly rarefied air. YL ±X ~s \ 400 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. A Mirage. Mirage (sometimes called Fata Morgana) is the appearance in the air of the image of some distant object, seen eitherincon- nection with the object itself, above or below the latter, or sus- pended in the air, the object being invisible. It is a very curious but sufficiently common phenomena, and in the Asiatic and African plains it is frequently observed. When the weather is calm and the ground hot, the Egyptian landscape appears like a lake, and the houses look like islands in the midst of a widely- spreading expanse of water. This causes the mirage, which is the result of evaporation, while the different temperatures of the air strata cause an unequal reflection and refraction of light, which give rise to the mirage. Travelers are frequently deceived, but the camels will not quicken their usual pace until they scent water. The Fata Morgana and the inverted images of ships seen at sea are not uncommon on European coasts. Between Sicily and Italy this effect is seen in the Sea of Reggio with fine effect. Palaces, towers, fertile plains, with cattle grazing on them, are seen, with many other terrestrial objects, upon the sea — the palaces of the Fairy Morgana. The inverted images of ships are frequently perceived, and many most extraordinary but per- fectly authentic tales have been related concerning the reflection and refraction of persons and objects in the sky and on land, when no human beings nor any of the actual objects were within the range of vision. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. Zoology is that science which treats of animals, their structure, habits and classification. There are four principal divisions of animals, based on dis- tinct types of structure, and including all the denizens of the earth, the water and the air. Following are the divisions of the animal kingdom, beginning with the lowest : SUB-KINGDOMS OR DIVISIONS. I. Protozoa— First-living things, or lowest form of animal life. II. Radiata— Radiates, that is, such as are shaped like a star or flower, and have their organs ar- ranged uniformly around a common center. III. Mollusca— Mollusks.that Is, soft-bodied, without joints, and with- out vertebra;, but usually protected by a shell. CLASSES OF SUBDIVISIONS. . Amoeba, sponges, proteus, etc. They have no mouth, and no dis- tinct members, but are capable of making many changes in their form. i. Coral animals, sea-anemones, etc. a. Jelly-fishes, sea-nettles, i. Star-fishes, sea-urchins. i. Ilryozoa, that is, moss animals; as sea-mats, white sea-weeds, etc. a. Brachlopods, that is, with arm- feet, or spiral appendages ; as the lingular, spirifers, etc. 3. Ascidians, that is, pouch-like ; as salpK, etc. 4. Acephals, that is, headless ; as oysters, etc. 5. Csphalates, that is, with heads ; as snails, etc. 6. Cephalopods, that is, with heads and feet, or, more strictly, tenta- cles. IV. AimctrLATA — Articulates, that is, animals having the body and members jointed, but without an internal skeleton. V. Vertkbrata — Vertebrates, that is, animals that have a back- bone, and an articulated or jointed skeleton, and a great nervous cord, the spinal marrow, enclosed in a bony shc-.th. 1. Worms, as earth-worms, Ircch— . etc. 2. Crustaceans, as crabs, lobsters, etc. 3. Centipedes, etc. 4. Spiders, etc. 5. Beetles, butterflies, etc. 1. Fishes. 2. Reptiles, that is, creeping things, as turtles, frogs, snakes, lizards, etc. 3. Birds, that Is, " Every winged fowl." 4. Mammalia, that is, animals with teats. The last class, Mammalia, is further subdivided into fourteen orders, of which the most distinctive, still ascending from the lower to the higher, are four, namely : 1. Cetacea, that is, of the whale tribe. 2. Quadrupeds, that is, four-footed animals generally. 3. Quadrumana, that is, four-handed ; as the gorilla, chimpanzee, ape and monkey. 4. Bimana, that is, two-handed ; of which the only representative Is man. ETHNOLOGY. Ethnology is that science which treats of the division of man into races, with their origin, relations and characteristics. Natur- alists divide mankind, according to certain physical characteristics, into varieties, or races. Authorities differ greatly in this classifi- cation. Cuvier made three races; Pritchard, seven; Agassiz, eight, and Pickering, eleven; but the classification most com- monly accepted is that into five races, as made by Blumenbach, as follows: The Caucasian, European, or white race; the Mon- golian, Asiatic, or yellow race ; the Ethiopian, African, or black race; the American Indian, or red race; the Malay, or brown race. The first three are much more clearly marked, and are considered by Guyot as primary races ; the others, being modi- fications of these three, he designates as secondary races. Because of the blending of types, it is difficult to make a classi- fication, hence the difference among authorities. The points on which the classification is based are mainly the size and propor- tions of the body, the shape of head and the features, the hair and beard, and the color of the skin The Caucasian race are characterized by tall stature, oval head and face, high forehead, regular features, abundance and softness of hair and beard, and usually fair skin, but in some it is tawny or swarthy, as in the Hindoos, Arabs and others. They stand at the head in intelligence and civilization. This race is represented by the principal inhabitants of Europe and their descendants in America, and by the inhabitants of India, Arabia and of Western Asia and Northern Africa. The Germanic nations are descendants of the numerous tribes of the ancient German stock that destroyed the Roman empire and erected different states upon its ruins. The Romanic nations occupy Southern Europe, and are so called because their languages are mostly derived from the Latin s|»ken by the ancient Romans. They are mixed nations, descended partly from the ancient Pelasgians and partly from other branches of Aryan stock. VL -\ SC K~ •2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 40I The Italians derive their origin from the Romans, German Longobards and Normans, with a slight intermixture of the Arabic stock. The Spanish and Portuguese have sprung from a mixture of Celts, Romans, Germans and Arabs. The Mongolian race are distinguished by short stature, round head, wide face, high cheek bones, obliquely set eyes, coarse straight hair, scarcely any beard, and yellowish color of the skin. They are distributed over the whole of Eastern Asia, except in India, and include the Esquimaux of the northern part of North America. The Ethiopian race are characterized by medium stature, gen- erally ungainly form, low and retreating forehead, head full back of the ears, flat, broad nose, projecting jaws, thick lips, short, curly hair, and skin generally black or dark. They occupy all of Africa, except the northern part, and many of their descend- ants are found in America. The American race resemble the Mongolian, but the head is not so round, the face less wide and flat, the eyes horizontal, the hair black and straight, and beard scanty, and the skin a reddish or copper color. They occupy North and South America, except on the Arctic shores. The Malay race resemble also the Mongolian, but have thicker lips, horizontal eyes, hair less straight, generally full beards, and color usually brown. They occupy the Malay pen- insula and the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The number of languages spoken on the earth is estimated at eight hundred and sixty, embracing about five thousand dialects. The language spoken by the greatest number is the Chinese ; the one most widely spread is the English. In regard to religion, mankind may be divided into two gen- eral classes : Monotheistic, those who worship one god, and polytheistic, those who worship more than one god, also called pagans, or heathens. Of the first class we have : (1) the Chris- tian, which recognizes the Bible as the revealed word of God, and Jesus Christ as the Son of God; (2) the Jewish, which rec- ognizes the Old Testament as the word of God, but does not acknowledge Christ; (3) the Mohammedan, or the religion of Islam, whose two articles of faith are, "There is no god but God, and Mohammed is the Prophet of God." Of the second class there are : ( 1 ) Brahminism, or Hindooism, the religion of the people of India, a very ancient religion which has many good moral doctrines, but strange ideas of a future state; (2) Buddhism, an offshoot of Brahminism, now practiced by the people of China and Japan, founded by Sakya-Muni, who adopted the title of Buddha (the enlightened), a religion which has been more enthusiastic in making converts than any other, except Christianity, and has many good moral precepts, but is practically atheistic; (3) Fetichism, a very low form of superstition, which consists in the worship of material objects, either living or dead, as animals, or idols of wood or stone. In regard to general culture and intelligence, mankind may be divided into : ( 1 ) Savages, those who are scarcely elevated above the brutes, live in tribes and subsist by hunting and fish- ing; (2) Barbarians, those who have possessions, as flocks and herds, and practice agriculture to some extent, yet have made no progress in arts and sciences ; (3) Half-civilized, those who have made some progress in the arts, have towns and cities, but depend chiefly upon agriculture ; (4) Civilized, those who have made considerable progress in science and art, engage in com- merce and have a written language; (5) Enlightened, those who stand at the head of the scale, have a division of labor, systems of education, and have made the greatest progress in science, art, and in morality. The principal forms of government are : ( I ) The monarchical, that form where one person exercises chief power, to which he succeeds by inheritance, and holds for life. (2) Republican, where the power is vested in men who are chosen by the people for a limited period. An absolute monarchy (despotism) is one where the ruler has unlimited or absolute power, his will being the sole law. A limited or constitutional monarchy is one where the ruler's power is limited by a constitution, or laws made by the representatives of the people. In a monarchical government the ruler receives various titles in different countries, as emperor, king or queen, czar, sultan, shah and mikado. In a republican government the chief officer is called a president. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. The animals of a Country taken together are called its fauna, while its flowers and vegetation are denominated flora. The frigid zones produce very scanty vegetation, mosses and lichens, and some stunted specimens of the higher forms, as the willow, birch and pine. The animal world is much more varied as to species. Here are found the reindeer, the musk ox and the white bear, and many smaller fcr-bearing animals on the land ; while, in the sea, or on its shores, are found whales, wal- ruses, seals and water-fowls of many species. In the torrid zone is found the most dense and varied vegeta- tion, flowers of the most brilliant hue and of the largest size, the most delicious fruits, the most powerful aromatics, the most val- uable woods ; in fact, the most of those productions which add to the luxuries of life. The animal world is represented by the greatest number of species, among which are those of the largest size, the most powerful and active, and the most intelligent. It is the home of the elephant, the giraffe, the lion, the tiger, the monkey, the ostrich, the condor, parrots, and of reptiles of the largest size, as the crocodile and boa constrictor, as well as those of the most poisonous character. In the temperate zones are found the vegetation most useful to man, as the oak, the pine, the maple and other useful timber trees ; the indispensable grains, as wheat, maize, barley, rye ; the useful fruits, as the apple, peach, pear, etc., and the fabric plants, as flax and cotton. The animal kingdom is represented by the bear, the bison, the elk and deer, the wolf; and the do- mestic animals so useful to man, as the horse, the ox, sheep and goats ; and many species of fowl, as pigeons, ducks, geese, turkeys, etc. MINERALS AND METALS. The prosperity and wealth of a country depend largely upon its mineral resources. Nature has bestowed her wealth in lavish abundance, asking only the labor of man to make it useful. As k= d *? 27 £2 K" 402 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. u rule the useful and valuable minerals are found in rocky or mountainous countries. These countries not being adapted to agriculture, the people find employment in mining and manufac- turing the raw material which is stowed away in their hills, depending for subsistence upon commerce with their agricultural neighbors of the plains. On the other hand, the inhabitants of the plains must depend upon their neighbors of the hills for material which adds to their comfort and convenience. Wher- ever that most useful of metals, iron, is found, near by is always found coal, which is necessary in reducing the iron to useful forms. Timber also grows abundantly on the mountains. This, too, is necessary to the manufacturer. The streams of hilly countries have greater fall, and are thus adapted for water power, which also adds to the advantages. Many minerals occur near the surface of the earth, in alluvial soil or the sandy beds of rivers ; but the greater part lie deep in the ground, and are obtained with more or le*& labor by mining. The most important metals are gold, silver, platinum, mercury, iron, lead, copper, tin; nickel, zinc and antimony. The richest silver mines in the world are those of Mexico. Iron is found in the greatest abundance in different parts of the United States and Europe. The great lead mines of the United States lie on each side of the Mississippi River, in Northwestern Illinois, Southwestern Wisconsin, and Iowa, and in Missouri, south of the Missouri River. The richest and purest copper mines in the world lie on the shores of Lake Superior, in North- ern Michigan, where blocks of native copper weighing 80 tons have been found. Zinc occurs in the Appalachian region, par- ticularly New Jersey and Pennsylvania ; also in Illinois, Missouri, Wisconsin and Tennessee. Some Strange Metals. Some of the metals, familiar enough to the chemist, though rarely seen oifside his laboratory, have so little in common with the metals of everyday life as to scarcely seem to belong to the same class of substances. We commonly think of a metal as be- ing heavy, yet sodium and potassium will float on water, and Jithium is the lightest of all known solids. The fact is, that the word "metal" is one of the hardest in the language to define. The metals all have a peculiar luster, to be sure, which, from its association, has come to be called metallic; but many minerals. as galena and black-lead, which most certainly are not metals, liave the same appearance, and so on, through the list of proper- ties. The chemical relations of the metals give good reasons for placing these substances by themselves, though even here the lines are not clearly marked. One of the most distinctive properties of the metals is their power to form, when combined with acids, a class of bodios called salts — on account of their resemblance to common salt — which contains about 40 per cent of the metal sodium. This metal is a bluish white, waxy solid, and has such a great ten- dency to rust, or unite with the oxygen in the air, that it must be kept in some oil, like petroleum, which contains no oxygen. If a bit of sodium be thrown upon a piece of ice, the metal takes fire, and any attempts to put it out by pouring water on it would only be adding fuel to the flame. The sodium-match ii an application of this peculiar property of the metal. It is merely a bit of wood tipped with sodium, and which can, of course, be lighted on the stormiest day by the mere contact of a raindrop. The matches are, however, decidedly dangerous, and their manufacture is generally prohibited. Potassium, which is obtained from potash, is another metal very similar to sodium, and will take fire upon ice or water even more readily than this last-named metal. A small piece of potas- sium thrown into a jug of water apparently takes fire at once, and swims about with great rapidity, burning all the time with a brilliant violet flame One may be forgiven if his ideas on combustion are somewhat upset by the first sight of this phenomenon, but there is really nothing very strange about it. Water is a compound of hydro- gen and oxygen, and these metals, sodium and potassium, have so strong an attraction for oxygen that they will take it wher- ever they can find it, even from water. This, of course, sets the oxygen free, which is set on fire by the heat given off when the potassium and oxygen unite, and burns with a violet color be- cause of the vapor of the metal. The same is true in the case of sodium ; the flame is due to the burning hydrogen rather than the metal. Sodium, potassium, and lithium, with several other metals, form a group known as the alkali metals. There is another group, to which iron belongs, which contains an interesting member called aluminum — sometimes aluminium — from its occurrence in common alum. Aluminum is a beautiful metal, much like silver in appear- ance, and possessing many valuable properties. It is very sonorous, easily worked, does not tarnish in the air, and is only about one-fourth as heavy as silver. It conducts electricity eight times better than iron. Added to this, it occurs in greater quantity than any other metal in the world. Every clay-bank, every granite-bed, is a bed of aluminum, but as yet no cheap and ready means of obtaining the metal has been found in spite of all attempts. Napoleon offered a large reward to any one dis- covering such a process. As late, however, as 1878, the metal was still a curiosity; and up to 1889 the total out- put of the world from all sources, French, English, Ger- man and American, had been less than 110 totis. The total production of the United States in 1889 v.t^ | pounds, valued at ♦97,335. The stage of actual produc- tion having been reached, the all-important feature of the industry now is the effort by new procetse* to reduce the coal of making the metal ; some of the present unfa- miliar and elaborate metallurgical processes being repro- ductions on I lar^e scale of experiments which are not ordinarily used even in chemical laboratories. This UV teretting and valuable metal lies hidden everywhere At, and a princely fortune a«ait- the man who can bring it to the light. 1 COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 403 m a ft ft ft ft o ft 00 00 .ft. 000 oooopueooooooooftoo ■ ftVftft OM ft ft ft « V ft ftftiftVft ft ft ft ft Vft ft ft • ftftftftftOftft.ftOftftftft M2I3EiaiaMSMS(3iSjaMa , MMalIl!lQM ■ L'S&B'SMM?; » fto »]S . o ft ft ft ./> ft e, o „ „ j=r ft ft ft ft ft fti 'iff e ir? ft ft^ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft 0_ft ft O ft ft ft O ft ft ft.fttg ■ ^] ftift jftftftOftftftftOOftftft«ftftftft«4ftft«.ftCiftftft*ftftOftO'ftOftftOOftOQ«ftOft^.ftftOft«ftftftftfto-. } ft « ft«oa«ft«oftaftftft. ft. o'ftftftftftftoooftftftftftftoftooftftftftftftftftftoftfteftftftftftftoftft Notes, Bills, Orders, Checks, Drafts and Receipts Properly Drawn for Every State. J*f VERY business man has felt the neces- 1 sity of a simple and thorough- explana- tion of the legal principles and usages 1 which underlie all business transactions. The law presumes that no man is ignorant of the law, and consequently, when such vital issues are at stake, no one can afford to be ignorant. Not a day passes by in a large counting-house that some question does not arise which involves legal knowledge in its cor- rect solution. To those who have felt the need of a safe and simple adviser in those every-day difficulties of trade, we will offer the chapters which follow. All the matters in- cluded in the routine of business will be found fully treated, while such explanations are appended as will make the study one in which a mistake will be found impossible. All men should know so much of the ordi- nary law as protects their common and uni- versal rights, and it must be admitted by every student that business men should understand the most general laws of business — the law of partnership ; how. to make agreements ; how to conduct sales ; how to draw notes ; how to collect them, and the like. Knowledge of the principles of business law will prevent, every day, important mistakes leading to trouble and loss. The laws have here been made plain by themselves, so that a thorough and satisfactory answer is at hand for every question. The forms given will be found exceptionally complete and accurate, having been prepared with care and examined with close scrutiny. NEGOTIABLE PAPER. Confidence is the broad foundation on which the whole superstructure of business, as it exists to-day, has been built. The steps in this progress have been, first, barter in kind, the exchange of a bushel of wheat for a handful of arrow- heads, as business is still conducted among the savages ; next, the substitution of money as a medium of exchange; and finally, the substitution of negotiable paper, that is, docu- mentary evidence of debt, for money, completing the pro- gression. Negotiable paper includes promissory notes, due bills, drafts, checks, certificates of deposit, bills of exchange, bank bills, Treasury notes (greenbacks), and all other evi- dences of debt, the ownership of which may be transferred from one person to another. The mere acknowledgment of debt is not -sufficient to make negotiable paper; the promise of payment or an order on some one to pay is indispensable. This promise must be for money only. The amount must be exactly specified. The title must be transferable. This feature must be visible on the face of the paper by the use of such words as "bearer" or "order." In some of the States peculiar phrases are ordered by statute, as " Payable without defalca- tion or discount," or " Payable at ," naming the bank or office. Promissory Notes. A written agreement, signed by one person, to pay another, at a fixed time, a stated sum of money, is a promissory note. It becomes negotiable by being made payable to an order on k- 404 COMMERCIAL LAW AM) FORMS. some one or to bearer. As it is a contract, a consideration is one of its essential elements. Yet, although it be void as between the two first parties, being negotiable and coming into the hands of another person who gives value for it, not knowing of its defect, it has full force and may be collected. The date is of great consequence on all such paper. In computing time, the day of date is not counted, but it is the fixed point beginning the time at the end of which payment must be made. Omission of the date does not destroy a note, but the holder must prove to the time of its making. The promise to pay must be precise as to time which the note is to run. It must be at a fixed period, or conditional upon the occurrence of something certain to happen, as **at sight," "five days after sight," "on demand," "three months after date," "ten days after the death of John Doe." The time not being specified, the note is considered "payable on demand," and suit may be entered immediately. The maker, the person who promises and whose signature the note bears, must be competent. Insane people and idiots are naturally, and aliens, minors and married women may he legally, incompetent. The maker is responsible and binds himself to pay the amount stated on the note at its maturity. He need not pay it before it becomes due, but should he do so and neglect to cancel the note, he would be again respons- ible if any other person, without knowledge of such pay- ment, acquired it for value before maturity. Even a receipt for payment from the first payee would not stand good against the subsequent holder. The payee is the person in whose favor the note is drawn ; the legal holder, the person to whom the money must be paid. When a note is made payable simply to bearer, with- out naming the payee, any one holding the note honestly may collect. A subsequent party, one who comes into possession of the note after the original holder, has a better claim than the first one, for the reason that between the maker and the first payee there may have been, in the contract, some under- standing or condition militating against the payment when it would become due, but the third person, knowing nothing of this, gives his value and receives the note. The law will always sustain the subsequent party. The endorser is held responsible if the maker fails to pay when the note arrives at maturity. A note payable to order must be endorsed by a holder upon passing it to another, and, as value has been given each time, the last holder will look to his next preceding one and to all the others. A note, being on deposit as collateral security, becoming due, the temporary holder is the payee and mast collect. Endorsements. The following form will illustrate the shape in which a note should be drawn and endorsed. An endorsement is a writing across the back of a note, which, as will be seen further on, makes the writer responsible for the amount of the note. COMMON FORM OF NEGOTIABLE NOTE, WITH ENDORSEMENTS. Q3t**A/yn, (fa. <&., Qtfay u/, 1993. (2/&U4. tn^yyt.lnA et/te4 elate- (3? /i-l&nuSe- /c- A&-V- <*■ 'ote. $5,000. Cincinnati, O., Nov. 16, 189^. For value received, I promise to pay Edgar & Co., or order, Five Thousand Dollars, in three years from the date hereof, with interest payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. And in case of default of my payment of the interest or principal aforesaid with punctuality, I hereby empower any attorney-at-law, to be ap- pointed by said Edgar & Co., or their assigns, to appear in any court which said Edgar & Co., or their assigns, may select, and commence and prosecute a suit against me on said note, to confess judgment for all and every part of the interest or principal on said note, in the pay- ment of which I may be delinquent. Witness my hand and seal, this 16th day of November, A. D. 1S03. John White. [Sial.] Attest: George Oldham. Forms of Notes in Several States. MISSOURI. $ 60.00. St. Louis, Mo., July 24, /Soj. Three months after date, I promise to pay to the order of Edgar M. Voll Sixty Dollars, for value re- ceived, negotiable and payable without defalcation or discount. Sigma nd A. A teles. INDIANA. ■fS'J- Indianapolis, Int., July aS, /Soj. On demand, for value received, I promise to pay William Westermann .J- Co., or order, Three Hundred and Fifteen Dollars, without interest, payable -with- out any relief whatever from value or appraisement. Richard Af. Sylvester. PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW JERSEY. 1 fjoo. Philadelphia, Pa., July ab, /Soj. Ninety days after date, I promise to pay to the \ I 1 > order of Lafayette Armstrong Three Hundred Dol- lars, at Third National flank, value received, with- i out defalcation. George Miller. V COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 407 A Swindling Note. Carlyle, III., October j, i8gj. One year after date, I promise to pay R. Tucker or bearer Ten Dollars, when I sell by order Four Hundred and Seventy-five Dollars ($4.75) worth of Patent Fanning Mills, for value received, at ten per cent per annum. Said Ten Dollars when due is payable at Carlyle, Illinois. JOHN WILSON, Witness : John Roc. Agent for R. Tucker. Although the above venerable scheme of the confidence man has been exposed time after time, it still continues to add yearly to its list of victims. A paper is drawn up wherein'a farmer agrees to pay ten or twenty dollars when he has sold goods to a given amount. By tearing off the right- hand end of this paper, what is apparently an agreement for a small amount becomes a promissory note for a considera- ble sum. This note is sold at a bank, thereby becoming the property of a third and innocent party, and the signer of the agreement is called upon to pay the note. This shows how important it is that a man should read and carefully examine every paper presented to him for his signa- ture. DUE BILLS. A Due Bill differs from a note in the fact that it is a simple acknowledgment of a debt. It may be payable in money or merchandise. It is the simplest form of negotiable paper. $10.00. Philadelphia, May 8, 1893. Due John Jackson, or order, for value received, Twenty Dollars. Henry Folsom. In acknowledgment of debt, a form of due bill called an I O U is sometimes given. I O U Three Hundred ar.d Fifty Dollars. Wm. Johnson. Due Bill Payable in Merchandise. $50.00. St. Louis, May 14, ,893. Due Enos Baldwin, Fifty Dollars, payable in goods from our store Sontag & Weber. on demand. One Bill Payable in Money and Merchandise. $50.00. St. Loiis, May 14, 1S03. Due Howard Read, Fifty Dollars, payable, Twenty-five Dollars cash. Twenty-five Dollars in goods from our store, on demand. Sontag & Weber. ORDERS. An Order for Money. Waco, Texas, April i, 1893. Mr. B.J. Ring; Please pay \V. H. Cavanagh Ten Dollars on my account. M.F. Crenshaw. An Order for Merchandise. Dallas, Texas, May 15, 1893. Mr. N. W. Bechtel: Please pay L. W. Motsuff Thirty Dollars in Merchandise and charge the same to my account. L. E. Kittrell. RECEIPTS. For Money on Account. $15.01. Kirkwood, Mo., Jan. 1, 1S93. Received of J. M. Hardy Fifteen Dollars on account. P. D. Rich. In Full of All Demands. $150. Des Moines, Iowa, Sept. 2, 1S93. Received of J. C. O'Neal One Hundred and Fifty Dollars, in full of all demands to date. Alfred \V, Gregory. $So. For Rent. St. Louis, Mo., Nov. 1, 1S93. Received of W. F. George Eighty Dollars, in full for one month's rent of residence at 2S07 Olive St. John G. Stewart. For Money Advanced on a Contract. $500. Denver, Col., May 15, 1893. Received of L.W.Logan Five Hundred Dollars, in advance, on a contract to build for him a dwelling-house at No. 315 Cheyenne Ave., Denver. John T. Sherfey. V 408 COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. . AvL-A-^A^A-l- ■^ A .1* A -X- J, POINTS OF BUSINESS LAW. ■ y ^1- y -], y ^ y ^ cjgftgff -r- y .7. y ^ y ■ .f. y >§<€>- €k HECKS made payable to "Cash" or order, or to some character, or numb.er, or order, are held to be payable ^ to bearer. A past-due note entrusted for collection to an agent was converted by him to his own use, and was afterwards sold under an execution against him. The court decided that the purchaser had not acquired any interest in the note and could not maintain an action against the maker. In case of the death of the principal maker of a note the holder is not required to notify a surety that the note is not paid, before the settlement of the maker's estate. Notes obtained by fraud, or made by an intoxicated per- son, are not collectible. A note made by a minor is void. If no time of payment is specified in a note it is payable on demand. An endorser can avoid liability by writing " without re- course" beneath his signature. A check endorsed by the payee is evidence of payment in the drawer's hands. A signature written with a lead pencil is valid. No contract is good unless there be legal consideration. An outlawed debt is revived should the debtor make a partial payment. In case of a note made payable one day after date, with interest from date at the rate of 12 per cent per annum, in- terest to be paid anViually, it was held that the note woald draw the same rate of interest after maturity until paid. The revised statutes of Indiana provide that notes payable "to order" or "to bearer," in that State, are negotiable as inland bills of exchange, and the payees and endorsers thereof may recover as in oase of such bills. Payment is the performance of an agreement or the fulfil- ment of a promise, the discharge in money of a sum due. Pleaded as a defence, payment of money or of an equivalent accepted in its place, to the plaintiff or his authorized repre- sentative, must be proved by defendant. To extinguish the debt, payment must be made by a person having the right to do so, to a person entitled to receive it, at the appointed place and time, and in something proper to receive, both as to kind and quality. Proof that anything has been done or accepted as payment is proof of payment. A receipt is prima facie evidence of payment ; so also is the possession by the debtor of a security after the day of payment ACCOMMODATION PAPER. Drafts as well as notes are employed as accommodation paper. For example, Smith, being willing to lend Jones money which the later needs, and having none immediately available, draws a draft on Robinson, who is his debtor, and makes it payable to Jones, who gives no value for it. Such a draft in Jones' hand is accommodation paper and cannot be used as an implied contract against Smith; if discounted at a bank, or transferred for money to an individual, it be- comes business paper as far as the holder is concerned, and its payment may be enforced. Forged Paper. The endorsee generally obtains a perfect title when paper is transferred before maturity; but if the first endorsement is forged, no title rests in the holder. If the signature of the maker of a note is forged, the holder has no recourse against him. Negotiable paper is void when the consideration is either contrary to the general principles of common law or is prohibited by statute. Want of Consideration. Want of consideration — a common defence interposed to the payment of negotiable paper — is a good defence between the original parties to the paper; but after it has been trans- ferred before maturity to an innocent holder for value, it is not a defence. Stolen or Lost Paper. Negotiable paper, payable to bearer or endorsed in blank, which has been stolen or lost, cannot be collected by the thief or finder, but a holder who receives it in good faith be- fore maturity, for value, can hold it against the owner's claims at the time it was lost. Payment Before Maturity. Sometimes the holder of paper has the right to demand payment before maturity; for instance, when a draft has been protested for non-acceptance and the proper notices served, the holder may at once proceed against the drawer and endorsers. State Laws as to Payment. If a note or draft is to be paid in the State where it is made, the contract will be governed by the laws of that Sute. When negotiable paper is payable in a State other than that in which it is made, the laws of that State will govern it. Marriage contracts, if valid where they are made, are valid everywhere. Contracts relating to personal property are governed by the laws of the place where made, except those relating to real estate, which are governed by the laws of the place where the land is situated. Collateral Security. If negotiable paper, pledged to a bank as security for the payment of a loan or debt, falls due, and the bank fails to drmand p.iyment and have it protested when dishonored, the bank is liable to the owner for the full amount of the paper. V "71 14- LAWS RELATING TO INTEREST. 409 Tfje Lawg of the United j&ateg and [Saijada Relating to Interest. COMPILED FROM THE LATEST STATE AND TERRITORIAL 8TATUTES. Laws of Each State and 'Territory Regarding Kates of Interest and Penalties for Usury, with Iti* Law or Custom as to Day of Grace on \m< s und Drafts. STATES AND TERRITORIES. LEGAL RATE OF INTEREST. RATE ALLOWED BY CONTRACT. Per cent. 8 7 6 7 8 6 7 6 6 8 7 10 S 6 6 7 6 5 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 10 7 10 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 6 6 7 6 8 8 6 6 10 6 7 12 6 7 Per cent. 8 Any rate. 10 Any rate. Any rate. 6 Dakota, North and South 12 6 District of Columbia 10 Florida Any rate. 8 Idaho (usurer liable to arrest for mis- demeanor) 18 7 8 Indiana 8 Kansas Louisiana 6 8 Maine Any rate. ' 6 Any rate. Michigan Minnesota Missouri Montana Any rate. Nebraska Nevada Any rate. New Hampshire New Jersey 6 New Mexico New York+ 6 North Carolina 8 Ohio 8 Oregon Pennsylvania 6 Rhode Island Any rate. South Carolina Tennessee 6 Utah Any rate. Vermont Virginia 6 Washington Any rate. West Virginia .... Any rate. 12 PENALTIES FOR l/SCRY. GRACE OR NO GRACE. Forfeiture of entire interest. Grace. No penalty. Cirace. Forfeiture of principal and interest. Grace. No penalty. No grace. No penalty. * No grace. No penalty. No grace. Forfeiture of contract. Grace. Forfeiture of contract. No grace. Forfeiture of entire interest. No grace. No penalty. No grace. Forfeiture of entire interest. No grace. Forfeiture of 3 times excess of int'st. No grace. Forfeiture of entire interest. m No grace Forfeiture of excess of interest. Grace. Forfeiture of interest and costs, and 10 per cent, to school fund. No grace. Forfeiture of excess of interest. Grace. Forfeiture of entire interest. Grace. Forfeiture of entire interest. Grace. No penalty. Grace. Forfeiture of excess of interest. Grace. No penalty. Grace. Forfeiture of excess of interest. Grace. Forfeiture of contract. Grace. Forfeiture of entire interest. Grace. Forfeiture of entire interest. Grace. No penalty. Grace. Forfeiture of interest and cost. Grace. No penalty. No grace. Forfeiture of thrice the excess. Grace. Forfeiture of entire interest and costs. Grace. No penalty. No grace. Forfeiture of principal and interest. No grace. Forfeiture of twice the interest. Grace. Forfeiture of excess. No grace. Forfeiture of principal and interest. No grace. Forfeiture of excess of interest. Grace. No penalty. Grace. Forfeiture of interest. Grace. Forfeiture of excess of interest. No grace. Forfeiture of all interest. Grace. No penalty. No grace. Forfeiture of excess of interest. No grace. Forfeiture of excess. No grace. No penalty. Grace. Forfeiture of excess of interest. No grace. Forfeiture of entire interest. Grace. No penalty. Grace. Grace. Forfeiture of entire interest. Grace. * Except on promissory notes and bills of exchange. t $5,000 call loans on collateral, any rate. No agreement to pay a higher than the legal rate can be enforced unless it is expressly authorized by statute, the established presumption of the law, in the absence of such legislation, being that such a rate is usurious. 4io LAWS RELATING TO LIMITATION OK ACTIONS. ~7 The Laws of the United j&ateg aqd Caijada Relating to Limitatioq of ^ctiong. Note. — A statute of limitation heginsto run from the time at which a creditor is authorized first to commence suit. Upon mutual, concurrent and open accounts, the statute, in general, begins to run with the date of the last item. A debt, otherwise barred, may be revived by a new promise made within the period of limitation. The new promise may be either express or implied from a part payment, or any unqualified acknowledgment from which a promise may be inferred. * Alabama . Arkansas .. ♦Arizona . . California.. Colorado., Connecticut. Dakota, North &i South Delaware District of Columbia.... Florida Georgia •Idaho •Illinois .... • Indiana .. . •Iowa • Kansas... . • Kentucky . • Louisiana Maine Maryland • Massachusetts. Michigan • Minnesota Mississippi Missouri * Montana * Nebraska * Nevada New Hampshire. New Jersey New Mexico. .. . New York North Carolina . . •Ohio •Oregon * Pennsylvania, Rhode Island South Carolina. , •Tennessee •Texas •Utah •Vermont. Virginia ... •Washington. . West Virginia . • Wisconsin.,.. •Wyoming CANADA. Province of Ontario., Province of Quebec, Tears, a i, a I L> rears. 3 3 t i 6 6 6 6 6 I 3 6 SB JIM 6 6 6 10 10 6 6 6 6 3 IS 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 6 s I'rart. 10 S 4 4 10 5 '5 5 4 30 16 6 30 4l 4 a 30 6 10 30 30 £ < * Tears. '5 17 ■o§§ 10 5 5 30 30 »s 30 8 30 Judgments of Justice's court, 5 years. Judgment liens expire In 3 years. An action upon a judgment rendered or contract made out of the State is barred in 3 years. Whin the cause of action accrues without the State, the periods oflitnita- tion are 3 years for notes and accounts ; 3 years for sealed instruments and judgment--. Promissory notes not negotiable arc barred in 7 years. Demand notes, when indorsed, must be protested within 4 months from date, without grace, to hold the indorser. Judgments become dormant in 7 years from date of last return 00 execution issued, but may be revived. Foreign judgments barred in 5 years. Judgments become dormant in 5 years, unless revived. •'Store account" for goods sold and delivered, 3 years from 1st of January next succeeding date of last Hem. Merchandise accounts between mer- chants, 7 years. Witnessed notes, 30 years. Witnessed notes, 30 years. Years from date of last execution. Accounts stated, 3 years. Foreign judgments barred in 3 years. Liabilities incurred out of State, 3 years. For foreign judgments. Domestic judgments become dormant in 5 years, but may be revived. Man intile accounts are not alfectcd bv the statute as long as they remain opes. Action " for specific recovery of personal property," or " for relief on the ground ot fraud," 3 years, W itnessed notes, 14 years. Judgments of ether States, period of limitation under the law of that State, not exceeding 10 years. " Store account," 1 years. k Judgments of another State, same as in Virginia. "Store account," 1 Judgments of other States and sealed instruments, v. here the liabili crucd out of the State, 10 Years. Judgments become dormant in 5 years. Foreign debts and judgments, t • In the States thus marked, it is provide the statute ol limitations of that St:it statute period before he can take adv I Sander, 6 months. X Seals abolished. d by statute that a cause of action shall be barred which first accrued in another State and is barred by c. "This is contrary to the general rule, by which a debtor must have resided in the State during the antagc of it. || Ssnre accounts, 3 vears. VL (Assault, 4 years. $$ In certain courts, jo years. 1 Slander, 1 year. I Store accounts, 3 years. ^ BANKS AND BANKING. 411 iBaBacac^r:^^ 1 ^^■^r^r. l ^r,^^r^^i.^^:■^r^^r..^r^r:^^r^^^r..^P^r.^F;^rl^^!^r^r:.^r^^..■^r.^r^^^^^^^r^r-l^^ CaC[JLJLJL>ILJkJ^JlJtJLJ t JLAJLJLJt^JLJLJLJL^LJL'JtJLJLJLJLjLJUJLJLJLJL BANKING. c&n ff-2- .;-^>- -:> -*'9 BANK is, in the simplest sense of the Mft| r term, a place in which money can be )b stowed away for safe-keeping. But since the days when goldsmiths and others took care of the funds of such as trusted in their honor and the strength of the strong- boxes which were part of their stock in trade, the idea has been by degrees developed, until now a banking institution, with its means of supplying exchange and discount, its powers of circulation, its care of deposits and its atten- tion to correct accounts, is the embodiment of one of the most interesting as well as the most useful of modern sciences. One of the prime needs of every commercial community is an ample supply of banking capital and facilities for discount. The profit of the manufacturer, of the mer- chant and of the retail trader represents in the long run only the balance left after paying the current rate of interest, and if, in consequence of lack of banking capital, interest is higher in one city than in competing cities, all business will suffer, goods will not be bought, grain will not be handled, cotton will be out of reach, improvements will be postponed, and the city will be condemned to enforced idleness in many departments of endeavor where the busy wheels Jk= of industry would be started in motion if money could be borrowed on easy terms. How the Business is Carried On. The business of banking is divided into sev- eral departments or branches, Deposits, Circu- lation, Exchange, Collection, Discounts and Loans being the most important. On account of these different branches banks are frequently called Banks of Discount, Banks of Deposit, Savings Banks, etc. Banks of Deposit. A Bank of Deposit is one which receives money from depositors for safe-keeping, paying it back on their checks to others or to them- selves. The most important function of a bank is the receiving of deposits, the person thus entrusting his money to the care of the bank being called a depositor. He not only has the advantage of the safe-keeping of his cash, but the further convenience of making his payments from it whenever he chooses, by means of checks. As he will receive payments from others in a similar manner, and deposit them as money, it will at once be seen that an immense volume of business can be transacted, and vast sums of v- r ~- I K~ 412 BANKS AND BANKING. t, money paid out, without the handling of any cash. In Europe it is quite different. The holder of a check presents it to the bank and re- ceives the money. The system of payment by checks, which are deposited as money, is more universally practiced in the United States and Canada than in any other part of the world. The safe-keeping of his money, and the con- venience of his check account, together with other favors he receives in the way of discounts, loans, exchange, etc., are generally regarded as sufficient compensation for the use of a deposi- tor's funds. A person desiring to make a single deposit, to be withdrawn in the same amount, receives from the bank a Certificate of Deposit. This is issued by the bank itself, is payable at any stated time, or on demand, and may bear interest. Banks of Circulation. The issue by a bank of its promises to pay, in the form of bank notes or bills, is called its cir- culation. These notes or bills, being guaranteed by the Government, answer as a substitute for money. The Government holds, as security, bonds belonging to the bank, to a still larger amount, and also retains a five per cent fund for immediate redemption. Only the National Banks issue a circulation, as a tax of ten per cent would be levied upon any other kind of circulating notes. Circulating notes called " Greenbacks " are issued by the National Treasury, which thus performs the office of a Bank of Circulation. Various opinions exist as to the propriety of the Government exercising this function. Some hold that it is not right or proper for the Gov- ernment to be engaged in the banking business, while others contend that the Government alone should have the power to issue paper currency. Others, again, believe the Government should hold a dollar of coin in the Treasury for every paper dollar in circulation. Banks of Exchange. A Bank of Exchange is one which receives money on deposit, and, instead of paying it back to the depositor, makes payments by drafts on other banks. It keeps money on deposit at the principal trade centres, thus affording the advan- tage of sending money to different points at a tri- fling expense and without risk in transportation. It charges the person who desires to remit a small amount for its services, and sells him its draft on the place to which the remittance is to be sent. The system is known as Inland and Foreign Exchange, Inland Exchange con- sisting of a draft drawn and payable in the State or country, and Foreign Exchange being a draft drawn in one country and payable in another. Foreign Exchange involves also the reduction of the money of one country into that of another. What is Bank Discount? Bank Discount is the payment of a note or other paper before it is due, deducting the interest that would have accrued at maturity. A note or draft is discounted when the interest for the given time and at the given rate is taken from the face, and the balance paid to the holder. The sum deducted is the discount ; the remainder is the proceeds. Bank Officers and Employes. The stockholders of an incorporated bank elect a Board of Directors, who manage its affairs. These elect a President, one or more Vice-Presidents, and a Cashier. The Cashier is the executive officer of the bank and controls its interior management. He is assisted by a number of employes. The principal ones are the Paying Teller and the Receiving Teller, who are at the head of the debit and credit departments ; the Note Teller ; the Discount Clerks ; the Collection Clerks ; the Book-keepers, each in charge of certain ledgers ; Assistant Tellers ; Assistant Book-keepers; Check-Clerks and Messengers, or " Runners." :r HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK. 4'3 SN doing business with a bank, the first step is to secure a proper introduction to the cashier. If one's references are all right, the depositor's signature is put on record i) \ in the "signature-book," giving the name as he intends •"^S" to sign it on his checks. This is done to furnish the paying teller with an accurate means of judging the genuine- ness of the signatures of checks — a very necessary precaution, as the bank is responsible for the genuineness of the signa- tures of all checks. When a partnership account is opened, each member of the firm who is allowed to sign checks writes the firm's name and his own in the signature-book. Deposits. When money is deposited in a bank, some voucher should be taken. This is done usually by the teller writing the amount of the deposit in the small bank-book of the depositor, and sometimes a receipt, called a teller's check, is given. When a deposit is made, the bank usually issues a small "hand- book," to be carried in the pocket, in which an account is kept by the teller of the bank of all the transactions which follow. After the opening deposit, when it is intended to pay in more money, the depositor fills out a blank, showing the amount paid in and indicating whether it is in checks or current funds. This ticket, with the book and the money, is handed to the teller, who enters the date and amount. When a note is left for collection, it is usually entered by the collection clerk in the back part of the book, giving date, maker's name, maturity, and amount. When collected, the amount, less collection charges, is placed in the book as a regular deposit. Few merchants keep a separate account with a bank in their general books, the "bank-book" and the stubs of the check-book being sufficient, and in themselves vouchers of the transaction. How to Keep the Stub of Check-Book. In drawing a check, insert all the particulars in the stub before doing so in the body of the check ; also the purpose for which the check is drawn. The left-hand page of the stub is intended for the purpose of entering your deposits ; the right-hand page for the de- scription of the checks. When both sides are footed up, the excess of the left-hand total over the right shows the balance remaining to your credit in bank. By following the form here given, it will be found much preferable to subtracting each check, as many do, wnich makes the tracing of an error very difficult: Nov. 6 Deposit. Coin $ IOO.OO Bills 200.00 Check. Willi 6O.OO 37-50 666.66 Nov.S, Bills. Deposit. Nov. 9, Deposit. Check, B. Dixon. ?3 216.14 983-30 2,233.84 $2,064 1,000 $3."6 '4 16 00 98 No. 1. Nov. 7, 1S93. Amount Order of T. A. Lament. No. J. Nov. 8, 1893. Amount Order of L. H. Peterson. No. 3. Nov. 11, 1893. Amount Order of J. M. Whitney. $200 "S 658 I9S3 3° 30 The totals are carried forward to the next pages in this manner : Forward, Etc. $3,216 14 :, Forward, Etc. $983 30 Balancing a Bank-Book. Checks paid are not entered up in the bank-book as they are presented for payment, but are filed away, and at the end of a month, or, indeed, whenever the depositor desires to have his account balanced, the book is presented and the balance figured up by the teller, who enters it usually in red ink under the paid checks on the right-hand side. The book should then be ruled up, and the balance in bank carried over to the left-hand side, similar to the first entry. When the depositor calls for his book, all the cancelled checks are passed out to him along with the account. How to Draw and Endorse a Check. A check is a written order on a bank directing that a certain amount of money be paid to a person whose name is given, or to the order of that person, or to the bearer. A check is the simplest form of negotiable paper, although there are checks which are not negotiable. There is no set form for the wording of a check. Any dated demand upon 4*4 HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK. *t a bank in which the person signing has money, properly signed, is a check, and will draw the money. Some- times the words "or order" are used; sometimes, "or bearer." Occasionally checks are made payable to "the bearer" without giving any name. If the words "or order" and "or bearer" are both omitted, then the check is not nego- tiable, and can be paid only to the person named. In theory a check is a sight draft, which does not need acceptance, as it is paid on presentation. All banks keep printed forms of checks, which they issue to depositors. When a check is made payable to the payee "or order," it must be endorsed by the payee before payment. Generally, all checks, whether "to order" or "to bearer," should be endorsed, which is by writing the name of the payee across the back. Certified Checks. If all men were perfectly honest, certified checks would never have been thought of. But men will occasionally draw against deposits which exist only in their imaginations, and to meet this growing evil, certification of checks has been introduced. No uncertified check from a stringer should be received by any business man. The certifying means that the person drawing the paper has funds to his credit to the amount of the check, and the bank guarantees its payment. To get a check certified, it is presented either to the paying teller or the cashier of the bank om which it is drawn. The bank officer writes across the face, "Certified," with the date, and signs. Another form used very frequently are the words, "Good when properly endorsed," with the signature. This makes the bank liable for the check, even if it is a forgery or a fraudulent one. The certification of a check is the same as the acceptance of a draft. Banking Frauds. 1L Forged Checks. — Despite the precautions taken by banks in keeping a signature-book, it frequently happens that astute rogues deceive them with forgeries. This is the most danger- ous crime in the business world, as it strikes at the root of confidence. Some forgers are so expert that they are able to imitate a signature so closely that even the one whose na.-ue is forged can only swear that he did not make out the check, and will not be able to pick out the forged signature by itself from the genuine. All of the responsibility of detecting forgeries is thrown upon the receiving teller of the bank. Every check is paid by the bank at its own risk, and it has no recourse against the person whose name is forged. A forgery cannot be rectified by the person whose name was used, as this rectification would be contrary to public policy, and would tend to shield a crime which, unpunished, would break the whole commercial fabric. RAISED CHECKS. A device of sharpers which is frequently attended with great success is so to alter the wording and the figures of a check that it will call for more money than the drawer in- tended to pay. This is called "raising a check," and is a felony. Check-raising is only possible when the check is loosely written, with a number of blank places where words may be inserted. Care should be taken always to fill in the empty spaces with lines of ink. If a raised check is paid by a bank it can only charge the depositor with the amount for which he drew. A very common device, and a good one, used by many merchants, is to stamp the amount of money written on the check with an instrument having a number of sharp points, which so roughens the paper that it is impos- sible to write anything more on it, although it leaves the original writing legible. ALTERED CHECKS. Altered checks differ from raised checks from the fact that in an altered check all of the original writing except the signa- ture, date and number is taken out with chemicals, which leaves the check blank. It is then rewritten for any amount the swindler desires to put in. CRAFTS AND BILLS OF EXCHANGE.^ A draft may be described as an order or request, written by one person to another, asking the latter to pay a specified sum of money to a third party, or to his order, or to the bearer. Bills of exchange are drafts under another name. An inland bill is a draft drawn and payable in the same State or country, and a foreign bill of exchange is drawn in one country and payable in another. Remittances can be made much more safely and expeditiously by sending bi'.ls of exchange than by sending money. If lost, the draft may be duplicated. To provide against this contingency, in sending drafts over sea, it is customary to draw two or three for the same remittance, and when one of these is paid, the others are void; but the great and increasing accuracy of the world's postal systems has largely removed the necessity for sending more than one bill of exchange. So much for definitions. We will now examine drafts and their forms. How Drafts are Drawn. In a draft, as in a note, any form which includes the neces- sary requirements will be held good in law. no matter how these may be arranged. Still, custom has, in a measure, crystallized on certain lines. run rn r-t Li J $600. Chicago, April ttt, 7S9J. At Ten Days sight pay U the trder 0/ Edwin Russell Six Hundred Do!:*rs. value received, with current rate of exchange. Dtnohue £ Ct. To Simon Htkadar, I St. Ltttit, Me. ( HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK. 4'5 The theory upon which a draft is drawn is that the drawer has or will have funds in the hands of drawee at the maturity of the draft, or that the drawee is indebted to him. Sometimes drafts are drawn by agreement when there is no indebtedness. It must be borne in mind that there is much difference in the liability between a note and a draft. The maker of a note must pay it; the drawer of a draft is only liable after the drawee has refused to pay. The drawee only becomes liable when he has accepted the draft. When the draft is presented, if it is a sight draft, no acceptance is necessary, except where the State law allows days of grace. The draft is simply to be paid at once. But when it is to be paid at a certain time after sight, the drawee must formally accept it, which is done by writing across the face of the paper the word " Accepted, " with the date and the signature of the person accepting. This acceptance is a legal promise to pay. When the draft is presented, the drawee can demand a reasonable time to make up his mind whether to accept or not, whereupon it may be left with him one day. If he re- fuses to return it at the end of that time, he can be held as accepting. The place for presentment is the business office or residence of the payee. Non-Acceptance. When the drawee refuses to accept the draft, it is said to be " dishonored." It must be at once protested, and notice sent to all parties who are consequently liable. The protest must be made on the same day that the draft is dishonored, and the notice sent at least by the day following. The pro- test should be made by a notary public ; but, if one is not accessible, it can be made by any respectable citizen. A Protest. A protest is a declaration made by a notary public against the loss which may follow the non-acceptance of a draft, its non-payment, or the non-payment of a note. To illustrate the machinery of the protest we will return for a moment to the draft, the form for which has been given above. Mr. Hockaday refuses to accept the draft drawn on him by Donohue & Co. It is placed in the hands of a notary public, who again presents the draft to Hockaday and de- mands its acceptance. He refuses, whereupon a form is filled out testifying to the facts in the case, especially Hocka- day's refusal to accept, all of which is attested by the notary. No person can be held responsible for payment unless notice of protest is sent to him as early as the day following the protest. These notices should be sent to the maker and to each endorser of the draft. NOTICE OF PROTEST. St. Louis, April 7th, 1893. Please to cake Notice : That a Draft drawn by yourself on Simon Hockaday, of St. Louis, Mo., for the sum of One Thousand Dollars, dated April 1st, 1893. was this day Protested for non- acceptance, and that the holder looks to you for the payment thereof, acceptance having been duly demanded by me and refused. Commissioned June 1st, 1893. ^ jS. Oldfield Commission expires June 1st, 1S04. \ ' J ' Notary Public. To Donohue & Co., Chicago, III. An acceptance "supra-protest" is the name given to the acceptance of the draft by some person other than the drawee, " for the honor of the drawee." The draft is then held till maturity, and presented to the drawee as though he had accepted it. If he refuses to pay, it is protested, and the person making the "acceptance supra-protest" is liable for the amount. Foreign Bills of Exchange. The principles which we have been examining above apply with equal force to foreign bills of exchange. These are now commonly drawn in sets of two, so that each may be sent by a different ship, and they are always to be payable in the money current in the country where the payment is to be made. Exchange for £200. St. Louis, August 8th, 1893. At sight of this First of Exchange (second unpaid) pay to the order of Philip Francis Two Hundred Pounds Sterling, value received, and charge same to account of Wilmot Baring. To Cunningham, Shaw The national banks pay to the United States a tax of I per cent annually upon the average amount of their notes in circula- tion, J4 per cent annually upon the average amount of their deposits, and y z per cent annually upon the average amount of capital not invested in U. S. bonds. Banks other than national pay taxes to the United States on account of their circulation, deposits and capital at the same rates as are paid by the national banks. National Bank Circulation. Every national bank, before it is authorized to commence business, must transfer to the Treasurer of the United States registered bonds, bearing interest to an amount not less than one-fourth of the capital stock paid in, as security for its circu- lating notes. Banks having a capital of more than $150,000 shall be required to deposit bonds to the amount of one-third of their capital stock. Upon a deposit of registered bonds, the association making the same will receive from the Comptroller of the Currency cir- culating notes of different denominations, in blank, equal in amount to 90 per cent of the current market value, not exceed- ing par, of the bonds so deposited. The circulating notes of national banks are redeemed in law- ful money by the banks which issue them, and by the Treasurer of the United States at Washington. Every national bank must, at all times, keep and have on deposit in the Treasury of the United States, in lawful money, a sum equal to 5 per cent of its circulation, to be held and used for the redemption of such cir- culation. A bank going into voluntary liquidation must, within six months thereafter, deposit in the Treasury a sum equal to the amount of circulating notes outstanding. The law also requires that full provision shall be made for the redemption of the circu- lating notes of any insolvent bank before a dividend is made to its creditors. No association, therefore, can close up its business without first providing for the payment of all its circulating notes, and the amounts deposited for their redemption must remain in the Treasury until the last outstanding note shall have been pre- sented. Thus the Government, and noi the bank, receives all the benefit arising from lost or unredeemed circulating notes. ..o^o- <^ £7"-X^ s -E^fe sJ ZT - 'S^ s STOCKS < -AND ♦ BONDS f HE CAPITAL of a corporation is always divided into shares ranging from $10 to $1,000, but usually of $100 each. These shares are known as stock, and represent an interest in the property and profits of the company over and above liabilities and expenses. A dividend is the distribution of the profits, proportionate to num- ber of shares held among the stockholders. Stock certificates are written instruments, signed by the proper officers of the company, and certifying that the holder is the owner of a certain number of shares of the capital stock. These certificates are transferable, and may be bought and sold the same as other species of property. The sum for which each share or certificate was issued is the par value, and the amount for which it can be sold the market value. -^ 28 -v / STOCKS AND BONDS — GOVKRNMF.XT BONDS. Preferred Stock. This kind of stock takes preference of the ordinary stock of a corporation, and the holders are entitled to a stated per cent an- nually out of the net earnings before a dividend can be declared on the common stock. Preferred stocks are generally the result of reorganization, although sometimes issued in payment of float- ing or unsecured debts. How Stock is "Watered." Sometimes the charter of a corporation forbids the declaring of a dividend exceeding a certain per cent of the par value of its stock. In this case the directors may find it desirable to " water" the stock — that is, issue additional shares. This increase in the number of shares of course reduces the percentage of dividend, although the same profit in the aggregate is secured to the stock- holders. BONDS. A bond is in the nature of a promissory note — the obligation of a corporation, state, county or city to pay a certain sum of money at a certain time, with interest payable at fixed periods or upon certain conditions. The bond of a company may be a perfectly safe investment, when the stock is not ; and the stock of a prosperous and suc- cessful company, paying large dividends or having a large sur- plus, may sell at a higher price than the bonds of the same com- pany, the income from which is limited to the agreed rate of interest which they bear. A much closer scrutiny should be made of a company's standing when one thinks of investing in its share capital, than when it is the intention to loan the com- pany money on its mortgage bonds. Generally the bonds of business corporations are secured by mortgage, but some classes of bonds are dependent on the solv- ency or good faith of the company issuing them. The coupons attached to bonds represent the different install- ments of interest, and are to be cut ofl" and collected from time to time as the interest becomes payable. Bonds are sometimes issued without coupons, and are then called registered bonds. Such bonds are payable only to the registered owner, and the interest on these is paid by check. Convertible bonds are such as contain provisions whereby they may be exchanged for stock, lands or other property. Bonds are known as First Mortgage, Second Mortgage, etc., Debentures, Consols, Convertible Land Grant, Sinking Fund, Adjustment, Income or otherwise, according to their priority of lien, the class of property upon which they are secured, etc. Income bonds are generally bonds on which the interest is only payable if earned, and ordinarily are not secured by mortgage. Bonds are also named from the rate of interest they bear, or from the dates at which they are payable or redeemable, or from both; as, U. S. 4's 1907, Virginia 6's, Western Union 7's, cou- pon, 1900, Lake Shore reg. 2d, 1903. GOVERNMENT BONDS. jUR GOVERNMENT found it necessary to borrow large sums of money to prosecute the war of the Rebellion, and in return issued interest-bearing bonds. All of these bonds now outstanding are payable in coin, except only the currency 6's, and all are exempt from taxation. The following is a complete list of bonds outstanding in 1892 : 4)^'s of 1891 — Continued at 2 per cent. Author- ized by acts of July 14, 1870, and Jan. 20, 1871, and issued for the purpose of funding the 5-20 and 10-40 bonds. The original issue was $250,000,000. In 1891, in view of the requirements of the sinking fund for 1892, it was deemed advisable to suspend the redemption of these bonds until aftar that year should begin, and to reserve the residue of the loan for readjustment. The amount outstanding subject to settlement at the option of the Government after Sept. 1, 1891, was $50,869,200. The holders of the bonds were offered their choice of presenting them for redemption with interest to Sept. 2, or for continuance at the pleasure of the Government with interest at 2 per cent. Amount outstanding at 2 per cent, $25,364,500. 4's OF 1907. Authorized by acts of July 14, 1870, and Jan- uary 20, 1 87 1, and issued for the purpose of funding the 5-20 and 10-40 bonds. Redeemable at option of Government after 30 years from their date, or after July 1, 1907. Currency 6's. Issued to aid in construction of the Pacific railroads, and authorized by acts of July 1, 1862, and July a, 1864. Principal and interest payable in lawful money of the United States. Payable 30 years after date, and maturing at different dates from 1895 to 1899. Refunding Certificates. Authorized by act of February 26, 1879. These certificates are of the denomination of Jio, bear interest at 4 per cent, and are convertible at any time, with accrued interest, into 4 per cent bonds. All Government lionds are dealt in and quoted " flat " — that is to say, the quoted market price is for the bond as it stands at the time, including the accrued interest — except that after the closing of the transfer books the registered bonds are quoted ex-interest — that is to say, the interest then coming due belongs to the holder of the bond at the time of the closing of the books, and does not go with the bond to the purchaser. Coupon bonds, being payable to bearer, pass by delivery with- out assignment, and are therefore more convenient for sale and delivery than registered bonds, which must be assigned by the party in whose name they are registered. The interest coupons, being also payable to the bearer, will be cashed by any bank or banker. The interest on registered bonds is paid by checks, made to the order of the registered owner and sent to him by mail. These checks, when properly endorsed, can be collected and cashed through any bank or banker. Coupon bonds may 1* converted into registered bonds of the same issue, but there is no provision of law for converting regis- tered bonds into coupon bonds. Y- ) «M * §§ ••• • r steel, except saw plates hereinafter provided for, not thinner than number ten wire gauge, sheared or un- sheared, and skelp iron or steel sheared or rolled in grooves, valued at one cent per pound or less, five-tenths of one cent per pound; valued above one cent and not above one and four-tenths cents per pound, sixty-five hundredths of one cent per pound; valued above one and four-tenths cents and not above two cents per pound, eight-tenths of one cent per pownd; valued above two cents and not above three cents per pound, one and one-tenth cents per pound; valued above three cents and not above four cents per pound, one and five-tenths cents per pound; valued above four cents and not above seven cents per pound, two cents per pound; valued above seven cents and not above ten cents per pound, two and eight-tenths cents per pound; valued above ten cents and not above thirteen cents per pound, three and one-half cents per pound; valued above thirteen cents per pound, forty-five per centum ad valorem: Provided, That all plate iron or steel thinner than number ten wire gauge shall pay duty as iron or steel sheets. [Old law: Boiler or other plate iron, one and one-fourth cents per pound if iron; forty-five per centum if steel.) 139. Forgings of iron or steel, or forged iron and steel combined, of whatever shape, or in whatever stage of manufacture, not specially pro- vided for in this act, two and three-tenths cents per pound: J'rovided, That no forgings of iron or steel, orforgingsof iron and steel combined, by whatever process made, shall pay a less rate of duty than forty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law; Forgings of iron and steel, or forged iron, of whatever shape, or in whatever stage of manufacture, not specially enumerated or pro- vided for in this act, two and one-half cents per pound, I 140. Hoop, or band, or scroll, or other iron or ■tea), valued at three cents per pound or less, eight bjtchea or leal in width, and MM than three- eighths of OM Inch thick and" not thinner than number ten wtra gauge, ona cam par pound; thinner than noma r ten wire gang* and not thinner than number twenty wire gang*, one and one-tenth cents per pound; thinner than number twenty wire n nd three-tenth per pound: Provided, TntthoopQI hand iron, or hoop 01 band ■tad, cnl to length, or wholly or partially manufactured into hoops or ties for bal- ing purpoaaa, barrel hoops of iron or steel, and hoop or band iron, or hoop or band steel flared, ■played, or pun. bed, with or without buckles or fastenings, shall pay two- tenths* of one cent per pound mora duty than dial linnoaad on the hoop or band Iron or ■tad from wbicn they are made. [Old law: Hoop, or band, Of KTOll, M other iron, eight inches or less in width, and not thinner than number ten wire Range, one cent per pound, thinner than numlier ten wire gauga, and not thinner than number twenty wire gauge, one and two-tenths of one cent per pound; thinner than number twanty wire gauge, one and tour tenths of one cent per pound: /'raided. That all articles not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, whether wholly 01 pastry manuntrrnred, made from sheet, plafc d or scroll iron herein provided for or of which such sheet, plate, hoop, band Off scroll iron shall l>e the material of chief value, sh nrth of one cent per pound mora dntv than thai imposed on the iron from win. h they an- made, or which shall be such j Ofcttnf value. If steel, forty f' centum: Iron and ataalootbM) tie*, or hoops for baling purpOtaa, not thinner than number twenty Vi pel iMiturn ad valorem. ■ t iron, C0C9 mon or black, thinner than one in. h and ■ and not thinner than number twenty wire gauge, one and one truth of one cent per pound: thinner than number twenty wire gauge and not thinner than number twine. 00a and two-tontha of on* cam pej ponndj Uunnei than number twenty-live wire gauge and not thinner than number twenty-nine wire gauge, one and five-tenths of one cent per pound, thinner than number twenty-nine wire gauge, and all iron commercially known as common or black taggers iron, whether put up in boxes or bundle* or not, thirty per centum ad valorem 1 141. Kailway-bars, made of iron or steel, and railway-bars made in part of steel, T -rails, and punched iron or steel flat rails, six-tenths of one cent per pound . [Old law: Iron or steel tee ratta weighing not over twenty-five pounds t» the yard, nine-tenths of one cent per pound; iron or steel Aat rails, punched, eight-tenths of one cent per pound. Iron railway bars, weighing more than twenty-five pounds to the yard, seven-tenths of one cent per pound , Steel railway ban and rail- way bars made in pan of steel, weighing more than twenty-five pounds to the yard, seventeen dollars per ton] 142. Sheets of iron or steel, common or black, including all iron or steel commercially known as common or black tagger* iron or steel, and skelp iron or steel, valued at three cents per pound or less: Thinner than number ten and not thinner than number twenty wire gauge, one cent per pound; thinner than number twenty wire gauge, and not thinner than number twenty-five wire gauge, one and one-tenths cents per pound; thinner than number twenty-five wire gauge, one and four-tenths cents per pound; corrugated or crimped, one and four-tenths cents per pound: Provided, 1'hat all common or black sheet iron, or sheet steel not thinner than number ten wire gauge shall pay duty as plate iron or plate steel. [Old law: Sheet iron, common or black, thinner than one inch and one-half and not thinner than number twenty wire gauge, one and one-tenth of one cent per pound: thinner t ha n number twenty wire gauge and not thinner than number twenty-five wire gauge, one and two- tenths of one cent per pound; thinner than number twenty-five wire gauge and not thinner than number twenty -nine wire gauge, one and five-tenths of one cent per pound: thinner than number twenty-nine wire gauge and all iron com- menally known as common or black taggers iron, whether put up in boxes or bundles or not, thirty per centum ad valorem.] 143. All iron or steel sheets or plates, and ail hoop, band or scroll iron or steel, excepting what are known commercially as tin plates, terne plates, and taggers tin, and hereinafter provided for. when galvanized or . oated with /inc or spelter, or other metals, or any alloy of those metals, shall pay three 'fourths of one cent per pound more duty than the rates imposed by the preceding paragraph upon the corresponding gauges or forms, of common or black sheet or taggers iron or steel; and on and after July first. 1 hundred and ninety-one, all iron or steel sheets or plates, or taggers iron coated with tin or lead or with a mixture of which these met.ds or either of them is a component pan, by the dipping or any other process, and commer- cially known as tin plates, terne plates, and tag- gers tin, shall pay two and two-tenths cents per pound: Provided, That, on and after July first, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, manufacturer* of whii h tin, tin plates, terne plates, tagger-, tin. or either Of them, are component materials of chief value, and all articles, vessels or wares manufactured, stamped or drawn from sheet Iroa) or sheet steel, such material being the compooent I .due, and coated wholly or in pan « or lead or a mixture of which these metals or cither of them is a component pan. shall pay the ftfry five per centum ad valorem vided. That on and after ( October first, eigh t een hundred and ninety seven, tin plates and terne ■hrer pmrwtr ired square feet shall be admitted free of duty unless it shall be made to appear to the sat- isfaction of the Prestdem (who shall thereupon by proclamation make known the met) that the ag- gregate quantity of MM h plates lighter than three pounds per hundred square feet produced an the United States dui I the *ta year* next preceding June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety seven, ha* equalled one third the amount of such plates imported and entered far I non during any ft** al year after the pas- sage of this act , and prior to said October first, / THE TARIFF. — jSpH / 4 2 3 eighteen hundred and ninety-seven: Provided ', That, the amount of such plates manufactured into articles exported, and upon which a draw- back shall be paid, shall not be included in as- certaining the amount of such importations: And Provided further , That the amount or weight of sheet iron or sheet steel manufactured in the United States and applied or wrought in the manufacture of articles or wares tinned or terne- plated in the United States, with weight allow- ance u sold to manufacturers or others, shall be considered as tin and terne plates produced in the United States within ;he meaning of this act. [Old law: And provided. That on all such iron and steel sheets or plates aforesaid, excepting on what are known commercially as tin plates, terne f)lates, and taggers tin, and hereafter provided or, when galvanized or coated with zinc or spel- ter, or other metals, or any alloy of those metals, three-fourths of one cent per pound additional. Iron or steel sheets, or plates, or taggers iron, coated with tin or lead, or with a mixture of which these metals is a component part, by the dipping or any other process, and commercially known as tin plates, terne plates, and taggers tin, one cent per pound; corrugated or crimped sheet-iron or steel, one and four-tenths of one cent per pound. Manufacturers of tin, forty-five per centum.] 144. Sheet-iron or sheet-steel polished, plan- ished or glanced, by whatever name designated, two and one-half cents per pound: Provided, • That plate or sheet or taggers iron or steel, by whatever name designated, other than the pol- ished, planished or glanced, herein provided for, which has been pickled or cleaned by acid, or by any other material or process, or which is cold-rolled, smoothed only, not polished, shall pay one-quarter of one cent per pound more duty than the corresponding gauges of common or black sheet or taggers iron or steel. [Old law: The words in italics in this paragraph are new matter.] 145. Sheets or plates of iron or steel, or taggers iron or steel, coated with tin or lead, or with a mixture of which these metals, or either of them, is a component part, by the dipping or any other process, and commercially known as tin plates, terne plates, and taggers tin, one cent per pound until July first, eighteen hundred and ninety- one. 146. Steel ingots, cogged ingots, blooms, and slabs, by whatever process made; die blocks or blanks; billets and bars and tapered or beveled bars; steamer, crank, and other shafts; shafting; wrist or crank pins; connecting-rods and pisto»- rods; pressed, sheared or stamped shapes; saw- plates, wholly or partially manufactured; ham- mer-molds or swaged steel; gun-barrel molds not in bars; alloys used as substitutes for steel tools; all descriptions and shapes of dry sand, loam, or iron-molded steel castings; sheets and plates not specially provided for in this act; and steel in all formsai.d shapes not specially provided forin this act ; all of the above valued at one cent per pound or less, four-tenths of one cent per pound; valued above one cent and not above one and four-tenths cents per pound, five-tenths of one cent per pound; valued above one and four-tenths cents and not aboveone and eight-tenths cents per pound, eight- n nthsnfonecent per pound; valued above one and eight-tenths cents and not above two and two- tenths cents per pound, nine-tenths of one cent per pound; valued above two and two-tenths cents, and not above three cents per pound, one and two-tenths cents per pound; valued above three cents and not above four cents per pound, one and six-tenths cents per pound; valued above four cents and not above seven cents per pound, two cents per pound; valued above seven cents and not above ten cents per pound, two and eight -tenths cents per pound; valued above ten cents and not above thirteen cents per pound, three and one-half cents per pound; valued above thirteen cents and not above sixteen cents per pound, four and two-tenths cents per pound; valued above sixteen cents per pound, seven cents per pound. [Old law: Steel ingots, cogged bigots, Mo.mis, and slabs, by whatever process modi : (He blocks or blanks; billets and bars and tapered or beveled bars; bands, hoops, strips, and sheets of all gauges and widths; plates of all thicknesses and widths; steamer, crank, and other shafts; wrist or crank pins; connecting-rods and piston-rods; pressed, sheared, or stamped shapes, or blanks of sheet or plate steel, or combination of steel and iron, punched or not punched; ham- mer-molds or swaged steel; gun-molds, not in bars; alloys used as substitutes for steel tools; all descriptions and shapes of dry sand, loam, or iron- molded steel castings.all of the above classes of steel not otherwise specially provided for in this act valued at four cents a pound or less, forty-five per centum ad valorem; above four cents a pound and not above seven cents per pound, two cents per pound; valued above seven cents and not above ten cents per pound, two and three-fourths cents per pound; valued at above ten cents per pound, three and one-fourth cents per pound.] 147. Wire rods: Rivet, screw, fence anj other iron or steal wire rods, and nail rods whether round, oval, flat, square, or in any other shape, in coils or otherwise, not smaller than number six wire gauge, valued at three and one-half cents or less per pound, six-tenths of one cent per pound; and iron or steel, flat, with longitudinal ribs for the manufacture of fencing, valued at three cents or less per pound, six-tenths of one cent per pound: Provided, That all iron or steel rods, whether rolled or drawn through dies, smaller than number six wire gauge, shall be classed and dutiable as wire. [Old Taw: Iron or steel rivet, screw, nail, and fence, wire rods, round, in coils and loops, not lighter than num- ber five wire gauge, valued at three and one-half cents or less per pound, six-tenths of one cent per pound. Iron or steel, flat, with longitudinal ribs for the manufacture of fencing, six-tenths of a cent per pound.] 148. Wire: Wire made ofiron or steel, not smaller than number ten wire gauge, one and one-fourth cents per pound; smaller than number ten, and not smaller than number sixteen wire guage, one and three-fourths cents per pound; smaller than number sixteen and not smaller than number twenty-six wire gauge, two and one- fourth cents per pound; smaller than number twenty-six wire gauge, three cents per pound: I'rovided, That iron or steel wire covered with cotten, silk or other material, and wires or strip steel, commonly known as crinoline-wire, corset- wire and hat-wire, shall pay a duty of five cents per pound: And provided further, That flat steel wire or sheet steel in strips, whether drawn through dies or rolls, untempered or tempered, of whatsoever width, twenty-five one thousandths of an inch thick or thinner (ready for use or other- wise), shall pay a duty of fifty per centum ad valorem: And Proznded further, That no article made from iron or steel wire, or of which iron or steel wire is a component part of chief value, shall pay a less rate of duty than the iron or steel wire from which it is made either wholly or in part: And Provided further, That iron or steel wire-cloths, and iron or steel wire-nettings made in neshes of any form, shall pay a duty equal 'n amount to that imposed on iron or steel wire .sed in the manufacture of iron or steel wire cloth, or iron or steel wire nettings, and two cents ^er pound in addition thereto. [Old law: Smaller than number ten gauge, one and one-half and two cents per pound; number ten to number sixteen gauge, two cents; number sixteen to number twenty-six gauge, two and one-half cents; smaller, three cents. Provided , That iron or steel wire covered with cotton, silk, or other material, and wire commonly known as crinoline, corset and hat-wire, shall pay four cents per pound in ad- dition to the foregoing rates: And provided further, That no article made from iron or I steel wire, or of which iron or steel wire is a com- I ponent part of chief value, shall pay a less rate of j duty than the iron or steel wire from which it is 1 made, either wholly or in part: And provided j further. That iron or steel wire-cloths, and iron or steel wire-nettings, made in meshes of any form, shall pay a duty equal in amount to that imposed on iron or steel wire of the same gauge, and two cents per pound in ad- dition thereto. There shall be paid on gal van - ' ized iron or steel wire (except fence wire) one- half of one cent per pound in addition to the rate imposed on the wire of which it is made. On iron wire-rope and wire-strand, one cent per pound in addition to the rates imposed on the wire of which it is made. On steel wire-rope and wire- strand, two cents per pound in addition to the rates imposed on the wire of which it is made.] There shall be paid on iron or steel wire coated with zinc or tin, or any other metal (except fence- wire and iron or steel, flat, with longitudinal ribs, for the manufacture of fencing), one-half of one cent per pound in addition to the rate imposed on the wire of which it is made; on iron wire-rope and wire-strand, one cent per pound in addition to the rate imposed on the wire of which it is made; on steel wire-rope and wire-strand, two cent' per pound in addition to the rate imposed on the wire of which they or either of them are made: Provided further. That all iron or steel wire valued at more than four cents per pound shall pay a duty of not less than forty-five per centum ad valorem except that card-wire for the manu- facture of card clothing shall pay a duty of thirty- five per centum ad valorem. General Provisions. 140. No allowance or reduction of duties for partial loss or damage in consequence of rust ©r of discoloration shall be made upon any description of iron or steel, or upon any article wholly or* partly manufactured of iron or steel, or upon any manufacture ofiron and steel. 150 AH metal produced from iron or its ores, which is cast and malleable, of whatever de- scription or form, without regard to the per- centage of carbon contained therein whether pro- duced by cementation, or converted, cast or made from iron or its ores, by the crucible, Bes- semer, Clapp-Gri fliths, pneumatic, Thomas-Gil- christ, basic, Siemens-Martin, or open-hearth process, or by the equivalent of either, or by a combination of two or more of the processes, or their equivalents, or by any fusion or other pro- cess which produces from iron or its ores a metal either granular or fibrous in structure, which is cast and malleable, excepting what is known as malleable-iron castings, shall be classed and de- nominated as steel. 151. No article not specially provided for in this act, wholly or partly manufactured from tin plate, terne plate, or the sheet, plate, hoop, band or scroll iron or steel herein provided for, or of which such tin plate, terne plate, sheet, plate, hoop, band or scroll iron or steel shall be the ma- terial of chief value, shall pay a lower rate of duty than that- imposed on the tin plate, terne plate, or sheet, plate, hoop, band, or scroll iron or steel from which it is made, or of which it shall be the component thereof of chief value. [Not in old law.] 152. On all iron or steel bars or rods of -what- ever shape or section, which are cold rolled, cold hammered, or polished in any way in addi- tion to the ordinary process of hot rolling or ham- mering, there shall be paid one-fourth of one cent per pound in addition to the rates provided in this act; and on all strips, plates or sheets of iron or steel of whatever shape, other than the Polished, planished or glanced sheet-iron or sheet-steel hereinbefore provided for ,which are cold rolled, cold hammered, Slued, brightened, tempered or polished by any process to such Perfected surface finish, or polish better than the grade of cold rolled, smooth only, herein- before proinded for, there shall be paid one and one-fourth cents per pound in addition to the rates provided in this act upon plates, strips, or sheets of iron or steel of common or black finish; and on steel circular saw piates there shall be paid one cent per pound in addition to the rate provided in this act for steel saw plates. Manufactures of Iron and Steel. 153. Anchors or parts thereof of iron or steel, mill-irons and mill-cranks of wrought-iron and wrought-iron for ships, and forgings ofiron or steel, or of combined iron and steel, for vessels, steam- engines and locomotives, or parts thereof, weighing each twenty-five pounds or more, one and eight- tenths cents per pound. [Old law; Two ceuta ;.*er pound.] FT 4»4 THE TARIFF. 7 154. Axles, of pasts thereof, axle-bam, axle- blanks, or tvrgfciga for axles, whether of iron or steel, without n Ni. in . to (tic stage or state of I— IHifiictllfHi, two 'iiits par pound; /'rorided. That when iron or steel axles are imported fittnl in wheels , or /ars, whether of iron or steel, two ami one-fourth cents per pound. [Old law: Two and one-half cents per pound.] 157. IJoiler or other lul>es, pipes, flues, or stays of wrought iron or steel, two and one-half cents per pound. |OUl law: Two and one -fourth and three cents per pound, j is8. Holts, with or without threads or nuts, or holt-blanks, and finished hinges or hinge blanks, whether of iron or steel, two and one-fourth cents pcrpoiind. (Old law: Two and one-half cents per pound.] 159. Card-clothing, manufactured from tem- pered steel wire, fifty cents per square foot; all other, twenty-five cents per square foot. [Old law: Forty-five per centum and twenty-five per centum.] 160. Cast-iron pipe of every description, nine- tenths of one cent per pound. [Old law; One cent per pound.] 161. Cast-iron vessels, plates, stove-plates, andirons, sad-irons, tailors' irons, hatters' irons, and castings of iron, not specially provided for in this act, one and two-tenths cents per pound. [Old law : One and one-fourth cents per pound.] 162. Castings of malleable iron not specially provided for in this art, one and three-fourth cents per pound. [Old law; Two cents per pound. ) 163. Cast hollow-ware, coated, glazed, or tinned, three cents per pound, [Old law: AH hollow-ware, coated, glazed, or tinned, three cents per pound] 164. Chain or chains of all kinds, made of iron or steel, not less than three-fourths of one inch in diameter, one and six-tenths cents per pound; less than three fourths of one inch and not less than three-eighths of one inch in diameter, one and eight-tenths cents per pound; less than three- eighths of one inch in diameter, two and one-half cents per pound, but no chain or chains of any description shall pay a lower rate of duty than forty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: One and three-fourths cents per pound; two cents per pound; two and one-half cents per pound] 165. Pen-knives or pocket-knives of all kinds, or parts thereof, and erasers, or parts thereof, wholly or partly manufactured, valued at not more than fifty cents per dozen, twelve cents per dozen; valuedf at more than fifty cents pi ■ and not exceeding one dollar and fifty cents per dozen, fifty cents per dozen; valued at more than one dollar and fifty cents per dozen and not ex- ceeding threei dollars per dozen, one dollar per dozen; valued at more than three dollars per dozen, two) dollars per dozen; and in addition thereto on alt the altove, fifty per centum ad va- lorem. Razor* und razor hlades, finished or mi finished, valued at less than lour ilollars per dozen, one dollai per do/en; valued at four dol- lars or mora per dozm, one dollar and seventy- five cents per dOMO; and in addition thereto on all the above razors and razor-blades, thirty per centum ad valorem. J Old law; Pen-knives, pocket-knives of all kinds, md razors, fifty pcr centum; cutlery not specially provided for, thirty-five per centum.] Bwordtj sword-blades, and side-arms, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. 167. Tan* lento) . forks, stasia, and all butch- era*, bunting, kitchen, lurid, butter, vegetable, llMit, Oh tain, ptlllllii. !•■' . (., Illltels' |>al> 1 : artists' knives nl all sixes, (iiusIh (I01 unfinished, valued! mi not mote than ».ne di nm cents per dozen: valued at more than one dollar and not more than tuo dollar*, thirty five cents per dozen; valued at uu-rr than two dollars and not more three dollars, forty cents per dozen; valued at more than three dollars and not more than right dollars CMM dollar (Krr dozen, valued al more than . -ight .1 -Mars per dozen; and in addition upon all the above named articles, thirty per centum ad valorem. All QBN fog and cooks knives and forks of all sizes, fin- ished or unfinished, value. i ,,t not more than four dollars |>er dozen pieces, one dollar per dozen; valued al more than four dollars and not more than sight dollars, two dollars per dozen pieces; valued al more than eight dollars and not more twelve dollars, three dollars per dozen pieces; valued at more than iw.lw dollars, five, dollars per do/en pieces; and in addition upon all the above named articles, thirty per centum ad va- lorem. [Old law; Cutlery not specially pro- vided for, thirty-five per centum.] 168. Files, file-blanks, rasps and floats of all cuts and kinds, four inches in length and under, thirty-five cents per dozen; over four inches in length and under nine inches, seventy-five cents per dozen; nine inches in length and under four- teen inches, one dollar and thirty cents per dozen; fourteen inches in length and over, two dollars per dozen. [Old law; Nine inches and under four inches, one dollar and fifty cents per dozen; fourteen inches and over, two dollars aid fifty cents per dozen] FIRE-ARMS. 169. Muskets and sporting rifles, twenty five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Muskets, rifles, and other fire-arms, not specially provided for, twenty-five per centum.] 170. All double-barreled, sporting, breech-load- ing shot-guns valued at not more than six dollars each, one dollar and fifty cents each; valued at more than six dollars and not more than twelve dollars each, four dollars each; valued at more than twelve dollars each, six dollars each; and in addition thereto on alt the above, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Single-barrel, breech-load- ing shot-guns, one dollar each and thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Revolving pistols valued at not more than one dollar and fifty cents, each, forty cents each; valued at more than one dollar and fifty cents, one dollar each; and in addi- tion thereto on all the above pistols, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Thirty-five per centum.] 171. Iron or steel sheets, plates, wares, or arti- cles, enameled or glazed with vitreous glasses, forty-five per centum ad valorem. [Notk — Not in old law. Rates various.] 172. Iron or steel sheets, plates, wares, or arti- cles, enameled or glazed as above with more than one color, or ornamented, fifty per centum ad valorem. [Not in old law. Rates various.] NAILS, SPIKES, TACKS AND NP.KDt.SS. 173. Cut nails and cut spikes of iron or steel, one cent per pound. [Old law: One and one- fourth cents per pound.] 174. Horseshoe nails, hob nails, and all other wrought iron or steel nails not specially provided for in this act, four cents per pound. 175. Wire nails made of wrought ir-m or steel, two laches long and longer, not lighter than num- ber twelve wire gauge, two onrta per pound; from one inch to two inches in length, and lighter than number twelve and not lighter than number six teen wire gauge, two and one-half cents per pound; shorter than one inch and lighter than numl>er sixteen wire gauge, loin cents per pound. [( )ld law: Knur cents pi i pound.) 176. Spikes, nuts and washers, and horse, mule, or ox shoes, of wrought iron a steel, one and eight-tenths cents pel pound. [< >ld law: Twocents ]*?r pound 1 177 Cut tacks, brads, or sprigs, not exceeding sixteen ounces to toe thousand, two and one- fotUth cents per thousand: « v feeding sixteen ounces to the thousand, two and three-fourths cents per pound. [Old law: Two and one-half CODtS per pound, three cents per pound ] 178. Needles for knitting or sewing machines, crochrt-neadles, and tape-needles anclbodkinv oj metal, thirty -fiw* per centum a. I valotrui. [Old lesj I wenty-hve per c centum.] 170. Needle*, knitting, » tally provided for in this turn ad valorem. centum and thirty-five per and all others not ape- act, twenty-five per cea- 180. Steel plates engraved, stereotype plates, etntrotype plates, and plates of other mate- rials, engraved or lithographed, for printing, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. 181 Railway fish-plates or splice-ban made of iron or steel, one cent per pound. [Old law: One and one-fourth cents per pound.] 18a. Rivets of iron or steel, two and one-hail cents per pound. 183. Saws: Cross-cut saws, eight cents per linear foot; mil), pit, and drag-saws, not over nine inches wide, ten cent* per linear foot; over nine inches wide, fifteen cents per linear foot; circular saws, thirty per centum ad valorem; hand, hack and all other saws, not especially provided for in that act, forty per fw ttrm ad valorem. 184. Screws, commonly called wood-screws, more than two inches in length, five cents per pound; over one inch and not more than two inches in length, seven cents per pound; over one- half inch and not more than one inch in length, ten cents per pound; one-half inch and less in length, fourteen cents per pound. [Old law: Six cents per pound; eight cents per pound; tea cents per pound; fourteen cents per pound, re- rgrw. ■ ■„. J heels, or parts thereof, made of iron or steel, and steel-tired wheels for railway purposes, whether wholly or partly finished, and iron or steel locomotive, car, or other railway tires or parts thereof, wholly or partly manufactured, two and one-half cents per pound; and ingots, cogged ingots, blooms, or blanks for the same, without regard to the degree of manufacture, one and three-fourths cents per pound: Provided, That when wheels or parts thereof, of iron or steel, are imported with iron or steel axles fitted in them, the wheels and axles together shall be dutiable at the same rate as is provided for the wheels when imported separately. [Old law: Steel wheels and steel-tired wheels fur railway purposes, whether wholly or partly finished, and iron or steel locomotive, car, and other railway tires, or parts thereof, wholly or partly manu- factured, two and one-half of one cent per pound; iron or steel ingots, cogged ingots, blooms, or blanks for the same, without regard to the degree of manufacture, two cents per pound.] Miscellaneous- Metals and Manufact- ures of. 186. Aluminium or aluminum. In crude form, and alloys of any kind in which aluminum is the component material of chief value, fifteen cents per pound. [Old law: Free] 187. Antimony, as regulus or metal, three- fourths of one cent per pound. 188. Argentine, albata, or German silver, un- manufactured, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. 189. Brass, in bars or pigs, old brass, din- pings from brass or Ihmh metal. umrV/./* sheath- ing, or yellow metal fit only for remanufacture, one and one-half cents per m 190. Bronxe powder, twelve cents per pound: bronze or I >utch metal, or aluminum, in leaf, right cents per packagr of one hundred leaves [Old law: Rronxe Hutch metal in leaf, ten per centum; bronze powder, fifteen per centum.] 101 . Copper imported in the form of ores, one- half of one cent per pound on each pound of fine copper contained therein. [Old taw: Two and one-half cents per pound.] 19a. Old copper, fit only for remanufacture, clippings from new copper, and all composition metal of which copper m a component material of chief value, not specially provided for in this act, »■• crnt per pound [Old lav: Tl pound.] Three cents per J^ it 1 ^2 THK TAKiKK. 425 r 193. Rcwuhis of copper ami black or coarse copper, uiul copper cement, one cent per pound on each pound "! fine 1 opper contained therein. [Old law: Three end om- iialiYcuts per pound.] 194. Copper in plates, bars, ingots, Chili or others pfan. and in other forms not manufactured, not specially provided for in this act, one and one-fourth cents per pound. [Old law: Four cents per pound.] 195. Copper in rolled plates, called braziers' copper, sheets, rods, pipes, and copper bottoms, also sheathing or yellow metal of which copper is the component material of chief value, and not composed wholly or in part of iron ungalvanized, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. [In old law, and omitted: Sheathing, or yellow metal, not wholly of copper, nor wholly nor in part of iron, ungalvani/ed, in sheets, forty-eight inches long and fourteen inches wide, and weighing from fourteen to thirty-four ounces per square foot thirty-five per centum ad valorem; copper, when imported for the United States Mint, fret-.] GOLD AND SILVER. 196. Bullions and metal thread of gold, silver, or other metals not specially provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Twenty-five per centum.] 197. Gold-leaf, two dollars per package of five hundred leaves. [Old law: One dollar and fifty cents per package.] 198. Silver leaf, seventy-five cents ]>er package of five hundred leaves. [Old law: Seventy-five cents per package.] 109. Lead ore and lead dross, one and one- half cents per pound: Provided, That silver ore and all other ores containing lead shall Pay a duty 0/ one and one-half cents per pound on the lead contained therein, according to sample and assay at the port 0/ entry. 200. Lead in pigs and bars, molten and old refuse lead run into blocks and bars, and old scrap lead fit only to be remanufactured, two cents per pound. 201. Lead in sheets, pipe, shot, glaziers' lead and lead ivire, two and one-half cents per pound. [Old law: Three cents per pound.] 202. Metallic mineral substances in a crude state and metals unwrought, not specially pro- vided for in this act, twenty per centum ad valo- rem: mica, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. [Words in italics new matter; old law: Mica and mica waste free.] 203. Nickel, nickel oxide, alloy of any kind of which nickel is the component material of chief value, ten cents per pound. [Old law: fifteen cents per pound.] 204. Pens, metallic, except gold pens, twelve cents per gross. 205. Pen-holder tips, pen-holders, or parts thereof, and gold pens, thirty per centum ad va- lorem. 206. Pins, metallic, solid-head or other, in- cluding hair-pins, safety-pins, and hat, bon- net , shawl and belt pins, thirty per centum ad valorem. [Pins now are classified at various rates.] 207 Quicksilver, ten cents per pound. The flasks, bottles, or other vessels in ivhich quick- silver is imported shall be subject to the same rate of duty as they would be subject to if im- ported empty. [Old law: Ten per centum.] 208. Type-metal, one and one-half cents per pound for the lead contained therein: new types, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: lyp* metal, twenty per centum.] 209. Tin: On and after July first, eighteen hundred and ninety-three, there shall be imposed and paid upon cassiterite or black oxide of tin, and upon bar, block, and pig tin, a duty of four cents per pound: Provided, That unless it shall be made to appear to the satisfaction of the Presi- dent of the United States (who shall make known the fact by proclamation) that the product of the mines of the United States shall have exceeded five thousand tons of cassiterite, and bar, block, and pig tin in any one year prior to July first, eighteen hundred and ninety-five, then all imported cassiterite, bar, block, and pig tin shall after July first, eighteen hundred and ninety-five, be ad- mitted free of duty. [Old law; Free.] WATCHES. 210. Chronometer, box or ship's, and parts thereof, ten per centum ad valorem. 211. Watches, parts of watches, watch-cases, watch movements, and -watch-glasses, -whether separately packed or otherwise, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Watch mate- rials also twenty-five per centum.] ZINC Ok SPELTER. 212. Zinc in blocks or pigs, one and three- fourths cents per pound, [Old law: One and one-half cents per pound.] 213. Zinc in sheets, two and one-half cents per pound. [Old law contains the words "spelter or tutenegue. '] 214. Zinc, old and worn out, fit only to be re- manufactured, one and one-fourth cents per pound. [Old law: One and one-half cents per pound.] 215. Manufactures, articles, or wares, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, composed wholly or in part of iron, steel, lead, copper, nickel, pewter, zinc, gold, silver, plati- num, aluminum , or any other metal, and whether partly or wholly manufactured, forty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law; Epaulets, galloons, laces, knots, stars, tassels, and wings of gold, silver or other metal, twenty-five per cen- tum. Umbrella and parasol ribs, and stretcher- frames, tips, runners, handles, or other parts thereof, when made in whole or chief parts of iron, steel, or any other metal, forty per centum ad valorem; Brittania ware, and plated and gilt articles and wares of all kinds, thirty-five per centum. Schedule D.- - Wood and Manufactures of. 216. Timber, hewn and sawed, and timber used for spars and in building wharves, ten per centum ad valorem. [Old law; Twenty per centum.] 217. Timber, squared or sided, not specially provided for in this act, one-half of one cent per cubic foot. [Old law: One cent per cubic foot.] 218. Sawed boards, planks, deals and other lumber of hemlock, white wood, sycamore, white pine and basswood, one dollar per thousand feet board measure; sawed lumber, not specially pro- vided for in this act, two dollars per thousand feet board measure; but when lumber of any sort is planed or finished, in addition to the rates herein provided, there shall be levied and paid for each side so planed or finished fifty cents per thousand feet board measure; and if planed on one side, and tongued and grooved, one dollar per thousand feet board measure; and if planed on two sides, and tongued and grooved, one dollar and fifty cents per thousand feet board measure; and in estimating board measure under this schedule no deduction shall be made on board measure on account of planing, tongueing and grooving: Provided, That in case any foreign country shall impose an export duty upon pine, spruce, elm or other logs, or upon stave-bolts, shingle wood or heading blocks exported to the United States from such country , then the duty upon sawed lumber herein provided for, •when im- ported from stick country, shall remain the same as fixed by the law in force prior to the Passage of this act. [Old law: White pine two dollars per thousand feet.] 219. Cedar; That on and after March first, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, paving posts, railroad ties, and telephone and telegraph poles of cedar, shall be dutiable at twenty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Free.] 220. Sawed boards, plank, deals, and all forms of sawed cedar, lignum-vita?, lancewood^ ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rosewood, sat in wood, and all other cabinet-woods not further manufactured than sawed, fifteen per cen- tum ad valorem; veneers of wood, and wood un- manufactured, not specially provided for in this act, twenty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Two dollars per thousand feet; veneers, thirty-five per centum; canes and sticks for walking, if un- finished, twenty per centum.] 221. Pine clapboards, one dollar per one thou- sand. [Old law; Two dollars per one thousand. ] 222. Spruce clapboards, one dollar and fifty cents per one thousand.] 223. Hubs for wheels, posts, last-blocks, wagon- blocks, oar-blocks, gun-blocks, heading-blocks, and all like blocks or sticks, rough-hewn or sawed only, twenty per centum ad valorem. 224. Laths, fifteen cents per one thousand pieces. 225. Pickets and palings, ten per centum ad valorem. .^Old law; Twenty per centum.] 226. White pine shingles, twenty cents per one thousand; all other, thirty cents per one thousand. [Old law: Thirty-five cents per one thousand] 227. Staves of wood of all kinds, ten per cen- tum ad valorem. 228. Casks and barrels (empty), sugar-box shooks, and packing-boxes, and packing-box shooks of wood, not specially provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad valorem. 229. Chair cane, or reeds wrought or manu- factured from rattans or reeds, and whether round, square, or in any other shape, ten per cen- tum ad valorem. [Old law: Rattans and reeds, manufactured, but not made up into completed articles ten per centum ad valorem.] 230. House or cabinet furniture of wood, wholly or partly finished, manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the component material of chief value, not specially provided for in this act, thirty- five per centum ad valorem. [Old law; House or cabinet furniture, in piecefs] or rough, and not finished, thirty per centum ad valorem. Cabi- net ware[s] and house furniture, finished, thirty- five per centum ad valorem. Manufactures of cedar wood, granadilla, ebony, mahogany, rose- wood, and satinwood, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the chief component part, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Canes and sticks for walking, finished, thirty-five per centum. Schedule E. — Sugar. 231. That on and after July first, eighteen hun- dred and ninety-one, and until July first, nineteen hundred and five, there shall be paid, from any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropri- ated, under the provisions of section three thou- sand six hundred and eighty-nine of the Revised Statutes, to the producer of sugar testing not less than ninety degrees by the polariscope, from beets, sorghum, or sugar-cane grown within the United States, or from maple sap produced within the United States, a bounty of two cents per pound; and upon such sugar testing less than ninety degrees by the polariscope, and not less than eighty degrees, a bounty of one and three- fourths cents per pound, under such rules and regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Rev- enue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe. 232. The producer of said sugar to be entitled to said bounty shall have first filed prior to July first of each year with the Commissioner of In- ternal Revenue a notice of the place of produc- tion, with a general description of the machinery and methods to be employed by him, with an estimate of the amount of sugar proposed to be produced in the current or next ensuing year, in- cluding the number of maple trees to he tapped, and an application for a license to so produce, to be accompanied by a bond in a penalty, and with sureties to be approved by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, conditioned that he will faithfully observe all rules and regulations that shall be prescribed for such manufacture and pro- duction of sugar. 233. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue, upon receiving the application and bond herein- before provided for, shall issue to the applicant a license to produce sugar from sorghum, beets, or sugar-cane grown within the United States, or from maple sap produced within the United States at the place and with the machinery and by the # ^ 426 THE TARIFF. 7 methods described in the application; but said license shall not extend beyond one year irom the date thereof. 334. No bounty shall be paid to any person en- gaged in refining sugar* which have been im- ported into the United States or produced in the United Stales, upon which the bounty herein pro- vided for has already been paid or applied for. nor to any person unless he shall have first been licensed as herein provided, and only upon sugar produced by such person from sorghum, beets, or sugar-cane grown within the United States, or from maple sap produced within the United States. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treas- ury, shall from lime to time make all needful rules and regulations for the manufacture of sugar from sorghum, beets, or sugar-cane grown within the United States, or from maple sap produced within the United States, and shall, under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, exercise supervision and inspection of the manufacture thereof. 335 And for the payment of these bounties the Secretary of the Treasury is authorized to draw warrants on the Treasurer of the United States for such sums as shall be necessary, which sum shall be certified to him by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, by whom the bounties shall be disbursed, and no bounty shall be allowed or paid to any person licensed as aforesaid in any one year upon any quantity of sugar less than five hundred pounds. 336. That any person who shall knowingly re- fine or aid in the refining of sugar imported into the United States or upon which the bounty herein provided for has already been paid or ap- plied for, at the place described in the license issued by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, and any person not entitled to the bounty herein provided for, who shall apply for or receive the same, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction thereof, shall pay a fine not ex- ceeding five thousand dollars, or be imprisoned for a period not exceeding five years, or both, in the discretion of the court. [Note. — All the foregoing of this schedule is new legislation.] 337. All sugars above number sixteen Dutch standard in color shall pay a duty of five-tenths of one cent per pound: Provided, That all such sugars above sixteen Dutch standard in color shall pay one-tenth of one cent per pound in addi- tion to the rate herein provided for, when ex- ported from or the product of any country when and so long as such country pays, or shall here- after pay, directly or indirectly, a bounty on the exportation of any sugar that may be included in this grade which is greater than is paid on raw sugars of a lower saccharine strength; and the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe suitable rules and regulations to carry this provision into effect: And provided further, That all ma- chinery purchased abroad and erected in a beet- sugar factory and used in the production of raw sugar in the United States from beets produced therein shall be admitted duty free until the first day of July, eighteen hundred and ninety-two: Provided, That any duty collected on any of the above described machinery purchased abroad and imported into the United States for the uses above indicated since January first, eighteen hun- dred and ninety, shall be refunded. [Old law: sixteen to twenty Dutch standard, three cents per pound; above twenty, three and fifty-one hun- dredths cents per pound. Beet sugar machinery dutiable at forty-five per centum.] 318. Sugar candy and all confectionery , in- cluding chocolate confectionery, made wholly or in part of sugar, valued at twelve cents or less per pound, and on sugars after being refined, when tinctured, colored, or in any way adulter- ated, five cents per pound. 339. All other confectionery, including choco- late confectionery, not specially provided for in this act, fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law for paragraphs 338 and 339: Sugar randy, not colored, five cents per pound All other con- fectionery, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, made wholly or in part of sugar, and of sugars after being refined, when nurtured, colored, or in any way adulterated valued at thirty cents per pound or less, ten cents per pound. Conm tlooAry valued above thirty cents prr jK'iiml, or when sold by the box, package, or otherwise than by the pound, fifty per centum ad valorem] 340. Glucose or grape sugar, three-fourths of one cent per pound. [Old law; Glucose, twenty- per centum.] 341. That the provisions of- this act providing terms for the admission of imported sugars and molasses and for the payment of a bounty on sugars of domestic production shall take effect on the first day of April, eighteen hundred and ninety-one: Provided, That on and after the first d;iy of March, eighteen hundred and ninety- one, and prior to the first day of April, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, sugars not exceeding number sixteen I >utch standard in color may be refined in bond without payment of duty, and such refined sugars may be transported in bond and stored in bonded warehouse at such points of destination as are provided in existing laws re- lating to the immediate transportation of dutiable goods in bond, under such rules and regulations as shall be prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury. [Note— All new matter] Schedule F. — Tobacco and Manufact- ures of. 342. Leaf tobacco suitable for cigar-wrappers, if not stemmed, two dollars per pound; if stemmed, two dollars and seventy-five cents per pound: Provided, That if any portion of any to- bacco imported in any bale, box, or package, or in bulk shall be suitable for cigar-wrappers, the entire quantity of tobacco contained in such bale, box or package, or bulk, shall be dutiable, if not stemmed, at two dollars,per pound; if stemmed, at two dollars and seventy-five cents per pound. [Old law: Leaf tobacco, of which eighty-five per centum is of the requisite size and of the neces- sary fineness of texture to be suitable for wrap- pers, and of which more than one hundred leaves are required to weigh a pound, if not stemmed, seventy-five cents per pound; if stemmed, one dollar per pound.] 243. All other tobacco in leaf, unmanufactured and not stemmed, thirty-five cents per pound: if stemmed, fifty cents per pound. [Old law: Stemmed, forty cents per pound] 244. Tobacco, manufactured, of all descriptions, not specially enumerated or provided fur in this act, forty cents per pound. 345. Snuff and snuff flour, manufactured of to- bacco, ground dry, or damp, and pickled, scented, or otherwise, of all descriptions, fifty cent? per pound. 346. Cigars, cigarettes, and cheroots of all kinds, four dollars and fifty cents per pound and twenty-five per centum ad valorem; and paper cigars and cigarettes, including wrappers, shall be subject to the same duties as are herein im- posed upon cigars. [Old law: Two dollars and fifty cents per pound and twenty-five per centum ] Schedule G. — Agricultural Products and Provisions. ANIMALS, LIVE. 347. Horses and mules, thirty dollars per head: Provided, That horses valued at one hundred and fifty dollars and over shall pay a duty of thirty per centum ad valorem. 248. Cattle, more than one year otd, ten dol'ars per head; one year old or less, two dollars per head. 349. Hogs, one dollar and fifty cents per head. 350. Sheep, one ysar old or more, one dollar and tidy rem* per head; less than one year old, seventy-five cents per head. 351. All othrr live animals, not specially pro- vided for in this act, twenty per centum ad valo- rem. [Old law, covering paragraphs 23510239: Animals, liw. IwnutJ per centum ] BKEADSTUPPS AND FARINACFni/S StTKSTANCBS. 252. Barley, thinv < rut-, per bushel of forty- eight pounds [Old law: laaottti pit bushel ] 253. Barley mutt, forty five cent* per bushel of thirty lour pound*. [ow law: TwtM] > -ems per bushel. I 254. Barley, pearled, patent or hulled, two cents per pound. [Old law; One-half cent per pound. 1 355. Buckwheat, fifteen cents per bushel of forty-eight pounds. [Old law: Ln ten per centum.) 256. Corn or maize, fifteen cents per bushel of fifty -six pounds. [Old law: Ten cents per bushel. 1 257. Corn-meal, twenty cents oer bushel of forty-eight pounds. [Old law: Ten cents per bushel T 258. Macaroni, vermicelli, and all similar prep- arations, two cents per pound. [Otd law: Free.] 359. Oats, fifteen cents per bushel. [Old law: Ten cents per bushel] 360. Oatmeal, one cent per pound. [Old law: One-half cent per pound.] 361. Rice, cleaned, two cents per pound; un- cleancd rice, one and one-quarter cents per pound; paddy, three-quarters of one cent per pound; rice- flour, rice-meal and rice broken, which will p— through a sieve known commercially as 1 twelve wire sieve, one-fourth of one cent per pound. [Old law: Cleaned, two and one-quarter cents per pound: uncleaned, one and one-halt cents per pound; paddy, one and one-quarter cents per pound; rice-flour, rice-meal, twenty per cemum.j 362. Rye, ten cents per bushel. 363. Rye-flour, one-naif of one cent per pound. 364. Wheat, twenty-fire cents per bushel. [Old law: Twenty cents per bushel ] 365. Wheat-flour, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Twenty per centum] dairy nam 266. Butter, and substitutes therefor, aix *-*.» per pound. [Old law: Four cents per pound.] 367. Cheese, six cents per pound. [Old law: Four cents per pound.] 268. Milk, fresh, five cents per gallon. [Old law: Ten per centum (unenumerated). J 260. Milk, preserved or condensed, including weight of packages, three cents per pound: sugar of milk, eight cents per pound. [Old law: Milk, condensed, twenty per centum; milk, sugar of, free.] FARM AND FIELD FRODt'CTS. 270. Beans, forty cents per bushel of sixty pounds . [Old law: Uncnumerated , ten per centumj 271. Beans, peas, and mushrooms, prepared or preserved, in tins, jars, bottles or otherwise, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Vegetables, prepared or preserved, of all kinds not otherwise provided for, thirty per centum] 273. Broom-corn, eight dollars per ton. [Old law: Ten per centum (unenumerated) J 273. Cabbages, three cents each. [Ol Ten per centum {unenumcrated V] ^74. Cider, five cents per gallon. [Old law; Twenty per centum (unenumerated).] 275. Eggs, five cents per do/en. [Old law: Free.] 276. Eggs, yelk of, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Unenumerated, twenty per centum] 377. Hay, four dollars per ton. [Old law: Two dollars per ton. ] 278. Honey, twenty cents per gallon. 279. Hops, fifteen cents per pound. [Old law: BhnM > -rnts pm 1 380. Onions, forty cents per bushel. [Old law : Ten per centum (tim-numcrated).] 381. Peas, green, in bulk or in barrel v or similar packages, forty cents per bushel of sixty pounds; peas, dried, twenty cents per bushel; split peas, fifty cents per bushel of sixty pounds: peas in cartoons, papers, or other small packages, one cent per pound. [Old law: Veg- 11 natural state, ten per centum; put peas, twenty twr MM) ' 'Hum. j 282. Plants, trees, shrubs- i kinds, rnmmnnly known .is nursery rack, hoi specially provided for in this a< t , t«rnt> \*-t centum ad valorem [Old law: Plant-., ure*. shrubs and vines of all kind*, not otherwise pro \ » led lor, and ' a]| kinds, exrept ni<-th< m.d seeds not ■pacmlry enumerated Of provided t. 1 e assessed upon the bottles. If imported o'Serwise than in plain green or colored glass bottle.*, or If imported in such bottles containing more than one quart, twenty cents per gallon, and in addition thereto duty shall be collected upon the bottles or other covering at the same rates that would be charged if imported empty or separately. [Old law: All imitations of natural mineral waters and all arti- ficial mineral waters, thirty per centum ad va- lorem.] Schedule I. — Cotton Manufacture!. 34a. Cotton thread, yarn, warps, or warp-yarn, whether single or advanced beyond the COWUon of single, by grouping or twisting two or more single yarns together, whether on bssUM or in bundles, skeins, or cops, or in any other form, except spool-thread of cotton hereinafter pro- vided for, valued at not exceeding twenty-five cents per pound, ten cents per pound; valued at over twenty-five cents per pound and not exceed- ing forty cents per pvur'\ eighteen cents per pound; valued at over *">rty cents per pound and not exceeding fifty cenct per i-nind, t w-enty -three cents pet pound; valued «t over fifty CM pound and not exceeding sixty cents per pound, twenty-eight cents per pound; valued at over sixty cents per pound and not exceeding seventy .£ cents per pound, thirty-three cents per pound; valued at over seventy cents per pound and nut exceeding eighty cents per pound, thirty-eight cents per pound; valued at over eighty cents per pound and not exceeding one dollar per pound, forty-eight cents per pound; valued at over one dollar per pound, fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Valued at twenty-five to tony cents, eighteen cents per pound; valued at forty to fifty cents, twenty cents per pound: valued at fifty to sixty cents, twenty-five cents per pound.] 341. Spool-thread of cotton, containing on each •pool not exceeding one hundred yards of* thread, seven tents per dozen; exceeding one hundred yards on each spool, for every additional one hun- dred yards of thread or fractional part thereof in excess of one hundred yards, seven cent* per dozen spools. 344. Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, and not exceeding fifty threads to the square inch, counting the warp and filling, two cents per square yard: if bleached, two and one-half cents per square yard; if dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, four cents per square yard. [Old law: ']»-, and one-half cents per square yard; three and one-half cents per square yard, four and one-half cents per square yard.] 345. Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, exceeding fifty and not exceeding one hundred threads to the square inch, counting the warp and filling, two and one- fourth cents per square yard: if bleached, three cents per square yard; if dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, four cents per square yard: Provided, 'J hat on all cotton cloth not exceed- ing one hundred thread* to the square inch, counting the warp and filing, not bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, valued at over nine cents per square yard; and dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, val- ued at over tiveh'e cents per square yard, thtrt sltull be levied, collected and paid a auty of thirty-five per centum ad vaJorem. [Old law; Two and one-half cents per square yard; three and one-half cents per square yard; four and one- t* per square yard] 346. Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, exceeding one hun- dred and not exceeding one hundred and fifty threads to the square inch, counting the warp and filling, three cents per square yard; if bleached, four cents per square yard; if dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, five cents per square yard: I'ro-.ided, That on all cotton cloth ex cecding one hundred and not exceeding one hun- dred and fifty threads to the square inch, count- ing the warp and filling, not bleached, dyed, col- ored, stained, painted, or printed, valued at over seven and one-half cents per square yard; bleach- ed, valued at over ten cents per square yard; dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, val- ued at over twelve and one-half cents per square yard, there shall be levied, collected, and paid, a duty of forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Three cents per square yard, four cents per Snare yard, five cents per square yard; if valued ove eight cents ten cent-., and thirteen cents per square yard, respectively, to pay forty per centum 1 347. Cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed. exceeding one hun- dred and fifty and not exceeding two hundred threads to the square inch, counting the wasp and tilling, three and a half Lents per square yard; if bleached, four and one-half cents per square yard; if dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed, five and one-half cents per square yard: /V#- vided. That on all cotton cloth exceeding one hundred and fifty and not exceeding two hundred threads to the squat? inch, counting the warp and filling, not bleached, dyrd, colored, painted, or printed, valued at over eight cents per square yard; bleached, v.ilurd at overt per square yard; dyed, colored, stained, or primed, valued at over twelve cents per yard, there shall be" levied, collected and paid • duty of forty-five per centum ad valorem. (»Wd law: Three cents per square yard, four cents par square yard, five cents per square yard; if valued e the standards forthe ilas-.ith.iiMu of wools under this net, and th* Secretary of the Treasury shall have the authority to rem ■tandtrdt and to make such additions to them from time to time as may be required, and he shall cause to be deposited like standards in other custom houses of the United States when they may be needed. [New pro-. 380. Whenever wools of class three shall have been improved by the admixture of Merino or English blood from their present character as represented by the standard samples now or here- after to be deposited in the principal custom- houses of the United States, such improved wools shall be classified for duty either as class one or as class two, as the case may be. [New pro- vision.] 381. The duty on wools of the first class which shall be imported washed shall be twice the amount of the duty to which they would be sub- jected if imported unwashed; and the duty on wools of the first and second classes which shall be imported scoured shall be three times the duty to which they would be subjected if imported unwashed. [Old law: The duty on wools of the first class which shall be imported washed shall be twice the amount of the duty to which they would be subjected if imported unwashed; and the duty on wools of all classes which shall be imported scoured shall be three times the duty to which they would be subjected if imported unwashed.] 382. Unwashed wools shall be considered such as shall have been shorn from the sheep without any cleansing; that is, in their natural condition. Washed wools shall be considered such as have been washed with water on the sheep's back. Wool washed in any other manner than on the sheep's back shall be considered as scoured wool. [New provision.] 383. The duty upon wool of the sheep or hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, and other like animals, which shall be imported in any other than ordi- nary condition, or which shall be changed in its character or condition for the purpose of evading the duty, or which shall be reduced in value by the admixture of dirt, or any other for- eign substance, or which has been sorted or in- creased in value by the rejection of any part ot the original fleece, shall be twice the duty to which it would be otherwise subject: Provided, That skirted wools as now imported are hereby ex- cepted. Wools on which a duty is assessed amounting to three times or more than that which would be assessed if said wool was imported un- washed, such duty shall not be doubled on ac- count of its being sorted. If any bale or package of wool or hair specified in this act imported as of any specified class, or claimed by the importer to be dutiable as of any specified class shall contain any wool or hair subject to a higher rate of duty than the class so specified, the whole bale or package shall be subject to the highest rate of duty chargeable on wool of the class subject to such higher rate of duty, and if any bale or package be claimed by the importer to be shoddy, mungo, flocks, wool, hair, or other material of any class specified in this act, and such bale con- tain any admixture of any one or more of said materials, or of any other material, the whole bale or package shall be subject to duty at the highest rate imposed upon any article in said bale or package. [Old law: The duty upon wool of the sheep, or hair of the alpaca, goat, and other like animals, which shall be imported in anyotherthan ordinary condition, as now and heretofore prac- ticed, or which shall be changed in its character or condition for the purpose of evading the duty, or which shall be reduced in value by the admixture of dirt or any other foreign substance, shall be twice the duty to which it would be otherwise subject.] 384. The duty upon alt wools and hair of the first class shall be eleven cents per pound, and upon a! wools or hair of the second class twelve cents per pound. [Old law: Wools of the first class, the value whereof at the last port or place whence exported to the United States, rv charges in such port, shall be thirn per pound, ten cents per pound: wools of the same class the value whereof at the last 1 place whence exported to the United States, ex- cluding charges in such port, shall exceed thirty cents per pound, twelve cents per pound. WOOM of the second class, and all hair of the alpaca, goat, and other like animals, the value whereof, at the last port or place whence exported to the United States, excluding charges in such port, shall be thirty cents or less per pound, tea cents per pound; wools of the same class, the value whereof at the last port or place whence exported to the United States, excluding charges in such port, shall exceed thirty cents per pound, twelve cents per pound.] 385. On wools of the third class and on camel's hair of the third class the value whereof shall be thirteen cents or less per pound, charges, the duty shall be thirty-two per 1 ad valorem. 386. On wools oft he third class, and on camel's hair of the third ciass, the value whereof shall ex- ceed thirteen cents per pound including charges, the duty shall be fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Wools of the third class, the value whereof, at the last port or place ported to the United States, excluding charge* in such port, shall be twelve cents or less per pound, two and a half cents per pound; wools of the same class, the value whereof, at the last port or place whence exported to the United States, excluding charges in such port, shall exceed twcive cents per pound, five cents per pound. ] 387. Wools on the skin shall pay the same rate as other wools, the quantity and value to be as- certained under such rules as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe. 388. On noils, shoddy, top waste, stubbing waste, roving waste, ring waste, yarn waste, gar- netted waste, and all other wastes composed wholly or in part of wool, the duty shall be thirty cents per pound. [Old law: Shoddy and waste, ten cents per pound. 389. On woolen rags, mungo, and flocks, the duty shall be ten cents per pound. [Old law: Shoddy and waste have been transferred to pre* ceding paragragh.] 390. wools and hair ofnhe camel, goat, alpaca, or other like animals in the form of roping, roving, or tops, and all wool and hair which have been advanced in any manner or by any process of manufacture beyond the washed or scoured con- dition, not specially provided for in this act, shall be subject to the same duties as are imposed upon manufactures of wool not specially provided for in this act. [New provision.] 301 . On woolen and worsted yarns made wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animals, valued at not more than thirty cents per pound, the duty per pound shall be two and one-half times the duty imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addition thereto, thirty- five per centum ad valorem; valued at more than thirty cents and not more than forty cents per pound, the duty per pound shall be three times the duty imposed by this act on a pound of un- washed wool of the first class, and in 1 thereto thirty-five per centum ad valorem; valued at more than forty cents per pound, the duty per pound shall be three and one-half times the duty imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class and in addition thereto forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: For rates see paragraph 305.] 392. On woolen or worsted cloths, shawls, knit fabrics, and all fabrics made on knitting machines or frames, and all manufactures of every descrip- sted, the tion made wholly or in part of wool, hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other a*««— , not specially provided for in this act, valued at not more than thirty cents per pound, the duty per pound shall be three times the duty imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class, and In addition thereto forty per cen- tum ad valorem; valued at more than thirty and not more than forty cents per pound, the duty per pound shall be three and one-half times the duty imposed by this set on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addition thereto 1 centum ad valorem; valued at ab«^ 1 \ , the duty per pound shall be four times the duty imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class, and In addition thereto fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Woolen cloths, woolen shawls, and all manufact- ures of wool of every description , made wholly or in part of wool, not specially enumerated or pro- vided for in this act, valued at not exceeding eighty cents per pound, thirty-five cents per pound and -hirty-five per centum ad valorem; V- TIIK TAKIKF. 43t *f" valued ;tt above eighty cents per pound, thirty- five cents per pound, and in addition thereto forty per centum ad valorem. 303. On blankets, hats of wool, and flannels for underwear composed wholly or in part of wool, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other ani- mals, valued at not more than thirty cents per pound , the duty per pound shall be the same as the duty imposed by this act on one pound and one- half of unwashed wool of the first class, and in ad- dition thereto thirty per centum ad valorem; valued at more than thirty and not more than forty cents per pound, the duty per pound shall be twice the duty imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class; valued at more than forty cents and not more tnan fifty cents per pound, the duty per pound shall be three times the duty imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addition thereto upon alt the above- named articles thirty-five per centum ad valorem, ( >n blankets and hats of wool composed wholly or in part of wool, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animal , valued at more than fifty cents per pound, the duty per pound shall be three and a half times the duty imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addi- tion thereto forty per centum ad valorem. Flan- nels composed wholly or in part of wool, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animals, valued at above fifty cents per pound, shall be classified and pay the same duty as women's and children's dress goods, coat lining, Italian cloths, and goods of similar character and description provided by this act. [Flannels, blankets, hats of wool, knit goods and all goods made on knitting frames, balmorafs, woolen and worsted yarns, and all manufactures of every description, com- posed wholly or in part of worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat, orotheranimals (except suchasare composed in part of wool), not specially enum- erated or provided for in this act, valued at not exceeding thirty cents per pound, ten cents per pound; valued at above thirty cents per pound, and not exceeding forty cents per pound, twelve cents per pound; valued at above forty cents per pound and not exceeding sixty cents per pound, eighteen cents per pound; valued at above sixty cents per pound, and not exceeding eighty cents per pound, twenty-four cents per pound; and in addition thereto, upon all the above-named articles, thirty-five per centum ad valorem; valued at above eighty cents per pound, thirty-five cents per pound and in addition thereto forty per centum ad valorem.] 394. On women's and children's dress goods, coat linings, Italian cloths, and goods of similar character or description of which the warp con- sists wholly of cotton or other vegetable material, with the remainder of the fabric composed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animals, valued at not ex- ceeding fifteen cents per square yard, seven cents per square yard, and in addition thereto forty per centum ad valorem; valued at above fifteen cents per square yard, eight cents per square yard, and in addition thereto titty per centum ad va- lorem: Provided, That on all such goods weigh- ing over four ounces per square yard the duty per pound shall be four times the duty imposed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addition thereto fifty per centum ad va- lorem. [Old law: Women's and children's dress goods, coat linings, Italian cloths, and goods of like description, composed in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat, or other animals, valued at not exceeding twenty cents per square yard, five cents per square yard, and in addition thereto thirty-five per centum ad va- lorem; valued at above twenty cents per square yard, seven cents per square yard, and forty per centum ad valorem; if composed wholly of wool, worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat, or other ani- mals, or of a mixture of them, nine cents per square yard, and forty per centum ad valorem, but all such goods with selvedges .made wholly or in part of other materials, or with threads of other materials introduced for the purpose of changing the classi- fication, shall be dutiable at nine cents per square yard, and forty per centum ad valorem: Provided, That all such goods weighing over four ounces per square yard shall pay a duty of thirty-five cents per pound and forty per centum ad valorem.] 395. On women's and children's dress goods, coat linings, Italian cloth, bunting, and goods of similar description or character composed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hairof the camel, »oat, alpaca, or other animals, and not specially provid- ed for in this act, the duty shall be twelve cents per square yard, and in addition thereto fifty per cen- tum ad valorem: Provided, That on all suchgoods weighing over four ounces per square yard the duty per pound shall be four times the duty im- posed by this act on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class and in addition thereto, fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: See preceding par- agraph. Bunting, ten cents per square yard, and in addition thereto thirty-five per centum ad va- lorem.] 396. On clothing, ready made, and articles of wearing :apparel of every description, made up or manufactured wholly or in part, not specially provided for in this act, felts not woven, and not specially providedfor in thisact.plushesand other pile fabrics, all of the foregoing composed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animals, the duty per pound shall be four and one-half times the duty imposed by this act, on a pound of unwashed wool of the first class, and in addition thereto sixty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Clothing ready made, and wearing apparel of every description, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, and balmoral skirts, and skirting, and goods of similar description, orused for like purposes, com- posed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat, or other animals, made up or manufactured wholly or in part by the tailor, seamstress or manufacturer, except knit goods, forty cents per pound, and in addition thereto, thirty -five per centum ad valorem; endless belts or felts for paper or printing machines, twenty cents per pound and thirty per centum ad va- lorem.] 397. On cloaks, dolmans, jackets, talmas, ulsters, or other outside garments for ladies' and children's apparel and goods of similar description or used for like purposes composed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animals, made up or manufac- tured wholly or in part, the duty per pound shall be four and one-half times the duty imposed by this acton a pound of unwashed wool of the first class and in addition thereto sixty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Cloaks, dolmans, jackets, talmas, ulsters, or other outside garments for ladies' and children's apparel and goods of similar description, orused for like purposes, composed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hairof the alpaca, goat, or other animals, made up or man- ufactured wholly or in part by the tailor, seam- stress, or manufacturer (except knit goods), forty- five cents per pound, and in addition thereto, forty per centum ad valorem.] 398. On webbings, gorings, suspenders, braces, beltings, bindings, braids.lgalloons, fringes, gimps, cords, cords and tassels, dress trimmings, laces, and embroideries, head nets, buttons, or barrel buttons, or buttons of other forms, for tassels or ornaments, wrought bytiand or braided by ma- chinery, any of the foregoing which arc elastic or non-elastic, made of wool, worsted, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animals, or of which wool, worsted, the hair of the camel, goat, alpaca, or other animals is a component material, the duty shall be sixty cents per pound, and in addition thereto, sixty per centum ad valorem. [Webbings, gorings, suspenders, braces, beltings, bindings, braids, galloons, fringes, gimps, cords and tassels, dress trimmings, head-nets, buttons, or barrel buttons, or buttons of other forms for tassels or ornaments wrought by hand, or braided by machinery, made of wool, worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat, or other animals, or of which wool, worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat, or other animals is a component material, thirty cents per pound and in addition thereto, fifty per centum ad valorem.] 399. Aubusson, Axminster, Moquette, and Chenille carpets, figured or plain, carpets woven whole for rooms, and all carpets or carpeting of like character or description, and oriental, Berlin, and other similar rugs, sixty cents per square yard, and in addition thereto, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Forty-five cents per square yard and thirty per centum ad valorem.] 400. Saxony, Wilton, and Tournay velvet car- pets, figured or plain, and all carpets or carpeting of like character or description, sixty cents per square yard and in addition thereto forty pet centum ad valorem. [Old law: Forty-five cents square yard and thirty per centum ad va- lorem.] 401. Brussels carpets, figured or plain, and all carpet s or carpeting of like character or description , forty-four cents per square yard, and in addition thereto forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law; Thirty cents square yard and thirty per centum ad valorem.] 402. Velvet and tapestry velvet carpets, figured or *ain, printed on the warp or otherwise, and all carpets or carpeting of like character or descrip- tion, forty cents per square yard, and in addition thereto, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Twenty-five cents square yard and thirty per cen- tum ad valorem.] 403. Tapestry Brussels carpets figured or plain, and all carpets or carpeting of like character or description, printed on the warp or otherwise, twenty-eight cents per square yard, and in ad- dition thereto, forty per centum ad valorem, [Old law: Twenty cents square yard and thirty per centum ad valorem.] 404. Treble Ingrain, three-ply and all chain Venetian carpets, nineteen cents per square yard, and in addition thereto, forty per centum ad va- lorem. [Old law: Twelve cents per square yard and thirty per centum.] 405. Wool Dutch and two-ply ingrain carpets, fourteen cents per square yard, and in addition thereto, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Eight cents per square yard and thirty per centum J 406. Druggets and bockings, printed, colored, or otherwise, twenty-two cents per square yard, and in addition thereto forty per centum ad va- lorem. Felt carpeting, figured or plain, eleven cents per square yard, and in addition thereto, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Drug- gets and bockings, fifteen cents per square yard and thirty per centum; felt carpeting, fifteen cents per square yard and thirty per centum, by ruling of Treasury Department.] 407. Carpets and carpeting of wool, flax or cot- ton, or composed in part of either, not specially (irovided for in this act, fifty per centum ad va- orem. [Old law: Carpets and carpetings of wool, flax or cotton, or parts of either or other material not otherwise herein specified, forty per centum ad valorem.] 408. Mats, rugs, screens, covers, hassocks, bedsides, art squares, and other portions of car- pets or carpeting made wholly or in part of wool, and not specially provided for in this act, shall be subjected to the rate of duty herein imposed on carpets or carpetings of like character or descrip- tion. [Old law: Mats, rugs, screens, covers, hassocks, bedsides, and other portions of carpets or carpetings, shall be subjected to the rate of duty herein imposed on carpets or carpeting of like character or description; and the duty on all other mats not exclusively of vegetable material, screens, hassocks, arid rugs, shall be forty per centum ad valorem.] Schedule L. — Silk and Silk Goods. 409. Silk partially manufactured from cocoons or from waste-silk, and not further advanced or manufactured than carded or combed siltt, fifty cents per pound. 410. Thrown silk, not more advanced than singles, tram, organzine, sewing silk, twist, floss, and silk threads or yarns of every description, ex- cept spun silk, thirty per centum ad valorem; spun silk in skeins or cops or on beams, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: All this para- graph thirty-five per centum.] 411. Velvets, plushes, or other pile fabrics con- taining, exclusive of selvedges, less than seventy- five per centum in weight of silk, one dollar and fifty cents per pound and fifteen per centum ad valorem; containing, exclusive of selvedges, seventy-five per centum or more in weight of silk, three dollars and fifty cents per pound, and fif- teen per centum ad valorem; but in no case shall any of the foregoing articles pay a less rate of duty than fifty per centum ad valorem. [New \ 43* THE TAniFP. t provision. [Old law: Classified as manufactures at fifty per centum.] 412. Webbings, gorings, suspenders, braces, belting*, bindings, braids, galloons, fringes, cords and tassels, any of the foregoing which are elastic or non-elastic, buttons, and ornaments, made of silk, or of which silk is the component material of chief value, fifty per centum ad valorem. [New provision. [Old law: Classified as manufactures at fifty per centum.] 413. Laces and embroideries, handkerchiefs, neck rufflings and ruchings, clothing ready-made and articles of wearing apparel of every descrip- tion, including knit goods, made up or manufac- tured wholly or in part by the tailor, seamstress, or manufacturer, composed of silk, or of which silk is the component material of chief value; not spe- cially provided for in this act, sixty per centum ad valorem: Provided, That all such clothing ready made and articles of wearing apparel when com- posed in part of India rubber (not including gloves or elastic articles that are specially provided for in this act) shall be subject to a duty of eight cents per ounce, and in addition thereto sixty per centum ad valorem. [New provision. Old law: Classified as manufactures at fifty per centum] 414. All manufactures of silk, or of which silk is the component material of chief value, not spe- cially provided for in this act, fifty per centum ad valorem: Provided, That all such manufactures of which wool, or the hair of the camel, goat, or other like animals is a component material, shall 1"- classified as manufactures of wool. [Old law: All goods, wares, and merchandise, not ■pecialry enumerated or provided for in this act, made of silk, or of which silk is the component material of chief value, fifty per centum ad valorem.] Schedule M. — Pulp, Papers and Books. FTJLP AND PAPER. 415. Mechanically ground wood pulp, two dol- lars and fifty cents per ton dry weight; chemical wood pulp unbleached, six dollars per ton dry weight; bleached, seven dollars per ton dry weight. [Old law: Pulp dried for papermakers' use, ten per centum.*] 416. Sheathing paper, ten per centum ad va- lorem. 417. Printing paper unsized, suitable only for hooks and newspapers, fifteen per centum ad va- lurern. [Slight change in text.] 418. Printingpapcr sized or glued, suitable only for books and newspapers, twenty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Limited to printing papers.] 419. Papers known commercially as copying altering paper, silver paper, and all tissue white or colored, whether made up in copying books, reams, or in any other form, eight cents per pound, and in addition thereto, fifteen per centum ad valorem; allmmenized or sensitized paper, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Blank-books for press copying twenty per centum; on all other of above paragraph twenty- five per centum as manufactures of paper.] 430, Papers known commercially as surface- coated papers, and manufactures thereof, card- boards, lithographic prints from either stone or zinc, bound or unbound (except illustrations when forming apart of a periodical, newspaper, or in prbMM l>ooks accompanying the same), and all artit let produced either in whole or in part by lithographic process, and photograph, autograph, and scrap albums, wholly or partially manu- factured, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Paper boxes and all other fancy boxes, if of surface coated papers, principally twenty-five per centum. Paper-hangings and paper for screens or fire boards, paper antiquarian, demy, drawing, tlaphaat, foolscap, imperial, letter, note and all Otter paper not specially enumerated or provided fur in this [act, twenty-five per centum ad va- lorem.] MANItHAl TURKS Of PAPER. 431. Paper envelopes, twenty-five cents per thousand. (Old law: Tunny tive yrx centum ] 43a. Paper hnngmga and paper for screens or fW-boards, writing -paper, drawing-paper, and nil other paper not specially provided for in this act, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. [Change of text.] 423. Books, including blank books of all kinds, pamphlets and engravings, bound or unbound, photographs, etchings, maps, charts, and all printed matter not specially provided tor in this act, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Illustrated books, twenty-five per centum; blank books, bound or unbound, twenty per centum. 1 424. Playing cards, fifty rents per pack. [Old law: One hundred pet centum.] 425. Manufactures of paper, or of which paper is the component material of chief value, not spe- cially provided for in this act, twenty-five per cen- tum ad valorem. [Old law: Fifteen per centum, also twenty-five per centum, paper boxes and all other fancy boxes, thirty-five per centum.] Schedule N. — Sundries. 426. Bristles, ten cents per pound. [Old law: Fifteen cents per pound.] 427. Brushes, and brooms of all kinds, includ- ing feather dusters and hair pencils in quills, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Brushes thirty per centum; brooms, twenty-five per centum; hair pencils, thirty per centum.] BtTTTONSAND BUTTON FORMS. 428. Button forms: listings, mohair, cloth, silk, or other manufactures of cloth, woven or made in patterns of such siz-, shape or form, 01 i*Jt in such manner as to be fit for buttons exclusively, ten per centum ad valorem. 429. Buttons commercially known as agate buttons, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. Pearl and shell buttons, two and one-half cents per line button measure of one-fortieth of one* inch per gross, and in addition thereto twenty -five per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Buttons and but- ton-molds, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, not including brass, gilt, or silk buttons, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. Pearl and shell buttons as manufactures of shell, twenty-five per centum. J 430. Ivory, vegetable ivory, bone or horn but- tons, fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: See preceding paragraph.] 431. Shoe-buttons, made of paper board, papier 111.11. he , pulp or other similar material not specially provided tor in this act, valued at not exceeding three cents per gross, one cent per grov>. [Old law: Not enumerated, at twenty five per centum.] 433. Coal, bituminous, and shale, seventy-five cents per ton of twenty-eight bushels, eighty pounds to the bushel; coal slack or culm, HM \\ .is will pass through a half inch screen, thiii 1 per ion of twenty-eight bushels, eighty pounds to the bushel. 433. Coke, twenty per centum ad valorem. 434. Cork bark, cut into squares or cubes, ten cents per pound; manufactured corks, fifteen cents per pound. [Old law-: Twenty-five per centum ] 415. Dice, draughts, chess-men, < hess-balls, and billiard, pool, and bagatelle balls, of ivory, bone, or other materials, fifty per . .nitum ad va- lorem. 436. Dolls, doll-heads, toy marbles of whatever material composed, and all other toys not com- posed of rubber, china, porcelain, panan. Ust|DS*. earthen or stoneware, and Ml sp*'t i.illy provided fof in this .1, t thirty five per ■ rnium ad valorem [Old law; Dolls and toys, thirty five per cen- tum. 1 437. F.merv grains, and emery manufactured, ground, pulverized, or refined, one cent per pound. rXrLOSIVUMUMAKCBS. 438. Fire-crackers of all kinds, eight cents per I pound, hut mo allowance shall he made ->•- dama&t thereon. [Old law: < me hundred Bttra.1 430. Fulminates, fulminating powders, and like provided for in this act, thirty per cat DM 440. Gunpowder, and ail explosive substances > mining, blasting, artillery, or sporting purposes, when valued at twenty cents or less per pound, five cents per pound; valued above twenty cents per pound, eight cents per pound. [Old law: Six and eight dbOM ] 441. Matches, friction or luciser, of all descrip- tions, per gross of one hundred and forty -four bona*, containing not more than one hundred matches per box, ten cents per gross; when im- ported otherwise than in boxes containing not more than • tie hundred matches each, one cost per one thousand matches. [Old law: Friction or lucifr-r matches of all descriptions, thirty-five per centum ] 442. Percussion caps. Forty per centum ad valorem . 443. Feathers and downs of all kinds, crude or not dressed, colored, or manufactured, not spe- cially provided for in this act, ten per centum ad valorem; when dressed, colored, or manufactured, including quilt*, of down and other manufactures of down, and also including dressed and finished birds suitable for millinery ornaments, and artifi- cial and ornamental feathers and flowers, or parts thereof, of whatever material composed, not spe- cially provided for in this act, fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Feathers of all kinds crude or not dressed, colored or manufactured, twenty- five per centum ad valorem; when dressed, colored, or manufactured, including dressed and finished birds, for milliner)' ornaments, and artificial and ornamental leathers and flowers, or parts thereof, of whatever material composed, for millinery use, not specialty enumerated or provided for in this act, fiftv per centum ad valorem.! 444. Furs dressed on the skin out mot made */ into articles, and fun. not on the skin, prepared for hatters* use, twenty per centum ad valorem. 445. Giant beads, loose, unthreaded or un- strung, ten per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Beads, and bead ornaments of all kinds, except amber, fifty per centum ] 446. i .1111 wads of all descriptions, thirty-five per centum ad valorem 447. Hair, human, if clean or drawn but not manufactured, twerm per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Thirty per centum.] 448. Hair cloth, known as "crinoline-cloth," eight cents per square yard. [Old law: Thirty per centum.] 449. Hair cloth, known as "hair -seating," thirty cents per square yard. 450. Hair, curled suitable for beds or mattresses, fifteen per centum ad valorem. (Old law: Curled hair, except of hogs, used for beds or mattresses, twenty-five per centum] 451. Hats, for men's, women's, and children's wear, composed ol the fur of the rabbit , beaver, or other animals or of which such fur is the com- ponent material of chiet value, wholly or partially manufactured, including fur hat bodies, ntt> tne per centum ad valorem. (Old law: Twenty per centum by Treasury ruling: bonnets, hats, and hoods of hair not specially provided for, thirty per centum. JEWELRY AND RBCtOtSJ 45a. Jewelry: All articles, not elsewhere spe- cially provided for in this act * ompewedof precious i unit at ions thereof, whether sei with coral, jet or pearls, or with diamond*, rubies, cameos, or other precious ston< *** thereof, or otherwise, mm) whiih shall he known commcr- ,.iallv as "jewelry." and cameos in frames, fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Jewelry of all kinds, twenty-five |wr centum ] boa BjSji centum ad valorem |Old rj .it t« n pet centum and ritt\ per centum ,u\ valorem ] 4s 4 Pre. ions stones of all kmdv cut hut not set, ten per centum I and not specially provided tor in this act, lv centum ad valorem. ' compos in dimensions not set, ten per centum ad » [Old law: rVecious stones of all kinds. centum; compositions of glass or paste * bus not set ten per centum.] LKATIIKR AMI KAMI V It RM ^r. 4«. Bend or belting leather and sole leather, and leather not specially provKlrd for in this act, ten per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Leather £ THE TARIFF. 433 bend or belting leather, and Spanish or other sole leather, and leather not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, fifteen per centum ad valorem.] 456. Calf-skins, tanned, or tanned and dressed, dressed upper leather, including patent, enameled .md japanned leather, dressed or undressed, and finished; chamois or other skins not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty per centum ad valorem; book-binders' calf-skins, kangaroo, sheep and goat skins, including lamb and kid skins, dressed and finished, twenty per centum ad valorem; skins for morocco, tanned but unfinished, ten per centum ad valorem; piano- forte leather and piano-forte action leather, thirty- five per centum ad valorem; japanned calf-skins, thirty per centum ad valorem; boots and shoes made of leather, twenty-five per centum ad va- lorem.] 457. But leather cut into shoe uppers or vamps, or other forms, suitable for conversion into manu- factured art i«les, shall be classified as manufact- ures of leather, and paydutyaccordingly. [Calf- skins, tanned, or tanned and dressed, and dressed upper leather of all other kinds, and skins dressed and finished, of all kinds not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, and skins of morocco, finished, twenty per centum ad valorem. Skins for morroco, tanned, but unfinished, ten per centum ad valorem. All manufactures and ar- ticles of leather, or of which leather shall be a cemponent part, not specially enumerated or fwovided for in this act, thirty per centum ad va- orem,] 458. Gloves of all descriptions, composed wholly or in part of kid or other leather, and whether wholly or partly manufactured, shall pay duty at the rates fixed in connection with the following specified kinds thereof, fourteen inches in extreme length when stretched to the full extent, being in each case hereby fixed as the standard, and one dozen pairs as the basis, namely; Ladies' and chil- dren's schma a tli«n of said length or under ,one dol- lar and seventy-five cents per dozen; ladies' and children's Iamb of said length or under, two dol- lars and twenty-five cents per dozen: ladies' and children's kid of said length or under, three dol- lars and twenty-five cents per dozen; ladies' and children's suedes of said length or under, fifty per centum ad valorem; all other ladies' and children's leather gloves, and all men's leather gloves of said length or under, fifty per centum ad valorem; all leather gloves over fourteen inches in length, fifty per centum ad valorem; and in addition to the above rates there shall be paid on all men's gloves one dollar* per dozen; on all lined gloves, one dollar per dozen; on all pique or prick seam gloves, fifty cents per dozen; on all embroidered gloves with more than three singlestrands or cords, fifty cents per dozen pairs. Provided, That all gloves represented to be of a kind or grade below their actual Kind or grade shall pay an additional duty of five dollars per dozen pairs: Provided further, That none of the articles named in this paragraph shall pay a less rate of duty than'fifty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Gloves, kid or leather, of all descriptions, wholly or partially manufactured, fifty per centum ad valorem.] MISCELLANEOUS MANUPACTT'RES. 459. Manufactures of alabaster, amber, asbes- tos, bladders, coral, cat -gut or whip-ijiit or worm-gut, jet, paste, spar, wax, or of which these substances or either of them is a component ma- terial of chief value, not specially provided for in this ;i< t . twenty-five per centum ad valorem; osier or willow prepared for basketmakers' use, thirty per centum ad valorem; manufactures of osier or willow, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Baskets and all other articles composed of osier or willow not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad valorem. Alabaster and spar statuary and ornaments, ten per centum; manufactures of bladders, twenty-five per centum; bonnets, hats and hoods for men, women and children, composed of willow, thirty per centum; wax candles and tapers, twenty per centum; willow sheets or squares, twenty per centum; osier or willow prepared for basketmakers' use, twenty-five per centum; gut and worm-gut, manufactures, free; asbestos manufactures, twenty-five per centum; jet m.mu- 29 factures and imitations of, twenty-five per cen- tum.] 460. Manufactures of bone, chip, grass, horn, India-rubber, palm-leaf, straw, weeds, or whale- bone, or of which these substances or either of them is the component material of chief value; not specially provided tor in this act, thirty per cen- tum ad valorem. [Old law; Manufactures of bone and horn, compositions of, thirty per centum; paste, ten per centum; coral, cut, manufactured, twenty-five per centum; baskets and all other articles composed of grass, palm-leaf, whale- bone, or straw, thirty per centum. India-rubber fabric! composed wholly or in part uf indi;; rub ber, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad valorem. Arti- cles composed of ludia-rubber, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty- five per centum ad valorem. India-rubber boots and shoes, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. Bonnets, hats and hoods for men, women and children composed of chip, grass, palm-leaf, or straw or any other vegetable substance, whale-bone, or other material, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad valorem.] 461. Manufactures of leather, fur, gutta-percha, vulcanized India-rubber, known as hard rubber, human hair, papier-mache, and indurated fiber wares and other manufactures composed of wood or other pulp, or of which these substances or either of them is the component material of chief value, all of the above not specially provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. tOld law: Fur, articles of, thirty per centum; iiiman hair, when manufactured, thirty-five per centum; gutta-percha, manufactured, and all ar- ticles of, thirty-five per centum; papier-mache manufactures, articles and wares, thirty per centum. Hair, human, bracelets, braids, chains, rings, curls, and ringlets, composed of hair, or of which hair is the component material of chief value, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.] 462. Manufactures of ivory, vegetable ivory, mother-of-pearl, and shell, or of which these sub- stances or either of them is the component ma- terial of chief value, not specially provided for in this act, forty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Manufactures of ivory and vegetable ivory, thirty per centum; shells, whole or parts of, manufact- ured, of every description not specially provided for, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. 1 463. Masks, composed of paper or pulp, thirty- five per centum ad valorem. [New provision. ] 464. Matting made of cocoa-fiber or rattan, twelve cents per square yard: mats made of cocoa- fiber or rattan, eight cents per square foot. [Old law: Floor matting and floor mats, exclusively of vegetable substances, twenty per centum.] 465. Paintings, in oil or water colors, and statuary, not otherwise provided for in this act, fifteen per centum ad valorem; but the term "stat- uary" as herein used shall be understood to in- clude only such statuary as is cut, carved, or other- wise wrought by hand from a solid block or mass of marble, stone or alabaster, or from metal, and as is the professional production of a statuary or sculptor only. [Old law: Thirty per centum.] 466. Pencils of wood filled with lead or other material, and pencils of lead, fifty cents per gross and thirty per centum ad valorem; slate pencils, four cents per gross. [Old law: Slate pencils, thirty per centum.] 467. Pencil-leads, not in wood, ten per centum ad valorem PIPES AND SMOKERS* ARTICLES. 468. Pipes, pipe-l>owls, of all materials, and all smokers' articles whatsoever, not specially pro- vided for in this act, including cigarette-books, cigarette book-covers, pouches for smoking or chewing tobacco, and cigarette paper in all forms, seventy per centum ad valorem; all common to- bacco pipes of clay, fifteen cents per gross. Pipes, pipe bowls, and all smokers' articles whatsoever, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, seventy per centum ad valorem; all common pipes of clay, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. 469. Plush, black, known commercially as hatters' plush, composed of *ilk, or of silk and cot- ton, and used exclusively for waking- men's hats, ten per centum ad valorem. [Old law; Twenty- five per centum.] 470. Umbrellas, parasols, and MBshjU ered with silk or alpaca, fifty-five per centum ad valorem; if covered with other material, forty-fiv<- per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Fifty per centum and forty per centum.] 471. Umbrellas, parasols, and sunshades, sticks for, if f>lain, finished or unfinished, thirty-five per centum ad valorem; if carved, fifty /a centum ad valorem. [Old law: Thirty per centum.] 472. Waste, not specially provided for in this act, ten per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Items specially provided for under the old law, which will be classified under the new law according to the component material of chief value: Card-cas«6, pocfeet-DOoks, shell-boxes, and all similar arti- cles, of whatever material composed, and by what- ever name known, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Carriages, and parts of, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Coach and harness fur- niture of all kinds, saddlery, coach, and harness hardware, silver-plated, brass, bntss-plated, or covered, common, tinned, burnished, or japanned, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Combs, of all kinds, thirty per centum ad valorem. Cray- ons, of all kinds, twenty per centum ad valorem. Fans of all kinds except common palm-leaf fans, of whatever material composed, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Finishing powder, twenty per centum ad valorem. Japanned ware of all kinds, not specially enumerated or provided fwr in tins act, forty per centum ad valorem. Musical in- struments of all kinds, twenty-five per centum ad valorem. Philosophical apparatus and instru- ments, thirty-five per centum ad valorem. Polish- ing powders of every description, by whatever name known, including Frankfort-black, and Ber- lin, Chinese, fig, and wash blue, twenty per centum ad valorem. Scagliola, and composition tops for tables or for other articles of furniture, thirty -five per centum ad valorem. Teeth, manufactured, twenty per centum ad valorem. The Free List. (Figures in brackets show the rate of duty under the old law.) Sec. a. On and after the sixth day ef October, eighteen hundred and ninety, unless otherwise specially provided for in this act, the following articles when imported shall be exempt from duty: Acid used for medicinal, chemical, or manufac- turing purposes not specially provided for in this act. Aconite. Acorns, raw, dried or undried, but ungreund. Agates, unmanufactured. Albumen . Alizarine, natural or artificial, and dyes com- mercially known as Alizarine yellow, Aliza- rine orange, Alizarine green, Alizarine blue r Alizarine brown , . Mizarine black. Amber, unmanufactured, or crude, gum. [Old law: Amber beads and gum.] Ambergris. Aniline salts. [Old law: Aniline salts, or black salts or black tares.] Any animal imported specially (or breeding purposes shall be admitted free: Prmided, That no3uch animal shall be admitted free unless pure bred of a recognized breed and duly registered in a book of record established for that breed: And Provided further \ That certificate of such record and of the pedigree of such animal shall be pro- duced and submitted to the customs officer, duly authenticated by the proper custodian of such book of record, together with the affidavit of the owner, agent or importer that such animal is the identical animal described in said certificate of record and pedigree. The Secretary of the Tn m ury may prescribe such additional regulations as maybe required for the strict enforcement of this provision. [Old law: Animals specially Im- ported for breeding purposes shall be admitted free upon proof thereof satisfactory to the Secre- tary of the Treasury, and under such regulations as he may prescribe, and teams of animals, includ- 4± & 434 A THE TARIFF. i tackle nd the vehicles or wagons actually owned >y persons ami I'lgij countries tO the I tatted St.ilrs with their Utilities, and in actual use lor tin* pur] mk.1i --migration, shall I so l«r admitted free of duty, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe.] Animals brought to the United fitates tem- poral ily for a period not exceeding six months, purpose "i < xhibition or competition for prizes o tiered by at, agricultural or racing associ- ation; but a bond shall 3a ;iven in accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the l'r<- tsury; also teams ol :.nimals, including their harness and tackle, and the erayOOJ rf :.>ther ve- il tually owned by persons emigrating from foreign countries to the United States with their families, iiul in actual use tor 'he purpose of such emigration under ;uch 'emulations us he Secre- tary of .be Treasury may prescribe; and wUd animals intended /or exhibition in yological collections f,->r scientific .md educational Pur- poses, and not fir sate or profit. Annatto oucou, rocoa, or Orleans, and al' ex- tracts 01. Antimony, ore, crude sulphide of. Apatite. Argal,or argol, or crude tartar. /irrowroot, raw or u n manufactured. Arsenic and sulphide of ororDiment. Arseniate of aniline. Ar* educational stops :omposed of ^las* and metal and valued at not more than six cents oer gross. [New provision.] Articles in a crude state used in dyeing or tan- Ming not specially provided for in this act. Articles the growth, produce, and manufacture in the United States, when returned after having been exported, without having l>een advanced in value or improved in condition by any process of manufacture or other means; casks, barrels, car- boys, bags, and other vessels of American manu- facture exported filled with American products, or exported empty and returned filled with foreign products,including shooks when returned as barrels or boxes; also quicksilviT flasks or bottles, of either domestic or foreign manufacture, which shall have been actually exported from the United States; but proof of the identity of such articles shall be made, under general regulations t« be preserved by the Secretary of the Treasury; and if any such articles are subject to internal tax at the time of exportation such tax shall be proved to have been paid before exportation and not re- funded: /'roT'ided, That this paragraph shall not apply to any article upon which an allowance of drawback has been made, the re-importation of which is hereby prohibited except upon payment of duties equal to the drawbacks allowed; or to any article manufactured in bonded warehouse and exported under any provision of law; And Provided further , That when manufactured to- hacco which has been exported without payment of internal-revenue tax shall be re-imported it shall be retained in the custody of the collector ot customs until internal-revenue stamps in payment cf the legal duties shall l>e placed theqeon. [Old law: liarrels of American manufacture, exported filled with domestic petroleum, and returned empty under such regulations as the Sen the '1 reasury may prescribe, and without room- ing the filing of a declaration at time of export ofintcnt to return the same empty. Artii growth, produce, and manufacture of the United States, when returned in the same condition as exported. Casks, barrels, carboys, bags and ssels of Amerii an manufacture, exported filled with American products, or exported empty and returned filled with foreign products, including shooks when re tur ne d as barrels or but proof of the identity of such shall be made under the regulations to be pre- acrtbodbythe Secretary of the Treasury andii Dm t to interna] tax at the time of exportation, such tax shall l>e proved to bare been paid before exportation :nd not re- funded. i'i Attdprp rid- d further, Th other th in ol Amerfc an manufacture, in which d nail have been actually exported from the trued empty to the United States, free ofdaty, under ragwarJooa to . ribed by the I the Treasury. Sec. 7, act of Feb. 8, i«7s.) Asbestos, unmanufactured. Joldlaw: Articles imported for the use of the United States, pro- vided that the *jrice of the same did riot include the duty.] Ashes, wood and lye of, and licet root ashes. Asphaltum .nd bitumen crude. Asa! | Balm of (iilead. Harks, i in. bona or other troin whi. li quinine may be extracted. (Old law: DaiSi, rim tanas or other barks used in the manufacture of quin- ine.] Baryta, carbonate of, or withcrite. Bauxite, or 'x::.uxite. Heeswax. Old law: Twenty per centum 1 Bells broken, and bell metal, broken ana fit only 'o be ^manufactured. Birds, stuffed, not suitable for millinery orna- ments, and birds' shins, prepared or preserva- tion ,but not further adratu ed tcauufacture. Buda and .and and water loerla. Bismuth. Bladders, including fish bladders si fish sounds, crude, and all integuments n nuiial* nut spe- cially provided for in this ict. Blood, dried. Bologna laniaajna. Bolting cloths, especially for milling pur- Poses, but not suitable for the manufacture of ivearing apparel. Bones crude, or not burned, calcined, ground, steamed or otherwise manufactured, and bone- dust or animal carbon and bone ash, fit only tor fertilizing ptirpe es. [Old law; Bones, crude, not manufactured, burned, calcined, -p-ound or steamed. Bone-dust and bone-ash or manufact- ure of phosphate and fertilizers.] Books, engravings, photographs, bound or un- boiiud etchings, maps and charts, which shall have been printed and bound or manufactured more than twenty yearsat the date of importation. Books and pamphlets printed exclusively in languages other than English; also books and mu- sk m i used prim, used exclusively by the blind. Books, engravings, photographs, etchings, bound or umhound, maps and charts imported uy authority or for the use of the United Si for the use of the Library of Congress. [Note — The Allowing words are omitted from new law: "But the duty shall not have been included in the ontract of price paid."] Books, maps, lithographic prints and charts specially imported, not more two copies in any one invoice, in good faith, for the use of any so- ciety incorporated orcstablished ."or educational, philosophical, literary, jr religious purposes, or for the encouragement of the fine arts, or tor the use or by ordet of any college, academy, school, or seminary of learning in the United States, subject to such regulations as the See re* tary of the Treasury shall prescribe. Books or libraries, or parts of libraries, and other household effects of persons or families rom foreign countries, if actually used abroad by them • ;han one year, and not intended for any other person or persons, nor for sate. Braids', plaits, laces, and similar manufactures l s, palm leaf, willow, osier, or rattan, suitable KMT making or 01 n ing hats.bonmt 'Oldlaw; Twenty per centum,'' bVaaillan pebble, un wrought or uninunu- factured. [< Id law: Uia/ilian oebbles for spec- tacles and pebbles for spectacle* rough | r slabs. I'.romine. Hulli. Burgundy pit. h Cabinets or old coins nnd medal* and other col- of antiquities, but the term "antiquities" asused in this hide only such articles as are suit end wliii h shall i d at any period priof to the year aereuteer bundn d - td all other collections uttes.J * ladmmm, (.Calamine. Camphor, crude. tor, or castoreum. Catgut, whipgut or wonngut, unmanufactured, or not tint her ■jauuUcint'-d than in siring- ■ H >!d law; Catgut strings or gut cord or musical instruments.. strings. All strings of catgut or any other like material, other than string* for musical instruments, twenty-rive per centum ad valorem.] Cerium. Chalk , unmanufact ured [Old law contains I ItlTan— it ] Charcoal. Chicoryroot, raw, dried or undricd, but un- ground. Civet, crude. Clay — common blue clay in casks suitable for the manufacture of crucible* [New pro vision.] Coal, anthracite. Coal stores of American vessels, but none shall be unloaded. ■ Coal tar, crude. Cobalt and cobalt ore. [Old taw: Cobah,orc of; cobalt as metallic arsenic] Cocculus mdicus. Cochineal . Cocoa, or cacoa, crude and fiber, leave* and shells of. Coffee. Coins, gold, silver and copper. Coir and coir yarn. Copper, old, taken from the bottom of Ameri- can vessels compelled by marine disaster to repair in foreign ports. Coral, marine, uncut and unmanufactured. Cork wood or cork bark, unmanufactured. Cotton and c>tton-u\n:e or flocks. Cryolite or kryotith. Cudbear. Curling-stones, or quoits, and curling-atone handles. Curry and curry powdisr. Cutch. Cuttlefish bone. Dandelion roots, raw, dried or uodried, but un- ground. Diamonds and other precious stents, rough or uncut, including glaziers' and engravrrs' dia- monds not set, and diamond dust or bort, and ■ Sensed in the manufacture of notches . 1 »ivi di\i. Dragon's blood. Drugs, such as barks, beans, berries, balsams, buds, bulbs, and bulbous roots, excrescences, such as nut-galls, fruits, flowers, dried fibers, and dried insects, grains, jum* and gum-resin, herbs, leaves, lichens, mosses, nut-, roots, and stems, spices, vegetables, seeds, aromatic and seeds of morbid growth, weeds and woods used expressly for dyeing; any of the foregoing which are not edi- ble and arc in a crude state, and not advanced in value or condition by refining or grinding, or by other process of manufacture ana not specially provided tor in this act. Eggs of birds, fish and insects Emery ore.' Ergot. Eans, common palm-leaf and palm-leaf un- manufactured. Farina. Fashion plates, engraved on steel, or copper, or on wood, colored or plain Feathers and downs for beds. [iV.a law: Bed feathers and down- Feldspar. Felt, adhesive, for sheathing vessels. Fibrin in all forms. fi-h, the product of American fisheries and fre>h or froicn fish (except salmon) caught in fresh waters by American vessels, or with nets or other devices owned by citizen* of the United States. [Old law. Fish, fresh, for iaiawhste . ..n-timption 1 Flail lor bait Fish skins. [Also shark skins under old law] Mint, flints and ground flint stones. Floor matting manufactured tiom round or split straw, including what » commonly known as Chinese matting [Old law: Floor asartmsj and floor matscxctusively of vegetable substances, twenty per centum ] Fossils. Fruit plants, tropical and semi tropical, for the purpose of propagation or a FKV1T* ANI> Currants. Zante or other {Old law: One cent ;»cr pound ] r. 1!\ =** THE TARIFF. =7? 435 Dates. [Old law: One cent per poand \ Fruits, green, ripe or dried, nut specially pro- vided for in this act. Tamarinds. Cocoanuts. Brazil nuts. Cream nut-. Palm nuts. Palm nut kernels. Furs, undressed. Fur skins of all kinds not dressed in any man- ner. Gambier. < Haas, broken, and old glass, which cannot be cut for use, and fit only to be remanutactured. Glass plates or disks, rough cut or unwrought, for use in the manufacture of optical instru- ments, spectacles and eyeglasses, and suitable only or such use: Provided however. That such disks exceeding eight inches in diameter may be polished sufficiently to enable the character of the glass to be determined. [Old law; Glass plates or disks, unwrought, for use in the manufacture of optical instruments.] GRASSES AND FIBERS. Istle, or Tampico fiber. Jute. [Old law: Twenty per centum. j ute butts. [Old law: Five dollars per ton.] laniia. Sisal grass. [Old law: Fifteen dollars per ton.] Sunn. [Old law: Fifteen dollars per ton.] And all other textile grasses or fibrous vegetable substances, unmanufactured or undressed, not specially provided for in this act. [Old law: Fif- teen dollars per ton. Esparto or Spanish grass and other grasses, and pulp of, for the manufact- ure of paper.] Gold-beaters' molds and gold-beaters' skins. Grease and oilj such as are commonly used in soap-making or in wire-drawing, or for stuffing or dressing leather, and which are fit only for such uses, not specially provided for in this act. [Old law: Grease for use as soap stock only, not specially provided for; soap stocks free; grease all not specially enumerated or provided for, ten per centum.] Guano, manures and all substances expressly used for manure. t iunny bags and gunny cloths, old or refuse, fit only for remanufacture. Guts, salted. Gutta-percha, crude. Hair of horse, cattle, and other animals, cleaned or uncleaned, drawn or undrawn, but un- manufactured, not specially provided for in this act; and human hair, raw, uncleaned and not drawn. [Old law: Hair, horse or cattle, and hair of all kinds, cleaned or uncleaned, drawn or undrawn, but unmanufactured, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act; of hogs, curled for beds and mattresses, and not fit for bristles.] Hides, raw or uncured, whether dry, salted or pickled. Angora goatskins, raw without the wool, unmanufactured, asses' skins, raw or un- manufactured, and skins, except sheepskins, with the wool on. [Old law: Also goat-skins raw.] Hide-cuttings, raw, with or without hair, and all other glue stock. Hide rope. Hones and whetstones. Hoofs, unmanufactured. Hop roots for cultivation. Horns and parts of, unmanufactured, including horn strips and tips. Ice. India-rubber, crude and milk of, and old scrap or refuse India-rubber which has been worn out by- use and is fit only for remanufacture. Indigo. [Old law; Indigo and artificial in- digo.] Iodine, crude. Ipecac. Iridium. Ivory and vegetable ivory, not salved, cut, or otherwise manufactured. [Old law contained word unmanufactured. ,] Jalap. Jet , un man ufactured . Joss-stick, or Joss-light. Junk, old. Kelp. Kieserite. Kyanite, or cyanite, andkainice. Lac dye, crude, seed, button, ttick and shell. Lac spirits. Lactarine. Lava, unmanufactured. Leeches. Lemon juice, lime juice, and sour orange iuice. Licorice root, unground. Lifeboat and life-saving apparatus specially im- ported by societies incorporated or established to encourage the saving of human life. Lime, citrate of. Lime, chloride of, or bleaching powder. Lithographic stones not engraved. Litmus, prepared or not prepared. Lodestones. Madder and munjeet, or Indian madder, ground or prepared, and all extracts of. Magnesite, or native mineral carbonate of mag- nesia. Magnesium. Magnets. Manganese, oxide and ore of. Manna. Manuscripts. Marrow, crude. Marshmallows. Medals of gold, silver or copper, such as tro- phies or Prizes. Meerschaum, crude or unmanufactured. [Old law says raw instead of unmanufactured.] Mineral waters, all not artificial. Minerals, crude or not advanced in value or condition by refining or grinding, or by other pro- cess of manufacture, not specially provided for in this act. Models of inventions and ofotherimprovements in the arts, including patterns for machinery, but no article shall be deemed a model or pattern which can be fitted for use otherwise. [Old law : Changed from improvement to pattern.] Moss, sea weeds, and vegetable substances, crude or unmanufactured, not otherwise specially provided for in this act. [Old law: Moss, sea- weeds, and all other vegetable substances used for beds and matresses.] Musk, crude, in natural pods. Myrobolan. Needles, hand-sewing and darning. Newspapers and periodicals but the term " periodicals" as herein used shall be under- stood to embrace only unbound or paper-coz'- ered publications, containing current litera- ture of the day and issued regularly at stated Periods as iveekly, monthly, or quarterly, Nux vomica. Oakum. Oilcake. Oils—Almond, amber, crude and rectified am- bergris, anise or anise seed, aniline, aspic or spike lavender, bergamot, cajeput, caraway, cassia, cin- amon, cedrat, chamomile, citronella or lemon grass, civet, fennel, jasmine or jasimine, juglandium, juniper, lavender, lemon, limes, mace, neroli, or orange flower, nut oil or oil of nuts not otherwise specially provided for in this act, orange oil, olive oil for manufacturing or mechanical pur- poses, unfit for eating and not otherwise provided for in this act, attar of roses, palm and cocoanut, rosemary or anthoss, sesame or sesamum seed or bene, thyme, origanum, red or white ; valerian, and also spermaceti, whale and other fish oils of American fisheries, and all other articles the pro- duce of such fisheries. Olives, green or prepared. Opium, crude or unmanufactured, and not adul- terated, containing nine per centum and over of morphia. Orange and lemon peel, not preserved, candied, or otherwise prepared. Orchil or orchil liquid. Orchids, lily of the valley, azaleas, palms, and other plants used for forcing under glass for cut flowers or decorative purposes. Ores of gold, silver and nickel and nickel matte: Provided, That ores of nickel and nickel matte, containing more than two Per centum of copper, shall pay a duty of one-half of one cent per pound on the copper contained th.-vein, [Old law: Ail tonus of nickel, fifteen per pound] ' Minium. Palladium. Taper stock, crude, of ever)' description, in- cluding all grasses, fibers, rags (other than wool), havings, clippings, old paper, rope ends, waste rope, waste bagging, old or refuse gunny bags or gunny cloth, and poplar or other woods, fit only to be converted into paper. [Old law : leather, old scraps, enumerated. Sea-weed not specially provided for. Paper-stock, crude, of every description, including all grasses, fibers, rags of all kinds, other than wool, waste, shavings, clippings, old paper, rope ends, waste rope, waste bagging, gunny bags, gunny cloth, old or refuse, to be used in making, and fit only to be converted into paper, and unfit for any other manufacture, and cotton waste, whether for paper stock or other purposes. Rags of whatever material com- posed, and not specially provided for in this act, ten per centum. [See fibers and grasses.] Paraffine. Parchment and vellum. Pearl, mother of, not sa-zued, cut, polished, or other:,'/ se manufactured. Peltries and other usual goods and effects of Indians passing or repassing the boundary line of the United States, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe : Pro- 7'ided, That this exemption shall not apply to foods in bales or other packages unusual among ndians. Personal and household effects not merchandise of citizens of the United States dying in foreign countries. Pewter and britannia metal old, and fit only to be remanufactured. Philosophical and scientific apparatus, instru- ments and preparations; statuary, casts of marble, bronze, alabaster or plaster of Paris; paintings, drawings andetchings, specially imported in good faith for the use of any society or institutiop incor- porated or established for religious, philosophical, educational, scientific on literary purposes, or foe encouragement of the fine arts and not intended for sale. Phosphates, crude or native. [Old law con- tains words; "For fertilizing purposes."] Plants, trees, shrubs, roots, seed cane and seeds, all of the foregoing imported by the De- partment of Agriculture or the United States Bo- tnnic Garden. Plaster of Paris andisulphate of lime, unground. Platina, in ingots, bars, sheets, and wire. [Old law: Platina, unmanufactured.] Platinum, unmanufactured, and vases, retorts and other apparatus, vessels and parts thereof composed of platinum for chemical uses. Plumbago. Polishing stones. Potash, crude, carbonate of, or "black salts." Caustic potash or hydrate of, not including re- fined, in sticks or rolls. Nitrate of potash or saltpeter, crude. Sulphate of potash, crude or re- fined. Chlorate of potash. Muriate of potash. [Old law: Caustic, and so forth, twenty per centum; chlorate, three cents per pound; sulphate twenty per centum; nitrate of, or saltpeter crude, one cent per pound.] Professional books, implements, instruments, and tools of trade, occupation, or employment in the actual possession at the time of persons ar- riving in the United States; but this exemption shall not be construed to include machinery or other articles imported for use in any manufactur- ing establishment, or for any other person or per- sons, or for sale. [Old law; Professional books only.] Pulu. Pumice. Quills, prepared or unprepared, but not made up into complete articles. Quinia, sulphate of, and all alkaloids or salts of cinchona bark. [Old law: Quinia, sulphate of, salts of andcinchonidia.] Rags not otherwise specially provided for in this act. [Old law: Rags of all kinds other than wool.] Regalia and gems, statues, statuary, and spec- imens of sculpture where specially imported in good faith for the use of any society incorporated or established solely for educational, philosoph- 7T _^ -M 436 THE TARIFF. ~7\ ical, literary or religious purposes, or for the en- couragement of fine arts, or for the use or by order of any college, academy, schoot, seminary of learning, or public library in the United States; but the term "regalia." at herein used shall be held to embrace only such insignia of rank or office or emblems t as maybe 7uorn upon the per- son or borne in the hand during public exer- cises 0/ the society or institution f and shall not . include articles 0/ furniture or fixtures t or oj regular wearing apparel ', not personal property of individuals . Rennets, raw or prepared. Saffron and safflower and extract of, and saf- fron cake. Sago, crude, and sago flour. Salactne. Sauerkraut Sausage skins. Seeds, anise, canary, caraway, cardamon, cori- ander, cotton, cummin, fennel, fenugreek, hemp, hoarhound, mustard, rape, St. John's bread or bene, sugar beet, mangel wurzel, sorghum or sugar cane for seed, and all flower and grass seeds; bulbs and bulbous roots, not edible; all the foregoing not specially provided for in this act. [Old law; Bulbs and bulbous roots, not medici- nal, not otherwise provided for, twenty per Centum.] Selep or saloup. Shells of all kinds, not cut, ground or otherwise manufactured. [Old law: Shells of every de- scription, not manufactured; tortoise and other shells, unmanufactured, free.] Shotgun -barrels, forged, rough bored. [Old law: Ten per centum.] Shrimps and other shell fish. Silk, raw or as reeled from the cocoon, but liot doubted, twisted, or advanced in manufacture in any way. Silk cocoons and silk-waste. Silkworms' eggs. Skeletons and other preparations of anatomy. Snails. Soda, nitrate or cubic nitrate and chlorate of. Sodium. Sparterre, suitable for making or ornamenting hats. Specimens of natural history, botany, and min- eralogy, when imported for cabinets or as objects of science, and not for sale. [Old law extended to objects of taste.] Cassia, cassia vera and cassia buds, unground. Cinnamon and chips of, unground. Cloves and clove-stems, unground. Ginger root, unground a/id not preserved or Candied. Mace. Nutmegs. Pepper, black or white, unground. Pimento, unground. Spunk. Spurs and stilts used in the manufacture ol earthen, porcelain, and stoneware. [Old law was crockery instead of porcelain.] Stone and sand. Hurrstone in blocks, rough or manufactured and not bound up into millstones; cliff stone, unmanufactured; pumice stone, rotten ■tone, and sand, 1 rude Of mamilai tured. Storax, or styrax. Strontia, oxide of, and protoxide of strontian, and strontianite, or mineral carbonite of strontia. SugVi, all not above No. 16 Dutch standard in color, all tank bottoms, all sugar draining* and sugar sweepings; sirups of cane juice, melada. Concentrated melada and concrete ami COD* centrated molasses and molasses. [Old law; All sugars not above No. 13 Hutch standard in color shall pay duty on their polariscopic test as follows, viz: All sugars not above No. 13 Dutch standard fan oolor, all lank bottoms, sirups of cane juice or of beet juice, melada, concen- trated melada, concrete and concentrated mo- lasses, testing by the polariscope not above seventy- five degree*, shall pay a d»ty of one and forty -hundredths cents j>er pound, and for every additional degree or fraction of a degree shown by the polariscopic test, they shall pay four hun- dredths of a cent per pound additional; (a. Pro* tided. That concentrated melada, or concrete, ugi m-lada shall be known and defined as an art. c made in the process of sugar-making being the cane juice boiled down to the sugar point and containing all the sugar and molasses resulting from the boiling process and without any process of purging or clarification, and any and all pro- ducts of the sugar cane imported in bags, mats, baskets, or other than tight packages shall be considered sugar and dutiable as such. Andfro- vided further t That of the drawback on refined sugars exported allowed by section three thou- sand and nineteen of the Revised Statutes of the United States, only one per centum of the amount so allowed shall be retained by the United States. Act of March 3, 1875, sec. 3.) Sugar, thirteen to sixteen Dutch standard, two and seventy-five one-hundredths cents per pound. [Old law; Mo- lasses testing not above fifty-six degrees by the polariscope, shall pay a duty of four cents per gallon; molasses testing above fifty-six degrees, shall pay a duty of eight cents per gallon.] Sulphur, lac or precipitated, and sulphur of brimstone, crude, in bulk, sulphur ore, as pyrites, or sulphuret of iron in its natural state, containing in excess of twenty-five Der centum of sulphur (except on the copper contained therein) and sulphur not otherwise provided for. [Old law; Sulphur, or brimstone, not especially enumerated or provided for in this act; sulphur, lac or precip- itated, free.] Sulphuric acid, which at the temperature of 00 degrees Fahrenheit does not exceed the specific gravity of one and three hundred and eighty thousandths, for use in manufacturing superphos- phate of lime or artificial manures of any kind or for any agricultural purposes. [Old law; 1'rce under general provision for acid.] Sweepings of silver and gold. Tapioca, cassava or cassady. Tar and pitch of wood and pitch of coal tar. [Old law: Wood tar, ten per centum; coal tar, crude, ten percentumad valorem.] Tea and tea plants. Teeth, natural or unmanufactured. Terra alba. [Word aluminous omitted.] Terra japonica. Tin ore, cassiteriteor black oxide of tin, and tin In bars, blocks, pigs or grain or granulated, until July the first, 1893, and thereafter as otherwise provided for in this act. Tinsel wire, lame or lahn. Tobacco stems. [Old law: Fifteen cents per pound.] Tonouin, tonqua or tonka beans. Tripoli. Turmeric Turpentine, Venice. Turpentine, spirits of. [Old law: Twenty cents per gallon.] T'irtles. Types, oldand fit only to be remanufactured. Uranium, oxide and salts of. Vaccina, virus Valonia Verdigris or suhacetateof copper Wafers, unmedicated. Wax, vegetable or mineral. Wearing apparel and other personal effects (not merchandise) of persons arriving in the United States, but this exemption shall not be held to in- clude articles not actually in dm and necessary and appropriate for the use of such persons for the purposes of their journey and present comfort and convenience, or which are intended for any other person or persons, or for sale; Provided. Ao:.'tT'er, That all sn. h wearing apparel and other personal effects as may have been once im- ported into the United States and subjected to Stent of duty, and whu h may have been a< ttialfy used and taken or exported to foreign countries by the persons returning therewith to the United States, shall, if not advanced in value or improved in condition by any means situ e their exportation from the 1 , be en- titled to I being established, BndffUCA raise and regulations as may be prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury. [Old law: Wearing apparel, in actual use. and other personal effects (not merchandised. professional books, implements, instruments, and tools of trade, occupation or employment of per- sons arriving in the United States. But this ex- ception shall not be construed to Include ma- chinery or other articles imported for use in any manufacturing establishment, or for sale.] Whalebone, unmanufactured. Wood — Logs and round unmanufactured timber, not specially enumerated or provided for in this Firewood, handle bolts, heading bolts, stave bolts, shingle bolts, bop poles, fence posts, railroad ties, ship timber, and snip planking, not specially led for in this act. Woods — Namely, cedar, lignumvitse, lance- wood, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rose- wood, satin wood, and %\\ forms of ca&m**. woods, in the log, rough or hewn; bamboo and rattan, un- manufactured; briar root or briar wood, and simi- lar wood unmanufactured, or not farther man- ufactured than cut into blocks suitable for the ar- ticles into which they are intended to be con- vened; bamboo, reeds, and sticks of partridge, hair wood, pimento, orange, myrtle, and other woods not otherwise specially provided for in this act, in the rough, or not further manufactured than cut into lengths suitable for sticks for um- brellas, parasols, sun-shades, whips, or walking- canes; and India malacca joints not further man- ufactured than cut into suitable lengths for the manufactures into which they are intended to be converted. Works of art, the production of American artists residing temporarily abroad or other works of art, including pictorial paintings on glass, imported expressly for presentation to a national institution or to any State or municipal corporation or in- corporated religious society, college, or other pub- lic institution, except stained or painted window- glass or stained or painted glass windows; bat such exception shall be subject to such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe. [Old law: Works of art, painting, statuary, fountains and other works of art, the production of American artists. Hut the fact of such pro- duction must be verified by the certificate of a consul or minister of the United States indorsed upon the written declaration of the artist; paintings, statuary, fountains, and other works of art, imported expressly for presentation to na- tional institutions, or to any State, or to any mu- nicipal corporation or religious corporation or society.] Works of art, drawings, engravings, photo- graphic pictures and philosophical and scientific apparatus brought by profession si artists, lec- turers, or scientists arriving ftcest abroad f- n e by them temporarily for exhibiiio* .fthd promotion, and encourages*^ ax. . -rrmce, or industry in the United State* r<-*d act r sale, and photographic pictures, -Intingr » statu- ary. Imported for exhibition by aviy assoriition established in good faith an an.v authorised under the laws of the Unit* dS.mes oTsVany State, expressly and solel f> r th -o - "Of. "or and encouragement of scienc -, rr! In nsti and not intended for sal-, aha?* b a **- . ee of duty, under such s* lotion a »*;• r-ecretary of the Treasury shat vreacrll; ;b !«nds h M be r the pa; meet t Unit-.* States of such duties as may* * unpoeca * - Uw upon any and all of suchaftiVea a aVt no be exported within six nv^jssi a er sue' Importation: Pro* I o^ n.-tary of the Treasury may, in his discretion .tend such period for a further term of six mont'is In cases where applications therefor shall be made. Works of art, collections ta fllusrration of the progress of the arts, science, or manufactures, photogtaphs, works in terra cotta, panan, • or porcelain and artistic copies of annuities sn metal or other material, h good faith for permanent exhibition at s fixed place by any society or institution established for the encouragement of the arts or of science, and all tike articles imported in good faith by any so- ciety or association for the purpose of erecting a public monument, and not intended for sale, nor for any other purpose than herein expressed; but bonds shall be given under such rules and regula- tions as the Secretary of the Treasury may pre- scribe, for the payment of lawful duties which may accrue should any of the articles aforesaid be sold, transferred, or used contrary to this provision, and such articles shall be subject, at any time, to examination and inspection by the proper officers Kr THE TARIFF. 437 ^ of the customs; Provided, That the privileges oi this and the preceding section shall not be allowed to associations or corporations engaged in or con- nected with business of a private or commercial character. Yams. Zaffsr. Sec. 3. That with a view to secure reciprocal trade with countries producing the following ar- ticles, and for this purpose, on and after the first day of January, eighteen hundred and ninety-two, whenever and so often as the President shall be satisfied that the government of any country pro- ducing and exporting sugars, molasses, coffees, teas, and hides, raw and uncured, or any of such articles, imposes duties or other exactions upon the agricultural or other products of the United States, which in view of the free introduction of such sugar, molasses, coffee, tea, and hides into the United States he may deem to be reciprocally unequal and unreasonable, he shall have the power and it shall be his duty to suspend, by proclamation to that effect, the provisions of this act relating to the free introduction of such sugar, molasses, coffee, tea, and hides, the production of such country, for such time as he shall deem just, and in such case and during such suspension duties shall be levied, collected, and paid upon sugar, molasses, coffee, tea, and hides, the pro- duct of or exported from such designated country, as follows — namely: All sugars not above number thirteen Dutch standard in color shall pay duty on their polari- scopic tests as follows, namely: All sugars not above number thirteen Dutch standard in color, all tank bottoms, sirups of cane juice or of beet juice, melada, concentrated melada, concrete and concentrated molasses, testing by the polariscope not above seventy-five degrees, seven-tenths of one cent per pound, and for every additional degree or fraction of a degree shown by the polariscopic test, two hundredths of one cent per pound additional. All sugars above number thirteen Dutch stand- ard in color shall be classified by the Dutch stand- ard of color and pay duty as follows — namely: AH sugar above number thirteen and not above number sixteen Dutch standard of color, one and three-eighths cents per pound. All sugar above number sixteen and not above number twenty Dutch standard of color, one and five-eighths cents per pound. All sugar above number twenty Dutch stand- ard of color, two cents per pound. Molasses testing above fifty-six degrees, four cents per gallon. Sugar (trainings and sugar sweepings shall be subject to duty either as molasses or sugar, as the case may be, accordingto polariscopic test. On coffee, three cents per pound. On tea, ten cents per pound. Hides, raw or uncured, whether dry, saltea or pickled. Angora goat-skins, raw, without the wool, unmanufactured, asses* skins, raw or un- manufactured, and skins, except sheep-skins, with the wool on, one and one-half cents per pound. [Section 3 is new matter.] Sec, 4. That there shall be levied, collected and paid on the importation of all raw or unmanufact- ured articles, not enumerated or provided for in this act, a duty often per centum ad valorem; and on all articles manufactured, in whole or in part, not provided for in this act, a duty of twenty per centum ad valorem. [Old law: Ammonia, aqua or water of, twenty per centum. Ammonia, anhydrous, liquefied by pressure, twenty per centum. Coal-tar, products of, such as naptna, benzine, benzole, dead oil and pitch, twenty per centum ad valorem. All non-dutiable crude min- < rate, bat which have been advanced in value or condition by refining or grinding, or by other process of manufacture, not specially enumerated or provided for in this act, ten per centum. Can- dles and tapers of all kinds, twenty per centum. Sec. 5. That each and every imported ar- ticle, not 'enumerated in this act, which is similar, either in material, quality, texture, or the use to which it may be applied, to any article enumerated in this act as chargeable with duty shall pay the same rate of duty which is levied on the enumerated article which it most resembles in any of the particulars before mentioned; and if any non-enumerated article equally resembles two or more enumerated articles on which different rates of duty are chargeable there shall be levied on such non-enumerated article the same rate of duty as is chargeable on the article which it re- sembles paying the highest rate of duty; and on articles not enumerated, manufactured of two or more materials, the duty shall be assessed at the highest rate at which the same would be charge- able if composed wholly of the component ma- terial thereof of chief value; and the words "com- ponent material of chief value," wherever used in this act , shall be held to mean that component mate- rial which shall exceed in value any other single component material of the article; and the value of each:component material shall be determined by the ascertained value of such material in its condition as found in the article. If two or more rates of duty shall be applicable to any imported article, it shall pay duty at the highest of such rates. [Old law: Sec. 2,499. There shall be levied, collected and paid on each and every non-enumerated arti- cle which bears a similitude either in material, quality, texture, or the use to which it may be applied, to any article enumerated in this title as chargeable with duty, the same rate of duty which is levied and charged on the enumerated article which it most resembles in any of the particulars be- fore mentioned; and if any non-enumerated article equally resembles two or more enumerated articles on which different rates are chargeable, there shall be levied, collected, and paid on such non- enumerated article the same rate of duty as is chargeable upon the article which it resembles paying the highest duty; and on all articles manu- factured from two or more materials the duty shall be assessed at the highest rates at which thecom- ?onent material of chief value may be chargeable, f two or more rates of duty should be applicable to any imported article, it shall be classified for duty under the highest of such rates. Provided, That non -enumerated articles similar in material and quality and texture, and the use to which they may be applied, to articles on the free list, and in the manufacture of which no dutiable ma- terials are used, shall be free.] Sec. 6. That on and alter the first day of March, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, all articles ol foreign manufacture, such as are usually or ordi- narily marked, stamped, branded, or labeled, and all packages containing such or other imported ar- ticles, shall, respectively, be plainly marked, stamped, branded, or labeled in legible English words, so as to indicate the country' of their origin; and unless so marked, stamped, branded or labeled they shall not be admitted to entry. [Section 6 is new matter.] Sec. 7. That on and after March first, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, no article of imported merchandise which shall copy or simulate the name or trade-mark of any domestic manufacture or manufacturer, shall be admitted to entry at any custom house of the United States. And in order to aid the officers of the customs in enforcing this prohibition any domestic manufacturer who has adopted trade-marks may require his name and residence and a description of his trade-marks to be recorded in books which shall be kept for that purpose in the Department of the Treasury under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe, and may furnish to the Department fac-similes of such trade-marks; and thereupon the Secretary of the Treasury shall cause one or more copies of the same to be trans- mitted to each collector or other proper officer of the customs. [Old law: Sec. 2,496. No watches, watch-cases, watch-movements, or parts of watch-movements, or any other articles of foreign manufacture, which shall copy or simulate the name or trade-mark of any domestic manufacture (manufacturer), shall be admitted to entry at the custom house of the United States, unless such domestic manufacturer is the importer of the same. And in order to aid the officers of the customs in enforcing this prohibition, any domes- tic manufacturer who has adopted trade-marks* may require his name and residence and a de- scription of his trade-marks to be Jrecorded in books which shall be kept for that purpose in the Department of ithe Treasury, under such regula- tions as the Secretary of the Treasury shall pre- scribe, and may furnish to the Department fac- similes of such trade-marks; and thereupon the Secretary of the Treasury shall cause one or more copies of the same to be transmitted to each col- lector or other proper officer of the customs. ] Sec. 8. That all lumber, timber, hemp, nianil.i wire ropes and iron and steel rods, bars, spikes, nails, plates, tees, angles, beams, and bolts anc copper and composition metal which may be nec- essary for the construction and equipment of ves- sels built in the United States /or foreign account and ownership or for the purpose of being em- Sloyed in the foreign trade, including the trade etween the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United States; after the passage of this act, may be imported in bond under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe; and upon proof that such materials have been used for such purpose no duties shall be paid thereon. But vessels receiving the benefit of this section shall not be allowed to engage in the coastwise trade of the United States more than two months in any one year, except upon the payment to the United States of the duties on which a rebate is herein allowed: Provided, That vessels built in the I 'nited States for foreign account and own- ership shall not be all&ioed to engage in the coastwise trade of the United States. Sec. q. That all articles of foreign production needed for the repair of American vessels engaged in foreign trade, including the trade betzveen the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United States, may be withdrawn from bonded warehouses free ot duty, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe. Sec. 10. That all medicines, preparations, com- positions, perfumery, cosmetics, cordials and other liquors manufactured wholly or in part of domestic spirits, intended for exportation, as pro- vided by law, in order to be manufactured and sold or removed, without being charged with duty and without having a stamp affixed thereto, shall, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe be made and manufact- ured in warehouses similarly constructed to those known and designated in Treasury regulations as bonded warehouses, class two: Provided , That such manufacturer shall first give satisfactory bonds to the collector of internal revenue for the faithful observance of all the provisions of law, and the regulations as aforesaid, in amount not less than half of that required by the regulations of the Secretary of the 1 reasury from persons al- lowed bonded warehouses. Such goods, when manufactured in such warehouses, may be removed for exportation under the direction of the proper officer having charge thereof, who shall be des- ignated by the Secretary of the Treasury, without being charged with duty, and without having a stamp affixed thereto. Any manufacturer of the articles aforesaid, or any of them, having such bonded warehouse as aforesaid, shall be at liberty under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, to convey therein any materials to be used in such manufacture which are allowed by the provisions of law to be ex- ported free from tax or duty, as well as the neces- sary materials, implements, packages, vessels, brands, and labels for the preparation, putting up, and export of the said manufactured articles; and every article so used shall be exempt from the pay- ment of stamp and excise duty by such manufact- urer. Articles and materials so to be used may be transferred from any bonded warehouse in which the same may be, under such regulation as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, into any bonded warehouse in which such manufacture, may be conducted and may be used in such manu- facture, and when so used shall be exempt from stamp and excise duty; and the receipt of the officer in charge as aforesaid shall be received as a voucher for the manufacture of such articles. Any mate- rials imported into the United States may, tinder such rules as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, and under the direction of the proper officer, be removed in original packages rfrom on shipboard, or from the bonded warehouse in which the same may be, into the bonded warehouse in which such manufacture maybe carried on, for the purpose;ofbeing[usedin such manufacture, without payment of duties thereon, and may there be used in such manufacture. No article so removed, nor any article manufactured in said bonded ware- house, shall be taken therefrom except for expor- tation, under the direction of the proper officer having charge thereof as aforesaid, whose certifi- Al t ^==SSv? KT 438 THE TAIUKI- ~A cate, describing the articles by their mark or other- wise, th«- quantity, the date of importation, and name of vessel, with such additional particulars as nny hum time to time be required, shall be re- ceived by the collector of customs in cut,. of the bond or return of the amount of foreign im- port duties. All labor performed and services rendered under these regulations shall be under the supervision of an officer of the customs, and at the expense of the manufacturer. [Some change in text, 1 Sec. 11. All persons are prohibited from import- ing into the United States from any foreign country any obscene book, pamphlet, paper, writ- ing, advertisement, circular .print, picture, drawing or other representation, figure or image on or of paper or other material, or any cast, instrument or other article of an immoral nature, or any drug or medicine, or any article whatever, for the prevention of conception, or for causing unlawful abortion. No such articles, whether imported separately or contained in packages with other goods entitled to entry, shall be admitted to entry; and all such articles shall be proceeded against, seized and forfeited by due course of law. All such prohibited articles and the package in which they are contained in the course of importation shall be detained by the officer of customs, and proceedings taken against the same as prescribed in the following section, unless it appears to the satisfaction of the collector of customs that the obscene articles contained in the package were inclosed therein without the knowledge or consent of the importer, owner, agent or consignee; Provided, That the drugs hereinbefore men- tioned, when imported in bulk and not put up for any of the purposes hereinbefore specified are excepted from the operation of this section. [Note — Changes text of sections 3,491, 2,492, 2,493, Revised Statutes.] Sec. 13. That whoever, being an officer, agent or employe of the government of the United States, shall knowingly aid or abet any person en- gaged in any violation of any of the provisions of law prohibiting importing, advertising, dealing in, exhibiting or sending or receiving by mail obscene or indecent publications, or representations, or means for preventing conception or procuring abor- tion, or other articles of indecent or immoral use or tendency, shall be deemed guilty of a misde- meanor, and shall for every offence be punishable by a fine of not more than five thousand dollars, or by imprisonment at hard labor for not more than ten years, or both. Sec. 13. That any judge of any district or cir- cuit court of the United States, within the proper district, before whom complaint in writing of any violation of the two preceding sections is made, to the satisfaction of such judge, and founded on knowledge or belief, and if upon belief, setting forth the grounds of such belief, and supported by oath or affirmation of the complainant, may issue conformably to the constitution , a warrant directed to the marshal or any deputy marshal, in the proper district, directing him to search for, seize and take possession of any such article or thing mentioned in the two preceding sections, and to make due and immediate return thereof to the end that the same may be condemned and de- stroyed by proceedings, which shall be conducted in the same manner as other proceedings in the case of municipal seizure, and with the same right of appeal or writ of error. Sec. 14. That machinery for repair may be im- ported into the United States without payment of duty, under bond, to be given in double the ap- praised value thereof, to be withdrawn and ex- ported nfter said machinery shall have been re- and tiie Secretary of the Treasury is au- and directed to prescribe such rules and regulations as may be necessary to proiei t the revenue against fraud, and secure the identity and character of all such Importation* when again withdrawn and exported, restricting and ! the export and withdrawal to the tame j entry where Importi d. and alto limiting ill bonds 1 not more than six months from the date of the importation. S< 1 15. That the produce of the forests of the State of Mama upon the St John rives trfDOtarfee. owned be American citizens, and sawed or hewed in the province of New Bruns- wick by American citizens, the same being unmanufactured in whole or pan , admitted into the ports of the United States free of duty, shall continue to be so admitted under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury •ball from time to time, prescribe. Thai the produce of the forests of the State of Maine upon the St. Croix river and its tributaries owned by American citizens, and sawed in the Province of New Brunswick by American citizens, the same being unmanufact- ured in whole or in part, shall be admitted into the ports of the United States free of duty, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury shall, from time to time, prescribe. Sec. 17. That a discriminating duty often per centum ad valorem, in addition to the duties im- posed by law, shall be levied, collected and paid on all goods, wan I or merchandise which shall be imported in reatshtBOt of the United States; but this discriminating duty shall not apply to goods, wares and merchandise which shall be imported in vessels not of the United States, entitled, by treaty or any act of congress, to be entered in the ports of the United States on payment of the same duties as shall then be paid on goods, wares and merchandise imported in vessels of the United Stales. Sec. 18. That no goods, wares or merchandise, unless in cases provided for by treaty, shall be imported Into the United States, from any foretgn port or place, except in vessels of the United States, or in sin h foreign vessels as truly and wholly belong to the citizens or subjects of that country of which the goods are the growth, pro- duction or nun. rom which such goods, wares or merchandise can only be, or most usually arc, first shipped for transportation. All goods, wares or merchandise imported contrary to this section, and the vessel wherein the same shall be imported, together with her cargo, tackle, apparel and furniture, shall be forfeited 10 the United States; and such goods, wares or mer- chandise, ship or vessel and cargo shall be liable to be seized, prosecuted and condemned, in like manner and under the same regulations, re- strictions and rrovisons as have been h< established for the recovery, collection, distribu- tion and remission of forfeitures to the United States by the several revenue Ian s. Sec. 19. That the preceding section shall not apply to vessels or gift r merchandise imported in vessels of a foreign nation which does not maintain a similar regulation against vessels of the United States. Sec. 20. That the importation ot neat cattle and the hides of neat cattle from any foreign country Into the United Stales is prohibited: Pro- vtdtd, That the operation of thai ascthmabaJI be suspended as to any foreign country or countries, or any pans of such country or countries, when- ever the Secretary of the Treasury shall officially determine, and give publice notice thereof that such importation will not tend to the introduction or spread of contagious or infectious diseases among the cattle of the United States; and the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized and empowered, and it shall be his duty, to make all necessary orders and regulations to cany this section into effect, or to suspend the same as therein provided, and to send copies thereof to the proper or at, and to such officers or agents of the United States in foreign countries as ne shall judge necessary. Sec. 21. That any 1 ted of a* willful violation of any of the - 1 ceding •hall be fined not exceeding five hundred dollars, or imprisoned not exceeding one year, or both, in tin- discretion of the court. Sec. 2 j. That upon the reimportation of articles once exported of the. | tact or manu- fat ture 1 -t the Unhed States, upon whfc h no inter- i.l ti , or upon which toch tax has Urn paid and refunded by allow- drawhack, there shall be levied, collected (] to the tax imposed by the internal-rcvenu< . except tirticits manufactured m ^eaaaW wm rtk m u tt and exf»orttd pmrtm • •Mkk j*«7/rV suh'ret to the same rate e ascertained: And /rorided further. That the drawback on any article al- lowed under existing law shall be continued at the rate herein provided. That the imported mate- rials used in the manufacture or production of articles entitled to drawback of customs duties when exported shall in all cases where drawback of duties paid on such materials is claimed, be identified, the quantity of such materials used and the amount of duties paid thereon shall be as- certained, ihe facts of the manufacture or pro- of such ankles in t •** and their exportation therefrom shall be determined, and the drawback due thereon shall be paid to the turer, producer or exporter, to the agent of either or 10 the person to whom such manu- exporter i»r agent shall in wrttr ach drawback paid, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury" shall prescnl>e. [This is an enlargement of the tti ot sections 3,019 and 3,oao Revised Statutes.] j& a! . $ Ctg. * Cts. g il... t? Cls. * t'L. $ Cts. • (1 . LBS. % tV Hi ta 3 3'i an 3% 4 *« *H 4% 5 8W t>ii . r .'i il ro2~ !02~ "ST" 06 T6F" .05 .03 .06 J>3~ .06 "oi - .04 .04 .04 .04 .05 .'15 .10 - .15~"~ 55 .io - .16 .16 .06 2 .04 .06 - 04 ,(T .07 10 .07 .11 08 15 .08 .13 .09 .13 .09 .14 11 3 .07 .10 OS .09 .10 .17 4 .08 (19 .12 .13 14 .15 .16 .20 .17 .18 .19 .21 .28 .20 .2S - .30 - .35 _ .11 .31 •T" .22 .21 .23 5 .10 11 .12 .14 .15 .16 .19 .17 .21 .24 .19 .22 .26 .21 .22 5T" M 6 .12 .14 .13 Tie - .15 .17 - .16 .18 .24 .25 .31 7 .19 .21 23 .28 .30 .31 .33 .08 .40 8 .16 .18 1^ .2

o 78 75 84 00 a n~ 94 50 9T75 - 105 00 a .Ml 86.25 1,600 32.00 34. OO - aToo - 40 (HI - 36 00 38.25 40 50 42.75~ 45 00 10 00 44 00 48.00 52,00 56 00 :■:. s>~ 63.00 60 00 63 75 64 00 68 00 68 00 72T25 - ot a 93 50 S ..r to.OO 1,700 42 50 M Tfi 51 00 55 25 97.75 1,800 45 00 49 50 54 00 68.60 67 50 72 00 76.50 103.50 1.900 47.50 50.00 52.25 55.00 57.00 60 00 01.78 66 50 71.25 76 00 80.75 tH.M 110.00 109.25 1,000 65.00 70 00 10., mi — itu 55" 76.00 112 50 i;.u ("i SO 00 120 00 160 00 — 20(1 00 08 00 127.50 n a ia 00 116.00 3,000 60.00 80~00 mxfoo - 67.50 MOO 75 00 HO m" 82.58 110 00 90 00 - no otT" 97 50 200 B" 250.00 . 107 50 jio 5T 203 s3 165 00 172.50 4,000 1711 110 — aiiTso ■ 160 iKt 225.00 1911 00 220.00 275 00 no.oo 5,000 112.50 125.00 137 50 150 00 162.50 175.00 187 00 m.50 287.50 E.B8. 6 6'i 6K 6K 7 7* 1% 7X 8 8 '4 W an 9 9)4 9H Ki 1 .06 .06 .06 13 - .19 .07 .07 .07 .07 .08 .08 a .08 00 .6. .09 .09 .10 2 .12 .12 .19 - .25 - .13 .20 .14 .14 .15 .15 .16 .24 .16 .25 .17 .25 17 18 .18 .19 .19 3 .18 .21 .22 .22 TJ7 - .23 T31 - .26 .27 .28 .28 .29 4 .24 .30 .26 .27 .28 .29 .36 .32 .33 .41 — .31 .35 .36 .37 .38 .39 5 .31 .32 34 ■35 .39 .40 .42 .44 .45 .46 .47 .49 6 .36 .37 .39 .47 .42 .43 .45 .46 .46 .49 .51 .62 .54 .55 .57 .68 7 .42 .44 .15 .47 .49 .51 .52 .60 - .54 .62 .56 "ST .58 T66~ .59 i_ .76 .61 63 .65 .66 .68 8 .48 50 .52 .54 .56 .58 .70 ?79~ .72 .74 .76 .78 9 .64 .56 .58 .61 50 8 78 wo 1200 12 50 13.00 II H 14 00 Ii 10 15 50 16 mi 17 M) 17 50 l- 00 1- Ml 1» 00 1» 50 500 1- Ml 21 Ml 1" Ml ' l« T.i 25 Mi 19 50 26 Ml 2.2 H 111 2.5 21 M 21 75 22.50 23 25 21 80 25 N 26 25 87.00 27 75 H 5o 3 21 400 27 Ml 2- Ml 35 00 20 00 50 75 30.00 45 W 31 00 81 88 83 00 31 DO So 00 88 00 37 00 38 W 3* M) 500 ■ 75 40 Ml 40 Ml 48 Ml 41 2.. 4» 50 42 » 41 75 45 IMI 4« 25 17 10 1- 71 •00 H Ml 42.00 ST 50 3 75 121 Ml 42, Ml 40 50 47 25 " ID Ml 11 OO 52 50 54 00 15 50 57 M) > 10 700 54 a 57 75 59 OJ ..I M, 64 75 46 50 n.n »fci Mil Ml Ml M Ml 58 50 54 00 60 75 81 00 S3 Ml M Ml li'l g~ ' 72 50 07 50 " 75 .«r OJ Ml •7 75 77 50 64 00 72 M) o, 88 71 25 N •» 76 50 7» 75 72 80 81 M) 71 00 7« 00 7- M) •00 54 00 1,11 Ml H 00 72.00 M It 83 25 15 50 •7 75 I 000 62 Ml im ;-, R Ml 65.00 71.50 78 00 117 Ml 75 Ml Ml 00 62 50 •5 00 ► 7 M It 00 82 58 9, Ml 81 88 1,100 71 25 77 00 7» 75 "7 HO 82 50 911 00 85 25 ■ Ml 80 75 M N 99 MJ mi 75 1»4 Ml 107 25 81.00 84 Ml 93 Ml H no v.. Ml ttl w on M. 111 OX 114 M. 117 00 1,900 n mi 81.25 84.50 87.75 91 Ml 84.25 87 50 104 Ml 107 M 113 75 117 00 126 00 MS ■ 128 58 123 58 126 71 1,400 HI Ml 87 M '.II Ml 98 Ml mi mi lo5 00 lo« 80 112 Ml 115 5(1 118 00 122 50 133 00 1M 58 1,500 Ml Ml M 19 07.50 Hll .'.'I 105 Ml 100 75 112 in 11., 25 120 00 12.1 7 5 127 50 131 25 135 00 188 25 111M 146 ■ 1,600 96 08 IMI Ml Iiil 1)0 111.-" Ml 112 Ml 110 Ml 1211 Ml 12" 00 122 Ml 1.16 00 " 111 5o 1411 Ml 1.4 Mi U» 00 157 25 U8 Ml 114 ., 1,710 III' Ml IN at 110 50 III 77, llll Ml 180 Mi 101 2, 1 18 |8 157. ... ■•5 75 I.HJMI 100 Ml 112 50 117 Ml 121 50 185.00 139 18 114 Ml 148 50 153 00 157 ill i«2 n ]!», Ml 175 M l MO HI Ml 1211 Oil" n» ;:, 122 H is 128 2". 133 Ml 11.1 Ml 137 75 11, Ml HI 50 147 25 152 Ml III 7 5 161 50 1.* 25 171 0» 175 75 1M. .50 185 88 1,000 125 00 135 Ml DO no 155 HO IMI Ml It, 00 170 00 175 00 1-0 00 M oo 1W 08 185 88 : ON 181 50 r... mi an M no mi 225 00 232 Ml 21 247 Ml 255 OO an so 270 OO 277 50 885W an 88 ;imi 93 ' no mi 200 Ml 2711 Ml 2911 Ml ..in 88 120 00 ajo mi .110 00 O.l ... .9.1 Ml 370 go 888 88 an w 5,000 :H2 ..ii 325 00 187.68 (U Ml 202 50 375 00 3-7 88 4,.i ... 412 -1 425 Ml 437 50 4Ml N 482 50 .: ■ ■. 4-' 50 l.ll.s. 10 10J 4 - llll. lu- 11 H* UM 11 '4 12 iiH 1'2', 1-". IS 1:1 '4 an u\ 1 10 10 .10 ll .11 11 .H 12 .18 12 II IS .18 13 IS .14 2 211 .20 .21 .21 .22 .22 2:1 .23 24 14 25 25 .M .881 27 .27 3 .30 .81 .31 32 .33 84 .34 35 36 .87 S7 SH .n .88 4" .41 4 .40 41 .42 .43 .44 15 .56 46 .47 18 49 60 61 12 ■ 54 M 5 .60 .51 .52 .64 •■ .57 58 n .81 .75 •4 .18 .86 66 .IT M .60 , •1 63 64 .66 .77 ,67 .78 ' .60 .70 7 2 .73 .78 78 .81 m 7 .70 .72 .78 75 .80 -4 n 87 -3 .81 111 94 M 8 .80 .80 .62 .84 .88 .87 H '19 1 10 2 20 SO 92 .84 .n .n 1 00 1 03 1 04 1 17 1 06 1.0* 1.18 • 92 .04 1 01 1 12 1 03 1.15 IK 1 17 1 12 1 15 1 IS 1 tl 1 21 10 1 00 2 Ml 1 112 2 06 1 113 2 10 1 07 1 25 I.l) 13* 1 .12 1 35 1.37 20 2 25 1 n ■2 35 a 46 1 50 2 55 an 286 2 70 1.75 30 3 Ml 3 07 8 15 1 311 3 .I" 3.37 3 45 3 52 4 70 .1 Ml . -11 8.16 2 -2 3 »o .1 97 4 05 1.12 40 4 00 1 111 4.40 4 50 4 80 5 l» 8 10 5 JO 1 SO 1.50 50 5 00 6.12 6 15 5 25 " " 1. 7,0 7 3.7 1, 1 5 T52 - f.70 - 5 62 6 75 5 87 1. Ml • 12 886 7 50 6 ST • 5* 6 61 4-7 60 II Ml 8 75 7 87 9 Ml 10 12 • SO |g ., 11 60 33 Ml 7 n 7 SO 7 35 7 90 1 IS -24 70 7 Ml 7 17 in 57 47 oc 7 ". , Ml 1711 Ml 17 i.l 4- i.l -, Ml 600 H 8 57 8 75 9 1.1 » 27 8 45 Ml 80 8 Ml 8^5o — 10.00 8 20 8 1.1 i 1.. 1(1.50 I 6.1 8.80 24 B " « 75 117 00 100 Ml ' *TB K 175 i\) •25 00 10 20 11 17 10 40 lo 60 ion 11.00 00 9 22 III 2.. 61 10 75 II 78 17 57 Ii. 1 II Ml 12 75 II oil 11.73 no 211 M 41 Ml 1,1 Ml 3, B I! Ml 33 .50 ..1 00 1 2 1 Ml 32 25 22 Ml 22 Ml ■35 .50 ■ 50 27 (» 17.50 3MI .1.1 Ml 5 1 Ml S3 75 S- 25 39 75 68 as 64 n 11.71 400 II Ml Ml Ml Ml (3 Ml 41 Ml 4. Ml U 25 101 3 8C Ml 93 Ml 11 . oo 6.1 75 74 50 89 25 102 Ml 111 75 177 50 17- Ml 637 7* 5i.n 600 53 75 64 Ml 86 Ml 11- 26 138 : . 161 '. 173 Ml 215 Ml 88 Ml 11" Ml 1 '1 Ml 1 IS Ml 151 Ml 1«7 00 2311 Ml 3311 Ml (HI Ml 88 25 87. M 6-71 600 7- Ml 79 5. IUI' .11 ,.l ST Tl 94 50 --•» 8MI "II I.I IMI l"l 1 311 Ml 130 Ml llll Ml 1 IMI Ml 170 Ml 180 Ml 2181 Ml II " 9-2 25 ' I"/ .... 1 !3 Ml I'll Ml (III Ml 517 Ml 105 Ml l.'ll Ml 1 ,0 Ml 11. Ml 10- Ml 178 50 211' Ml 4211 Ml inn m 00 laUi m 10' 113 75 135 0." 117 5. its n 14.50 111.25 135 Ml III, 25 1 .- ... 161 00 sal aj nan 165 00 16* in 1:1 ■ HUI 1,400 I.21W 185 Ml "aas 5» - ss5 n inn 1*1.3* 16- 75 18 |8| Ml 7311 Ml m.so 21. 2 5 * 141 OO 28' Ml 11ST5 247 1. ISO. 58 ~no.n- stilt "»■» 112.58 54.. .« ...«. 5 .0 Ml .,: . I.I 4*77.58 4 k= ■f « — •- \ t ft k. AN INSTANTANEOUS METHOD OF COMPUTING INTEREST. 441 <""" " "---'•' •~yBM*SB^»*aaa^*A***s*^*M*******M*i*3S To compute interest at three per cent, divide the figures in the six per cent table bv two. To compute interest at eight per cent, double the figures in the four per cent table ; at ten per cent, double the figures in the five per cent table ; at nine per cent, make the computation at three per cent and multiplv the result bv three. TABLES OF INTEREST. -A.T TOXTTS PEB CE1TT. DAYS. MONTHS. Ye»r. 1 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 i 1 2 3 1 a 6 7 8 9 10 11 Anil. INTEREST. t $1 1 II 00000000000000000000 00111222333 4 (2 000000 00000000000000000000 01 2 284 45667 8 *:; 11 1) 11 6 11 000000000 0001111111 12 3 456 789 10 11 12 16~ •4 00000000 000000001111111111111 12 4 5 6 8 9 10 12 1 1 1 1 $a 00000000 00000111111. 1111111111 13 5 6 8 10 11 13 15 16 18 20 *6 00000000 000111111111111222222 14 9 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 S7 00000000 011111111112 22 2 222222 '2 4 7 9 11 14 16 18 21 23 25 M $8 00000000 1 111111112 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 24 27 29 32 S9 0, 1 1 111111122 2 2 222222333 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 ■10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 22 2 2222 2 233333 3 6 10 13 16 20 23 26 80 33 37 40 $100 12 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 29 30 31 32 33 67 1.00 1.33 1.67 2.00 2.33 2.67 3.00 8.33 3.67 4.00 S1.000 11 22 33 14 56 60 74 89 l.im 1.11 l.ll 1.33 1.44 LM 1.H7 1.7s 1 .s<4 1,00 '.Ml 2.22 MB 144 IM M7 L7I LSI MOMl Ml Ml «.*>! in. mi IMI it.'iT SMI SMI SM7 ;i "."" *■'■■■'■* SMI 40.00 -A.T PIVE FES OE1TT. DATS. MONTHS. Year 1 12 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Ami. INTEREST. *1 0000000000000000000000 01112233444 11234566769 5 15" •1 11 1) 11 0000000000000000001111 $3 0000000001111 11111 1111 11 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 14 n 0000011111111111111111 13 5 6 8 10 11 13 15 16 18 20 a 000111111111111112 2 222 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 19 21 23 25 u 111111111112 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22 25 27 30 *7 11111111112 2 2222222223 3 6 9 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 32 :i.i •a 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 12 222 2 22 2233333 3 6 10 13 16 20 23 27 30 33 IT 40 •• 11 I 1 1 1 112 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 S 3 3 4 7 11 15 19 22 26 30 34 37 41 45 $10 11 1 1 1 1 122 2222 2 333 333 3 444 4 8 12 16 21 25 29 33 37 42 46 50 $100 1 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 11 14 la 16 18 19 21 22 23 2a 26 28 29 30 32 33 34 36 37 89 40 41 83 1.25 1.67 2.09 2.50 2.91 3.83 3.76 4.17 4.59 5.00 MUM 81,000 |l4 28 41 55 70 83 97 1.11 1.2a 1.39 I.5S 1.66 1.86 1.94 2.08 2.22 2.36 2.502.64 2.78 2.91 3.05 3.203.333.47 3.61 3.7a 3.89 4.03 4.16 6.83 12.50 16.67 20.83 25.00 29.16 33.33 37.50 41.67 45.88 -A.T SI2C PEB CENT. DAYS. MONTHS. Yt-ar. I 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 | 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 Am'l. INTEREST. SI 0000000000000000000000 11223 3 44556 ti *2 000000011111111111 1 I 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 $3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14 U 17 18 24 (4 1111111111111112 222222 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 U *5 1 1 1111111111222 2 22223222 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 S3 18 30 $6 1 1 1 1111111222222222238833 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 S7 (8 1 1 1 111112 22 2 2222233333333 4 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32 35 39 42 111 1 1 1 12 2 2222.2333 8 383 3 4 4 4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 *9 11 1 1 11222222 2 333333344 4 4 4 4 5 9 11 18 23 27 32 36 41 45 50 54 (10 lioo" I 1 1 1 1 122 2 222333333444444555 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 65 60 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 irusor 8:1 i.k 1.17 13 15 17 18 20 22 23 25 27 28 80 32 33 35 37 38 40 42 43 45 47 48 50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 COO •1,000 .33 1.50 1.67 1.83 2.00 2.17 2.33 2.50 2.67 2.83 3.00 3.17 3.33 3.50 3.67 3.83 4.00 4.17 4.33 4.50 4.67 4.83 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 65.00 •Ml -A.T SEVE1T tE»BI5 CENT. DAYS. MONTHS. Ye»r. 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 la 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2a 26 27 28 29 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 Am'l. 1 INTEREST. (1 0000O000000000O000 1 1 1 1 112 2 3445567 7 S2 00000111 ill 1 11 11 111 I 11 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 S3 01111111111111111 12122 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16 18 19 21 (4 1 11111111111122222 2 2222 S 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21 23 26 28 •1 1 1 1111111122 22 2 222223333 3 6 9 12 15 18 20 23 26 29 32 35 to 1 1 1 1111122222222 2333 3 3 333 4 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32 35 39 42 «7 11 1 1 11112222222333333 3 4444 4 8 12 16 20 25 29 83 37 41 45 49 M 11 1 1 1 1 22222 2 233333344 4 4 4 4 5 5 9 14 19 23 28 S3 37 42 47 51 56 *9 111 1 1 1222222333334444445555 5 11 16 21 26 32 37 42 47 53 58 63 •it 111 1 1 2222233333444444555550 6 12 18 23 29 35 41 47 53 58 64 70 •100 2 4 6 810 12 14 16 18 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 54 56 58 1.17 1.75 2.33 2.92 3.50 4.08 4.67 6.25 5.83 6.42 7.00 91.000 19 39 58 78 97 1.17 1.36 1.56 1.76 1.94 2.14 2.33 2.53 2.72 2.92 3.11 3.31 3.50 3.69 3.80 4.06 4.28 4.47 4.67 4.86 5.06 5.25 5.44 5.64 5.83 11.67 17.50 23.33 29.17 35.00 40.81 46.67 52.50 58.83 64.17 70.00 / • \ r Fr 442 COMPOUND INTEREST, ETC. COTTON PICKER'S CALCULATOR. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. Rate per Hundred Pounds. -J 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 1.00 1.26 1R0 e.ts cts eti eti Otl '■ts els rts 0U> ills cts eti cts 1 (1 i> 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 3 1 1 1 i 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 :; I S 4 4 4 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 II 3 3 8 8 4 4 4 6 6 6 1 9 2 2 2 3 :: 3 3 4 4 4 4 8 6 fi 7 6 2 '» 2 i 3 3 4 •1 4 4 1 6 8 1; 6 7 9 7 2 9 3 H 8 4 4 1. 6 6 II 6 6 7 7 9 10 8 2 a :, 4 4 1 B .'. 6 6 a 7 7 8 8 in 12 9 :; :i 4 4 1 5 ft 11 6 7 7 8 8 11 9 11 13 10 H 8 4 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 K Ii 1' 10 12 15 16 ■1 :( 6 7 7 8 '.) 10 10 11 12 III 18 14 16 19 n 20 t 7 8 9 10 11 12 111 11 16 HI 17 lh l'i 20 26 80 26 7 «J in 11 12 11 16 HI 17 Hi 20 21 22 21 26 31 87 30 I 10 12 111 1;> 18 18 Id 21 22 21 2.". 27 28 30 37 45 3b |ii 12 11 11; 17 111 21 211 21 2(1 28 lid ill 88 88 44 62 40 a II 16 18 20 22 21 28 28 30 82 in 11(1 US 40 60 60 46 it ia U 211 22 2.". 27 211 31 111 88 IIS 10 ■III 46 66 67 60 is 17 20 22 21, 27 80 Hi 1 86 37 4(1 ■lv 48 17 Ml 62 76 66 in 111 22 28 27 3(1 38 in; lis 41 II 47 IV 62 66 UK 82 60 18 21 21 27 III! :k; : :n 4.' 46 ■Is .',1 64 67 60 76 9rt 66 I'.i 211 211 29 112 III', 39 42 46 49 62 66 68 62 66 81 97 70 21 21 28 111 86 lis 12 46 •in 62 .Ml 68 no 68 7(1 87 1 06 76 22 211 m III 87 11 4.5 41) 62 66 66 in 67 71 76 94 1 12 80 2-1 28 ■.',.! 36 40 11 Is 62 ,',<; 60 61 (Is 72 76 SO 1 no 1 ill 86 26 mi Ill 38 •12 -17 61 .',:> .V.I III 68 72 78 si 86 1 06 1 27 90 27 HI llll 411 US III 6-1 88 mi 67 72 711 81 86 !«l 1 12 1 86 96 28 33 88 43 17 82 .',7 62 88 71 76 81 88 80 96 1 19 1 42 SHORT INSURANCE RATES. Policy for 1 year. Policy for 2 years. Policy for 3 years. Policy for 4 years. Policy for 5 years. Charge this pro- portion of whole Premium. 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 1110. 4 mo. 5 mo. 20 per cent. 2 " 4 " 6 " 8 '• 10 " «T " 8 " 6 " 9 " 12 " 15 " 40 " 4 " 8 " 12 " 16 " 20 " 50 " 5 " 10 " 16 " 20 " 25 " 60 " 6 " 12 " 18 " 24 " SO " 70 " 7 " 14 " 21 " 2S •' 35 " 75 8 " 16 " 24 " 32 " 40 " 80 " 9 " 18 " 27 " 36 " 45 " 86 10 " 20 " SO " 40 " 60 " »n 11 " 22 " 33 " 44 " 56 " 116 HOW INTEREST ACCUMULATES. If one dollnr be invested and the interest added to the princi- pal, annually, at the rates named, wo shall have the following 1 i'miII as the accumulation of one hundred years: One Dollar 100 years, at 1 per cent H 3 8* 4 H 5 'i 7 8 II 10 12 15 18 24 $2.75 7.25 11.75 111.2.-. 50.60 81.60 aiM 340.00 SOS. 00 2,203.00 5,543.00 I i.sootm 1,171,405.00 16, 145,007.00 2,561,799,404.00 ll.llls 3 per cent. 4 per cent. 6 per cent. e per cent. T per cent. 1 1.03000 1.04000 1.09000 1.06000 1.070000 2 1.06090 1.08160 1.10250 1.12360 1.144900 3 1.0! (273 1.12486 l.li. 1.19102 1. 328043 4 1.12551 1.16686 121551 1.26248 1.310796 5 Lift 1.21666 1.27628 1.38823 1.402962 6 1.19406 1.26632 1.34010 1.41892 1.500730 7 1.22087 131693 1.40710 1-50363 1.609781 8 1.21.677 1.36867 1.47745 1.68889 1.718186 9 1.30477 1.42it;l una 1.68818 1.838459 10 1.34 1.48024 1.62889 1.79085 1.967151 11 138423 1.63945 1.71034 1.89830 2.10483* 12 1.42676 1.00103 1.79586 2.01- 2.262192 13 1.46863 1.66607 1.88565 2.13298 2.409849 14 1.51259 17U68 197993 U8880 2.578534 15 1.55797 1.80094 2.07893 2.S9658 2.759031 16 1.60471 187188 2.18287 2.54035. 2.992164 17 1. 65283 1.94790 2.29262 2.69277 3.158819 . 1I! 1.70313 2.02582 2.40602 2.85134 Lsnan 19 1.75361 2.106S5 J698 2.02660 3.61(938 20 1.80611 2.19112 2.66330 3.20713 ...-*.'*. "-4 Example. — At 5 per cent compound interest what will $1,000 amount to in seven years? The table shows that $1 in seven years at 5 per cent compound interest amounts to $1.40710, which amount multiplied by 1,000 equals $1,407.10. Time in which Money Doublet*. t% Simple Int. Comp. Int. 3 6 8 9 10 Simple Int. Comp. Int. 2 2t 3 34. 4 50 years. 40 years. 33 yrs. 4 mos. 28 yrs. 208 da. 25 years. 22 yrs. 81 da. 35 years. 28 yrs. 26 da. 23 yrs. 164 da. ; 20 yrs. 64 da. 17 yrs. 246 da. 15 yrs. 273 da. 20 years. 16 yra. 8 mos. 14 yrs. 104 da. 12) years. 11 yrs. 40 da. in year-. 14 yrs. 79 da. 11 yrs. 327 da. 10 yra. 89 da. 9 yrs. 2 days. 8 yrs. 16 days. 7 yra. 100 da. Daily Savings at Compound Interest. I.AII-l SAVIN. .s. 2X seats " 8* " II 56 $1.10 . . . 1.37 . . . 2.74 . . . VEAHI.Y. TEX TEARS. FIFTY TEAHS $ 10 20 30 40 50 100 200 400 500 1,000 $ 130 M 390 540 650 urn 2.6MI tjtoa 6,50(1 l.l.OOo I M 8,700 11.600 14,500 29.000 58,00(1 116,000 145,000 SHORT INTEREST RULE. To And the interest on a given sum (or any number of days, at any rate of interest, multiply the principal by the number of days and divide as follows: . . M . . 30 . . 24 . . 18 At 5 per cent, by 72 At per cent, by 60 At 7 per cent, by 52 At s per ceut. In .... 45 At 9 per rent, by 40 A 1 in per cent, by At 12 per cent, by At 15 per cent, by At 20 per cent, by V- Al WAGES BOARD LUMBER MEASURE. 443 A QUICK METHOD OF COMPUTING WAGES, On a Basis of Ten Hours' Labor per Day. HOUBS. $1.00| $1.50 .01 | .01} | $2.00 | $2.50 | $3.00 | $3.50 | $4.00 | $4.50 | $5,110 | $5.50 | $6.00 | $6.50 | $7.00 | $7.50 | $8.00 | $9.00 | $10 | $11 | «ri i .01f | .02 | .0241 -03 | .03J| .03} | .04 J | .0141 05 1 -OoJ | .06 | .06} | .06} | .074 1 .0841 -09 1 .10 1 .01| | .02} .0341 .044 1 .05 | .06 | .06} | .0741 -«Si 1 -<»4 1 -10 | .11 | .11} | .1241 .1341 -16 1 .16} | .1841 .20 2 .03il -05 .06} | .0841 -10 I -11} | .1341 -18 1 -16} | .1841 -20 1 -21J | .2341 •'■» 1 -Sfe» 1 -30 | ■334 1 -36} 1 .40 3 .05 | .074 .10 | .1241 -I* 1 -1"4I -20 1 -22* 1 -25 I .2741 ■*» 1 -3241 -35 | .3741 .40 | .45 | .50 I .55 | .60 4 .06} | .10 .18JI -l«il -20 1 -23il .26} | .30 | .3341 -36} | .40 | .43} | .46} | .50 | .88)1 .00 | .66} | .734 | .834 1 -914 1 i.oo | l.io | .80 5 .084 | .12) .165 | .21 | .2(5 | .294 | .334 | -3"i 1 -41} I .46 | .50 | .544 | .584 1 «'-4 1 Mi 1 ■'■' 1 1.00 6 .10 | .15 .ll|.l .17.J .20 | .25 | .80 | .35 | .40 | .45 | .50 | .55 | .60 | .68 1 .70 I .75 ! .80 i .90 I 1.20 7 .23J| -2941 -35 | .41 | .46} | .524 1 -58* | .644 1 -70 | .76 | .81} | .874 1 .934 | 1.0". \ 1.16)1 1.2841 1.40 8 .mil .20 .2li}| .3341 -4« 1 •«fl -5341 .60 | .66} | .7341 -80 1 -86} I .934 | 1.00 1 1.06} | 1.20 | 1.3341 l-*6} ) 1.60 9 .15 | .22) .30 | .3741 -45 I .5241 • 6 " 1 - 6 HI -'S 1 -8241 .90 | .9741 1.05 1 1-1241 1.20 U-35 | 1.50 | 1.65 | 1.80 DAYS. 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .16|| .25 .3341 -4111 -60 I .5841 -«6f ) .75 | .8341 .91} I 1.00 | 1.08} | 1.16} | 1.25 | 1.3*411.50 | 1.66} | 1 8341 2.00 . *Zr< *=~-**%£ffi?&r^* To Measure Wells or Cisterns. Square the diameter in inches, multiply by the decimal .7854, and the product by the depth of the well or cistern in inches. The result will be the full capacity of the well in cubic inches. If the actual quantity of water be sought, multiply by the depth of water in inches, and in either case divide by 231 for the number of gallons. Circular Cisterns, One Foot in Depth, Computed. DIAMETER IN INCHES. '5 16 CONTENTS IN GALLONS. .... 5-875 9.18 IO.44 DIAMETER IN INCHES. 18 .... CONTENTS IN GALLONS. 20 .13.218 • 16.32 For any greater depth than one foot, multiply by the number of feet and fractions of a foot. As the areas of circles, and consequently the capaci- ties of circular cisterns of equal depth, vary as the squares of their diame- ters, it is unnecessary to multiply calculations. For instance, should it be required to find the contents of a circular cistern of two feet in diame- ter, say as the square of 1 : to the square of 2 : 5.875, that is, as 1 ; 4 : : 5.875, and 5.875 X 4=23.5= the contents of such cistern. This formula will apply to any diameter; for three feet, multiply by 9; for four feet, multiply by 16, etc. ; for 5, by 25. The Amount of Rainfall on a Building. In this calculation the amount of annual rainfall is assumed to be thirty- six inches, which is about the average for the Northern States. Find the area covered by the building, in square inches. Multiply it by 36, the depth of rainfall; divide the product by 231, the cubic inches in a gallon, and the quotient will be the number of gallons of water shed by the roof in one year. The Diameter of a Circular Cistern that will Contain the Rainfall on a Building. The side of a square is to the diameter* of a circle of equal area as 1 : 1. 128. The square root of the area of the building, multiplied by 1. 128, will be the required diameter, assuming depth of cistern and rainfall to be •qual. Allowance must of course be made for greater or less depth of cistern than three (bet, as well as for daily or occasional use of rainwater. The Per Cent of Profit or Loss. Add two ciphers to the difference between the cost and selling price, divide by the cost, and the quotient will be the gain or loss per cent. Weights of Hay by Measurement. Four hundred cubic feet of dry meadow hay are estimated at one ton weight. The actual measurement to make a ton will be modified by the density of the volume of hay, the pressure it has been subjected to as in a large or long-standing suck, and the like. In barns the volume is variously estimated from 400 to 550, according to coarseness and the length of time it has been piled up. Find the cubic contents by II nig the three dimensions of the pile in feet, and divide by 400, 450, 500 or 550 (according to circumstances, as explained), and the quotient will be the number of tons, approximately. Weights of Cattle by Measurement. To find the approximate weight, measure as follows : 1. The girth be- hind the shoulder*. 2. The length from the fore part of the shoulder- blade along the back to the bone at the tail, in a vertical line with the buttocks. Then multiply the square of the girth, in feet, by five times the length, in feet. Divide the product by 1.5 for average cattle (if cattle be very fat, by 1.425; if very lean, by 1.575) ; and the quotient will be the dressed weight of the quarters. Thus: The girth of a steer is 6.5 feet, and the length from the shoulder-blade to the tail-bone is 5.25. The square of 6.5 is 42.25, and 5 times 5.25 is 26.35. Multiplying these together gives 1109.0625, which, when divided by 1.5, produces 739.375 lbs., the approximate net weight of the steer after being dressed. The Number of Shingles Required for a Roof. Multiply the length of the ridge-pole by twice the length of the rafter, and the product by eight if the shingle is to be exposed \% inches to the weather, and by 7 1-5 if exposed five inches. The Number of Square Yards in a Floor or Wall. Multiply the length and width of the floor, or height and width of the wall, in feet and fractions of a foot, divide by nine, and the quotient is the number of square jrmfds. The Number of Bricks Required for a Building. The average brick is eight inches long, four inches wide, and two inches thick, or 64 (8 X 4 X a) cubic inches. 1728 cubic inches make one cubic foot, and 27 bricks make 1728 (64X27) cubic inches. In laying bricks, 1-6 is allowed for mortar, or 4^ out of every 27, leaving %*% actual bricks for each cubic foot Therefore, multiply the dimensions— length, height and thickness— in feet and fraction of a foot, of the several brick walls, and the product by aa#, and the result will be the number of bricks required. Multiply by 30, instead of aa#, if the bricks are larger than the average above given. Allowance should be made for chimneys, pro- jections for mantels, and the like, on the same basis. The Number of Perches of Stone Required for a Wall or Cellar. The perch of stone is now com;. 1. 1 rt t a perch, or 16.5 feet in length. by 1.5 feet in width and 1 foot inherit, or 24.75(16.5 X 1.5 X 1) cubic feet. Of this amount one-ninth, a. 75 cubic feet, is allowed for mortar and fill- ing. Multiply the three dimensions of the wall or walls in feet— width, height and thickness— and divide by 2a (24.75 — a.75) if the needed qual- ity of stone is the subject of enquirj'i or by 24.75 if it be sought to ascer- tain the amount of masonry in the wall or cellar. The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Lot of Boards. Planks, Flooring, Scantling, Joists, Sills or Beams. The foot of board measure is a superficial or square foot, one inch thick. Multiply the product of the width and thickness of each board, plank or other article, in inches, by the length in feet and fraction* of a foot, divide by ta, and the quotient will be the number of feet of board measure. In flooring, allowance muM he made for rabbeting, the pro- portion varying with the depth of the groove and the width of the boards. The Cubic Feet in Squared Timber or Beams. Multiply as in board measure, but divide by 144 instead of ta, or multi- ply the three dimensions in feet a>id fractions of a foot 7 t — «"- ^ The Number of Cubic Feet in a Round Log of Uniform Diameter. Square the diameter, in inches, multiply by .7854, and multiply this product by the length in feet, divide by 144, and the quotient is the number of cubic feet. Estimate of the Number of Cubic Feet in the Trunk of a Standing Tree. Find the circumference in inches, divide by 3.1416, square the quotient, multiply by the length in feet, divide by 144, deduct about one-tenth for thickness of bark, and the result will be, approximately, the number of cubic feet. The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Log of Unequal Diameters. Square the smallest diameter in inches, multiply by .7854, and the product by the length of the log in feet, divid« by 12, and the quotient will be the number of feet of board measure, approximately. The Area of a Circle. Of all plane figures, the circle is the" most capacious, or has the greatest area within the same limits. It is geometrically demonstrable that it has the same arc£ as a right-angled triangle with a base equal to its circum- ference, and a perpendicular equal to its radius, that is, half the product of the radius and circumference. It is obviously larger than any figure, of however many sides, inscribed within its perimeter, and smaller than any circumscribed polygon. As a result of laborious calculations on this basis (pushed in one instance to 600 places of decimals without reaching the end ), it has been ascertained that the ratio of the diameter to the cir- cumference of any circle (sufficiently* exact for all practical purposes), is as 1 :3.i4i6 (3.141592653X) or in whole numbers, approximately, as 7:22, or more nearly as 113:355. Hence, to find the circumference or diameter, the other quantity being known, multiply or divide by 3.1416 ; and to find the area, multiply half the diameter by half the circumference, or the square of the diameter by .7854 (3. 1416-74). Capacity or Contents of a Granary, Bin, Crib or Wagon. Multiply the three dimensions — the length, width and depth — in feet (the inches, if any, being reduced to fractions of a foot), multiply the product by the decimal .803564 — or deduct one-fifth, which is sufficiently exact for ordinary purposes— and the result is the number of bushels. Where the wagon or crib flares considerably in length or width, it will be necessary to obtain a mean dimension. This is done by taking the longest and shortest measures, with one or more intermediate ones, and dividing the sum of all by the number taken. The quotient will be the mean dimen- sion sought. The greater the flare the larger the number of intermediate dimensions that should be taken to insure accuracy. Corn in the ear, when first cribbed, is estimated at twice the bulk of shelled corn. To Measure Corn or Similar Commodity on a Floor. Pile up the commodity in the form of a cone; find the diameter in feet; multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the product by one-third the height of the cone in feet; from this last product deduct one-fifth of itself, or multiply it by .803564, and the result will be the number of bushels. To Measure Casks or Barrels. Find mean diameter by adding to head diameter two-thirds (if staves are but slightly curved, three-fifths) of difference between head and bung diameters, and dividing by two. Multiply square of mean diameter in inches by .7854, and the product by the height of the cask in inches. The result will be the number of cubic inches. Divide by 231 for standard or wine gallons, and by 282 for beer gallons. The Number of Cords in a Pile of Wood. A cord of wood is four feet wide, four feet high and eight feet long, or 138 (4X4X8) cubic feet. Multiply the three dimensions — length, height and width — of the pile in feet, divide by 128, and the quotient will be the number of cords. The odd inches in any or all of the three dimensions must be reduced to decimals or common fractions of a foot, before begin- ning to multiply. Contents of Fields and Lots. The following table will assi of the amount of land in diffei st farmers in making an accurate estimate ent fields under cultivation : 10 rods 16 rods = 8 " X 5 M X 32 ■ = 4 " X 40 M = 5 yards X 968 " = 10 " X 484 yards = 40 80 M 70 M 220 feet 440 M no ** 60 « 120 " 240 ** 200 ** X 242 - X 121 u X 60^ - X 6g%« X 198 feet X 99 ■ X 369 " X 726 M x 363 " X 181 % feet X 108 ft- = % X 145 ft" = X 100 feet X .08 ft fee M a. 25 " X IOO ■ = ■0574 " 25 " X J JO " = .0631 M 25 " X X20 " Z3 .0688 " 25 " X 125 " =r .0717 " =5 " X ISO ■ = .109 " 2178 square feet = • 05 435* M ■ s .xo " 6534 " " as .15 " 8713 " ■ SB .20 " 10890 ■ " ss .25 " 13068 u " = •30 15246 " " = ■35 " 17424 ■ ** S3 •40 " 19603 ■ ■ = •45 " 21780 • ■ SS ■ 50 32670 ■ ■ =: ■75 " 34848 44 * SS .80 " Boxes of Different Measure. A box 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, and 28 inches deep, will con- tain a barrel (3 bushels). A box 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, and 14 inches deep, will con- tain half a barrel. A box 16 inches square and 8 2-5 inches deep will contain one bushel. A box 16 inches by 8 2-5 inches wide, and 8 inches d V. 5" 4" J; 2- 5 s s 2- So Z ■-■- 48 60 50 u ; 1 : c S 1 ; z 2 2 2 ■!■• 4 4-'. . 60 . 2m . 52 4 -i 8 -.- 1 J" — / S ! 5 1 ' i j 1 .H 6 26 5 48 6 .. > 60 20 6 5 ■s. \j 28 48 So 20 42 22 Bo T> -J- 32 56 So 48 5" 45 44 3= 57 28 So 55 56 50 SO 55 60 > 48 >", 48 56 60 42 3 2 54 6a 60 35 56 70 60 'z > 28 43 (,': 4» 70 5° 56 5f 14 64 45 44 Bo 34 32 56 53 ■ 6 56 56 5 5 50 56 6.. 25 48 u', 52 8: 48 5' 56 So z. a 57 28 48 46 50 so ♦6 SO 5'- 22 70 4 5< 83 5< ■4 6, 48 5" '4 4- Pi si 22 '. . 4848 46.. 02 .. ± 20 . . 46 .. 48 «> 3 24!.. 2 5 47148 4 • 46... 4 . 60 .. 6 »4 18 ., »s 4,, 4« -'4 4* 46 60 So 25 24 2 48485 46 46 4 60 60 ( So So j 50 6 56 6 sfi 4 14 D . . .. 48 so ■ 45 4 •■ 8 .. 5 3-' 7 56 ■ 33 3 •■ So 60 5' (,J, ' 7" 80 Bo *. . 80 Bo Bo 70 80 8 7' ■ 5" • 5«5 S* ■ fc.f 5" ■ 4= • 44 ■ 7" ■ ;4 . 5-' 3 56 . 33 2 ■ 7" • 5« ■ ■ ■< 5" ! 56: -■ ! 6870 7 5°48 5 56 56 5 4" 68 ♦8 5(> 33 40 70 50 56 33 33 56 M So 48 30 14 M 45 9 44 Bo 38 V 57 70 50 s* 56 '4 6. So 4' 45 8 !4 3t 3" 54 57 = 5 .•- 33 52 32 50 56 32 5f 55 64 30 57 33 4" 70 ... 58 33 55 M So 48 5" it M 44 44 8., 34 82 57 -.8 V 28 46 54 55 64 ' [ 3" ■1 7 48 ;S 46 33 76 73 48 1 fi 70 50 5= S" 5« j 70 . . 50 .. 65656 .. 70 5048 5656 .. 70 50 50 5656 73 SO 4 565 i .. 4 • 6 .. 48 5fi 45 tfi «« 56 33 6 56 .. 4 M •■ 60 . . 5 5° •• 5 So •■ .. 56 M 64 64 ..48 5 56 ■ 55 656 . 8; . 62 ■ 55 1 60 . . : 56 s ■ • 5 60 60 60 5° 6, 60 . 56 So 60 55 70 60606 55 46 5 60 .. 5 55 •■ 6 56 32 50 .. 55 .. 60 60 ..56 5656 80 70 • ■ 55 60 60 .. 56 5656 .. 56 .. 56 60 55 5« 56 . • j6 36 5« 5« 56 5° 55 46 56 56 s 5° 5°5 50 50 5 46 30 - Rye 56 5" 5° 5« 5" 42 54 56 80 56 Salt, Fine 5« 50 .. ( > . . 5 60 .. 60 60 60 56 60 60 ..58 60 60 55 So 55 60 35 So 63 6; 60 6o« J . . 60 59 60 55 55 5 60 60 6 56 Wheat * Local usage sometimes varies from kgal enactment. All the States recognize the use of the standard U. S. bushel, withou' reference to weights of articles measured, and some of the States no longer legalize any other, f Used by railroad companies when it is not convenient to ascertain actual weights. V ^A -. ~~*3&^®@\&$ France. /. Measure of Length. i Myrlametre.. = 10,000 metres, i Kilometre ... = 1,000 metres. 1 Decametre... = 10 metres. 1 Metre = The 10,000,000th part of the quarter of the meridian of the earth. 1 Decimetre . .. = i-ioth of a metre. 1 Centimetre. . . = 1 - 100th of a metre, i M illimetre . . . = 1 • 1 ,000th of a metre. //. Measure of Surface* 1 Hectare = too ares. 1 Are = 100 square metres. 1 Centiare = 1 square metre. ///. Measure of Solidity. 1 Stere = 1 cuhic metre. 1 Dscistere . . . . = j • 10th of a stere. IV. Measure of Capacity. 1 Kilolitre = 1 cubic metre. 1 Hectolitre , . . = 10 decalitres. 1 Decalitre ....=: 10 litres. 1 Litre = 1 cubic decimetre. 1 Decilitre m i-ioth of a litre. V. Measure of Weight. 1 Millia = 1 ,000 kilogrammes, and is the weight of a ton of sea -water. 1 Quintal = 100 kilogrammes. 1 Kilogramme = Weight of a cubic decimetre of water, at the temperature of 4 above inciting ice, or about 40 Fahrenheit. 1 Hectogramme = 100 grammes. 1 Decagramme = 10 grammes. 1 Gramme = 1 -1,000th of a kilogramme. 1 Decigramme, = i-ioth of a gramme. These measures may be compared with the English measures by means of the following table : 1 Metre =39.38 English inches, nearly. I Are = 3.9 English perches, nearly. 1 Stere =35.32 English cubic feet. 1 Litre = 1.76 English pints. 1 Gramme.... =15.44 English grains. The French Metrie System has been either introduced or legalized in the Argen- tine Confederation, Austria, Belgium, Boli- via, Brazil, Chili, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, the German Empire, Greece, Italy, Mexico, Portugal and Spain. The present system of Switzerland is upon a semi -metric basis. In the United States the metric system was le- galized by an act of Congress passed in 1S66. Kelgium.— The metrical system is used hen ; but the kilogramme is termed a Iivre ; the litre, a litron ; and the metre, an aune. Nethei -liiiifls. II, n , also, the metric sys- tern has been adopted; but Flemish names are employed instead of those used in France. Lombardo-Venettan Kingdom. — The metric system, with Italian names substituted for the most of the original terras, is used of- ficially; but the old measures are also used. See Venice. A nutria— The ell = 30.6 inches. The joch = 1 acre 1 .75 rood. The metzen = 1 -7th bushel. The eimcr=i2.4 gallons. The pfund=H pound. Gold and silver are weighed bv the mark of Vienna, which =4333 grains. Rasle.— too pounds = 108.6 pounds avoirdu- 1"> I'll' ohm = 10.7 gallons. Thcsack = 3.6 bushels. The large and small ells =40.4 and j 1. 4 inches respectively. Bavaria. — The long and short ells = 34 and 13.3 inches respectively. The schaff of 8 met- icns 5.6 bushels. The muid of 48 mass = 15 gallons. 100 pounds heavy and lightweight = 108.3 anQl >°4-2 pounds avoirdupois respect- ively. The mark of Augsburg = 3,643 grains. Bremen. — The foot or half ell =11.4 in. The ohm =31.5 gallons. The last= 10.3 quar- ters. 100 pounds = 109.9 pounds avoirdupois. Cape of Good Hope. — The centner or too pounds Dutch weight = 10S.9 pounds avoirdupois. The leager of 15 ankers = 126.5 gallons. The II HI Id — J bushels. The ell 01 27 Rhynland inches = 27.8 inches. China. — The chang of 10 chih = 4 yards, nearly. The shing sa 1 pint, 10 ho= 1 shing; 10 shing = 1 tow; 10 tow = 1 hwuh or 120 cat- ties. The catty = 1.33 pound avoirdupois. 16 tacls= 1 catty ; 100 catties = 1 pecul. Liquids are sold by weight; but the English gallon is used in trading with foreigners. Denmark. — The foot=i2.3 inches. 100 ells = 6S.6 yards. The viertel = 1.7 gallon. 100 tonnen = 47.8 quarters. The pound! = 1.1 pound avoirdupois. The pound for gold and silver weighs 7,266 grains. Kant Indies. — Bengal. — The factbry maund = 74.06 pounds avoirdupois. 10 bazar maunds= 11 factory maunds. 16 chittacks = 1 seer ; 40 seers = 1 maund. The guz of two cubits = 1 yard. Bombay. — The maund = 28 pounds avoirdupois. 40 "seers = 1 maund; 20 maunds= 1 candy. The candy = 24.5 bushels. Madras.— The maund = 25 pounds avoirdu- pois. 40 pollams = 1 vi ; Svis=i maund; 20 maunds = 1 candy. The covid = 18.6 inches. The gars of 80 parahs = 16.S75 quarters, and weighs 8,400 pounds avoirdupois. Egypt.— The Turkish pike m 27 in. The ardeb of 24 Cairo rubbie = 6 quarters. The cuntar = 100 pounds avoirdupois. 216 drams or 144 meticals=i rottole" 100 rottoli or 36 okes = 1 cantar. Frankfort on the Main. — The c!I=2i.2 inches. The foot = 11.2 inches. The matter = 3 bushels, nearly. The viertel= 1.6 gallon, nearly. The pound, light and heavy weight, = 1.03 and 1.1 pound avoirdupois. The Zoll- centner = 1 10.2 pounds avoirdupois. The Cologne mark, used for gold and silver, weighs 3,609 grains. Geneva.— The ell =45 Inches. The acre mm 1 acre 1.1 rood. The coupe, or sack, = 2.1 bushels. The setier= 10 gallons. The heavy pound = i.j pound avoirdupois; the light pound I -6th less. The mark weighs 3,785 grains. Genoa.— The braccto of 2.5 palmi = 22.9 inches. The mina = 3. 3 bushels. The barile — IO -3 gallons. The pound =0.7 pound avoir- dupois. 1.5 pound ss« 1 rottole. The pound BOtttte, for'gold and silver, weighs 4891.5 grains. Greece. — The Venetian measures of length are used, the hraccio being called a piehc. 1--) kil. 1=11.4 quarters. The cantaro of 40 okes = 112 pounds avoirdupois. Ifnmhnrfr.— The foot = 11.3 In. nearly: t.*> , Us —o.'.o yards. I he srlieffel=i acre* o perches. The viertcl = 1.6 gallon. The pound = 1.06 pound avoirdupois. For the Cologne in.uk, see I'rankfort. 2 marks = I pound troy. I,uheck.— The ell = 22.9 inches. The last = 11 quarter!. The viertel= 1.6 gallon. The pound = 1.07 pounds avoirdupois, nearly. Malta. —The pat me = 10.15 inches ; 3.5 pal- ml ail vard;8 palmi = 1 canna. I 7.8 bushcis The caffiso = 4. < gallon barile ~y-3t gallons. 04 rottoli = 1 hundred- weight. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoirdu- Mauritltift — Besides the English weight! and measures, those of France before the late alteration are used. The aune = 1.3 yard. The velte = 1.7 gallon. The poid dc marc = 1.0S pound avoirdupois. Naples.— The canna = 83.1 inches. The moggia — 3 roods 12 perches. The tomolos cl. The barile=9.i gallons. The cantaro grosso and piccolo = 196.5 and 106 pounds avoirdupois, respectively. The pound used in weighing gold and silver contains 4,950 grains. Portugal.— The covado = 25.8 inches. The almude = ^.6 gallons. The pound =1.01 pound avoirdupois. Prussia,— The ell = 26.5 inches. The mor- gen =2 roods 21 perches. The scheffel = 1.5 bushel. The cimcr = 15.1 gallons. The pound — 1.03 pound avoirdupois. The mark of Cologne is used for gold and silver. Rome. — The canna of 8 palmi = 2.2 yards. The canna of 10 palma = 88 inches, nearly. Therubbio = 8.1 bushcis. The boccalc=o*4 gallon. The pound = 0.7 pound avoirdupois. Russia.— The arshine=2S inches. The foot = ij.Tcinches. The dcssetnia= 2 acres 2. S roods. The t*chetwert = 5.7 bushels. The wedro = 2.7 gallons. The pound = 0.0 pound avoirdupois. The pood sst 36 pounds avoirdu- pois. St. Gallen.— The ells for silks and wool* ens =31. 5 and 24.25 inches, respectively. The mutt of 4 viertels= 2.09 bushels. The eimer = 11.25 gallons. The pound, light and heavy weight, = 1.03 jind impound avoirdupois, re- spectively. Saxony. — The foot =11.1 inches. The acre = 1 acre 1.5 rood, near! v. The eimer, at Drrs- den,= 14.9 gallons; at Leipsic= 16.8 gallons. The wispel, at Dresden, = 69.9 bushels; at Leipsic = qi.7 bushels. The pound =1.03 pound avoirdupois. Sicily. — The canna =?6c inches. The salma = 7.6 bushcis. The barrel = 8 gallons, nearly. The pound of 12 ounces = 7 pound; avoirdupois. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoir* dupois. Smyrna.— The pike = 27 inches. The kil* lnw= 1 1 .3 gallons. The rottolo = i.J pound avoirdupois. South America.— The Spanish and Por- tuguese measures are most generally employ- ed? The use of the English prevails in some parts. Spain.— The vara or ell = 33.3 inches. The fanegada=i acre 31 perches. The arroba = 3 5 gallons. The f ancga = 1.5 bushel. The pound = 1 .01 pound avoirdupois. Sweden and Norway.— The ell = 33.3 inches. The tunneland = 1 acre 1 rood, nearlv. The tunnu =0.6 quarter. The kanrsxo.O gal- lon. The pound x= 0.9 pound avoirdupois. Turkey.— The pike = 16 -2$ Inches, The killow =0.9 bushel. The almud= 1.1 ^r*llon. The okc = j.S pounds avoirdupois. The rot- tolo = 1.3 pound avoirdu p Tuscany.— The hraccio= 23 Inches, nearly. The saccata = 1 acre 0.9 rood. The sacche » 2 bushels. The nasche = 4 pints. The pound = 12 ounces avoirdupois. Venice.— Besides the metrical system, the following measures are used: Thebraccio, for woolens = 26.6 Inches; for silks = 24. S inches. The su»o = 3. 1 bushels. The sec- chia = 3.4 gallons. The pound s©ttiles»o.y pound avoirdupois, nearly; gTosso^i.05 pound avoirdupois. s -\ V THE METRIC SYSTEM. 449 A, / The Metric System originated In France about 1700. In 1799, on the invitation of the Government, an international convention, at which were present representatives from Prance, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, Savoy and the Roman Republics, assembled at Paris to settle, from the results of the great Meridian Survey, the exact length of the " definitive metre." As a result of the investigations of this learned body, the Metric System was based upon the length of the fourth part of a terrestrial meridian. The ten-millionth part of this arc was chosen as the unit of measures of length, and called Metre. The cube of the tenth part of the metre was adopted as the unit of capacity, and denominated Litre. The weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density was called Kilogramme, of which the thousandth part, or Gramme, was adopted as the unit of weight. The multiples of these, proceeding in decimal progression, are distinguished by the employ- ment of the prefixes deca, hecto, kilo and myria (ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand), from the Greek, and the subdivisions oy deci t cents' and milli (tenth, hundredth, thousandth), from the Latin. Measures of Length (Unit, Metre). equal to Inches. 0.03937 0.39371 3-937oS 39-37079 393-70790 Hectometre 3,937.07900 Kilometre. 39,370.79000 Myriametre 393,707.90000 Millimetre . Centimetre . Decimetre ., Metre Decametre. Yards. 0.0010936 0.0109363 0. 1003633 1. 093633 1 10.9363306 109.3633056 1.093-6330556 10,936.3305556 Cubic Measures, or Measures of Capacity (Unit, Litre). jai. to Cubic Inches. 0.06103 0.61027 6.10271 61.02705 610.27052 Hectolitre, or Decistere 6,102.70515 Kilolitre, or Stere, or cubic metre 61,027.05152 Myrialitre, or Decastere 610,270.51519 Millilitre.or cubic centimetre... Centilitre, 10 cubic centimetres. . Decilitre, 100 cubic centimetres., Litre, cr cubic Decimetre Decalitre, or Centtstere. Cubic Feet. 0.000035 0.000353 0.003532 0.0353' 7 0.353166 3-531658 35-316581 353.165807 Pints. 0.00176 0.01761 0.17608 1.76077 17.60773 176.07734 1,760.77341 17,607.73414 Measures of Weight (Unit, Gramme). EQUAL TO Milligramme Centigramme Decigramme Gramme Decagramme , Hectogramme 1, 543.2348^ Kilogramme 1 5,432 .34880 Myriagrainme 154,323.48800 Grains. 0.01543 0-15433 1-54323 15.43235 154.323- Troy Oz. 0.000032 0.000322 0.003315 0.032151 0.321507 3.215073 32.150727 321.507267 Avoirdupois Lbs. 0.0000022 0.0000220 0.0002205 0.0022046 0.0220462 0.2204621 2.2046213 22.0462129 Square Measures, or Measures of Surface (Unit, Are). equal to Sq. Feet. Sq. Yards. Sq. Perches, Centiare, or square metre 10.794299 .. 1.196033 .. 0.0395383 Are, or 100 square metres 1,076.429934 .. 119. 603326 .. 3.953S290 Hectare, or io,ooosquare metres 107,642.993419 .. 11,960.332602 .. 395.3S2S959 Fathoms. 0.0005468 O.0054682 O.0546816 0.5^68165 5.4681653 54.6816528 546.8165278 5,468.1652778 Gallons. 0.0002201 0.0022010 0.0220097 0.2200967 2.2009668 22.0096677 220.0966767 2,200.9667675 Cvtt. of 113 Lbs* 0.0000000 0.0000002 0.0000020 0.0000197 0.0001968 0.00196S4 , 0,0106841 0.190S412 Bushels. 0.0000275 0.0002751 0.0027512 0.0275121 0.275 1 208 2.7512085 27.5120846 275.1208459 0.0098421 Sq. Acret. 0.0002471 0.02471 11 2.471 1434 CONVERSION OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO ENGLISH. METRES INTO KILOMETRES INTO LITRES INTO GALLONS HECTOLITRES INTO KILOGRAMMES INTO HECTARES INTO YARDS. MILES AND YARDS. AND QUARTS. QUARTS AND BUSHELS. CWTS. , QRS., LBS., OZ. ACRES ROODS, 1 'CH'S. , I.O94 I '.094 I O o.SSo I 2-75' I 2 3* I 2 I 35 2 2.187 2 I 427 2 O 1. 761 2 5-502 2 O 4 (>y. 2 4 3 3i 3 3-281 3 1 I,|2I 3 2.641 3 1 0.254 3 6 9H 3 7 1 26 4 4-374 5 . 4 6§ 4 2 4 3 521 4 1 3.005 4 8 13 4 9 3 22 5 5 3 1S8 5 0.402 5 1 5-756 5 1 1 o* 5 12 1 17 6 6.562 6 3 1,282 6 1 1.2S2 6 2 0.507 3-25S 6 13 Vi 6 '4 3 12 I If 9-k. 7 4 615 i : 2.163 I 2 S '.=; 7 I "7 1 S S 4 '.709 3-043 2 6.010 ■7 10 "i ■9 3 £ 9 9 8 i.

5°5 40 S 3-215 4° '3 6.048 40 3 4 3 40 3 ■5 50 54-6S2 50 3> 122 50 11 0.C19 5o 17 1.560 50 I 3 20 M 5o 14S 2 9 60 65.61S 60 37 49S §74 1,251 60 13 0.S23 60 20 5-072 0.5S5 4.097 60 I 20 4* 60 1 3 £ 76-554 87.491 98-427 So 43 49 70 15 So 17 1.627 2-431 e 24 27 g I I 1 2 1 6 So 173 '97 3 2 9 90 90 55 1,627 90 19 3-235 9° .30 7.609 OO I 3 2 t>H 90 222 1 Jl 109.363 218.727 IOO 62 2 i* 487 100 22 0.039 100 i 3. 121 IOO I 3 H 7 100 247 200 & 200 44 300 66 0.077 200 6.242 200 3 3 20 'I 200 494 37 300 328.090 300 730 0. 116 300 >o,3 1.362 300 n 3 «J 300 $ 1 '5 400 437-453 546.816 400 24s 973 400 88 0.IS5 400 '37 4-+S3 400 7 3 M H 400 1 33 500 500 3"o 1,217 500 no 0.193 500 181 7.604 500 9 3 10 5 500 .235 2 n • In the majority of States the hundred weight rates at 100 lbs. and the ton accordingly at 2,000 lbs., but in this table the computation has been made at 112 and 2,2*0 lbs. respectively, as the computation en the other basis is very simple. \ 30 45° A CALENDAR FOR THE CENTURY. A CALENDAR FOR THE CENTURY. To And the days of the week corresponding to the days of the month for any year of the century, find the year in the left-hand upper division. Follow the Index (or hand) to the right, to the month sought ; then downward to the day of the week, and to the left for the corresponding days of the month. In leap-years, if seeking the day of the month, after the 29th of February, subtract one day ; but if the day of the week is sought, go forward one day. The heavy figures are leap years. The civil year is 365.2422414 days ; but on the basis of an added day (for leap-year) every fourth year, it is reckoned as 36.1.25 days, an excess of .0077586 of a day, or one day in 1S0 years, and threo day* in 3X7 (or roundly, 400) years. To correct this excess, Instead of 100 leap-years in 400 years only 97 are reckoned, the three century-years that are not exact multiples of 400 being treated as common years. 1800 ■51 •06 •12 •98 •17 •62 •23 •88 •45 •73 •34 •79 •40 •90 **r June. Sept. Dec. April. July. Jan. Oct. May. Aug. Feb. Mar. Nov. '•5 •50 '11 '68 •95 '61 •22 '67 •28 •89 •33 '78 •39 •84 *a- Sept. Dec. April. July. Jan. Oct. May. Aug. Feb. Mar. Nov. June. •49 1900 •10 •55 •18 •94 •21 •66 •27 •72 '44 '77 •38 •83 *w April. July. Jan. Oct. May. Aug. Feb. Mar. Nor. June. Sept, I ><•••. '04 •93 •99 •09 '54 •16 •80 •43 •65 •26 •71 •32 •88 •37 •82 «r Jan. Oct. May. Aug. Feb. Mar. Nov. June. Sept. Dec April. July. •03 '48 •42 •53 •14 '59 •20 •87 •25 •70 •31 •78 •98 '81 **■ May. Aug. Feb. Mar. Nov. Juno. Sept. Dec. April. July. Jan. Oct. •02 '(B •97 '08 •86 •13 •58 •19 '84 •41 •69 •30 •75 •38 •92 *»• Aug. Feb. Mar. Nov. June. Sept. Dec. April. July. Jan. Oct. May. •01 •85 •07 •52 •46 •57 •18 •63 •24 •91 '29 '74 •35 •80 mw Feb. Mar. Nov. June. Sept. Dec. April. July. Jan. Oct, May. Aug. * * * % 1 J 1 \ 29 22 15 8 1 -e» Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. 30 23 16 9 2 -w Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. .-on. SI 24 17 10 3 -w Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. 25 18 11 4 -s» Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. •• 26 19 12 5 -w Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tar-. Wed. 27 20 IS 6 -w Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. •• 28 SI 14 7 -«• Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wad. Thurs. Tri. £= =_j r LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. 451 A} +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ ABfMINT + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -y^M^(- + + + + + 2*0 • AVOID LITIS fNTIL the millennium begins, men will not be ... able to exist without courts, law and lawyers. II When man was in a state of nature, before p what the philosophers call the social com- pact was entered into, the law that prevailed was the strong hand. Property belonged not necessarily to him who manufactured it or found it, but to him who had the physical ability to prevent other people from depriving him of it. As the verse runs, humanity be- gan with — The good old plan, That they shall take who have the power, And they shall keep who can. And much as we may talk about the reasonableness and light of our civilization, that theory lies underneath every legal process we use today. First the man righted his own wrongs according to his natural reason — a sort of wild justice that was made up of all injustice, and in which capital punishment was the only penalty recognized. Next the family took up the administration of the law — a step in the right direction, but only a step — and so, as men grew older in wisdom and experience, a man's wrongs were redressed first by himself, next by his family, next by his tribe, and lastly by his nation. Each of these changes was a change for the better, an approach toward impar- tiality and justice Even in the night of time wise judges were at work making precedents which grew gradually into law, and that great system which we have to-day is as much a natural out- growth of humanity as our civilization. It was seen early in our history as a race that the wisdom of the umpires to whom men addressed their disputes was not alone enough to insure peace and tranquillity to the land, and hence great law-givers appeared from time to time in every nation, who have left codes out of which we have built our common law and statute law of the nineteenth century. Each family of nations had its own statutes, differing widely in practice, but all founded upon justice and common sense. The English law, which we in America have brought with us from the old home, is, like the English language, an olla podrida of many elements. The Saxon code lies under all with its strong tendency to personal liberty, and exact and equal justice to high and low, just as the Saxon tongue is the basis and foundation of our language. The Norman Conquest brought in changes in the tenure of land, together with the martial law, the game laws and the criminal and the feudal laws of France. Mixing in this hotch-potch, the Roman Church added the ecclesiastical and part of the criminal law, drawn directly, as the French laws came indirectly, from the great Codex Justiniani, of the Roman Empire, and this strange mixture has grown in the centuries that have passed into the great guarantee of liberty and justice which our law to-day represents. Always seeking after right and common sense, our law is not perfect, nor is it perfectly administered, but the whole world admits that the English-speaking people have the best laws known to man. Perfection erring humanity will never attain. Jl« ^ % V 45 2 LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. Our criminal law has been built upon the theory that the criminal must be protected, and it is for his protection that the statutes run. At first the only punishment that men knew was death or maiming. In the middle ages thieves were boiled in oil, and robbers were impaled alive. Witnesses were questioned on Ihe rack, and evidence extorted with thumbscrew and the iron boot, crushing the flesh in the search for truth. As the years rolled by all of this was ameliorated, and to-day mercy is tempered with jus- tice, and the shameful bar- barisms of the courts of the middle ages are becoming rarer and rarer. It is not the purpose of this work to make any man a lawyer learned in the law. It were idle, and worthy only of a catchpenny mountebank, to pretend that in a volume like this could be compressed the whole of a great science which demands of its professors years of toil and years of study and experience. Once involved in litigation, go to a lawyer, and to the best lawyer you can afford. Any one who gives the reader different advice is dis- honest and knavish, and common sense must recognize this indictment. An ounce of prevention, however, is worth a pound of cure, and we verily believe that in the pages that follow many ounces of prevention will be found. Law is a costly luxury that should only be indulged in as a last re- sort, when justice cannot be gained by less expensive means. The wise man avoids it as he would avoid bank- ruptcy or fire, and he takes all the prudent precautions that he can to escape litiga- tion. We claim that the student of these pages will be fully equipped for that purpose. Law is a costly luxury, we have said ; and the wisdom of an- tiquity, which built the law, has built also on this truism. One of the earliest fables the child is told, is the story of the two cats who referred a cheese case to a monkey learned in the law, and whose chosc-in-action gradually went into the digestive system THE SUIT BEGINS : The Lawyer gets the Milk foe his Fees. of the court. The story we illustrate below conveys a moral that all should heed. Observe the obstinate litigants pulling at the head and tail of the disputed cow ; how determined each is, not to win the ani- mal, but to prevent the other from getting her, and see the attor- ney, learned and gentlemanly, industriously milking fees and retainers into his bucket and advising the plaintiff to hold hard and steady. And when the cow is milked, see how the litigation ends : one man has the horns and a severe fall, the other has the tail and an equally unpleasant tumble, while the lawwr walks off with the cow and the milk and an exceedingly good opinion of the law. The satire may be rather broad, but it teaches what every sensible man will tell you, that there is no dearer commodity in this world than justice. No matter what transaction you are about to engage in, study the forms we give, read the hints we publish. Do nothing blindly. In no case is knowledge power so much as in busi- ness law. Who are the men that succeed ? They are those who understand it. Which of your friends is tangled up in costly, perhaps ruinous, litigation ? Ask him how it began, and he will point out to you some trifling error, made in a culpable ignorance, which, had he the lesson we teach before him, he would have avoided. Then study these pages if you would gain the benefit that lies before you. A half hour's attention be- fore a transaction is con- summated may save you thousands afterwards. The diligent student may be sure of one thing, that, with this manual at command, its hints obeyed, its instructions followed, its forma used, it will take a very much better lawyer than the average business man to force him into a lawsuit, Mid yet his lights will be as thoroughly secure as though they had Ix-cn vindicated and asserted by all the supreme courts of the Re- public. END OF THE SUIT : The Lawyer gets both Cow and Milk. r w ■$ "* S- V LEGAL BUSINESS FORMS. 453 -7 •>7kv ke^al v^Li^ine^v Fo^m^. •>>? ■*& -t^J-foco tfieij are properfu, ©racoi} anc} Gxee-ufec|..es3»- AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS. CONTRACT is legally defined to be XI an agreement between persons com- petent to contract to do or not to do, for a consideration, some speci- fied thing. Following upon this definition, it is evident that those things to be specially examined about a contract are the parties, their legal ability and their consent. There must be two or more persons concerned, and it is vital that they must be able to contract. "Persons" is here taken in the legal meaning, which includes artificial persons, such as cor- porations and States. Corporations can only contract as they are empowered by their char- ters ; States, as they are permitted by their constitutions. Persons not of legal age can not usually contract, but when of age they may, in certain cases, ratify contracts made in infancy. The contract of marriage may be entered into under age. Idiots and insane persons cannot contract. Consent is vital to a contract. It may be given by a word or a nod, by the shaking of hands or by a sign. Often, in law, the old saying that " silence gives consent " is upheld. In a written contract assent is proven by the signature or mark of the persons. The first step toward a contract is the propo- sition or offer, which may be withdrawn at any time before it is agreed to. When the proposition is verbal, and no time is specified, it is not binding unless accepted at once. To give one the option or refusal of property at a specified price, is simply to give him a cer- tain time to make up his mind whether he will buy the property or not. To make the option binding he must accept within the time named. The party giving the option has the right to withdraw it, and sell the property to another, at any time previous to its acceptance, even within the time for which the refusal was given, because the offer is gratuitous, and there is no consideration to support it. A written proposition may be accepted at any time before notice of withdrawal. But the proposer can retract at any time before it is accepted. If a letter of acceptance is mailed, however, and immediately after a letter with- drawing the offer is received, the contract is binding. An acceptance takes effect from the time it is mailed, not from the time it is re- ceived ; it must be in accordance with the original proposition, for any new matter intro- duced would constitute a new offer. When the offer is accepted, either verbally or in ^J 454 LEGAL BUSINESS FORMS. writing, it is an express assent, and is bind- ing. Express assent is not affected by custom or usage of trade. Implied assent is accepted by the law when common sense seems to de- mand it. For instance, if John Jones draws a draft on Abraham Swift, which Swift refuses to accept, and James Smith accepts the draft to save John Jones' credit, there is an im- plied assent on the part of Jones to indemnify Smith. A contract made under a mistake of law is not void. Everybody is presumed to know the law, and ignorance is no excuse. This, how- ever, applies only to contracts permitted by law and clear of fraud. A refusal of an offer cannot be retracted without the consent of the second party. Once a proposition is refused, the matter is ended. And no one has the right to accept an offer except the person to whom it was made. The consideration is the reason or thing for which the parties bind themselves in the con- tract, and it is either a benefit to the promisor or an injury to the other party. Considera- tions arc technically divided into valuable and good, and it sometimes happens that the con- sideration need not be expressed, but is im- plied. A valuable consideration is either money or property or service to be given, or some injury to be endured. A promise to marry, for instance, is a valuable considera- tion. A good consideration means that the contract is entered into because of consan- guinity or affection, which will support the contract when executed, but will not support •in action to enforce an executory contract. Whether a consideration is sufficient or not is tested by its being a benefit to the promisor or an injury to the other party. If it has a legal value, it makes no difference how small that value may be. The promisor need not always be benefited, as, for instance, the endorser of a note, who is liable although he gets no benefit. Hut if a person promise to do something him- self for which no consideration is to be received, there is no cause of action for breach of the contract. Among sufficient considerations we may include " forbearance," the waiting for payment or for the execution of another contract, and " mutual promises," if made si- multaneously, not otherwise, and finally a pre- existing " moral obligation," as, for instance, when a debt has become outlawed through the statute of limitations, a promise to pay it will renew the liability of the debtor. THE STATUTE OF FRAUDS. The English Statute of Frauds, which has been re-enacted in most of the American States, provides that " no action shall be brought whereby to charge the defendant upon any special promise to answer for the debt, default or miscarriage of another person, un- less the agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing, and signed by the party to be charged therewith, or some other person thereunto by him lawfully author- ized. " This is held not to apply to original promises, but only to collateral engagements or cases where a debt already exists on the part of a third person. As in the case of a note already given to Brown by Jones, a promise from Smith to pay must be in writing to be binding. If Brown tells Jones to deliver goods to Smith, saying: " I will pay if he doesn't," or " I will see you paid," it is a mere offer of guaranty, and is a collateral undertak- ing, which comes within the statute ; but it is different if he says: " Charge them to me," or "I will pay." The latter is an original promise, and need not be in writing. No consideration is necessary, so far as the person who guarantees is concerned, if it is a benefit to the person in whose favor the promise i- made. This statute does not apply in cases where an original promise is mule at the time the debt is created. The statute of frauds I GAL BUSINESS FORMS. 455 also provides that no sale shall be binding un- less the buyer shall first accept part of the goods so sold, and actually receive them ; or, 2d, give something in earnest, to bind the bar- gain, or in part payment; or, 3d, that some note or memorandum, in writing, of the said bargain be made and signed by the parties or their agents. The writing must state the promise, and also the consideration. Where goods exist in the condition in which they are to be delivered, and the delivery is to take place in the future, a sale of such goods comes within the statute. CAUSES WHICH VITIATE CONTRACTS. There are several causes which void con- tracts, first among which is fraud. Fraud is defined to be " every kind of artifice employed by one person for the purpose of wilfully deceiving another to his injury." No fraudu- lent contract will stand in law or in equity. The party upon whom the fraud has been practiced must void the contract as soon as he discovers the fraud, for if he goes on after having knowledge of the fraud he cannot after- wards avoid it. But the one who perpetrates the fraud cannot plead that ground for voiding it. Contracts in restraint of trade are void, as also are contracts in opposition to public policy, impeding the course of justice, in restraint of marriage, contrary to the insolvent acts, or for immoral purposes. Any violation of the essential requisites of a contract, or the omission of an essential requisite, will void it. THE DEFENCES which may be set up against an action on con- tract are eleven in number, and may be sum- marized thus: Performance, Payment, Re- ceipts, Accord and Satisfaction, Arbitrament and Award, Pendency of Another Action, Re- lease, Tender, Statute of Limitations, Set-OfT, Recoupment. A Building Contract. Memorandum of Agreement, made this 10th day of May, one thou- sand eight hundred and eighty-three, between Henry Davis, of St. Louis, of the first part, and Joseph Stephenson, of the same place, builder, of the second part. The said party of the second part covenants and agrees with the said party of the first part to make, erect, build and finish in good, substantial and workmanlike manner, on the lot belonging to the party of the first part, and known as No. 243 North Nineteenth street, one brick house, agreeable to the draft, plan and explanation hereto annexed, of good and substantial materials (or of such materials as the party of the first part may find and provide therefor), by the 1st day of September next. And the said party of the first part covenants and agrees to pay unto the said party of the second part, for the same, the sum of one thousand dollars lawful money of the United States, as follows : the sum of $200 on the 1st of June, $200 on the 1st of July, $200 on the 1st of August, $400 on the completion of the house. ( If the owner is to furnish materials, add: and, also, that he will furnish and procure the necessary materials for the said work, in such reasonable quantities, and at such reasonable time, or times, as the said party of the second part shall or may require.) And for the true and faithful performance of all and every of the covenants and agreements above mentioned, the parties to these presents bind themselves, each unto the other, in the penal sum of $200, a.i liqui- dated damages to be paid by the failing party. In witness wherof The parties to these presents have hereunto set their hands (and seals) the day and year first above written. Henry Davis. Signed, sealed and delivered in presence of ) Joseph Stephbnson. Tames Wilson. «. C. Boyd. n : of J Jo Contract with Employe. This Agreement^ made this 22d day of December, 1883, between J, F. Townley, of Chicago, of the first part, and Campen, Strauss & Co., of St. Louis, Mo., of the second part, witnesseth: That the said J. F. Townley agrees faithfully ;md diligently to serve the said Campen, Strauss & Co., as clerk, in the store of said Campen, Strauss & Co. (or other- wise), at St. Louis, for the period of one year, from and af'.er the ist day of January next, for the sum of $1,500 per year. In consideration of which service, so to be performed, the said Campen, Strauss & Co. agree to pay the said J. F. Townley the sum of $125 per month, payable on the first day of each month, during said term. And it is understood and agreed that the death of either of them, occurring prior to the expiration of said term of one year, shall terminate this agreement. In witness whereof, etc. Campen, Strauss & Co. J. F. TOWMLBV. Contract for the Sale of Property. This Agreement, made this 5th day of March, 1883, between Alan McDowell, of St. Louis, and C. S. Wheeler & Co., of New York, wit- nesseth: That the said Alan McDowell agrees to sell and deliver to the said C. S. Wheeler & Co., at their store in New York, five thousand bushels of potatoes on or before the 2d day of May, 1883, and the said C. S. Wheeler & Co., in consideration thereof, agree to pay to the said Alan McDowell fifty cents per bushel for said potatoes, immediately upon the completion of the delivery thereof. In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands, this 5th day of March, 1883, at New York City. C. S. Wheeler & Co. \lan McDowell. Short Form of Contract. John D. Simons hereby agrees to sell one thousand head of two-year- old cattle, to be delivered in Chicago before February 1, 1883, to Knox, Stout & Co., at $20 a head, and the said Knox, Stout & Co. agree to pay $20 per head for all two-year-old cattle, up to one thousand head, deliv- ered by said John D. Simons, prior to February 1, 1883. Signed at Chicago, 111., this 20th day of September, 1881. Knox. Stout & Co. John D. Simons. ^ C" IV 45 6 AGENCY AND ATTORNEY. -.&'. ' ffieney •> and •> flttopney. 'HEN one person is authorized to act in a business capacity for another, under a contract either express or implied, he becomes the agent of the latter, and the act of the agent, when legally authorized, is the same as if done by the principal. For ordinary contracts constituting an agency, a written or verbal agreement or appointment is required, but contracts required to be under seal can only be made by an agent whose appointment is established by a sealed instrument. An agent may be so constituted by his acts without a formal appointment. Where a principal will- ingly and knowingly allows a person to do acts in his name, he will be presumed to have given him authority. Where several persons are appointed by law as agents, the thing to be done may generally be executed by a majority of them. The extent to which the agent's authority binds the principal is to be gathered from the appointment, and depends upon the power which has been delegated to him by express or implied contract. The principal is not bound if the agent go beyond his authority, unless, with knowledge of the fact, he has taken the benefit of it. ~*§**IH £<-*- -H^fe -*-H fHE various kinds of agency are called special and general ; limited and un- limited ; factor and broker. A special agency is an agency to do a single act, and every person doing business with a special agent must ascertain what the extent of his authority is, and at his own risk. A general agency consists of delegated authority to do anything about a particular business, the prin- cipal being bound for all acts of the agent that come within the scope of the business. Lim- ited agency is that in which particular instruc- tions restrict and limit the agent's authority. Unlimited agency is one in which a special agent is given authority to use any means he may find necessary to accomplish the desired •- IN- DIFFERENT KINDS OF AGENCY. >t* 457 "7 end. The factor, commonly called commis- sion merchant, is one who has the property of his principal in his own possession, for sale, such property being called a consignment. Such agent, accompanying a cargo on a voy- age, is called a supercargo. A broker is one who is employed to negotiate sales between the buyer and seller. He does not have possession of the property which he nego- tiates, nor authority to sell in his own name. With few exceptions to the rule, an agent is not obliged to account for the price of goods he has sold until he has recovered the money from the purchaser. When an agent makes the contract in the name of the principal, and under his authority, he generally avoids personal liability. The agent is given the right of lien on the property in his possession, and also the right to insure it, to secure the payment of his com- mission. He is also entitled to reimbursement for costs and damages which, through no fault of his, he has been obliged to pay in relation to the agency. The principal has reciprocal rights against third persons, corresponding with his own lia- bilities, and may sue them, when they are responsible, or their contracts made with the agency. He is liable to third persons for the negligence or unskilfulness of the agent, when he is acting in the fulfilment of the agency business, even if he is not under his immedi- ate direction. The general principle is, that for all torts, frauds, misfeasances and defaults of the agent, done in the regular course of the agency business, the principal is liable, whether he participated in it or not, provided it were not the agent's wilful act. The agent is liable equally with the principal for all wrongs done by him under order of his principal. Unless expressly authorized, the agent has no right to delegate his own powers to a sub- agent. A notice to an agent is generally considered notice to the principal. Money paid by an agent can be recovered by the principal, if it has been paid by mis- take ; if the consideration has failed ; if the money was illegally extorted from him as agent; or if it was fraudulently applied to some illegal purpose by the agent. An agency may be dissolved : by a revoca- tion by the principal of the power of the agent; by operation of law. Power of Attorney — Short and Simple Form. Know all men by these presents : That I, the undersigned, of Minne- apolis, Minn., do hereby make, constitute and appoint R. J. Belford, of St Paul, Minn., my true and lawful attorney, for me, and in my name and stead (here insert the subject-matter of the poiver ) ; to do and perform all the necessary acts in the execution and prosecution of the aforesaid business, and in as full and ample a manner as I might do if I were personally present Howard Belden. Executed in presence of I Henry Lemson. 1 Letter of Substitution. ( To be endorsed on the power 0/ attorney. J I hereby appoint Geo. W. Jones as my substitute and in my stead to do and perform every act and thing which I might or could do by virtue of the within power of attorney. (Signed) R. J. Belford. Power of Attorney to Collect Debts, Rents, Etc. Know all men by these presents : That I, Samuel Adams, of Boston, Mass., do by these presents make, constitute and appoint Chas. E. Foster my true and lawful attorney, for me, and in my name, place and stead, to demand, ask, sue for, collect and receive all sums of money, accounts, debts, dues, rents and demands of every description, kind and nature whatsoever, which are due, owing or payable from any person or persons whomsoever, and to give good and sufficient receipts, acquittances and discharges therefor; giving and granting unto my said attorney full authority and power to do and perform every act and thing whatsoever necessary and requisite to be done in the premises, as I might or could do if personally present. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this day of , 188 — . Samuel Adams. [l.s.] Signed and sealed j in presence of > Jerome Beasey. ) Letter of Revocation. Know all men by these presents : That I, R. S. Miller, of Covington, Tenn., in and by my letter of attorney, bearing date the day of , did make, constitute and appoint J. H. Pitt my attorney, as by said letter more fully appears. That I, the said R. S. Miller, do by these presents annul, countermand, revoke and make void said letter of attorney and all authority and power thereby given said attorney, J. H. PitL In witness, etc. R. S. Miller. [l.s.] Power of Attorney to Sell Stock. Know all men by these presents : That I, J. E. Hartman, of Cen- tralia, HI., do by these presents make, constitute and appoint J. A. L. Romig my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my stead to sell and transfer unto any persons whomsoever, and for such price as my said attorney shall think fit. all and any of the following stocks (describing them.) / ^ *T K 458 AFFIDAVITS. And also for me, and in my name, to make and pass all necessary acts of assignment, and to give and receive receipts and releases for the consider* ation money arising from the sale thereof. And also for mc, and in my name, to give receipts for all interest and dividends now due or that shall hereafter become due on said capital stock, until the sale and transfer thereof. In witness, etc. Power to Vote as Proxy at an Election. Knotv all men by these presents : That I, Homer Huston, of Paxton, III., do hereby appoint 1'. M. Elliott to vote as my proxy at any election of directors or other officers of the (name the company or corporation) according to the number of votes I should be entitled to if I were then personally present. IIomkr Huston. [i..s.] Power to Take Charge of and Carry on Business. Know all men hy these presents : That I, Julius Schonfeld. of Jeffer- son, Texas, do by these presents appoint, constitute and make R. V. Jennings my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my place and stead, to take charge of my business of general merchandising, at Mar*hall, Texas; to purchase and sell, for cash or on credit, all such articles, goods, merchandise and wares as he shall deem proper, necessary and useful to said business: to sign, accept and endorse all notes, drafts and bills; to state accounts; v, mm and prosecute, compromise, collect and settle all claims or demands due or to become due, now existing or hereafter to exist in my favor; to adjust and pay all claims or demands which now exist or may hereafter arise against me, either connected with said busi- ness or otherwise. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this day of , 188—. Julius Schokpxld. lL.a.J -i-»~S-«-£=§*e>g+-HS-i- »-W- <> — +& — — fr~ H- * •:•*•> ^.ffidav'ity. ->)r James Rat. Notary Public. I Form of Arbitration Bond. Knotv all men by these presents : That I-ewi* Anderson and Ja Ray have, this day of , A. D. , submitted their matters in controversy, concerning the boundary and division lines of a certain tract of land (describe it), to Nelson West and John Farnsworth, to arbitrate, award, order, judge and determine of and concerning the same. That we, the undersigned, bind ourselves, in the sum of dollars, that said Lewis Anderson and James Ray shall submit to the decision and award of said arbitrators, provided said award be made in writing on or before the second day of February, A. D. . (Signed) Eugene Small. Jldsos Willis. Form of Notice to Arbitrators. Gentlemen — You have been chosen arbitrators on behalf of the under- signed, to arbitrate and award between them, in divers matters and things, set forth in their submission, which will be produced for your inspection when you meet at , in , on the day of , at — o'clock — M., to hear the allegations and proofs. Dated, etc Lewis Akhison. James Ray. General Form of Arbitrators' Award. To all to whom these /resents shall come, or may concern, knar* ye : That the matter in controversy existing between Lewis Anderson, of , and James Ray, of , as by their submission in writing, bearing date the day of , more fully appears, was submitted to Nels.. and John Farnsworth. as arbitrators. That said arbitrators, being sworn according to law, and having heard the proofs and allegations of the parties, and examined the matter in con- troversy by them submitted, do make this, their award, in writing: ( H rite out in full the award.) In fitness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names, thi> day of , A.D. . Nelson West, John Farnsworth. ArbitrmUre. •• /. -£. ASSIGNMENTS. 461 .NY transfer of property made in writing |f is properly called an assignment, thus 1 distinguishing the act from a transfer made by delivery. In effect, it is pass- ing to another person all of one's title or inter- est in any sort of real or personal property, rights, actions or estates. However, some things are not assignable ; an officer's pay or commission, a judge's salary, fishing claims, Government bounties, or claims arising out of frauds or torts. Personal trusts cannot be assigned, as a guardianship or the right of a master in his apprentice. Unlike many other legal devices, the holder of an assignment is not bound to show that a valuable consideration was given. The owner of a cause of action may give it away if he pleases, and in the absence of positive evi- dence to the contrary the court will presume that the assignment was for a sufficient con- sideration. Proof will only be called for when it appears that the assignment was . a mere sham or fraudulent. No formality is required by law in an assignment. Any instrument between the contracting parties which goes to show their intention to pass the property from one to another will be sufficient. It may be proved, for instance, by the payee of a note, that he endorsed (or deliverea without endorse- ment) the note to the assignee, and this is sufficient evidence of assignment In every assignment of an instrument, even not negotiable, the assignee impliedly war- rants the validity of the instrument and the obligation of the third party to pay it. He war- rants that there is no legal defence against its collection arising out of his connection with the parties ; that all parties were legally able to con- tract, and that the amount is unpaid. An assignment carries with it all the collat- eral securities and guaranties of the original debt, even though they are not mentioned in the instrument. It is usual to use as operative words in an assignment the phrase, " assign, transfer and set over ; " but " give, grant, bargain and sell, " or any other words indicating an intention on the part of the parties to transfer the property, are sufficient in law. Where property is assigned for the benefit of creditors, its actual transfer to the assignee must be made immediately. When an assign- ment is made under the common law, the as- signor may prefer certain creditors; but in a State where this sort of an assignment is gov- erned by statute, no preference can be shown. An assignment for the benefit of creditors cov- ers all of the assignor's property, wherever or whatever it may be, that is not exempt from execution. When insured property is sold, the insurance policy should be assigned. This can only be =^L 462 BILLS "I SALE. done with the consent of the insurer, and that consent must be at once obtained. Correct schedules of the property assigned should accompany and be attached to every as- signment. Assignment of a Note. I hereby, for value received, assign and transfer the within written (or above written), together with all my rights under the same, to John Dobson. William Atwood. Assignment with Power of Attorney. In consideration of the sum of one thousand dollars (the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged), I do hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart (of St. Louis, Mo.), all my right, title and interest in and to (here describe 71'hatJ. (And I do hereby constitute said John G. Stewart my attorney, in my name or otherwise, but at his own costs and charges, to take all legal measures which may be proper or necessary for the complete recovery and enjoyment of the premises.) Witness my hand (and seal) this 28th day of August, 1883. (Witnesses. J William Snyder, [l.s.] Assignment with Guaranty of Assignor. For value received, I do hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart the within obligation, and all moneys due and to become due thereon. In case the same cannot be recovered of the within named Edwin Byron, I agree and promise to pay to said John G. Stewart the pnTJMIlM thereof, together with all necessary and reasonable charges thereupon accruing. Witness my hand, etc. William Snyder, (Witnesses.) Shorter Form. For value received, I hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart the within obligation, hereby guaranteeing payment thereof. (Witnesses.) William Ssydci. Assignment Without Recourse. \- <>v value received, I hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart the within obligation, and all moneys due (and to become due) thereon. All failure of recovery, liabilities, losses, wholly at tho risk of said John G. Stewart, without recourse in any event upon me. (Witnesses.) William Snyder. Assignment of Wages. Know alt men by these presents; That I, William Snyder (of Sl Joseph, Mo.), in consideration of one hundred dollar*, the receipt of which I hereby acknowledge, do hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. Stewart (of St. Louis, Mo.) all claims and demands which I now have, and all which, at any time between the date hereof and the 30th day of December next, I may or shall have, against Edwin Byron, for all sums of money due or to become due to me for services as - . That I do hereby appoint and constitute said John G. Stewart and his assigns my attorney, irrevocable, to do and perform all acts, matters and things in the premises, in like manner and to all intents and pur- poses as I could if personally present. In witness whereof, etc. Assignment of Money Due on Account. Know all men by these presents: That William Snyder, in con- sideration of the sum of one hundred dollars to him in hand paid, docs hereby assign, transfer and set over all his title and interest in and rights under an account for (state what) in the sum of one hundred and fifty dollars, hereunto annexed, and all other sum and sums of money remain- ing due and payable upon said account, unto John G. Stewart, with full power to ask, demand and receive the same (at his own costs and ex- penses) to his own use, and to give discharges and receipts for the same, or any part thereof. That there is due said William Snyder, on said account, at the date ol these presents, the sum of one hundred and fifty dollars, and thai he hat not received or discharged the same. In witness, etc -^^x&^-h :• ^ill^vof *$ale. •:• * BILL OF SALE is a formal written con- veyance of personal property. If the property is delivered when sold, or if part of the purchase-money is paid, a written instrument is not necessary to make the conveyance, but it is convenient evidence of the transfer of title. But, to protect the interests of the purchaser against the creditors of the seller, the bill is not sufficient of itself; then- should also be a delivery of the prop- erty. If an actual and continued change of possession does not accompany the sale, it is void as against the creditors of the seller and subsequent purchasers uul mortgagees in good faith, unless the buyer can show th.it his pur- chase was made in good faith, without intent V- K= A BONDS. 4<53 to defraud, and that there was some good rea- son for leaving the property in the hands of the seller. Short Form of Bill of Sale. I, Henry Anderson, of Chester, Pa., in consideration of two hundred and fifty dollars, paid by A. D. Criste, of Minister, Pa., hereby sell and convey to said A. D. Criste one bay horse (give sex, size, color, age, etc.), warranted against adverse claims. Witness my hand, this 4th day of Sept, A.D. 1883. (Witness.) (Signed) Henry Anderson. [l.s.J Common Form — With Warranty. Know ait men by these presents : That in consideration of one thou- sand dollars, the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, I do hereby grant, sell, transfer and deliver unto A. A. McHatton, his heirs, execu- tors, administrators and assigns, the following goods and chattels, viz. : (here describe the property ). To have and to hold all and singular the saij goods and chattels for- ever. And the said grantor hereby covenants with said grantee that he is the lawful owner of said goods and chattels; that they are free from all encumbrances; that he has good right to sell the same, as aforesaid; and that he will warrant and defend the same against the lawful claims and demands of all persons whomsoever. In witness whereof, the said grantor has hereunto set his hand, this 12th day of December, A.D. 1883. (Witness.) N. R. Jennek. Sale of Personal Property. Knoiv all ttten by these presents : That I, Peter Dolan, of the city of Cleveland, county of Cuyahoga, State of Ohio, farmer, in consideration of four hundred dollars, to me in hand paid by Conrad Ullner, the receipt whereof I hereby acknowledge, have bargained, sold, granted and con- veyed unto the said Conrad Ullner the following property, to-wit : two horses; to have and to hold the same; unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns forever. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this 20th day of March, 1883. Peter Dolan. S— GQ_ -O- s— & •or §OQg^. •^ JS— j %■ "© ^ •O- Te— I WRITTEN instrument, admitting an (vf obligation on the part of the maker to pay a certain sum of money to another specified person at a fixed time, for a valuable consideration, is called a bond. The obligor is the one giving the bond; the beneficiary is called the obligee. This definition applies to all bonds, but gen- erally these instruments are given to guarantee the performance or non-performance of cer- tain acts by the obligor, which being done, or left undone, as the case may be, the bond becomes void, but if the conditions are broken, it remains in full force. As a rule, the bond is made out for a sum twice the amount of any debt which is apt to be incurred by the obligor under its conditions, the statement being set forth that the sum named is the penalty, as liquidated or settled damages, in the event of the failure of the obligor to carry out the con- ditions. An act of Providence, whereby the accom- plishment of a bond is rendered impossible, relieves the obligor of all liability. A bond may be sued upon twenty years after right of action begins. A bond simply for the payment of money only differs from a promissory note in having a seal. Short Form of Bond. Kno™ all men by these presents : That we, John Smith, as principal, and William Meeser and A. J. Driscoll, as sureties, all of Bladensburg, in the county of Prince George, State of Maryland, are holden and stand firmly bound unto David Wright, of said county, in the sum of nine hundred dollars to be paid to the said David Wright, to the payment whereof we jointly and severally bind ourselves and our respective heirs firmly by these presents. Sealed with our seals. Dated at Bladensburg, this tenth day of June, 1882. (The condition attached is the same as in the succeeding forms.) Executed and delivered J in presence of > Walter Wren. ) John Smith. William Meeser. A. J. Driscoll. Bond Secured by Mortgage. Know all men by these presents ; That I, Arthur Dean, of Towanda, IN Bradford county, and State of Pennsylvania, am held and firmly bound unto Samuel Crafts, of Wyoming, in the same county and State, in the sum of two thousand dollars, to be paid to the said Samuel Crafts, his / _vJ ^2 IV 464 "7 BONDS. heirs, executors, administrators or assigns, and to thus payment I hereby bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, firmly by these pres- ents. Sealed with my seal, this iath day of November, A.D. 1883. The condition of the above obligation is: That if I, the said Arthur Dean, or my heirs, executors or adminis- trators, shall pay or cause to be paid unto the said Samuel Crafts the sum of one thousand dollars on the day of , with interest at the rate of per cent per annum, payable six months from the date hereof, and every months afterwards, until the said sum is paid, then the above obligation shall be void and of no effect; and otherwise it shall remain in full force. And I further agree and covenant, that if any payment of interest be withheld or delayed for ■ — days after such payment shall fall due, the said principal sum and all arrearage of interest thereon shall be and become due immediately on the expiration of — — days, at the option of said Samuel Crafts, his executors, administrators or assigns. Executed and delivered in presence of John Simmons :i Arthur Dean. [i..s.] General Form of Bond. Know all men by these presents : That I, John Grubb, of the town of Mound City, in the county of Pulaski, and State of Illinois, am held and firmly bound unto J. A. Williams, of Cairo, in the sum of one thousand dollars, to be paid to the said J. A. Williams, his executors or assigns; for which payment, well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, ex- ecutors and administrators, firmly by these presents. Sealed with my seal. Dated the 28th day of July, 1883. The condition of the above obligation is such: That if the above-bounden John Grubb, his heirs, executors or admin- istrators, shall well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, unto the above- named J. A. Williams, his executors, administrators or assigns, the just and full sum of one thousand dollars, in five equal annual payments, from the date hereof, with annual interest, then the above obligation to be void ; otherwise to remain in full force and virtue. Sealed and delivered in presence of Jno. G. Stewart, W. F. George. John Grubb. [l.s.] A Bond to Execute a Deed. Know alt men by these presents: That I, John T. Nixon, of the city of St. Ixniis, in the State of Missouri, am held and firmly bound unto George Kline, of the same place, in the sum of nine hundred dollars, to be paid to the said George Kline, his executors, administrators or assigns; for which payment, welt and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, firmly by these presents. Sealed with my seal. Dated the 30th day of July, 1883. The condition of the above obligation is such : That if the ibove-boundcn John T. Nixon shall well and truly make, execute and deliver to the said George Kline a deed of release and quit-claim of said John T. Nixon's interest in ( designating the property ) and shall suffer and permit the said George Kline, his heirs and as- signs, to peaceably occupy and possess said interest, then this obligation is to be void ; otherwise to remain in full force. Sealed and delivered \ John T. Nixon, [u*.] in presence of Jos. Peterson. J A Bond to Execute an Assignment. Know alt men by these /resents : That I, Chas. Curtman, of the town of Washington, in the county of Franklin, State of Missouri, am held and firmly bound unto William T. Smith, of the town of Pacific, in the sum of two thousand dollars, to be paid to the said William T. Smith, his executors, administrators or assigns; for which payment, well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administra- tors, firmly by these presents. Sealed with my seal. Dated the 14th day of August, 1883. The condition of the above obligation is such : That if the above-bounden Chas. Curtman, his executors, adminis- trators or assigns, pn 'or before the day of next, shall, upon the reasonable request, and at the proper cost and charges of the said Will- iam T. Smith, his heirs or assigns, make, execute and deliver, or cause so to be, to the said William T. Smith, his heirs or assigns, or to such person or persons as he or they shall nominate and appoint, and to such uses as he or they shall direct, a good and sufficient assignment of all such estate and interest as he, the said Chas. Curtman, now has in the lands and tene- ments of John Thompson at Washington, Mo., then this obligation to be void ; otherwise to remain in full force. Sealed and delivered ) Chas. Curtman. [us.] in presence of > Sou Winston. \ v r •- -r CORPORATIONS. 465 Co ppo patio 115. •> )*- jSJfl EVERAL persons joining together for the accomplishment of any business or social purpose can, if they wish, legally organize themselves into a cor- poration, a form of partnership which com- bines the resources of all, and yet gives a limited pecuniary liability, amounting only to the amount of stock owned by each stock- holder. In the States, the legislature of each Commonwealth enjoys the power of regulating the corporations, and in the Territories this power is, of course, vested in the General Government. The actual cost of organization amounts to something less than $10, most of which is in fees to the Secretary of State. When the stock has been subscribed a meeting is called, where each shareholder casts a vote for every share which he owns or holds a proxy for, for each person who is to be elected director, or he may give one director as many votes as the number of shares he is voting, multiplied by the number of directors to be elected, amounts to, or distribute his votes as he chooses. Thus, if he owns ten shares of stock and there are six directors to be elected, he has sixty votes, which he can give, either ten for each director, or twenty for each of three, or sixty for one, or in any other way that he sees fit, so that his whole vote will not be more than sixty votes. These directors meet as soon after the election as possible and choose a president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer, whereupon the corporation is ready for business. FORMS FOR INCORPORATING. The law in all the States on the subject of incorporating companies is very similar, and the following forms of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company will furnish a good example of how this important public act is accomplished: STATE OF WISCONSIN, City of Milwaukee. To- , Secretary of State : Wc, the undersigned, John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James Bell, John O'Nei!, propose to form a corporation under an act of the Gen- eral Assembly of the State of Wisconsin, entitled " An act concerning cor- porations," approved May 24th, 1880, and all acts amendatory thereof, and that, for the purpose of such organization, we hereby state as follows, to- wit: The name of such corporation is Milwaukee Water Gas Company. The object for which it is formed is to carry on the business of manu- facturing water gas, or hydrogen, and to sell the product so manufactured. The capital stock shall be five hundred thousand ($500,000) dollars, divided into five thousand shares of one hundred dollars each. John Smith. John Jones. Charles Ford. James Hell. John O'Neil. ( Endorsed on the back by the notary.) STATE OF WISCONSIN, I City of Milwaukee. ( I, a notary public, in and for the said city of Milwaukee, and State aforesaid, do hereby certify that on this 30th of November, A.D. 1880, personally appeared before me John Smith. John Jones, Charles Ford, James Hell, John O'Neil, to me personally known to be the same persons who executed the foregoing statement, and severally acknowledged that they executed the same for the purposes therein set forth. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, the day and year above written. , Notary Public. Also, there must be a further endorsement describing the nature of the corporation thus : Statement of incorporation of the Milwaukee Water Gas Co. Location, City of Milwaukee, State of Wisconsin. Capital stock, $500,000. Object, manufacture of water gas. V a! 31 Kr 466 . CORPORATION State License for Incorporating. STATE OF WISCONSIN, J c „. ^^ • , «-*, Department ok State. \ Secretary 0/ State. To all to whom these presents shall come— Greeting ; Wmkrbas, It being proposed by the persons hereinafter named to form a corporation under an act of the General Assembly of the State of Wisconsin, entitled "An act concerning corporations," approved M;iy 24th, 1880, the object and purposes of which corporation arc set forth in a statement duly signed and acknowledged according to law, and filed this day in the office of the Secretary of State. Now, therefore, I, , Secretary of State of the State of Wisconsin, by virtue of the powers and duties vested in me by law, do hereby author- ize, empower and license John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James Hell and John O'Neil, the persons whose names are signed to the before mentioned statement, as commissioners to open books for subscrip- tion to the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Co., such being the name of the proposed corporation as contained in the said statement, at such times and places as the said commissioners may determine. In testimony whereof, I hereto set my hand and cause to be affixed the great seal of State. , —**— . . Done at the city of Madison, this 6th day J great ( of December, in the year of our Lord one "j seal. C thousand eight hundred and eighty-one, and * — »-v-»- ' of the independence of the United States the one hundred and sixth. Secretary 0/ State. To , Secretary of State: The commissioners duly authorized to open books of subscription to the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, pursuant to license heretofore issued, bearing date of the sixth day of December, A. D. 1881, do hereby report that they opened books of subscription to the capital stock of the said company, and that the said stock was fully sub- scribed ; that the following is a true copy of such subscription, viz. : We, the undersigned, hereby severally subscribe for the number of shares set opposite our respective names to the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, and we severally agree to pay the said company on each share the sum of one hundred dollars. SHARES AMOUNT. John Smith i.ooo $100,000 John Jones 1,000 100,000 Chas. Ford 1,000 100,000 James Hell 1,000 100,000 John O'Neill 1,000 100,000 5,000 $500,000 That said subscriber* met at the time and place specified and pro- ceeded to elect directors, and that the following persons were duly elected for the term of one year : Joho Smith, John Jones, Chas. Ford, James Hell, John O'Neil. (Signed) John Smith. John Jokes. Chas. Foko. James Bell. John O'Neil. When this document, properly endorsed, is sent to the Secretary of State, he at once issues a charter to the corporation, which reads as follows : E OF WISCONSIN, ( S *cr,tarv of State Dept. op State. j Secret * r y •/ s **"- To all to whom these presents shall come — Greeting: Whp.rkas, A statement duly signed and acknowledged nas been filed in the office of the Secretary of State on the 30th day of November, 1881, for the organization of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, under and in accordance with the provisions of "An act concerning corporation*." approved May 24, 1880, and in force July 1, 1880, and all acts amenda- tory thereof, a copy of which statement is hereto attached ; and Whereas, A license having been issued to John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James Hell, John O'Neil, as commissioners, to open books for subscription to the capital stock of said company ; and Whereas, The said commissioners having, on the 20th day of Decem- ber, A.D. 1881, filed in the office of the Secretary of State a report of their proceedings under the said license, a copy of which report is hereto attached ; Now, therefore, I, , Secretary of State of the State of Wiscon- sin, by virtue of the powers and duties vested in me by law, do hereby certify that the said Milwaukee Water Gas Company is a legally organ- ized corporation under the laws of this State. In testimony whereof, I hereby set my hand and cause to be affixed the great seal of State. Done at the city of Madison this loth day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty- two, and of the Independence of the United States the one hundred and seventh. Secretary 0/ State, £ V of dion^e^ance^. DEED is a writing by which lands, tene- ments or hereditaments are conveyed, i sealed and delivered. It must be written or printed on parchment or paper ; the parties must be competent to contract ; there must be a proper object to grant; a sufficient consideration ; an agreement properly declared ; if desired, it must have been read to the party executing it ; it must be signed and sealed ; attested by witnesses, in the absence of any stat- ute regulation to the contrary ; properly acknowl- edged before a competent officer, and recorded within the time and in the office prescribed by the State wherein executed. The maker of a deed is the grantor ; the party to whom it is delivered, the grantee. If the grantor have a wife, she must, in the absence of a statute to the contrary, sign and acknowledge the deed ; otherwise, after the husband's death, she may claim the use of one-third, during her life. By a general-warranty deed the grantor cove- nants to insure the lands against all persons whatsoever ; by a special-warranty deed, he war- rants only against himself and those claiming under him. In deeds made by executors, admin- istrators or guardians, there is generally no war- ranty. A quit-claim deed releases all the interest which the grantor has in the land, whatever it may be. A deed of trust is given to a person called a trustee, to hold in fee simple, or otherwise, for the use of some other person who is entitled to the proceeds, profits or use. A deed may be avoided, by alterations made in it after its execution ; by the disagreement of the parties whose concurrence is necessary; or by the judgment of a competent tribunal. Interlineations or erasures in a deed, made before signing, should be mentioned in a note, and witnessed in proper form. After the acknowl- edgment of a deed, the parties have no right to make the slightest alteration. An alteration of a deed after execution, if made in favor of the grantee, vitiates the deed. If altered before deliv- ery, such alteration destroys the deed as to the party altering it. The statutory provisions of the several States and Territories relating to deeds will be found under the head of "Special Laws." Chancellor Kent's Deed. This form is given by Chancellor Kent as sufficient to convey an abso- . lute fee in any part of the United States. I, F. H. Hill, in consideration of three thousand dollars, to me paid by John F. Waite, do bargain and sell to John F. Waite (and his heirs) the lot of land (bounded or described), etc. Witness my hand and seal, etc. Short Deed in California. I, W. B. Baird, grant to D. D. Parsons all that real property situated in Et Dorado county, in the State of California, bounded (or described) as follows : Witness my hand this day of . W. B. Baird. tffS= -M ABSTRACT OF TIT IK Short Form in Indiana. Enos Baldwin conveys and warrants to William Green t description of the premises J for the sum of four thousand dollars. Witness iny hand and seal this day of . Enos Baldwin. [i..s.] Short Form Used in Virginia and Texas. M. F. Crenshaw doth bargain, sell and grant unto W. H. Cavanagh all (here follows the description of the real estate conveyed). Witness the following signature and seal. M. F. Crenshaw, [l.s.] Short Form Warranty Deed with Full Covenants. This conveyance, made this 10th day of May, by C. S. Smith, of Bcloit, Wis., to Wm. Evans, of Lansing, Mich., witnesseth : That in consideration of (state -what), the said Smith doth with the said Evans bargain, sell and grant, all, etc. (here describe the property, and add whatever covenants, conditions, restrictions, limitations, etc., agreed upon). And the said Smith covenants, That he has the right to convey said land to the grantee; that the same is free from all encumbrances; that the grantee shall have quiet possession of said land; that he will execute such further assurances of said lands as shall be requisite; and that he will warrant generally {or specially) the property hereby conveyed. Witness the following signature and seal, etc. General Form of Warranty Deed. Knoiv all men by these presents: That I, J. A. Yarbro, of Tipton county, in the State of Tennessee, have this 15th day of October, for and in consideration of the sum of three thousand dollars, to me in hand paid, granted, bargained and sold, and by these presents do grant, bargain, sell and convey unto J. B. Coals, of the same place, the following described tract or parcel of land, situate in the county of Shelby, in the State of Tennessee, that is to say (here follows the description). To have and to hold the premises hereby conveyed, with all the rights, privileges and appurtenances thereto belonging, or in anywise appertain- ing, unto the said Coals, his heirs and assigns, forever. And I, the said Yarbro, hereby covenant to and with the said Coal*, his heirs and assigns, for myself, my heirs, executors and administrator*, to warrant and defend the title to the premises hereby conveyed against the claim of every person whomsoever. • • /* Witness Whereof, I have hereunto subscribed my name and affixed my seal, this day of . J. A. Yakbxo. [i, s.J Quit-Claim Deed. Know all men by these presents: That we, W. H. Cooley, of Council Bluffs, la,, and Mary E . wife of the said Cooley, in consideration of the sum of , to us in hand paid by Charles Chapman, of Hastings, Neb., the receipt whereof we do hereby acknowledge, have bargained, sold and quit-claimed, and by these presents do bargain, sell and quit- claim unto the said Chapman, and to his heirs and assigns forever, all our and each of our right, title, interest, estate, claim and demand, both at law and in equity, and as well in possession as in expectancy of, in and to all that certain piece or parcel of land situate, etc. (give description), with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging. In wttness whereof we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the day and year first above written. Signed, scaled and delivered, etc. W. H. Coolbv. [us.] Mary E. Cooley. [l.*.] Short Form of Trust Deed. This conveyance, made this day of , witnesseth: That Thomas Pritchard, of Mills county, in the State of Iowa, conveys (and warrants) to S. W. Coleman, of Decatur county, in the State of Iowa, for the Mini >f dollars, all the following described real estate, situated in the county of Fremont and State of Iowa, to wit: ikerejW- lows the description). In trust, nevertheless, for the following purposes, to-wit: {here set forth the objects and purposes to be effected). In witness whereof, said parties ha%c hereunto set their hands, the day and year first above written. (Signed/ Thomas Pritcharix N. W. Coleman. •S^lif* •:• ^l^paet-of-^itle. * >•_•+ k .BSTRACTS OF TITLE are brief ac- counts of all the deeds upon which titles rest, and judgments and instru- ments affecting such titles — synopses of the distinctive portions of the various in- struments which constitute the muniments of title. The evidences of title are usually convey- ances, wills, orders or decrees of courts, judg- ments, judicial sales, sales by officers appointed by law, acts of the Legislature and of Cong: Conveyances. The abstract of convey- ances should show : 1. Date. 2. Character (whether an absolute or condi- tional conveyance; as, in fee, mortgage, or a /ease). 3. Names and residence of parties, and of executors, administrators, guardians, trustees, corporations, officers, or the like. ABSTRACT OF TITLE. 469 4. All recitals which materially affect the title. 5. The testatum clause. This part of the conveyance embraces : I. Name of grantor. 2. Name of grantee and words of limitation ; as to " C. D., his heirs and assigns," or, to " C. D. and his as- signs," or, to " C D. and E. F., and the heirs of C. D. " 3. The consideration. 4. The description of the premises or parcels. This is generally done by giving the premises at large in the abstract of the first conveyance, and in subsequent conveyances to note each variation. 5- The habendum — carefully and accurately stated. 6. The declaration of uses, trusts, limitations, or special agreements, if any. 7. Powers. If a settlement is made in pursuance of articles, or an appointment by virtue of a power, an inspection should be made of the articles of power. A deed executed by attor- ney should be produced with evidence that the power of attorney was recorded, and that the principal was alive when the deed was exe- cuted. 8. Covenants which may affect the vendee, and especially exceptions against en- cumbrances. 9. By what parties the deed is executed, the fact of signing, sealing, attesta- tion and acknowledgment and recording, as required by statute. If any of the deeds in the chain of title are quit-claim, the reason therefor should be as- certained. Wills. In abstracting wills it is necessary to consider : 1. The date of the testator's death. 2. The court in which the probate is made. The date of letters testamentary, and any change in the executors or administrators, by death, removal, or otherwise. 3. Any charge imposed by the payment of debts, legacies, etc. 4. The persons to whom the lands are de- vised. 5. Words of limitation, modification, condi- tions, charges on the devisee, etc. 6. Facts which operate a partial revocation of the will ; as the birth of a child, or the sub- sequent alteration of the estate inconsistent with the terms of the will. Codicils should be given in the order of their dates. Orders or Decrees. Orders or decrees material to the title should be abstracted. Judgments. A party claiming title to real estate under an execution must show : 1. A valid judgment. 2. A levy and sale as required by law. 3. A deed. The sheriff's deed must, in gen- eral, recite the substance of the execution, the names of the parties, the action, the amount, and the date of the rendition of the judgment by virtue of which the estate was sold, and be executed and acknowledged as required by law. Judicial sales made by officers, executors, administrators, guardians of miners, lunatics, etc. — 1. Must be examined for the appointment and authority of the person making the sale, and whether his authority continued in force till the sale. 2. The service of summons, notice, or other process, upon all defendants, or persons inter- ested. 3. The appointment of guardians ad litem for minors when necessary. 4. The order of sale and its confirmation. 5. The deed. Other sales include those by assignees or commissioners of insolvents, or assignees of bankrupts and tax sales. In the latter case, the proper records should be examined with the utmost care, in order to detect any omis- sion or defect in compliance with all the requi- sitions of the statute ; in the former case, the leading points are the authority of the assignee, etc., the order of sale and its confirmation, and the deed ^IC 47° GUARANTY. -7fl Acts of the Legislature may be consid- ered in the same manner as private convey- ances. The abstract should show : 1 . The date of the act. 2. The title of the act. 3. The recitals of the act. 4. The enacting clause in its own terms. 5. A strict compliance with the terms of the act. Titles by Descent. In the absence of deeds pedigree should be ascertained, authen- ticated and incorporated. Encumbrances. Encumbrances may be as follows : 1. Judgments in the county where the land lies. 2. Judgments in the United States courts. 3. Executions from other counties. 4. Mortgages. 5. Liens of the creditors of deceased per- sons. 6. Dower. 7. Decrees in chancery. 8. Action pending. 9. Taxes. 10. Mechanics' liens. 11. Lien of executor, administrator, guar- dian, or agent, who pays taxes upon the estate. 12. Leases. 13. Equity of a vendee in possession. 14. Lien of a vendor for purchase-money. 15. Caveats in case of a contested will. 16. Rents assigned in lieu of dower. 17. The levy of a distress warrant upon the property of certain debtors of the United States. «$*&=> ,£ ,@2 Guaranty. • ^ w; ' •* GUARANTY is an assurance made by a second party that his principal will perform some specific act. For in- i *f^- stance, "A" gives "B" a note, and "C" by endorsing the instrument guarantees to " B " that " A " will pay it at maturity. " C " is the guarantor. His liability is special, and if " B " renews the note when it becomes due, then he is no longer liable. A guaranty for collection is a very different thing from a guar- anty of payment. The first warrants that the money is collectible; the latter, that it will be paid at maturity. In the first case the party guaranteed must be able to prove that due diligence was employed in attempting to col- lect the money; in the second, no such proof is necessary. The only form necessary in guaranteeing a note is writing one's name across it, a process commonly called the back of endorsing. Guaranty of a Note. For value received, I guarantee the due payment of a promissory note, dated October 8, 1883, whereby John Paxaon promise* to pay George Andrew! eighty dollars in three months. St. Louis, October 10, 1883. Piths Fassc General Guaranty. I hereby guarantee payment to any person who shall accept and retain this instrument as a guaranty, for all goods which he may from time to time supply to Eugene Parsons, not exceeding at any time the sum of live hundred dollars, this to be a continuing guaranty till specially revoked. Notice to be given me within ten days after its acceptance. St. I-ouis, September 8, 1883. Duiv Cohcu. Extension of Time. In consideration that George Andrews gives to John Paxson ad- ditional time to the extent of one month for payment of the indebtedness due him from said John Paxson guaranteed by me, 1 hereby continue my guaranty for due payment thereof. January 8, 1884. Prrnt Faux. Guaranty of Fidelity. In consideration of the performance of the agreements and convenants specified in the within agreement by M. M.. with my son, A. A., I do hereby bind myself to said M. M. for the true and faithful observation and )>cr- form.ux e of all the matters and things by said A. A. agreed and cov- enanted therein, and that he shall well and truly serve said M. M. Witness my hand this day of , A.D . 1' \ 4 LANDLORD AND TENANT. L& 7 471 I [landlord •> and •:• tenant. < -# ## #- ^* * »&- -^z- ■^ -# ## #- -^m^- LEASE is a contract for the possession and enjoyment of real estate on one g hand, and for the payment of rent or other income on the other. A land- lord is one who holds lands and houses which he lets out to others. A tenant is one who has temporary use of real estate belonging to another, the duration and terms of his occu- pancy being defined in the lease. In this instrument no particular form of words is necessary ; but it is important that all the conditions be plainly set forth, so that no misunderstanding can ensue. Verbal promises amount to nothing ; the law only considers what the lease states, so that the importance of clearness and comprehen- siveness in this document is apparent. Unless expressly prohibited by the lease, the lessor can sublet any part of the property acquired by the lease, or the whole of it. A married woman cannot lease her prop- erty, under the common law ; but under the statute, in many of the States, this prohibi- tion is removed, as will be found by consult- ing the section devoted to the rights of married women. A husband cannot make a lease which will bind his wife's property after his death ; even the common law terminates his control with his life. A guardian cannot give a lease extending beyond the ward's majority which the ward cannot annul, if he wishes. But if the ward does not annul the lease, the lessee is bound by it. When no time is specified in a lease, it is understood to run for one year. A tenancy at will is terminable by notice given from one month to six months, in advance, according to the peculiar statute of the State in which the property exists. In the Eastern States a written notice of three months is the general custom; in the Middle and Southern States, six months, and in the Western States, one month. The phrase " a term of years " is construed to mean at least two years when the figure is not given. Leases on mortgaged property, whereon the mortgage was given prior to the lease, termi- nate when the mortgage is foreclosed. Where a tenant assigns his lease, even with the landlord's consent, he will remain liable for the rent unless his lease is surrendered or can- celled. There are a great many special features of the law of landlord and tenant in relation to agricultural tenancy, which the reader will do well to read carefully. Generally an outgoing tenant cannot sell or take away the manure. A tenant whose estate has terminated by an uncertain event which he could neither foresee nor control is entitled to the annual crop which he sowed 472 LANDLORD AM) TENANT. while li is estate continued, by the law of em- blements. He may also, in certain cases, take the emblements or annual profits of the land after his tenancy has ended, and, unless restricted by some stipulation to the contrary, may remove such fixtures as he has erected during his occupation for convenience, profit or comfort. For, in general, what a tenant has added he may remove, if he- can do so with- out injury to the premises, unless he has actually built it in so as to make it an integral part of what was there originally. The immovable fixtures are the following : Agricultural erections. Fold-yard walls, cart house, barns fixed in the ground, beast house, carpenter shop, fuel house, pigeon house, pineries substantially fixed, wagon house, box borders not belonging to a gardener by trade, flowers, trees, hedges. Ale-house bar, dressers, partitions. Locks and keys. Benches affixed to the house. Statue erected as an ornament to grounds, sun-dial. Chim- ney piece not ornamental. Closets affixed to the house. Conduits. Conservatory, sub- stantially affixed. Doors. Fruit trees, if a tenant be not a nurseryman by trade. Glass windows. Hearths. Millstones. Looms sub- stantially affixed to the floor of a factory. Thrashing-machines fixed by bolts and screws to posts let into the ground. Short Form of Lease. John Parks leases to George Drake (description of premises), for a term of , upon the payment of . Dated the ist day of May, 1883. John Parks. Common Form of Lease. This Instrument, Made the ist day of May, 1883, Witnessetk, That Dominic Ilolden, of the city of St. Louis, State of Missouri, hath rented from William Hicks, of St. Louis, aforesaid, the dwelling and lot 8a Chouteau Avenue, situated in said town of St. Louis, for five years 1 1 the above date, at the yearly rental three hundred) dollars, payable monthly, on the first day of each month, in advance, at the residence of the* said William Hicks. At the expiration of said above mentioned term, the said Holden agrees to jjivc the laid Hicks peaceable possession of said dwelling, in as good condition as when taken, ordinary wear and casualties excepted. In witness whereof, we place our hands and seals the day and year aforesaid. Signed, sealed and delivered j Dominic Holdkn. [i.s.] in presence of John Doghrrty, I Notary Public. I William Hicks. [l.».] K. Lease of Farm and Buildings. This Indsntukk, Made this ninth day of June, one thousand eight hundred and eighty-two, between Raymond Johnston, of the township of I.ake, county of Ripley, and State of Missouri, of the first part, and Anson Lee, of the said township and county, of the second part, tt'ttnesseth. That the said Raymond Johnston, for and in consider- ation of the yearly rents and covenants hereinafter mentioned, and re- served on the part and behalf of the said Raymond Johnston, his heirs, executors and administrators, to be paid, kept and performed, hath demised, set and to farm let, and by these presents doth demise, set and to farm let, unto the said Anson Lee, his heirs and assigns, all that certain piece, parcel or tract of land situate, lying and being in the township of Lake aforesaid, known as lot No. (description of farm AereJ, now in the possession of Joel Hancoe. containing one thousand acres, together with all and singular the buildings and improvements, to have and to hold the same unto the said Anson Lee, his heirs, executors and assigns, from the first day of July next, for and during the term of seven years thence, next ensuing, and fully to be complete and ended, yielding and paying for the same, unto the said Raymond Johnston, his heirs and assigns, the yearly rent, or sum of two thousand dollars, on the first day of July in each and every year, during the term aforesaid, and at the expiration of said term, or sooner if determined upon, he, the said Anson Lee, his heirs or assigns, shall and will quietly and peaceably surrender and yield up the said demised premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said Raymond Johnston, his heirs and assigns, in as good order and repair as the same now arc, reasonable wear, tear and casualties, which may happen by fire, or otherwise, only excepted. /« witness whereof, we have hereto set our hands and seals. Signed, sealed and delivered \ Raymond Johnson, (uj.] in the presence of I Ansok La*, r^j Joseph Jaklk*. Lease of a Mill. This Agreement, Made this first day of January, between George Rain, of St. Louis, Mo., in St. Louis county, and State of Missouri, of the first part, and James Meek, of Marissa, in St. Clair County, and State of Illinois, of the second part, witnesseth : That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the rents, covenants and agreements hereinafter mentioned, reserved and contained, on the part and behalf of the party of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns, to be paid, kept and performed, doth lease the mill property of the party of the first part, being one of the mills ki.own and designated as the Atlantic Mills, in the city of St. Louis, together with all the machinery now in the same belonging to the said party of the first part, and all stoves, boilers, fixtures, heaters and machinery, and every article now in the said mill which appertains to the same, and is necessary to its successful operation; and also all the dwellings and store- houses used in connection with said mill, which now belong to said party of the first part And the said party of the first part further agrees to pay all taxes and insurances on said premises, and to furnish water-power, water-wheels, main-shafting and gearing sufficient at all times to keep in constant and full operation said mill, and all the running works of the same, and all machinery driven by water-power now in said mill. And the said party of the first part further agrees to secure to the said party of the second part iha qni l and peaceable possession of all and every part of said premise. nl.< luncry and tools, and all grounds apper- taining to said mill, and all passage-ways to and from the same which are m»w used and may be necessary for the accommodation of the same, for five years from the first day of April next. It is mutually understood and agreed between the parties hereto, that in case said mill should he necessarily stopped from casualty, or in case there shall be a want of or failure of water-power, the rent above men- tioned to be paid shall cease, and not be chargeable during the continu- ation of such stoppage, want or failure. /* witness whereof etc. Landlord's Agreement. Tab is 10 certify that I have this first day of May, 1883, let and rented •minlc Holden my house and lot known as number Sj Chouteau 4fc -a S> ~A RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN. 473 Avenue, in the city of St. Louis, Missouri, with the appurtenances and sole and uninterrupted use thereof for five years, to commence on the first day of June next, at the yearly rental of three hundred dollars, payable monthly in advance on the first day of each and every month., William Hicks. Tenant's Agreement. This certifies that I have hired and taken from William Hicks his house and lot, number 82 Chouteau Avenue, in the city of St. Louis, Mis- souri, with appurtenances thereto belonging, for five years, to commence on the first day of June, 1883, at a yearly rental of three hundred dollars, to be paid monthly in advance. Dominic Holden. Notice to Quit. To Charles Egan : Sir : Please observe that the term of one year for which the house and land at No. 380 Walnut Street, and now occupied by you, were rented to you, expired on the first day of June, 1883, and as I desire to repossess satd premises, you are hereby requested and required to vacate the same. Respectfully yours, St. Louis, June 8, 1883. Amos Norton. Tenant's Notice of Leaving. Afr. Amos Norton : Take notice that I shall, on the first day of May next, deliver up to you the premises I now occupy as your tenant, known as No. 380 Walnut Street, in the city of St. Louis. Charles Egan. St. Louis, April 1, 1883. 4-^B^ g7-» . .\ Ri^ • of • CDa ppied •Women. {^ sSrr !HE common law of the United States has some curious provisions regard- ing the rights of married women, ^P* though in all the States there are statu- tory provisions essentially modifying this law. As it now stands the husband is responsible for necessaries supplied to the wife even should he not fail to supply them himself, and is held liable if he turn her from his house, or other- wise separates himself from her without good cause. He is not held liable if the wife deserts him, or if he turns her away for good cause. If she leaves him through good cause, then he is liable. If a man lives with a woman as his wife, and so represents her, even though this representation is made to one who knows she is not, he is liable the same way as if she were his wife. In many of the States ante - marriage con- tracts are recognized, and they will secure to married women even greater privileges than are intended to be secured by statute, or greater powers and rights may be secured by transferring the property owned by them to trustees. Such instrument should clearly set forth what the trust is, and should be care- fully drawn. When estates are to be settled where the widow is entitled to a dower interest, some definite calculation is necessary to learn how long she will probably live and the present value of her interest in the estate. For this purpose the following table is generally used. When the sum is ascertained the estate can be promptly settled. Expectation of Life. > V. Expecta- > tion in « Kxurc ra- > n a Expecta- > Expecta- > Expecta- tion in tion in tion in n tion in years. years. years. 00 years. years. 28.15 2 ° 34.22 4" 26.04 15-45 80 5-85 I 36.78 21 33-84 4" 25.61 01 14.86 Si 5- 50 a 38.74 22 33-46 42 25.19 6a 14.26 82 5-i6 3 40.01 23 33.08 43 24-77 63 13.66 »3 487 4 40-73 24 32.70 44 =4-35 "4 13.05 84 4-66 5 40.88 25 32.33 45 23.92 65 12.43 8; 4-57 7 11.48 87 3-9° a 40.14 28 31.08 48 22.27 68 ll.OI 88 3-67 9 39.72 29 30.66 49 21.72 69 10.50 80 3-56 10 39- *3 3° 30.25 SO 21.17 7" 10.06 00 3-43 j i 38.64 31 29.83 51 20.61 71 9.60 9" 3-32 12 38.02 32 39-43 5" 20.05 72 9- '4 9-' 3-W «3 37-41 33 29.02 53 19-49 Ti 8.69 9) 2.40 14 36.79 34 28.62 54 18.92 74 8.25 94 1.98 «s 36.>7 35 28.22 55 »8-35 75 7-83 9; 1.62 16 35-76 36 27.78 5b 17.78 76 7.40 '7 35-37 37 27-34 57 17.20 77 6.99 18 3498 38 26.91 .0 16.63 7S 6-59 ■? 34-59 39 26.47 59 16.04 79 6.21 k= a *r [ *F? ^ 9 7f 474 REAL ESTATE MORTGAGES. Real •:• E^tatevCQopt^a^. *&&&> CONVEYANCE of property, either real or personal, made in order to secure payment of a debt, is called a mortgage. When the debt is paid the mortgage becomes void and of no value. The word, like many others of our legal terms, comes from the French. "Mort,"dead, and " gage," pledge; a " dead-pledge," so called because the property is dead to the mortgageor unless he fulfils the condi- tions necessary to re- deem it. In real estate mortgages the person giving the mortgage retains possession of the property, receives all the rents and other profits, and pays all taxes and other ex- penses. The instru- ment must be acknowl- edged, like a deed, before a proper public officer, and recorded in the office of the county clerk or recorder, or whatever officer's duty it is to record such instruments. All mortgages must be in writ- ing. They must contain a redemption clause HOW THI MoFTIiAr.K GftNKRAI.l.Y TlHMINATBS. and must be signed and sealed. The time when the debt becomes due, to secure which the mortgage is given, must be plainly set forth, and the property conveyed must be clearly described, located and scheduled. Some mortgages contain a clause permit- ting the sale of the property without de- cree of court when a default is made in the payment cither of the principal sum or the interest. A foreclosure is a statement that the property is forfeited and must be sold. When a mortgage is assigned to another person, it must be for a valuable considera- tion ; and the note or notes which it was given to secure must be given at the sane time. If the mo rtg a g ed property, when fore closed and brought to sale, brings more money than is needed to satisfy the debt, interest and costs, the surplus must be paid to the mort- gageor. V REAL ESTATE MORTGAGES. 475 Satisfaction of mortgages upon real or per- sonal property may be either — 1. By an entry upon the margin of the rec- ord thereof, signed by the mortgagee or his attorney, assignee or personal representative, acknowledging the satisfaction of the mort- gage, in the presence of the recording officer ; or — 2. By a receipt endorsed upon the mortgage, signed by the mortgagee, his agent or attorney, which receipt may be entered upon the margin of the record ; or — 3. It may be discharged upon the record thereof whenever there is presented to the prop- er officer an instrument acknowledging the sat- isfaction of such mortgage, executed by the mortgagee, his duly authorized attorney in fact, assignee or personal representative, and acknowledged in the same manner as other instruments affecting real estate. Mortgages of personal property will be found set forth at length under the head of Chattel Mortgages. Promissory Note Secured by Mortgage. $1,000. Lansing, Mich., Dec. 1st, 1883. One year after date I promise to pay to S. H. Moore one thousand dollars at the First National Bank of Lansing, Mich., with interest at the rate of ten percent per annum, for value received. This note is secured by a mortgage of even date herewith, on a cer- tain tractor parcel of land situate (describe the premises), (Signed) R. S Marsh. Mortgage to Secure Payment of Money, with Power to Sell on Default. This Indenture, Made this 20th day of Jan' y, A.D. 1884, between John Stanton, of Norwich, Conn., of the first part, and Lyman Randall, of the same place, of the second part, witnesseth : That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration ot the sum of six thousand dollars, does grant, bargain, sell and convey unto the said party of the second part, and to his heirs and assigns, all (give a complete description of the premises mortgaged), together with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging, or in anywise appertaining. This conveyance is intended as a mortgage, to secure the payment of the sum of dollars, in from the day of the date of these pres- ents, with interest, according to the conditions of a certain bond, dated this day, executed by the said John Stanton to the said party of the second part; and these presents shall be void if such payment be made. But in case default shall be made in the payment of the principal or interest, as above provided, then the party of the second part, his execu- tors, administrators and assigns, are hereby empowered to sell the premises above described, with alt and every of the appurtenances, or any part thereof, in the manner prescribed by law ; and out of the money arising from such sale, to retain the said principal and interest, together with the costs and charges of making such sale ; and the overplus, if any there be, shall be paid by the party making such sale, on demand, to the party of the first part, his heirs or assigns, etc. In witness whereof, said party of the first part has hereunto set his hand and seal the day and year first above written. Executed and delivered 1 John Stanton. [l.s.] in presence of \ U. S. Gardner. ) Assignment of Mortgage. Know all men by these presents ; That I, C. V>., of , in county, State of — ■■ , the mortgagee named in a certain mortgage given by A. B., of——, in — — county, State of , to said C. D., to secure the payment of dollars and interest, dated the day of , recorded in volume , on page , of the registry of deeds for the county of , in consideration of the sum of dollars, to me paid by E. F., of — -, in county, State of , the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, do hereby sell, assign, transfer, set over and convey unto said E. !■'., his heirs and assigns, said mortgage and the real estate there- by conveyed, together with the promissory note, debt and claim thereby secured, and the covenants therein contained. To have and to hold the same to him, the said E. F., and his heirs and assigns, to his and their use and behoof, forever: subject, nevertheless, to the conditions therein contained (and to redemption according to law). In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand (and seal), this — day of . Executed and delivered 1 [Signature.] [Seal.] in presence of : Release or Discharge of Mortgage. This debt, secured by the mortgage dated the twenty-fifth day of Jan- uary, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty- three, and recorded with mortgage deeds volume two, page two hundred and six, has been paid to me by Martin Klotc, and in consideration thereof I do discharge the mo-tgage, and release the mortgaged premises to said Martin Klotz and his heirs. Witness my hand and seal, December 5th, 1883. Benjamin Eaton. [l.s.] Executed and delivered ) in presence of > George Smith. ) CITY OF ST. LOUIS, I State of Missouri, j * December 5th, A.D. 1883. The said Benjamin Eaton acknowledged the foregoing instrument to be his free act and will, Bo/ore me, Gordon Smith, Clerk of Circuit Court, Shortest Form of Mortgage. I, Joseph Smith, in consideration of five hundred dollars, to me paid by Finley Burke, do mortgage unto Finley Burke, and his heirs, the follow- ing tract of land (describe it). To secure the payment of (state what amounts, places, times, etc.) Joseph Smith. [l.s] 476 CHATTEL MOK I =7? IjJ t.J LJLJUkJLJ LJ LJLJ1LJLJU k^,k^,t^ k^T) •:• Chattel - CQoptfa^. •> OpBH BHIBH BBIBHIBBIBIS BHIB1S BSIGBI Ea|E(S|Ea|BB|EBa> i*ea salna Malhialealea galea galea ualBalBalealKa*! «MB*** [HATTEL mortgages are mortgages on personal property. Most of the rules applicable to mortgages on real estate apply also to those on personal property, though in some States there are laws regulating personal mortgages. Any instrument will answer the purpose of a chat- tel mortgage which would answer as a bill of sale, with a clause attached providing for the avoidance of the mortgage when the debt is paid. As with real estate, so with a chattel mortgage, great care should be taken. A chattel mortgage will not cover property subsequently acquired by the mortgageor. Mortgages of personal property should con- tain a clause providing for the equity of redemption. A mortgagee may sell or trans- fer his mortgage to another party for a con- sideration, but such property cannot be seized or sold until the expiration of the period for which the mortgage was given. Mortgages given with intent to defraud creditors are void. Form of Chattel Mortgage. Know all tften by these presents : That I, John Johnson, of the city of Chicago, in the county of Cook, and State of Illinois, am justly indebted unto James Lewis, of the same place, in the sum of dollars, on account, to be paid on the day of , with interest from this date. Now, therefore, in consideration of such indebtedness, and in order to secure the payment of the same, as aforesaid, I do hereby sell, assign, transfer and set over unto the said James Lewis, his executors, adminis- trators and assigns, the goods and chattels mentioned in the schedule hereto annexed, and now at the residence No. 1410 Jackson Street, in the city of Chicago aforesaid. Provided, however, that if the said debt and interest be paid, as above specified, this sale and transfer shall be void; and this conveyance is also subject to the following conditions: The property hereby sold and transferred is to remain in my possession until default be made in the payment of the debt and interest aforesaid, or some part thereof; but in case of a sale or disposal, or attempt to sell or dispose of the same, or a removal of or attempt to remove the same from said residence aforesaid, or an unreasonable depreciation in value {or if from any other cause the security shall become inadequate), the said James Lewis may take the said property, or any part thereof, into his own possession. Upon taking said property, or any part thereof, into his possession, either in case of default, or as above provided, the said James Lewis shall sell the same at public or private sale; and after satisfying the aforesaid debt and the interest thereon, and all necessary and reasonable costs, charges and expenses incurred by him, out of the proceeds of such sale, he shall return the surplus to me or my representative. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this day of . Executed in presence of i Wm. F. Georgk. f John Johnson. [l.s,] Release and Satisfaction of Mortgage. A"*ow all men by these /resents : That the debt secured by mortgage upon the following described ■ property, situated in ■ , in ■- — — county, in the State of 1 to wit: (describing it), wherein John Johnson is grantor, and James Lewis is grantee, and dated , a of which is in volume , page -^— , in the office of the (register *w recorder) of deeds of county, , has been fully satisfied, in con- sideration «f which said mortgage is hereby released. Witness: . James Lawn. H L _M MECHANIC'S LIEN— WILLS. 477 ^ A>' :• [Dee^anie^- kien ?HE purpose of all lien laws is to retain the possession of personal property in the hands of the owners until it has ^F* been properly paid for. Without pos- session no lien is admitted at common law. It is a created right, for the benefit of mechanics, tavern-keepers, liverymen, pasturers and car- riers. Builders and persons furnishing mate- rial are given by statute a lien on both land and building, if their claim is made within the time named in the different statutes. These periods will be found, under their appropriate heads, in another chapter. No possession is necessary under this lien, and the right of re- demption is lost by the sale of the property under the lien. The surplus, of course, goes to the owner. Liens are foreclosed by order of court, upon petition duly made. Liens will lie against vessels and wharves as well as other buildings. When a mechanic desires to draw up a lien for the recovery of money due him for labor or ma- terial, the form given below will be found conve- nient. It is a statement addressed to the county clerk setting forth his bargain, the failure to receive his pay, and the fear that he will lose the money unless the lien be now made. This paper must be sworn to and filed in the county clerk's office, and if it is not paid in a reason- able time the property will be sold for the debt. It does not make any difference if it is the con- tractor or the owner of the building who is in default. The mechanic has nothing to do with either of them — he holds the property itself for his money; and even if the owner has paid the contractor, who should have paid the laborer, the property will be sold unless the laborer is paid. Sub-Contractor's or Workman's Notice. To : You are hereby notified that I have been employed by to (here state whether to labor or furnish material, and substantially the na- ture of the contract) upon your (here state the building, and where situated, in general terms J; and that I shall hold the (building, or as the case may be) and your interest in the ground liable for the amount that (is or may become) due me on account thereof. (Signature.) This notice, with a copy of the contract, if it can be obtained, shall be served within 40 days after payments should have been made. The owner may retain money due the contractor to pay such claims, and if there is not enough to pay them in full, he shall pay tiiem/ro rata. If such pay- ment shall not be made within ten days after the same may become due, suit may be brought to enforce it ■^3-*®««§t ■: — «~ # '7\\' WIlsLs, *7TV WILL is an instrument of writing de- claring what a person desires to have done with his property after his de- mise. Any one of lawful age and sound mind can make a valid will, although in some States during the lifetime of their ■r s ■" husbands married women cannot do so. A will only becomes of force upon the death of the maker, and can be changed or modified at his pleasure until that event occurs. The last will annuls all previous ones, unless it be a codicil or amendment to a previous will. A JSi "^ 478 KXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS. great deal of latitude is allowed in the con- struction of a will. For instance, if the testa- tor marries after making a will, or has chil- dren subsequent to its date, it is supposed that he intended to change the disposition of his property, and the law accordingly will change it for him. Courts do not always re- quire written wills; sometimes what are called nuncupative wills are admitted to probate. These depend upon the testimony of witnesses, and are uncertain and dangerous. Many of the States will not admit nuncupative wills unless made within ten days before death, or by persons in the army cr navy. A wife cannot be deprived of her right of dower, which is one-third of the proceeds of the real estate and appurtenances of her hus- band. She may be devised property in lieu of dower, which she can so take or not, as she may choose ; but if the words " in lieu of dower " are not used, she may take the bequest and her dower also. A corporation cannot accept bequests unless that power is expressly granted in its charter. No one can serve as executor of a will who is under age, a lunatic, a drunkard or a con- vict. An executor may decline the trust if he chooses, which declension must be made in the presence of two witnesses. There is no differ- ence in the duties of an executor and adminis- trator ; the names have this origin: the execu- tor is appointed by the person making the will, the administrator is appointed by the court. When a married woman makes a will, her husband must be appointed administrator in preference to any one else. No witness to a will can inherit any prop- erty under it. They are not required to know what the will contains, but simply to witness the signing of the document. -E^S- Executors and Administrators. .&£&* ^w- V S soon after the death of the testator as may be possible, the will must be produced in court, and filed there with affidavits, showing its custody and the death of the testator. The judge orders pub- lication to be made, advertising the day when the will is to be offered for probate, and notices must be sent to the heirs-at-law. At the appointed time, all of the persons inter- ested, including the exetutor or executors, assemble in court. The witnesses swear to the signature of the will, and to the state of the testator's mind at the time the will was signed. Letters of administration are then granted to the executor, and a certified copy of the will and of the letters should be recorded in every county where the deceased owned real estate. The person administering must give a bond in double the amount of the estate for the faithful discharge of his duties. When a person owning property dies intestate, that is, leaving no will, it becomes the duty of the next of kin, or the widow, to petition the Pro- bate Court for letters of administration -\ li- As soon as the letters are granted, the ad- ministrator or executor addresses himself to the settlement of the estate. This is done by advertising for all persons owing the estate to settle the same, and for creditors of the estate to present their claims. At the same time a careful inventory of the property of the deceased is made, and the same appraised. This appraisement and inventory is filed in the Probate Court. The first money coming in is applied to the payment of the funeral expenses and the medical and nurses' bills; next in order come debts to the Government, liens or mort- gages, and, last of all, general debts of all kinds. If there is not enough property to pay the debts, the Probate Court must be at once notified of this insolvency, and the estate must then be settled according to the insolvent laws. The administrator is responsible for all the property of the deceased, valued and listed ac- cording to the inventory and appraisement, and he must keep very careful accounts of all his transactions for the estate. He must make semi-annual reports of the condition of the property, and when everything is ready for settlement, he presents a report, called his final settlement, to the court, and, upon presentation of the receipts in full of the heirs and credit- ors, he is discharged from his office and his bond cancelled and destroyed. Short Form for a Will. I, James Dickson, of the city of Chicago, in the county of Cook, and State of Illinois, being of sound mind and memory and understanding, do make my last will and testament in manner and form following : First. I give and bequeath to my daughters Mary and Jane two thou- sand dollars each after they have attained the age of twenty years. Second. I give and bequeath to my wife Susan all my household furni- ture, and all the rest of my personal property, after paying from the same the legacies already named, to be hers forever: but if there should not be at my decease sufficient personal property to pay the aforesaid legacies, then so much of my real estate shall be sold as will raise sufficient money to pay the same. Third. I also give, devise and bequeath to my wife Susan all the rest and residue of my real estate as long as she shall remain unmarried, and my widow : but on her decease or marriage, the remainder thereof I give and devise to my said children and their heirs, respectively, to be divided in equal shares between them. I appoint my wife Susan sole executrix of this my last will and testa- ment. In testimony whereof , I hereunto set my hand and seal, and publish and decree this to be my last will and testament, in presence of the wit- nesses named beluw, this eighth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three. Jamks Dickson, [l.s.] Signed, sealed, declared and published by the said James Dickson as and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request and in his presence, and m presence of each other, have subscribed our names as witnesses hereto. John Smith, residing at Chicago in Cook County. Peter Jones, " " " " " ** Another Form of Will. Knoiv all men by these presents : That I, Joseph Atkinson, of Media, in the county of Chester, and State of Pennsylvania, merchant, consider- ing the uncertainty of this life, and being of sound mind and memory, do make, and declare, and publish, this my last will and testament. First. I give and bequeath unto my beloved wife Mary the use, im- provement and income of my dwelling-house, warehouses, lands, and their appurtenances, situate in Nelson township, Chester county, State of Penn- sylvania, to have and to hold the same to her for and during her natural life. Second. I give and bequeath to my son Robert two thousand dollars, to be paid to him by my executor, hereinafter named, within six months after my decease; and I a^Iso give, devise and bequeath to my said son Robert the reversion or remainder of my dwelling-house, warehouses, lands and their appurtenances, situate in Nelson township, Chester county, State of Pennsylvania, and all profit, income and advantage that may result therefrom, from and after the decease of my beloved wife Mary. Third. I give, devise and bequeath to my beloved wife Mary all the residue of my estate, real, personal or mixed, of which I shall be seized or possessed, or to which I shall be entitled at the time of my decease; to have and to hold the same to her and her executors and administrators and assigns forever. Fourth. I do nominate and appoint my brother James Atkinson to be the executor of this, my last will and testament. In testimony whereof, I have to this, my last will and testament, con- tained on two sheets of paper, and to each sheet thereof, subscribed my name and set my seal; and to this, the last sheet thereof, I have here sub- scribed my name and affixed my seal, this eighteenth day of May, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three. James Atkinson. l l.s.] Signed, sealed, declared and published by the said James Atkinson, as and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request and in his presence, and in presence of each other, have subscribed our names as witnesses hereto. Thomas Mav, residing at Media, Pa. John Nolan, " M " " Henry Mann, " " " *' Codicil to a Will. Whereas, I, Richard Roe, of the city of Pittsburg, in the county of Allegheny and State of Pennsylvania, have made my last will and testa- ment, in writing, bearing date the fourteenth day of February, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three, in and by which I have given to the Pennsylvania Institution for Deaf Mutes, in the city of Philadelphia, the sum of one thousand dollars. Now, therefore, I do, by this my writing, which I hereby declare tc be a codicil to my said last will and testament, and to be taken as a part thereof, order and declare that my will is that only the sum of five hundred dollars shall be paid to the said Pennsylvania Institution Tor Deaf Mutes as the full amount bequeathed to the said institution, and that the residue of the said legacy be given to the person who shall be acting as treasurer at the time of my decease of the Baptist Publication Society, located in the city of Philadelphia, to be expended by the society in such manner as the officers of the said society may deem best for the interests of said society ; and, lastly, it is my desire that this codicil be annexed to and made a part of my last will and testament as atoresaid, to all intents and purposes. In testimony whereof, etc, (as in the form of a will). IT mw*e pc *->^ !:HEN a person dies, leaving no valid will behind him, his estate is dis- tributed among his heirs by what I J^, j i s known as operation of laiv. This is regulated by the statute of the State in which the deceased resided at the time of hib death. The distribution must be made by an administrator duly appointed by law. The administrator is appointed by the court having jurisdiction in such cases, on being satisfied that the person proposed is legally qualified. The appointment must be made with the con- sent of the person appointed. It is the gen- erally accepted rule that any one is legally competent to be an administrator who is com- petent to make a contract. Certain classes of persons are disqualified by statute, as in the State of New York, for instance, drunkards, gamblers, spendthrifts, etc. The relatives of the deceased are considered as entitled to the appointment to administer the estate, and the order of precedence is regulated by statute. The husband is to be granted administration on the wife's personal estate, and administra- tion on the husband's estate is to be granted to the widow and the next of kin in the following order if they or any of them will accept: 1. To the widow. 2. To the children. 3. To the father. 4. To the brothers. 5. To the sisters. 6. To the grandchildren. 7. To any other of the next of kin who would be entitled to a share in the distribu- tion of the estate. The guardians of minors who are entitled may administer for them. In case none of the relatives or guardians will accept, the admin- istration will be given to the creditors of the deceased. The creditor who applies first, if legally competent, is to be preferred. If no creditor applies, any person who is legally qualified may be appointed. In the city of New York the public administrator may ad- minister the estate after the next of kin. In the State of New York the surrogate may select, among the next of kin, any one in equal degree, and appoint him sole adminis- trator to the exclusion of the others. In there arc several persons of the same degree of kindred to the intestate entitled to admin- istration, they are preferred in the following order: 1. Males to females. 2. Relatives of the whole blood to those of the half blood. 3. Unmarried to married women ; and should there be several persons equally enti- tled, the surrogate may grant letters to one <>r more of them, as his judgment may sug- If letters of administration should be un- di;ly granted they may be revoked. V • PARTNERSHIP. 481 ~7 Administration may likewise be granted on certain conditions, for a certain limited time, or for a special purpose. The powers and duties of an administrator differ from those of an executor only inasmuch as he must distribute and dispose of the estate according to the direction of the law, as he has no will to follow. First. The administrator must give bond, with sureties, for the faithful execution of his trust. Second. He must make an inventory of the goods and chattels of the intestate, in accord- ance with the requirements of the law. Third. Two copies of this inventory shall be made, one of which will be lodged with the judge of the court, and the other will be kept by the administrator. The latter will be obliged to account for the property mentioned in the inventory. Fourth. Having completed the inventory, the administrator must then collect the out- standing debts of the intestate, and also pay the debts of the same. The order of payment is regulated by local statutes. Having liquidated all the debts of the in- testate, the administrator will divide the re- mainder of the assets among the surviving relatives of the deceased. In so doing, he will act under the direction of the court. epaptnep^i]®. ®p-« PARTNERSHIP is an agreement be- tween two or more persons to share in ' the profit and loss arising from the use and application of their capital, labor and skill, in some lawful business, whether the capi- tal be supplied by one, and the labor and skill by another, or each contribute both labor or skill and capital. It is not constituted merely by an interest of different parties in the same thing ; the test is, whether there is a participation in profits and a joint liability to loss. A general partnership is one formed for trade or business generally, without limitations; a special partnership is one in which the joint inter- est extends only to a particular concern, as, for example, in the erection of a house ; a limited partnership is one in which one or more of the partners put in a certain amount of capital, which is liable for the contracts of the firm, but beyond that amount the party or parties advancing are not liable. The regulations concerning the last- named species of partnership, in any particular State where it is recognized, are to be found in the statutes of such State ; and a strict compli- ance with the statutes is necessary, in order to avoid incurring the responsibilities attaching to the position of general partner. A person who lends his name as a partner, or who suffers his name to continue in the firm after he has actually ceased to be a partner thereof, is still responsible to third persons as a partner. A partner may buy and sell partnership effects ; make contracts in reference to the business of the firm ; pay and receive money ; draw, and indorse, and accept bills and notes ; and all acts of such a nature, even though they be upon his own private account, will bind the other part- ners, if connected with matters apparently having _M 32 \ 482 PARTNERSHIP. reference to the business of the firm, and transacted with other parties ignorant of the fact that such dealings are for the particular partner's private account. So, also, the representation or misrepresentation of any fact made in any partnership transaction by one partner, or the commission of any fraud in such transaction, will bind the entire firm, even though the other partners may have no connection with, or knowledge of the same. If a partner sign his individual name to nego- tiable paper, all the partners are bound thereby, if such paper appear upon its face to be on part- nership account. So, if the negotiable paper of a firm be given by one partner on his private account, and in the course of its circulation pass into the hands of a bona fide holder for value, without notice or knowledge of the fact attend- ing its creation, the partnership is bound thereby. One partner cannot bind the firm by deed, though he may by deed execute an ordinary release of a debt due the partnership, thereby precluding the firm from a recovery of the same. If no time be fixed in the articles of copart- nership for the commencement of such partner- ship, it is presumed to commence from the date and execution of such articles. If no precise period is therein mentioned for its continuance, a partner may withdraw at any time, and dissolve such partnership at his pleasure; and even if a definite period be agreed upon, a partner may, by giving notice, dissolve the partnership as to all capacity of the firm to bind him by contracts thereafter made; such partner subjecting himself thereby to a claim for damages, by reason of his breach of the covenant. The death of either partner, also, dissolves the partnership, unless there be an express stipula- tion that, in such an event, the representatives of such deceased partner may continue the business in connection with the survivors, for the benefit of the widow and children. A partnership is dissolved by operation of law; by a voluntary and bona fide assignment by any partner of his interest therein ; by the bankrupt- cy or death of any of the partners ; or by a war between the countries of which the partners are subjects. Immediately after a dissolution, a notice of the same should be published in the public papers, and a special notice sent to every person who has had dealings with the firm. If these precautions be not taken, each partner will still continue liable for the acts of the others to all persons who have had no notice of such dissolu- tion. Partnership Agreement. This Agreement, made this first day of April, lSy3, between Charles Jean and David Sellers, both of St. Louis, Missouri, witnesseth : The said parties agree to associate themselves as copartners for two years from this date, in the business of buying and selling cotton, under the name and style of Jean & Sellers. For the purpose of conducting the above-named business, Charles Jean has at the date of this writing invested ten thousand dollars as capital stock, and David Sellers has paid in the like sum of ten thousand dollars, both of which amounts are to be expended and used in common, for the mutual advantage of the parties hereto in the management of their business. That the details of the business may be thoroughly understood by each, it is agreed that during the aforesaid period accurate and full book accounts shall be kept, wherein each partner shall enter and record, or cause to be entered and recorded, full mention of all moneys received and expended, as well as every article purchased and sold belonging to, or in any wise appertaining to such partnership ; the profits, gains, expenditures and losses being equally divided between them. It is further agreed that once a year, or oftener should either partner desire, a full, just and accurate exhibit shall be made to each other, or to their executors, administrators or representatives, of the losses, profits and increase made by reason of such copartnership. And after such an exhibit is made, the surplus profit, if such there be, resulting from the business, shall be divided between the subscribing partners, fhare and share alike. Should either partner desire, or should the death of either of the parties, or other reasons, make it necessary, they will each to the other, or, in case of death of either, the surviving partner to the executors or administrators of the party deceased, make a full, accurate and final account ol the condi- tion of the partnership as aforesaid and will fairly and accurately adjust the same. It is also agreed that in case of a misunderstanding arising with the parties hereto, which cannot be settled between themselves, such difference of opinion shall be settled by arbitration, upon the following conditions, to- wit : Each party to choose one arbitrator, which two thus chosen shall select a third ; the three thus chosen to determine the merits of the cave and arrange the basis of a settlement. In witness tohereo/, the undersigned hereto set their hands the day and year first above written. Signed In presence of | Charles Jean. Frank Smith, I David Sellers. Henry Stiles. J Notice of Dissolution. The partnership heretofore existing under the name of Jean & Sellers Is this day of , A.D. , dissolved by mutual consent. Charles Jran. Pavid Sellers. — HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. ;— S) --] X' M*M*mt*MXXXXXbMJXXM-*tfrttftf^ ^f t •:• H ov/ • to • $>eeu ve • a • J)a tent, « 2— «r^ 3=3*- 5=~Ts — i *^ «K 0>ompfei"e j^qnop<«>ii> o{? tf\e f^ufe<*> cu^b f^egufafioruS ©[overrurAO* tfie Unifec] Siafe<& ^afent ©j?f?ice. sNY PERSON who has invented or dis- \f covered a new and useful art, machine, i\£ manufacture or composition of matter^ or any new and useful improvement thereof, may obtain a patent, provided the invention or discovery has not been known or used by others in this country, and not patented or described in any printed pub- lication in this or any foreign country, and not in public use or on sale for more than two years prior to his application, unless the same is proved to have been abandoned. A patent may also be obtained by any person who, by his own industry, genius, efforts and expense, has invented and produced any new and orig- inal design for a manufacture, bust, statue, alto-relievo or bas-relief; any new and original design for the printing of woolen, silk, cotton or other fabrics ; any new and original impres- sion, ornament, pattern, print or picture to be printed, painted, cast, or otherwise placed on or worked into any article of manufacture ; or any new, useful and original shape or con- figuration of any article of manufacture, the same not having been known or used by others before his invention or production thereof, nor patented or described in any printed publica- tion. v_ In case of the death of the inventor, the application may be made by his executor or administrator. In such case the oath will be made by the executor or administrator. In case of an assignment of the whole inter- est in the invention, or of the whole interest in the patent to be granted, the patent will, upon request of the applicant or assignee, issue to the assignee ; and if the assignee hold an undivided part interest, the patent will, upon like request, issue jointly to the inventor and the assignee ; but the assignment in either case must first have been entered of record, and of a day not later than the date of the payment of the final fee. The application and oath must be made by the actual inventor, if alive, even if the patent is to issue to an assignee. If the inventor be dead, it may be made by the executor or administrator, or by the assignee of the entire interest. THE APPLICATION. All applications for letters patent must be made to the Commissioner of Patents. A complete application comprises the petition, specification, oath and drawings, and the model or specimen when required. =M o "^ c K ~7 484 HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. An application for a patent will not be placed upon the files for examination until all its parts, except the model or specimen, are received. THE SPECIFICATION Is a written description of the invention or discovery, and of the manner and process of making, constructing, compounding and using the same, and is required to be in such full, clear, concise and exact terms as to enable any person skilled in the art or science to which it appertains, or with which it is most nearly connected, to make, construct, compound and use the same. It must conclude with a spe- cific and distinct claim or claims of the part, improvement or combination which the appli- cant regards as his invention or discovery. In framing the specification the applicant should follow the appended arrangement, such portions as refer to drawings being omitted when the invention does not admit of repre- sentation by drawings. \ 1. Preamble giving the name and residence of the applicant, and the title of the inven- tion. 2. General statement of the object and nature of the invention. 3. Brief description of the drawings, show- ing what each view represents. 4. Detailed description, explaining fully the alleged invention, and the manner of con- structing, practicing, operating and using it. 5. Claim, or claims. 6. Signature of inventor. 7. Signatures of two witnesses. In original applications the applicant must distinctly state, under oath, whether the in- vention has been patented to himself, or to others, with his consent or knowledge, in any country. THE OATH. The applicant, if the inventor, must make oath that he believes himself to be the first and original discoverer or inventor of the art, machine, manufacture, composition or im- provement for which he desires a patent, and that to his best knowledge and belief the same was never before known or used. ^Ie must also state his place of residence, and the State or country of which he is a citizen. When applications are made by an adminis- trator or executor, the form of oath varies accordingly. DRAWINGS. The applicant for a patent is required by law to furnish a drawing of his invention, where the nature of the case admits of it. 1. Drawings must be made upon pure white paper of a thickness corresponding to three-sheet Bristol board, and the surface of the paper must be calendered and smooth. India ink only must be used, to secure per- fectly black and solid lines. 2. The size of sheet on which a drawing is made must be exactly ten by fifteen inches. One inch from its edges a single marginal line is to be drawn, leaving the " sight" precisely eight by thirteen inches. Within this margin all work and signatures must be included. 3. All drawings must be made with the pen only. 4. Drawings should be made with the fewest lines possible consistent with clearness. 5. Letters and figures of reference must be carefully formed. They must never appear upon shaded surfaces, and, when it is difficult to avoid this, a blank space must be left in the shading where the letter occurs, so that it may appear perfectly distinct and separate from the work. If the same part of an invention appear in more than one view of the drawing, it must always be represented by the same character, and the same character must never be used to designate different parts. 6. The inventor's signature must be placed at the lower right-hand corner of the sheet, / -\ HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. ^ 48S A and the signatures of witnesses at the lower left-hand corner; all within marginal line. 7. Drawings should be rolled, not folded, for transmission to the office. MODELS Must clearly exhibit every feature of a ma- chine which forms the subject of a claim for letters patent, but should include no other mat- ter than that covered by the actual invention or improvement, unless necessary to the exhi- bition of the invention in a working model. Very often a working model is desirable in order to fully and readily understand the opera- tion EXAMINATION. Applications are classified and taken up for examination in regular order, those in the same class being examined and disposed of, as far as practicable, in the order in which they are presented. AMENDMENTS, ETC. The applicant has a right to amend before or after the first rejection ; and he may amend as often as the examiner presents any new references or reasons for rejection. When an original or reissue application is rejected on reference to an expired or unex- pired domestic patent, which substantially shows or describes but does not claim the re- jected invention, or to a foreign patent, or to a printed publication, and the applicant shall make oath to facts showing a completion of the invention before the filing of the application for the domestic patent, or before the date of the foreign patent, or before the date at which the printed publication was made, and shall also make oath that he does not know and does not believe that the invention has been in pub- lic use or on sale in this country for more than two years prior to his application, and that he has never abandoned the invention, then the patent or publication cited will not bar the grant of a patent to the applicant, except upon interference. When an application is rejected on reference to an expired or unexpired domestic patent which shows or describes, but does not claim, the rejected invention, or to a foreign patent, or to a printed publication, or to facts within the personal knowledge of an employe of the office, set forth in an affidavit of such em- ploye, or on the ground of public use or sale, or upon the mode or capability of operation attributed to a reference, or because the alleged invention is held to be inoperative, or frivolous, or injurious to public health or morals, affida- vits or depositions supporting or traversing these references or objections may be received ; but they will be received in no other cases, without special permission of the Commis- sioner. In case an applicant neglects to prosecute his application for two. years after the date when the last official notice of any action by the office was mailed to him, it will be held that the application has been abandoned. DESIGNS. Patents for designs are granted for three and one-half years, or for seven years, or for four- teen years, as the applicant may, in his appli- cation, elect. When the design can be sufficiently repre- sented by drawings or photographs, a model will not be required. Whenever a photograph or an engraving is employed to illustrate the design, it must be mounted upon Bristol board, 10 by 15 inches in size, and properly signed and witnessed. The applicant will be required to furnish ten extra copies of such photograph or engraving (not mounted), of a size not exceeding 7^ inches by 1 1. Al Tv* *".~ 486 . -^ HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. REISSUES. When the original patent is invalid or in- operative by reason of a defective or insuffi- cient specification, or by reason of the patentee claiming as his invention or discovery more than he had a right to claim as new, a reissue will be granted to the original patentee, his legal representatives, or the assignees of the entire interest, provided the error has arisen from accident, mistake or inadvertence, and without any fraudulent or deceptive intention. APPEALS. An applicant for a patent or a reissue, any of the claims of whose application have been twice rejected, may appeal from the decision of the primary examiner to the Board of Ex- aminers-in-Chief, having once paid a fee of $10. The appeal must be made in writing, signed by the applicant or his attorney, and must set forth the points of the decision upon which the appeal is taken. FORM, DATE AND DURATION OF PATENTS. Every patent will bear date as of a day not later than six months from the time at which the application was passed and allowed, and notice mailed to the applicant, if within that period the final fee be paid. A patent will not be antedated. Every patent will contain a short title of the invention or discovery, and a grant to the patentee, his heirs and assigns, for the term of seventeen years, of the exclusive right to make, use and vend the invention or discovery throughout the United States and Territories thereof. EXTENSIONS. Patents granted since March 2, 1861, can- not be extended, except by act of Congress. CAVEATS. On payment of a fee of $10, any citizen of the United States who has made a new invention or discovery, and desires further time to mature the same, may file in the Patent Office a caveat setting forth the distin- guishing characteristics of the invention and praying protection of his right until he shall have matured his invention. Such caveat shall be filed in the confidential archives of the Patent Office, and shall be operative for the term of one year from the filing thereof. ASSIGNMENTS. Every patent, or any interest therein, shall be assignable in law by an instrument in writing. The patentee or his assigns may also grant and convey, in like manner, an exclusive right under his patent for the whole or any specified part of the United States. Schedule of Fees. On filing each application for a Patent $15 On issuing each Original Patent (17 years) *o On application for Re-issue 30 On application for Extension 50 On granting every extension of Patent (7 years; 30 On each Caveat 10 On appeal to Examiners-in -Chief 10 On appeal to Commissioner of Patents 90 On filing a Disclaimer 10 On application for Design {3% years) 10 On application for Design {7 years) 15 On application for Design (14 years) f 30 On each Trade-Mark (30 years) 15 On each Label {28 years) 6 CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE PATENT OFFICE. Personal attendance of applicants at the Patent Office is unnecessary, as all business is required to be transacted in writing. Correspondence should be addressed to " The Commissioner of Patents. " Express charges, freight, postage, and all similar charges, must be fully prepaid to ensure reception. VL A\ PENSION LAWS. 487 "7f A letter concerning an application should state the name of the applicant, the title of the invention, the serial number of the application and the date of filing the same. A letter concerning a patent should state the name of the patentee, the title of the inven- tion, and the number and date of the patent. All correspondence of the Patent Office will be answered without unnecessary delay. Telegrams must ordinarily be received before three p m. to insure an answer the same day. AGENTS AND ATTORNEYS. Any intelligent person of good moral char- acter, upon filing a proper power of attorney, may appear as the agent or attorney in fact of an applicant. The power of attorney must be filed in all cases before an attorney, original or associate, will be allowed to inspect papers or take action of any kind. -+-<*- spei^ion •> LiaW$. •>>£•> E&NY person who has been, since the 4th *Siy of March, 1861, disabled in the mili- tary or naval service of the United States, or in its marine corps, shall, upon making due proof of the fact, be placed on the list of invalid pensioners of the United States. No claim for pension on the part of a State militiaman, or non-enlisted person, on account of disability from wounds received in battle, shall be valid unless prosecuted to a successful issue prior to July 4, 1874. RATES OF PENSION PER MONTH.- DISABILITIES. Loss of both hands , Total disability in both hands Loss of both feet Total disability in both feet. . Loss of sight of both eyes — Loss of sight of one eye, the sight of the other having been previously lost Loss of one hand and one foot Total disability in one hand and one foot Any disability equivalent to the loss of a hand or foot Any disability incapacitating for the performance of any manual labor Any disability resulting in a condition requiring the regular aid and attend- ance of another person. Total deafness -1 525 00 20 00 25 00 $20 00 SSJ B ** $25 00 20 00 25 CO 20 00 15 °° 20 00 '» $31 *5 31 25 31 25 31 25 3 1 2 5 31 25 24 00 24 00 $72 00 72 00 72 00 72 00 36 00 June 4. '74- 31 25 50 00 13 °° * Rate from June, 1880. in case the disability is permanent and requires the regular aid and attendance of another person. An applicant for increase of pension from $31.25 to $72 per month must furnish the testi- mony of his physician, or of two credible witnesses, to prove the extent to which he requires the aid and attendance of another person. The same provision of law which entitles to $31.25 per month entitles to $72 per month, provided that in the latter case the disability is permanent. The loss of a leg above the knee, or an arm at or abbve the elbow, entitles the person so disabled to a pension of $24 per month after June 4, 1874. The rates of $10, $12, $14 and $16 per month will be allowed in cases in which the dis- ability bears the same proportion to that pro- duced by the loss of a hand or foot that those rates bear to the rate of $18 per month. • Under the pension law of 1890 the soldier who is wholly incapacitated from earning a living receives the sum of $1 2 a month, whether the disability was contracted in the service or not ; for a lesser degree of disability, $10, $8 or $6. The first step to be taken by an applicant for pension is to file a declaration before a court of record, or before some officer thereof having custody of its seal, setting forth the ground upon which he claims a pension. Blank forms of declaration are furnished upon request at Commissioner of Pensions office. The iden- tity of the applicant must be shown by the testimony of two credible witnesses, who must appear with him before the officer by whom A r- •i V 488 PENSION LAWS. I the declaration may be taken. A pensioner who may deem himself entitled to an increase of pension should file a declaration on a blank form furnished for the purpose, setting forth the ground upon which he claims such increase. A declaration for increase of pension may be taken before any officer duly authorized to administer oaths. All invalid pensions granted under the gen- eral law will terminate at re-enlistment, or when the disabilities for which they were al- lowed shall have ceased. A widow's pension will end at her remar- riage, and not be renewable should she again become a widow. Pensions allowed to dependent mothers and sisters end at remarriage, or when dependence ceases. Pensions allowed to dependent fathers end when the dependence ceases. The name of any pensioner shall be stricken from the roll upon his or her failure to claim a pension for three years after the same shall have become due. To entitle a widow or children to pension, the death of the soldier does not need to have been the result of injury received or disease contracted under such circumstances as would hava entitled him to an invalid pension had he been disabled. A widow is entitled to a pension of $8 per month, no matter whether the death of the soldier was due to army service or not. In addition to this rate, she will be allowed $2 per month for each child of the officer or soldier under the age of sixteen years. In the applications of widows and children for pensions, they are not required to prove that death of husband resulted from the injury or disease on account of which his pension was granted; but, if the husband had not estab- lished his claim for an invalid pension, the widow shall prove origin and cause of the fatal disease. Widows will be required to prove their marriage to the person on account of whose service and death the claim is made ; also proof of dates of birth of children by copy of church record. A mother claiming a pension must prove the cause and date of the death of her son ; her relationship ; that he left no widow or minor child or children surviving; and that, if living, she would be dependent upon him for support. A father claiming pension on account of the death of his son, upon whom he was depend- ent for support, must prove facts similar to those required of a mother. The claim on behalf of minor brothers and sisters should be made by a guardian duly ap- pointed. In administration of the pension laws, no distinction is made between brothers and sisters of the half blood and those of the whole blood. Evidence in a claim for pension cannot be veri- fied before an officer who is engaged in the prosecution of such claim. In claims for increase of pension, a fee of $2 will be allowed. All letters of enquiry relative to claims pending in Pension Office should give the number of the claim. No sum of money due, or to become due, to any pensioner, shall be liable to attachment, levy or seizure, under any legal or equitable process. Agents for paying pensions shall receive two per centum on all disbursements made by them to pensioners. No agent, or attorney, or other person, shall demand or receive any other compensation for his services in prosecuting a claim for pension or bounty-land than such as the Commissioner of Pensions shall direct to be paid to him, not exceeding $10. Every officer, or enlisted or hired man, who has lost a limb, or the use of a limb, in the military or naval service of the United States, is entitled to receive, once every three years, an artificial limb or apparatus, or commutation therefor. The period of three years is reckoned _^J K" THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 489 from the filing of first application after March 2, 1891. The commutation allowed in case of the amputation of a leg is $75 ; in all other cases, $50. Applications for artificial limbs should be transmitted through the proper pen- sion agent to the surgeon-general of the army. 30E tye ^olle^tioi? of Debt5 HOW TO SETTLE ACCOUNTS. LEGAL STEPS TO ENFORCE PAYMENT 4fe ■ HE best way to avoid all trouble with debts, either by owing them or by hav- ing them due to you, is to avoid debts altogether. Do not run in debt, and do not give credit unless it is absolutely un- avoidable. By following these rules an untold amount of trouble may be saved and greatly increased prosperity secured. But in modern civilized life it is not possible, as business is done, to prevent debts from being incurred, for so much is transacted upon longer or shorter terms of credit, that it is necessary to give credit and to have money falling due. In order to avoid trouble and loss, adhere strictly to the rule of having the payment due at a cer- tain time and be prompt in collecting. Much more depends upon prompt collection as a means of avoiding trouble and loss than any other single thing It is a mistaken idea that any favor is really done the debtor by not applying to him at the agreed time, for it is often the case that the failure to pay you will simply result in his still continuing to proceed upon a false basis, and end, perhaps, in a failure, which the good habit of paying his debts when due would have enabled him to prevent. It is a measure of common prudence to take some statement in writing from any person to whom money is loaned, which shall show the amount, when loaned, by and from whom due, and when it is to be repaid. This is done either by taking a due bill or a common promissory note, and whenever accounts are settled or a balance struck and agreed upon, it is well to have something in writing, which should always be signed by the party to whom the payment is made or from whom the nayment is due, if any amount is left unpaid. In all cases where money is loaned on interest, a note should be taken, and, unless the lender is personally acquainted with the business affairs and standing of the borrower, if the amount is considerable or the terms of credit more than a few months, security should be taken. In arranging for security two things are to be con- sidered — 1. The title of the party to the property which he proposes to give as security. This covers the two points of ownership and all prior claims or encumbrances, if any. If the security consists of personal property, it will be necessary to see whether there are executions against the owner in the hands of the proper officers and whether chattel mortgages have been given, as well as that the property is in the possession of the person who proposes to _iJ V- ** 9 ^=7{ 490 THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS. pledge it as security. If this is to be done by means of a chattel mortgage, then it will be neces- sary to see that the mortgage is properly acknowl- edged and recorded, and in every other case the possession of the property should be transferred to the one who takes it as security. In the case of real estate there should be an Abstract of Title showingthe title to the property to be in the person who claims to own it, and that it is clear of all judgments, mortgages and mechanic's liens. The better way is to have the abstract brought down to cover the mortgage or trust deed, which is given as security, after it has been recorded and before the money is actually advanced, to guard against all possi- bility of anything happening between the time of the execution of the mortgage or trust deed and when it can be recorded. 2. The security given depends directly upon the value of the property transferred, and this should be sufficient in amount to cover all prob- able contingencies. The rule is not to loan more than half or two-thirds of the value of the property given as security. " Fast bind, fast find," is a good maxim, especially in regard to loaning money, and where ample security is held, the lender can sleep in peace. It is often necessary that fire insurance should be obtained to protect the lender, in which case the policy should be made in the. name of the owner and borrower, and have inserted in it a " mortgage clause," as it is called, provided that the loss, if any, shall be paid to the lender as his interest may appear. REQUEST FOR PAYMENT. Those who have much experience in any kind of business requiring credit to be given, soon learn, in the dear school of experience, what is necessary to protect their own interests. It is those who have but little to do in this way, or who are about engaging in a new line, that are most likely to suffer from want of knowledge. Of course, before any suit is brought to recover money which is due, a request or demand for payment should be made, if possible, and there is any hope the money will be paid without suit. Politeness and point should be K_ contained in the request, which may take either the form of an interview or a note, and as pay- ment may result, this ought always to be framed as if payment were expected. If a letter is used, its form will depend upon what has previously taken place, because it is seldom the case that a claim has no previous history, and the kind of demand to be made depends upon what has been done, so that it will range from a polite intima- tion that the money is due and would be thank- fully received, to a short letter informing the debtor that to avoid the trouble and costs of a suit, immediate payment must be made. COLLECTION AGENCIES. The tendency of all kinds of business to run into specialties, and for people to follow par- ticular lines of business, to which they give their attention, has led to the formation of what are known as collection agencies, which devote their entire time and skill to the collection of debts. These are of two kinds, namely: those which are connected with some particular trade or branch of business, and which seek to enforce the payment of debts by means of notifying all those persons who would naturally be called upon to give credit to the debtor, and also those which are organized without any particular con- nection with any branch of the business, but which have correspondents (chiefly lawyers) through- out the country, and who charge a fixed per- centage for collection in ordinary cases. Where these agencies can be used they are often the best means to employ for many different reasons. COLLECTION BY LAW. When all reasonable hope of obtaining pay- ment peaceably is gone, consider whether it is worth while to follow the matter any further; and this will depend on two things : Is it worth the necessary trouble and expense ? Can a judgment be collected ? Sometimes a suit must be brought for the sake of the principle involved and to prevent advantage being taken of you; but if it is merely a business transaction and the only question is ^ Q THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 491 whether it will pay, then find out as well as you can what the result will be before you spend any money on the suit; aqd learn whether the debtor has property which is not exempt and out of which the officer can make the amount of a judg- ment. If you are compelled to proceed with your suit, you can place the account in the hands of some Justice of the Peace whose jurisdiction extends over the place where the debtor can be served with summons, unless the amount is too large, for Justices of the Peace are generally authorized and required to collect accounts placed in their hands; the amount of which a Justice of the Peace has jurisdiction is fixed by the laws of the different States. JURISDICTION OF JUSTICES OF THE PEACE. Justices of the Peace generally have jurisdic- tion throughout the County or Township in which they are elected, and the limit of the amount is as follows: Alabama .$ Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut .... Dakota, N. 200-S. Delaware Dist. of Columb. Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois . a Indiana b Iowa Kansas a By confession, 100 Kentucky 50 300 Louisiana 100 300 Maine 20 300 Maryland 100 300 Massachusetts.. 300 100 Michigan 100 100 Minnesota 100 200 Mississippi .... 150 100 Missouri 250 100 Montana 300 100 Nebraska.. 200 300 Nevada ... 300 200 New Hampshire 13^ 200 New J ersey 200 100 New Mexico. .. 100 ^oo New York. 200 1 $300. b By consent, $300. North Carolina. $ 200 Ohio 100 Oregon 500 Pennsylvania. . . 300 Rhode Island.. 300 South Carolina. 100 Tennessee 500 Texas 200 Utah 300 Vermont 200 Virginia 100 Washington .... 300 West Virginia.. 300 c Wisconsin .. . 200 Wyoming 300 c By co fession, $300. SUMMONS AND SERVICE. The Justice, on request, will issue a summons about as follows : Form of Summons This summons will be given to a constable who can only serve it upon the debtor within the Town or County, as the case may be where the Justice resides, and in some cases the debtor must be served in the Town where he lives ; but all necessary information can be obtained by asking the Justice about it, who will know, and will correctly tell you about the law which ap- plies to himself- The constable who serves the summons will proceed to do it by reading or delivering a copy, or both at once upon payment of his legal fees. If the debtor is a corporation then the service must be made by delivering a copy of the sum- mons to the proper officer, the President, if he can be found, and in case of his absence the officer must state that he can not be found and service can be had upon some other officer or agent of the corporation. If the defendant conceals himself to avoid service or can not be found, the officer will write upon the summons what has been done under it, and return it with his written endorsement upon it, stating the facts to the Justice from whom it issued. The Justice will also enter in his docket the names of the parties, the num- ber of the case, the date of the summons, and the name of the officer to whom it was delivered for service ; and when the summons is returned he enters a statement of that fact together with the officer's endorsement upon it in his docket. The summons will state the time and place for trial which is generally not less than five nor more than fifteen days from its date ; when and where the defendant is bound to appear if he has been notified according to the law, and generally three days' service before the trial is sufficient. / State of \ County of. ) ss ' The Feopleof the State of. to any constable 0/ said county— Greeting : You are hereby commanded to summon A B to appear before me, at , on the day of , at o'clock — M , to answer the complaint of C D for a failure to pay him a certain demand, not exceeding,.. dollars ; and hereof make due return as the law directs. Given under my hand, this day of. , 18 John Doe,/. P % ^r K" 492 THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS. DEFENDANT'S LIABILITY. It is not safe for any person who has been legally served with summons to neglect the case, even if he owes nothing, and has been sued and served with summons by mistake, for if he does not appear and make his defense a judgment may be rendered against him which he will have to pay. An immediate investigation should always be made when the summons is served, and the time and place of the trial should be written down. Upon the back of the summons the Justice will indorse the amount of the demand and all the costs already incurred before he gives it to the constable. Payment of this amount to the constable will discharge the debt and prevent any further liability. COSTS OF SUIT. The Justice is entitled to charge about twenty-five cents for issuing the summons, and also a docket fee, and the constable is entitled to about fifty cents for serving and returning the same, besides his mileage, which is usually five cents per mile each way. APPEARANCE. If the plaintiff appears and is ready for trial a judgment will be entered against the defend- ant, if the claim is proved and he fails to ap- pear, and the execution will issue upon the judgment. If the defendant should be present and the plaintiff fail to appear, then the suit will be dismissed at plaintiff's cost upon motion of defendant for want of prosecution. This, however, will not bar the claim by a new suit being brought. CHANGE OF VENUE. Before the trial is begun the defendant is ordinarily entitled to take a change of venue to the nearest Justice who is not connected with either of the parties to the suit nor interested in its result. This is to prevent the plaintiff from obtaining any advantage by being able to select the Justice to try the case, and to give the de- fendant the benefit of an impartial trial. The defendant is required to make an affidavit that he believes he can not obtain an impartial trial before the first Justice, in order to have a change of venue. CONTINUANCE. If both parties appear at the time and place named in the summons, but either one of them is not ready to go on with the trial because of the absence of any of his witnesses, or for any other valid reason, then, upon good cause being shown by affidavit, the Justice will grant a con- tinuance of the case to enable the party to pre- pare for the trial. The party applying for a continuance must show that he has used due diligence to be ready, and that he has subpoenaed the witness or wit- nesses whose presence he desires ; he must also show what he expects to be able to prove by him, and, if he knows, the reason that he did not attend. It may be that one of the parties may not be able to attend by reason of sickness or unavoidable absence, and then an affidavit must be made on his behalf by some one who appears for him and applies for the continuance. The party against whom the continuance is asked may usually proceed with the trial by admitting that the absent witness would testify as the party claims, but that does not admit that the matters stated are true. The party may dis- prove the truth of the statements the same as if the witness had been present and testified to them. If the continuance is granted, then a time and place are set for the trial, when the parties must again appear. ATTENDANCE OF WITNESSES. It is very important that the witnesses by whom the facts in dispute can be established or disproved should appear and testify. Without this it is impossible to try the case so as to do justice between the parties. Therefore, the law compels witnesses who are properly notified to appear and testify to the truth so far as they know the facts in relation to the matters involved. For this purpose it is necessary that a paper called a subpoena should be issued by the Jus- •- THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 493 £ 7 tice, and served. upon the witness long enough before the trial to enable, him to appear. The subpoena is substantially in the following form : Any free male citizen can serve on a jury, who lives within the jurisdiction of the Justice and is between the ages of twenty-one and sixty Form of Subpoena. County of. (■**■ The People of the State of. to A B... You are hereby commanded to appear before me at on the .day of.. ...at . . .o* clock M. then and there to testify to the truth in a matter in suit, wherein C D is plaintiff, and EF, defendant and this you are not to omit, under the penalty of tlu law. Given under my hand, this. . . ....8.. John Doe / p. This can be served by the party or the con- stable, and at the same time witness fees, usually fifty cents and mileage, should be tendered to the witness. Then, if he refuses to appear, upon proof of those facts being made, an attachment, or warrant, for the arrest of the witness will be issued by the Justice. This will be given to the officer, who will arrest the witness and bring him before the Court, where he will be com- pelled to testify, and will also be punished for contempt of Court, for failing to obey the sub- poena, unless he gives some good excuse. TRIAL OF THE SUIT. The case may be tried before the Justice with- out a jury, or a jury may be demanded by either party, who deposits with the Justice the amount of the jury fees. The jury consists of not less than six nor more than twelve men, and if one party calls for a jury of six, the other party may call for six more, making twelve in all. If the case is to be tried by a jury the Justice will issue what is called a venire or summons for jurymen and give it to the proper officer, which will be in the following form: Form of Venire years and can read, write and understand the English language, and is not connected with, nor prejudiced for or against either party. Many persons are by law exempt from jury service, by reason of their employment or offi- cial station, but this is a personal privilege and may be waived, so that unless it is claimed by themselves they can serve. The jury, when impaneled, will be sworn to try the cause according to the law and the evidence, and then the evidence will be produced before the Justice or jury as the case may be. In all cases the witnesses are sworn by the Justice to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth upon the matters in issue between the parties, and each party is entitled to cross-examine the witness produced by the other side, and to argue the case before the judgment is given. VERDICT AND JUDGMENT. If the trial is by jury, they will return a verdict in writing substantially in the following form: " We, the jury, find the issues for the plaintiff and assess his damages at (stating the amount)"; or "We, the jury, find the defendant guilty and before a Justice. State of \ County of. ("* The People of the Stateof. to any constable of saidcounty — Greeting: We command you to summon lawful men of your county to appear before me at ,on the day of 18 at.. ..o'clock, — M., who are not of kin to , plaintiff, or to defendant, to make a jury between said parties, in a certain cause pending before me ; and have you then and there the names of the jury and this writ. Given under my hand, this day of 18. . John Doe, /. P. Y- ^X K~ 494 "7f THE < oi.I.ECTION OF DEBTS. assess the plaintiff's damages at (stating the amount)." But if the jury find for the defend- ant, then their verdict would be: " We, the jury, find the issues for the defend- ant"; or "find the defendant not guilty," accord- ing to the form of action; and the verdict is also signed by all of the jurymen. If the party who is beaten desires to do so he can poll the jury, as it is called, which consists in asking the jury- men, one at a time, " Was this, and is this your verdict?" To which the juryman is required to answer, and if any of the jury upon being called, state that it is not their verdict, then they must retire and agree or else they disagree, and the result is a mis-trial, leaving the case to be tried again. If the case is tried by the Justice, then he enters his finding in writing in his docket, in about the same form as the verdict, and then upon the verdict or finding, he enters judgment or, in other words, writes in his docket that he considers that the plaintiff should recover the amount of the verdict or finding with costs from the defendant; or that the defendant should recover his costs of the plaintiff, for the victor- ious party is entitled to recover the costs of the case from the one who is beaten. APPEALS. Either party has a right to appeal his case, usually to the Circuit Court, and have it tried over again, if he is not satisfied with the result of the trial, upon giving bond for double the amount of the judgment and costs in the form provided by law, which is about as follows: . Form of Appeal Bond As soon as the bond is filed and approved, which must be given usually within twenty days from the trial, it operates as a supersedeas, as it is called, and prevents anything further being done in the case until judgment is obtained in the Court above, or the appeal is dismissed. Sometimes one of the parties will pretend to be dissatisfied with the judgment and pray an appeal in order to prevent the other from doing so, and having allowed the time in which an appeal can be taken to expire will then dismiss it and make the judgment final. The only way to prevent this is for the party who desires to have an appeal to ask for it and file his bond himself, in which case he can control the matter. EXECUTION. The writ which issues from the Justice upon the judgment is called an execution, and runs either against the goods and chattels, or the body, of the one against whom judgment was entered. Whether execution can be obtained in any tase authorizing the arrest of the defendant and his imprisonment until the judgment is paid or he is legally discharged will depend upon the law of the State and the circumstances of the case, as this is now an unusual remedy, since impris- onment for debt has been generally abolished. If the plaintiff avers that the benefit of the judgment will be lost, unless execution issue im- mediately, he may swear to this fact before the Justice, who will then issue execution at once ; but unless this is done the execution will not issue Know all men by these presents, that we, A B and C D, are held and firmly bound unto E F, in the penal sum of (here insert double the amount of judgment and costs) dollars, lawful money of the United States, for the payment of which, well and truly to be made, we bind ourselves, g»* heirs and administrators, jointly, severally and firmly by these presents. Witness our hands and seals, this day bf ,18.. The condition of the above obligation is such, that whereas the said EFdid, on the day of A. D. 18. ., before. . . Justice of the Peace for the County of recover a judgment against the above bounden A B, for the sum of dollars (or for costs, as the case may be); from which judgment the said A B has taken an appeal to the court of the County of lfmwM| now, if the Bid A B shall prosecute his appeal with effect, and pay whatever judgment may be rendered against him by said Court upon the trial of said appeal or by consent, or, in case the appeal is dismissed, will pay the judgment rendered against him by said Justice, and all costs occasioned by said appeal (or, if the judgment appealed from is in favor of the appellant, omit the words "the judgment rendered against him by said Justice, and '' ) then the above obligation to be void; otherwise to remain in full force and effect. A B. [seal.] Approved by me, this day of 18.. CD, 1st* l. J John Do*,/. P. V- • . K ~7 THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 495 until the expiration of the time for an appeal, which is usually twenty days. The execution is directed to the proper officer, and is in the following form: to be levied upon, which the officer is not willing to seize, and in such case an indemnifying bond is generally required and given, the condition of which is that the plaintiff will pay all costs Execution against Property. State of. . . County. | **" The People of the State of , to any constable of said county — Greeting : We command you that of the goods and chattels of A B, in your county, you make the sum of dollars and cents judgment, and dollars and cents costs, which C D lately recovered before me in a certain plea, against the said A B; and thereof make return to me within seventy days from this date. Given under my hand this day of ...,18.. John Doe, /. P. Execution against Body. State of I County 1 • The People of the State of , to any constable of said county — Greeting : We command you, that of the goods and chattels of A B, in your county, you make the sum of dollars and cents judgmei. t, and . dollars and cents costs, which C D lately recovered before me against the said A B, and for want of such goods and chattels that you take the body of the said A B, and him convey and deliver unto the keeper of the jail of said county, who is hereby commanded to receive and keep the said A B in safe custody until the said sum and all legal expenses be paid and satisfied, or until he is discharged by due course of law; and hereof make return to me within seventy days from this date. Given under my hand this day of ,18.. John Doe,/. P. -£ This is placed in the hands of the constable, and it commands him to levy upon and sell enough of the personal property of the debtor to satisfy the judgment and make return within the time limited, to the Justice, showing what has been done. Although the execution has been delivered to the officer, it is still under the control of the plaintiff and the officer is bound to obey any lawful direction he may give; but in case of in- terference by him he may lose the benefit of the execution, and also his remedy against the officer. The constable must take care that he obtains sufficient property to satisfy the judgment if the debtor has it, and it is not exempt by law; and on the other hand, he must be equally careful not to levy upon property which belongs to others or which is exempt from execution by law. Sometimes the plaintiff desires property and damages which the officer may incur by taking such property. If the constable holds the execution beyond the time when he is directed by it to return it to the Justice, he ordinarily makes himself and his bondsmen personally liable for the amount of the judgment. ATTACHMENT. Where the debtor is a non-resident or con- ceals himself to evade service of the summons, or stands in defiance of the officer, or has con- tracted the debt by means of a ^alse statement in writing signed by himself, or has fraudulently concealed or disposed of his property within two years last past, or is about to do so or to remove his property or effect from the State for the purpose of hindering, delaying or defrauding his creditors, but has property within the juris- -^ r £? K~ 496 THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS. diction of the Justice which is subject to levy, in order to prevent the benefit of the judgment being lost the law provides that a writ of attachment against the property may issue in the first instance, upon a proper affidavit having been made and filed with the Justice by the plaintiff, which must particularly set forth the facts and is about as follows: As soon as the writ is issued it is placed in the hands of the constable, who will levy upon sufficient property to pay the claim and all costs. If the debtor shall be found the writ will be served on him in the same way as an ordinary summons and will answer the same purpose, but if the debtor is no found then the constable will indorse upon the writ what property he has Affidavit for Attachment. State of ( County of. ) "• A B, being duly sworn, says : That (here state if affiant is agent or attorney of the creditor, and if the suit it by firm, the name of the partners,) has a just demand against (name of debtor), on account of (here make short statement of the nature of the demand), and the affiant believes (the name of the creditor) is entitled to recover of said (name of debtor), after allowing all just credits and set-offs, dollars and cents, which is now due, and that he has good reason to believe and docs believe that (name of debtor) (here state some one or more of the causes which authorize an attachment), the said (name of debtor) (here state the residence of the debtor if known, or if not, that the affiant has made diligent inquiry and can nut ascertain his place of residence). A bond is usually required from the plaintiff before an attachment will issue, about as follows: seized under it, and that he has been unable to find the debtor, and he will hold possession of Condition of Bond for Attachment. The condition of the above obligation is such that, whereas the above bounden hath, on the day of the date hereof, prayed an attachment at the suit of against the personal estate of the above named for the sum of , and the same being about to be sued out, returnable on the day of , before (said Justice). Now, if the said shall prosecute his suit with effect, or in case of failure therein, shall well and truly pay and satisfy the said all such costs in such suit, and such damages as the said may sustain, by reason of wrongfully suing out the said attachment, then the above obligation to be void; else to remain in full force and virtue. Witness our hands and seals, this day of , 18.. The affidavit and bond having been duly filed, then the writ of attachment will issue usually in the following form: the property so attached until the case is tried. Notice by publication or posting is usually given to the debtor, and in case the plaintiff proves Form of Writ of Attachment. Y- :h State or County of. . . The Ptople of the State of. ...to any constable of said county— Gkf.etim, : Whereas, A B (or agent or attorney of A B, as the case may be) hath complained that E F is justly indebted to the said A B in the amount of dollars; and that the said E F (here state the cause as in the affidavit) and the said A B, having given bond and security according to law: We, therefore, command you that you attach so much of the personal estate of the said E V to be found in your county, as shall be of value sufficient to satisfy the said debt and costs; and such personal estate so attached in your hands to secure, or so to provide that the same may be liable to further proceedings thereon, according to law, before the undersigned Justice of the Peace. And that you summon the said E F to appear before me, at my office, on the day of , next, and that you also summon, as garnishees, all persons, whom the plaintiff or his agent shall direct to appear before me at the same time and place, then and there to answer what maybe objected against him or them, when and where you shall make known huw you have executed this writ: and have you then and there this writ : Given under my hand and seal, this day of 18.. C £> s Justice of He t,.i. c. [-sau] ^ r THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS. 497 / his claim when the suit comes on for trial then a special execution directed only against the property attached is issued, and unless the debtor has been served, no general or personal judgment can be rendered against him, but it only goes against the property which has been attached. If the debtor desires it, whether he has been served or not, he can appear at the time and place of trial and contest the justice of the claim or the right of attachment, or both, and the two issues so presented will be tried and determined as in ordinary suits, and judgment will be entered upon the verdict or finding in each case. GARNISHMENT. One of the most usual ways of obtaining the benefit of attachment is by serving the writ on some one who owes money to the principal debtor and who is named as a garnishee, and upon such service, the garnishee, who is usually entitled to witness fees and mileage, is bound to appear at the time and place of trial and be ex- amined upon oath as to any property in his pos- session which belongs to the debtor, or any claims due to him from the garnishee, and, upon proper proceedings being had, a judgment will be entered, which will bind the garnishee to de- liver such property or pay such claims for the benefit of the plaintiff. In case a final judgment has been obtained and the execution returned unsatisfied, then, by making a proper affidavit, a garnishee summons may be issued and serred in the same manner as the writ of attachment upon any person or per- sons who are owing money to the judgment debtor, or who have in their hands goods or effects belonging to him. LIEN OF WRIT. A writ of execution becomes a valid claim and binds the property of the person against whom it is issued from the time it is delivered to the constable or other proper officer, so that a sale or purchase from that time is subject to be set aside and the property applied in payment of the execution. This is of great importance in dealing with persons against whom writs of execution have been issued and placed in the hands of an offi- cer, because no valid sale can be made of such property and the purchaser gets no title. A writ of attachment, however, only becomes a Hen from its levy, so that no one is likely to pur- chase property against which there is an attach- ment. ARREST BEFORE SUIT. Although imprisonment for debt has been abolished, yet, in certain cases, in most of the States and Territories, persons, against whom there are claims exfsting, are liable to be arrested and held until satisfaction of the claim, either because the claim grows out of some wrong that has been done to the plaintiff or because the debtor refuses to turn over his property in sat- isfaction of an execution. The writ for arrest is called a capias, and is very seldom used, and, in most cases, it would be unsafe to employ this remedy without legal advice. In all cases an affidavit and bond are required before the Jus- tice will issue the capias, which will be about in the following form: Form of Capias. State of » County of } The People of tfte State of' to any constable of said county — Gkeetixg : You are hereby commanded to take the body of and bring him forthwith before me, unless special bail be entered ; and if such bail be entered, you will then command him to appear before me at on the day of : at o'clock. . ..M., to answer the complaint of A B for failure to pay him a certain demand, not exceeding $.. ; and hereof make due return as the law directs. Given under my hand this day of 18 John Doe, J. P. 33 498 THE COLLECTION OF DEBTS. When the capias or order for the arrest is placed in the hands of the officer it is a warrant for that purpose and he is bound to arrest the defendant if he can be found and bring him forthwith before the Justice who issued the writ, unless some responsible person can be found who will become surety for the appearance of the defendant forthe trial. This is called "going bail " and is usually in the form of a short under- taking signed by the one who becomes surety or " goes bail." In all cases the Justice indorses upon the back of the capias the amount of bail, which will be required in order to liberate the defend- ant from arrest pending the trial. The bail is only held for the appearance of the defendant at the time and place of trial and that he shall surrender himself in execution in case he does not pay the judgment against him, and if he fails to appear or surrender them the person who became surety will be bound to pay the amount of the claim, with costs. Execution against the body may also be issued after judgment as above, but this is also unusual. PRIVILEGE FROM ARREST. Many officials and many persons are priv- ileged from arrest, particularly voters in going to and returning from elections, attorneys and witnesses attending Courts on business, and judges and other officers of the Court and in many cases militia men while going and return- ing from general drills or musters. LEVY AND SALE UNDER EXECUTION. Although, as we have seen that the execution becomes a lien from the time of its delivery to the officer, in order to ripen into a title and hold the property, it is necessary that a levy should be made upon the property which is to be sold to pay the judgment and costs. This requires that an actual seizure of the property be made, and that the officer should take such possession of it as will be notice of his claim and will exclude the owner and all other persons from its use and enjoyment. The constable is required to advertise the sale generally for ten days, and then he must sell at public auction, offering the property in such lots or parcels as will probably bring the great- est amount. During the time it is in his care, he must see that it is safely kept for the benefit of all parties; and in case an unnecessary sacri- fice must result he must postpone the sale from time to time. It is his duty to seize enough property to cover the amount of the judgment with interest and costs, remembering that the property is to be sold at a forced sale and that it will probably not bring full value; but at the same time he must be careful not to make an excessive levy as he would then be liable to the debtor in damages. The levy must be made according to the nat- ure of the things taken, and they must be re- duced to possession so far as can reasonably be done, but it is plain that a pile of saw logs or building materials can not be handled in the same way that would be required if the property were portable and easily stored. Notice of the levy must also be posted show- ing that the property has been seized and for what causes. After the sale the constable should indorse upon his execution what he has done with the property upon its sale and the amount realized and the application of the proceeds, and when- ever enough is obtained to pay the judgment with interest and costs, then the sale should be stopped and the balance of the property be re- turned to the debtor. The execution with its indorsement of sale remains with the files in the hands of the Justice and is a permanent record of what was done in the case. LIEN ON REAL ESTATE. When the plaintiff fails to obtain satisfaction of his judgment out of the personal property of the debtor, he can, in most States, obtain a tran- script of the judgment or copy of the docket IV ~7 THE COLLECTION OP DET5TS. 499 entries together with the original papers in the case from the Justice, and file the same with the clerk of the Circuit Court. The judgment will then become a lien upon the real estate of the debtor in that county in exactly the same manner as if a judgment ren- dered in the Circuit Court, and execution will issue and the land may be sold in the manner provided by law for the satisfaction of judg- ments in a Court of Record. CREDITOR'S BILL. Where the judgment can not be collected by ordinary process of law, but the debtor has assets which can be reached by a bill in chan- cery or proceeding in equity, then, if the amount is sufficient, this may be done, and prop- erty held in the name of others for the benefit of the debtor ; patent rights and other valuable interests belonging to him, but which can not be sold on execution, may be subjected to the payment of the debt. This is done by putting the debtor and those who are claimed to hold rights or property for him upon oath as to the extent and value of the debtor's interest, and by the appointment of a receiver, who is entitled to take possession of the property in question ; and, through the medium of the Court he obtains all the rights the debtor had, in order to secure a sale thereof and the collection of money suf- ficient to satisfy the judgment with all costs. This, however, is a somewhat complicated and ex- pensive proceeding and is not usually resorted to. DOES IT PAY. The usual expense of a suit in a Justice's Court is from two to five dollars, to which must be added all expense incurred upon execution or through the other means taken to enforce collection of a debt, besides lawyer's fees, if one is employed ; and in case of an appeal to a higher Court, it will be proportionately greater. These costs are made up of many small items, as the Justice is entitled by law to a small fee for every paper that he issues or files, for every continuance granted or witness sworn, etc., so that altogether it will amount to about the figures stated ; but these costs must be borne by the party who is beaten, and if a judgment is obtained and collected the plaintiff receives them back. CONCLUSION. It is plain that in matters of importance where suit is to be brought in the upper Court, or difficult points of law are involved, it is neces- sary, in the first place, to employ a lawyer to attend to the matter. If this is done, always take care to secure a competent, honest man, for nothing in this world is dearer than a cheap lawyer. —>+ 5"HE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM ITS OBJECT TO PREVENT BRIBERY AND INTIMIDATION, TO PLACt ALL CANOIOATCm OM AW EQUALITY BEfORE TMI LAW, AND TO BMABH POLITICAL MACHINES. The Australian system of voting, so called because first used in Australia, has been for several years in successful operation there, and, with non-essential variations, in England, Scotland, Ireland and Canada, In 1888 it was adopted in Massachusetts. Its principal objects are to pre- vent bribery and intimidation, to place all candidates upon an equality before ttie law, and to determine the danger- ous powers of political machines. The system will be readily understood by reference to the accompanying drawing: The voter, upon entering the polling place, turns to his right at the point marked "Entrance," where he receives from two election officers selected from opposing political parties a single ballot or a single set of ballots, according to the local custom of voting. On the back is indorsed a stamp or signature, sufficient and only sufficient to identify the ballot as official; and on the face are plainly printed the names of the candidates for each office, with a designa- tion of their respective political parties, after this manner: KuK M.WdK, Vote For One. Democrat it , Iota Doc. Republican, Richard Roe. Prohibition* David Smith. Independent, Samuel Jones. For Coroners. Vote For Two. Democratic* Alanson Jacobs. Harvey Sylvester. Republican* Martin Kawson. Wyman Simpson. Prohibition^ Valentino Remsen. Victor Sampson. Independent* Krastus Myers. Samuel Bixby. PREPARING A BALLOT. Having received his ballot, the voter enters one of the booths back of the railing, where, secluded from observa- tion, he prepares the ballot by placing in the blank column a cross opposite the name of each candidate for whom he desires to vote; or, if he prefers, by writing the nann 1 ol candidates of his own nomination in place of those already there. If there are several candidates for the same kind of office, as Coroners in the sample ballot above, or Presi- dential Electors, and he wishes to vote the "straight" ticket of his party, he places the cross under the name of the party, or draws it through the space in the blank column alloted to the party's candidates, which signifies thai he votes for each candidate named in that space. Thus, in the sample ballot, a cross under the word " Democratic," or through the first two spaces of the blank column to the right, is one vote each for Alanson Jacobs and Harvey Sylvester. After preparing his ballot by indicating every candidate for whom he votes, the voter folds it in such manner .is to conceal the face and expose the indorsement, and, with- drawing from the booth, gives the ballot to the inspectors, who identify it by the indorsement as official. It is then deposited in the box and the voter passes out at the gate marked " Exit." From the time he receives his ballot until he casts it, the voter is permitted to have no communication with any one but the election officers, and with them only for official purposes; and only election officers and persons actually engaged in voting are ever admitted within the railing. THE TASMANIA!* DODGE. Upon proof of inability from physical infirmity or illit- eracy, a voter may call into the booth officers appointed and sworn for the purpose to aid him in preparing his ballot ; and when a ballot is accidentally destroyed or defaced it may be exchanged for a clean one. The im- portance of the latter requirement may not at once be apparent; but to secure secrecy every ballot delivered to a voter must be either cast or returned. This explains the necessity for indorsing ballots. But for the indorsement a blank paper outwardly resembling a ballot might be cast by a voter, who would then be able surreptitiously to carry away an official ballot. This could be prepared for a bribed voter, the proof of its use being his production of a second official ballot. That could be similarly prepared and used, and so on. Such a fraud, known as the "Tasmanian dodge," was successfully perpetrated in Australia in the early days of the system; but its repetition was prevented by requiring ballots to be officially indorsed. As it is essential that ballots be printed at public expense and distributed by public officers, the system must include some mode of certifying nominations to the proper authori- ties a reasonable time before election. That proposed by the Yates-Saxton bill of New York was perhaps as con- venient as could be desired. Under it State nominations were to be certified fifteen days and local nominations ten days before election; nominations of a political party which at the next preceding election polled 3 per cent, of the whole vote were to be certified by party officers; and inde- pendent nominations, if for a State office, were to be certi- fied by a thousand voters, and if for a local office by a hundred. SECRECY OF THE BALLOT. Penal laws are ineffectual to prevent bribery and intim- idation. The primary remedy is a secret ballot. And this is best secured when the only proof of an elector's vote is his own uncorroborated assertion. Under the Australian system no other proof can be made. That fact gives to the most timid among dependent voters a sense of security which makes him free. And to briber) - it is fatal. Bribers are not likely to invest money on the faith of a bribed man's naked assertion; if there be such a virtue as " honesty among thieves," it is not acceptable security to the thieves themselves. But secrecy, though the primary remedy for briber)' and intimidation, is not all that is required to purify elections, nor the only remedy the Australian system offers. HOW THE TICKETS ARE PRINTED. The printing and distribution of ballots is a most im- portant part of election machinery, and, left to private en- terprise, inevitably tends, as docs the farming out of any other public function, to breed corruption and build up monopoly. It makes a necessity for UTesponsibte organi- zations which come to wield autocratic power over tbi itical party they claim to serve, and in turn, through pline almost military In severity, arc dominated by an inner circle of " leaders.' As ballots can neither be printed n«>r distributed without money, and may not be faithfully handled unless trusty workers are rewarded with more an election day stipend, the organization undrrt.ikii' . work lias ,1 plausible, if not reasonable, claim for 11 from its bem •ticiarios and official patronage for its retainers. ~7-< M "711 THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM. 50I kl It is the necessity of raising these funds and employingthe " workers " that justifies assessments, gives color of volun- tary contributions to what in truth are sales of nominations, excuses the submission of official patronage to the distribution of the machine, provides ample cover for collecting a corrup- tion fund, and, through "workers" at the polls, a convenient channel for disbursing the fund in bribes. And as corrup- tion funds increase, masked in increasing demands for legit- imate expenses, assessments grow, the price of nomina- tions rises, independence is shackled, and the organization becomes more indifferent to party principle as its monopoly of political power strengthens. Born of the necessity of volunteer machinery for preparing and distributing ballots," it develops into a powerful instrument, which, in the hands of political jobbers, enables them to buy and sell office " as the Praetorians sold the Roman purple." EXIT THE MACHINE. The political monster would be destroyed by the Australian system. If the State assumed its function of providing ballots there would be no necessity for "workers" at the polls, and the ex- cuse for raising, as well as the best mode of using, corruption funds would disappear. Assessments could not then be levied upon candidates, for when " work- ers " at the polls are not required ma- chines can neither serve nor injure. Nor would nomi- nations be sold ; for when ca ndi- dates stand upon an equality in respect to election machin- ery, and there is no opportunity for bribing voters, organizations merely as organizations, have nothing worth buying, while organizations as representatives of principles can not be approached through commercial channels. Trafficking in office would be replaced by political discussion, the power of the machine by the voice of the party. SOME OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED. To this system it is objected that by requiring nomina- tions to be made in advance of elections it denies a consti- tutional right of voters to select candidates from the whole body of voters. From such eminent authorities as Judges Cooley, McCrary and Folger, and the highest courts of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and New York, it may be safely inferred that a restriction of the franchise to candi- dates nominated a short time before election is a reason- able regulation and not an unconstituional interference ; but the inference is not necessary, since the system allows each voter to reject all candidates and write new names upon his ballot. It is objected also that by requiring the blind and illiter- ate to expose their vote to election officers, secrecy of the ballot is, as to them, violated. Under our present system voting is not secret. It was for that reason rejected by the British Parliament and the Australian system adopted. The object now is to secure secrecy, but in aiming at that we are confronted with a class of voters to whom exposure of their ballots to somebody is necessary, and an exception must be made in their favor to prevent their disfranchise- ment. What form, which shall be consistent with the highest degree of secrecy, can that exception take? If allowed to carry their ballots away these voters fall into the hands of irresponsible and, perhaps, dishonest persons, and may be made, innocently or otherwise, instruments for perpetrating some form of the " Tasmanian dodge." If, for their benefit, official ballots are generally circulated, all efforts for secrecy are frustrated. And, if they are per- mitted to take a " friend " into the booth, a door is opened for the bribery of every venal voter, who is or can success- fully pretend to be unable to read English. Exposure of ballots must be prevented by every means t^iat ingenuity can suggest, but, in exceptional cases, in which it can not be avoided, it may most safely be confided to election officers, who represent opposing parties, are under oath of secrecy and fidelity, can be readily detected in malfeasance, and, when detected, are liable to severe penalties. As to blind voters, this seems to be the only course, but, respecting the illiterate, any exception to the general rule may be avoid- ed by identifying the names on the ballots with num- bers or by printing them with inks of different colors. ITS ADOPTION IN THE UNITED STATES. The Australian Ballot System was practically intro- duced into the United States in 188S by its adop- tion by law in the State of Massachu- setts and the city of Louisville, Ky. The principle of the system was embodied in the Saxton bill, which passed the New York Legislature in the sessions of 18S8 and 1889, and was vetoed both times on the ground of unconstitutionality. A modification of the Saxton bill was introduced in the Legislature in the session of 1889, but was not passed ; another bill met with success in 1890, and was amended in some particulars, without changing its general form, in 1891. In 1889, following the example of Massachu- setts, the Legislatures of Indiana, Montana, Rhode Island,Wisconsin, Tennessee, Minnesota, Missouri, Michi- gan and Connecticut passed laws adopting the system. Most of the laws passed adhered closely to the Massa- chusetts form. The Connecticut form varied from it more than the others. In 1890 laws which are more or less modifications of the Australian system were adopted by Washington, New York, Maryland, New Jersey, Ver- mont, Wyoming and Oklahoma. In 1891 Arkansas, Cal- ifornia, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho. Illinois, Maine, Ne- braska, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, West Virginia and Arizona adopted laws based on the Australian system. The Au- stralian rule of placing candidates' names on the ballot in alphabetical order under the titles of offices prevails in California, Massachusetts, Kentucky, Minnesota, Mon- tana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Vermont, Washington and Wyoming. 5=^ 502 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. »■,»;,•*».», «;,«>?»* j>.o — c^C\AI MfjJV :*H OF THE 1^ WDTsva^aP &\^'?3$ff •» V'< ': Assignments, Attachments. Chattel Mortgages, Divorce, Exemptions, Rights of Married Women. Deeds and their Acknowledgment. Wills and Mechanics' Liens. Illustrations: The Coats of Arms of the States. °o*o~{.> -»-e> ALABAMA. CteSZSa52SaS2S25ESE53E35F--257I5Z5ES; ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by statute, which forbids prefer- ences or any provision for the release of the debtor. There is no insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS may issue upon affidavit of the creditor or his agent that the defendant is non- resident, has absconded, dis- posed of, transferred, or attempt- ed to remove his property out of flie State, and garnishment pro- ccss may be issued in aid of exe- cution. Judgments do not con- stitute li< us. Stay of execution is allowed in justices' courts for thirty to sixty days, but the only way (o delay the collection of a judgment of the Circuit Court is by appeal, which requires a bond for double the amount, legal inter- est, damages and cost of the appeal. Under the Constitution there can be no imnrisonment for debt. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace ia limited to $ioo. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded in the county where the grantor resides, also where the property is; and if the property is removed to a different county from the one in which the grantor re- sides, must there be recorded within six months from the removal. DEEDS may be acknowledged within the State before judges of a court of record or their clerks, chancellors and registers in chancery, yi a ' of tin: p are or notaries public. Out of the State and in the United States, by the judges and clerks of any court of record in any State, notaries public or commissioners appointed by the Governor, Out >f the United States, by the judge of any court of record, mayor or chi^f > Beer of any city, town, borough or county, notary public or any di[>l> i uic. Tonsillar or commercial agent of the United States. The wife may rolfnqnl -U her ri ;!it of dower by joining her husband in a conveyance and acknowledging the relinquishment. The husband mutt j-tm in conveyance of the wife's separate property. Neither seal nor send! is necessary. One witness is required. DIVORCE may be obtained for the following causes: Impotcncy, ttdulterv, desertion for two years, lia'-it nil drunkenness, imprison- ment for tWO vrurs an 1 continued cruelty. An allowance must be made by the court, out of the husband's estate, lor the support of the wife pending suit; also an allowance when the decree is made. The custody of minor children may be giyen to either parent, in the dis- cretion of the court. EXEMPTIONS are as follows: A homestead not exceeding 160 acres of land, or a lot in a city, town or village, with a dwelling- house thereon, not exceeding the value of $2,000. Personal property to the value cf $i,coo. May be selected by the debtor. Waiver of exemption is not valid unless joined in by the wife. MARRIED WOMEN may bold all property,real and personal, ac- quired before and aftermarriagc. as a separate estate not liable forthe husband's debts, and it may be devised or bequeathed as by a single woman, This separate estate is liable for debts contracted by the woman before marriage, and for contracts after marriage for articles of comfort and support of family. The wife is entitled to dower of one-half of husband's real estate, if he leave no lineal descendants, one-third if there - re any, provided she has no separate estate ; if her separate estate is less than the dower interest would be, she is entitled to as much as would make it equal. Women attain their legal ma- jority at twenty-one, but may marry without consent of their parents at eighteen. MECHANICS' LIENS. The process of collecting on liens is by attachment. Proceedings must be commenced within six months after the work is finished. Mechanics, contractors and laborers have a lien for work and labor done, or materials furnished; laborers and other employes of railroad companies have a lien upon all the prop- erty of the company for work done, and agricultural laborers have a lien on the crops for their wages. WILLS are recorded in the probate judge's office ; two witnesses are required. All persons over twenty-one years of age can dispose of real estate; all over eighteen, of personal property. Married women may bequeath their separate estau-s. No nuncupative will can dis- pose of more than five hundred dollars* worth of property. ARIZONA. ASSIGNMENTS. No insolvent or assignment law in this Territory. ATTACHMENTS issue in actions upon contract for direct pay- ment of money whore plaintiff has no security, or when defendant Is a non-resident. The plaintiff must give bond. Jurisdiction of jus- tices of the peace is limited to $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. The statute specifies certain classes of property on which mortgage can be placed. If mortgagee has pos- B of property, recording U not necessary. DEEDS may be acknowledged at any place in the Territory, before a justice or clerk of the Supreme Court, or of any court of record, a V. _^i a. v s justice of the peace, the mayor of a city or a registrar of deeds. The officer taking the acknowledgment must affix thereto his official seal. All rights of dower and curtesy are abolished. The wife must be examined apart from her husband to ascertain if she acts by her own free will. MARRIED WOMEN may carry on business and sue and be sued tn their own names. All property acquired before marriage, and all afterwards acquired, by gift, grant, devise or inheritance, is separate estate, liable for her own, but not for her husband's debts. She may control it and dispose of it in all respects like a, single woman. MECHANICS' LIENS. Artisans, builders, mechanics, lumber mer- chants, and all others performing labor or furnishing material for the construction or repair of any building, have a lien upon the same for the labor done or material furnished. Besides liens of the usual de- scription, any mechanic or artisan who alters or repairs any article of personal property has a lien thereon to secure his just charges, and may retain possession until he is paid. WILLS. The statute provides in great detail the manner in which wills shall be executed. Testators, male or female, must be twenty- one j'ears of age. Two witnesses are required. Nuncupative wills cannot dispose of more than three hundred dollars* worth of property. Married women may devise their separate estate. ARKANSAS. ASSIGNMENTS for the benefit of creditors maybe made with or without preference. Bond must be given by assignee in double the amount of property assigned, and all property received under as- signment must be sold at auction within 120 days. ATTACHMENTS may issue in a civil action , at or after commencement thereof, against property, where defendant is a non-resident of the State, or a foreign corporation, or has been absent four months from the State, or has departed from it with in- tent to defraud his creditors, or has left the county of his resi- dence to avoid service of a summons, or conceals himself so that a summons cannot be served upon him, or has transferred, sold, con- veyed or removed his property out of the State, or is about to sell, re- move or dispose of the same with fraudulent intent. Under a written attachment debts due the defendant may be garnisheed. Plaintiff must give bond with sureties to pay all damages defendant may sus- tain if th'c action is wrongly maintained. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be proved as other mortgages. They may be filed and not recorded, at the option of the mortgagee, and are liens from time of filing. Before sale under mortgage, the property must be appraised, and must bring two-thirds of the ap- praised value, or it is reserved from sale sixty days. At second offer- ing it is sold for what it will bring. DEEDS must be acknowledged before a iudge or clerk of the Supreme or Circuit Court, judge of County Court, justice of the peace or notary public. Two witnesses are required. No scroll or seal need be used. When husband and wife convey the lands of the husband, the certificate must show that the wife acknowledged the relinquish- ment. DIVORCE maybe granted for impotency, bigamy, adultery, con- viction of felony, habitual drunkenness, wilful desertion for one year, cruel and barbarous treatment. Plaintiff must reside in the State one year before bringing suit. Court may allow alimony to the wife. EXEMPTIONS. The homestead of a married person or head of a family in the country, not exceeding 160 acres, with improvements, not to exceed $2,500. Personal property of married person, $500 be- sides wearing apparel, and of a person unmarried, $200 and wearing apparel. MARRIED WOMEN have absolute and unqualified right in prop- erty of every kind and are not liable for debts or contracts of the husband. But a schedule under oath, and verified by some other reputable person, must be made by the husband and wife, and filed in the recorder's office of the county where the property is, and of the county where they reside. The wife may control her property, may carry on business on her sole and separate account, may sue and be sued, may make a will and may insure her husband's life for her ben- efit. The widow is entitled to one-third part of the estate, unless legally relinquished by her. MECHANICS' LIENS. Laborers have a lien on the product of their' labor; builde-s and mechanics, on all buildings for which they have furnished work, labor or materials. The original contractor must file his lien with the circuit clerk within three months after all the work shall have been done or the material furnished. WILLS are recorded in the Probate Court of the county in which most of the bequeathed land is situated ; but if only personal property* then in the county where the testator died. All over twenty-one years may devise real estate; all over eighteen, personal property. Three witnesses are required. Married women may devise their sep- arate property. CALIFORNIA. ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law by which a debtor surrender- ing his property may receive a discharge from his debts. No preferences permitted. No dis- charge in case of fraud, nor from debts due as a depositary of funds received as banker, broker or commission merchant. Assign- ments are not allowed unless un- der this law. ATTACHMENT issues in an action upon a contract for the direct payment of money, where the contract is made or is pay- able in this State, and is not se- cured by any mortgage or lien upon real or personal property, or any pledge of personal property ; or, if originally so secured, such security has, without any act of the plaintiff, become valueless. Gar- nishee process can be had in all cases where property is liable to attachment. J urisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES, to be valid against third parties, must show the residence and trade of the mortgageor and mortgagee, the rate of interest charged and when and where it is payable, and mort- gageor and mortgagee must each make affidavit that the mortgage is boTtaJide and made without design to defraud or delay creditors. DEEDS may be acknowledged within the Stute before any judge or clerk of a court of record, recorder, justice of the peace or notary public. Without the State, before any judicial officer, commissioner or notary. Husband or wife can convey separate property without the other joining, but both must join when the property is In common. A conveyance by a married woman has no validity until acknowl- edged. Deeds are known as grants, and need not be under seal. Two witnesses are required. DIVORCES are granted for adultery, extreme cruelty, conviction of felony, wilful desertion, neglect or habitual intemperance continued for one year. No divorce can be granted by default. EXEMPTIONS. The homestead on which debtor resides, to the value of $5,000, if he is the head of a family; if not, to the value of $1,000. Personal property exempt includes chairs, tables, desks and hooks, $200; necessary household and kitchen furniture, sewing-ma- chines, st:»ves, beds, etc. ; provisions for family forthree months, three cows, four hogs, two horses, oxen or mules; seed, grain and vege- tables for sowing, not above $200 in value ; tools and implements of V ^ 5°4 SPECIAL LAWS OF THK STATICS AND TKKKITOKIES. ' * a mechanic or artisan; instruments of a physician, surgeon or den- tist; professional library of attorney, minister, editor or teacher; a miner's cabin, not exceeding $500 of value, with all tools and gear necessary for bis business, not exceeding $500. Two horses or mules with harness, and the miner's claim worked by him, and not exceed- ing $1,000 in value, are also exempt. MARRIED 'WOMEN. AH property acquired in any manner before marriage, or afterwards by gift, grant, inheritance or devise, is wife's separate property, controlled by her and not liable for debts of the husband. The husband's property similarly acquired is not liable for debts of the wife. All property acquired after marriage by husband or wife, except as above, shall be common property, but under the husband's control. Dower and curtesy arc abolished, but the sur- vivor takes half the common property after payment of debts and expenses of administration. A married woman may dispose of her separate estate by will without the consent of her husband and may Insure her husband's life for her benefit. MECHANICS* LIENS. Mechanics, laborers and material-men have a lien on buildings for work done or materials furnished. An original contractor may file his claim within sixty days ; others, within thirty day*. Suit must be brought within ninety days from the date of filing the claim. A lien has precedence over any subsequent or previous unrecorded encumbrance. WILLS. Real or personal property may be disposed of by will by all persons over eighteen years of age. Two witnesses are required. Married women may dispose of their separate property without con- sent of their husbands. Nuncupative wills not exceeding $1,000 are valid, but must be reduced to writing within thirty days. COLORADO. ASSIGNMENTS. There is no insolvent or assignment law. ATTACHMENTS. Where defendant is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, evades service or at- tempts to remove his goods with intent to defraud, plaintiff m;iv obtain a writ of attachment by making affidavit and giving suf- ficient bond. Garnishee process will issue in aid of attachment where sufficient property to sat« isfy the same is not found. No civil action can be begun by ar- rest, except in cases where mal- ice, fraud or wilful deceit is shown, when execution may issue against defendant's body, and he may be imprisoned not exceed- ing one year, or until the judgment is satisfied. Jurisdiction of Of the pMCfl [l limited to $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES, to be valid as to third parties, must be acknowledged before a justice of the peace or notary public in the district where grantor lives, unless possession of the chattels actually passes. If the mortgageor retain possession the mortgage must ex- pressly provide for such possession ; otherwise it is void. Mortgage maybe given for a term of two years, and after default mortgagee must take possession without delay, or his lien will be void as to third parties. DEEDS may be acknowledged before any justice, clerk or deputy clerk of the Supreme or District courts, county judge, county clerk or n-< order, justice of the peace or notary public. Outside of the State, before the Secretary of any State under the seal of the Stud, any authorized officer in any State or Territory or any commissioner of deeds. Witnesses are not necessary, but arc desirable. A seal is re- <] iiirt td| but a scroll will answer, DIVORCES may be granted for adultery, impotency, bigamy, wil- ful desertion for one year, habitual drunkenness for two years, cmivmii' .riirllv or conviction for felony or infamous crime. One year's residence in the State is required before bringing suit, except where the offence was committed in the State or while one or both of the parties resided there. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead consisting of house snd lot in town or city, or a farm of any number of acres, in value not exceeding $2,000, is exempt if occupied by a householder and head of a family, provided it has been entered on record as a homestead and so speci- fied in the title. Personal property, including wearing apparel of the debtor and his family, pictures, school books, library, etc., And house- hold furniture, not exceeding $100; provisions for six months, tools, implements or stock in trade, $200; one cow and calf, ten sheep and necessary food for six months; working animals up to $xx>; the library and implements of a professional man up to $300. The head of a family may select personal property to the value of $1,000; others, to the value of $300. MARRIED WOMEN are treated, in all respects, as to their prop- erty rights, as if they were single. A wife may carry on trade or business, sue or be sued, contract debts, transfer real estate, and in all ways bind her separate property, without the husband's joining. She may make a will, but cannot bequeath more than half her prop- erty away from her husband without his consent in writing. The husband cannot by will deprive his wife of over one-half of his property. Dower is abolished. The husband is liable for debts of the wife contracted before marriage to the extent of the property he may receive through her, but no further. MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person furnishing materials or doing labor to the amount of more than $25 on any building may hold a Hen thereon. The principal contractor must file his lien within forty days, and sub -con tractor within twenty days. Suit must be brought within six months. WILLS. To devise real property, the testator, if male, must be twenty-one; if female, eighteen years of age. Either may bequeath personal property at .seventeen years of age. Two witnesses are re* quired. Neither husband nor wife can deprive the other of more than one-half the property by will, except the wife receive written consent of the husband allowing her to do so. CONNECTICUT. ASSIGNMENTS. In cases of insolvency, the Probate Court may appoint a trustee, on motion of a judgment-creditor for over $100, when no property can be found to attach. On the hearing which follows, the petition may be granted, and the trustee takes posseasion of all property not ex- empt. An allowance is made to the debtor for the support of his famil T ', and if the estate will pay seventy per cent he receives a full discharge. The debtor's property is exempt for two years from legal process upon debt* Which might have bom 1 Voluntary assignments 1 made by a debtor to a trustee chosen by himself, but the court of probate may substitute another. ATTACHMENTS. In cases of fraud or judgment for damages for misconduct or ni-^ln t, dl W tnlant maybe arrested, and may give bail to the person making the arrest. Goods concealed in the hands of agents, or money due the judgment-debtor, may be reached by foreign attachment; and no assignment of future earnings, unless recorded within forty-eight hours, will prevent their attachment when due. Where goods and lands cannot be found, the person of a defendant may be attached. J urUdktiou of justices of the peace limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded like deeds of real es- tate. A chattel mortgage of property not perishable in its nature is good although the grantor retains possession. Property exempt from execution is also a proper subject for a chattel mortgage. •X — - DEEDS must be in writing; and under seal, a scroll being sufficient. Two witnesses are required. Acknowledgment in the State is made before a judge <>f ;i court of record, justice of the peace, notary public, town clerk, commissioner of the Superior Court or commissioner of the school fund. The wife need not be privately examined apart from her husband. She must join with her husband in conveyance of her separate real estate, but the husband conveys his property without her signature. Dower attaches only to the separate real estate of the husband at his death. DIVORCE. Absolute divorce may be granted by the Superior Court for adultery, fraud, duress or force in obtaining the marriage, wilful desertion for three years, seven years' absence without being heard of, habitual intemperance, intolerable cruelty, sentence to imprisonment for life, the commission of any crime punishable by imprisonment in the State penitentiary and any such misconduct as permanently de- stroys the happiness of the petitioner and defeats the purposes of the marriage relation. Three years' residence in the State is necessary before filing a petition. Either party may marry again after divorce, and the court may change the wife's name and make order for alimony and custody of children. EXEMPTIONS. There is no homestead exemption. Personal property is"exempt as follows: Libraries not above $500 in value; a cow worth $150; ten sheep, not over $50 in value; two hogs, and 200 pounds of pork. Implements of trade, the horse, harness and buggy of a practicing physician, and the boat, not exceeding $200 in .aim-, of a person engaged in fishing, and used for that purpose, are also exempt. MARRIED WOMEN. Previous to the year 1877, the husband ac- quired a right to the use of all the real estate of the wife during her life, and if he had a child by her and survived her, then during his own life as tenant by curtesy. By the act of May 20th, 1877, the rights of married women are materially enlarged. Any woman married after that date retains her real estate as if unmarried. She may make con- tracts, convey real estate and sue or be sued in regard to any property owned by her at the time of marriage, or afterwards acquired. The estate is liable for her debts, and, jointly with her husband, for debts contracted for joint benefit of both or household expenses. The sepa- rate earnings of a wife are her sole property. Dower exists only in real estate of which the husband is possessed at the time of his decease. MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person furnishing materials or rend- ering services exceeding $25, in the construction or repair of any building or railroad, may have a lien on such building and land upon which it stands, or upon the railroad ; provided that no such lien shall attacli to any estate not owned by the party against whom such claim exists. A certified claim must be lodged within sixty days, and the premises may be foreclosed as in the case of a mortgage. A person wishing to obtain such lien shall hie with the town clerk a certificate in writing describing the premises, the amount of the claim and the date of the commencement. Vessels are subject to a lien for work or materials furnished exceeding $20 in amount, claim to be filed within ten days of the completion of the work. Liens for mariners' wages have precedence. WILLS must be in writing, signed by the testator and attested by three witnesses in his presence and in presence of each other. All persons over eighteen years of a^e can bequeath both real and per- sonal property. Wills are recorde \ in the Probate Court, and ten years are allowed to probate a will after tfie death of the testator. NORTH AND SOUTH DAKOTA. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences are allowed, but are not valid against any creditor not assenting thereto, if they tend to coerce the creditor to release his claim, or provide for payment of fraudulent claim, or reserve any benefit to assignor or confer any power on assignee which may delay the conversion of the assigned property or exempt the assignee from liability for neglect of duty. No insolvent law is in force. ATTACHMENTS may issue on plaintiff's giving bond when de- fendant is a non-resident, absconds, conceals or conveys property to defraud creditors. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to jjuoo in North Dakota, and to $joo in South Dakota. CHATTEL MORTGAGES are void unless the original or an authenticated copy be deposited with the register of deeds in the county in which the mortgaged property, or any part of it, at such time is situated. Mortgage must be signed by mortgageor in the pres- ence of two persons, as witnesses thereto, and no other proof or, acknowledgment is necessary. A chattel mortgage can be created, renewed or extended only by a writing subscribed by the mortgageor, and must be renewed every three years. DEEDS must be in writing, duly signed by the maker, and re- corded with the register of deeds of the county in which the properly is situated. Acknowledgment may be made within the State before a justice or clerk of the Supreme Court or of any court of record, a justice of the peace, the mayor of a city, or a register of deeds. The officer taking the acknowledgment affixes thereto his official seal. Outside of the State, before a justice, judge or clerk of any court of record of the United States or of any State or Territory, a notary public, or any other officer authorized by law to take such proof or acknowledgment. Outside of the United States, by the represen- tative thereof or of the country where proof is taken No certifi- cate of the official character of the officer is needed when acknowl- edgment is taken out of the State. Conveyance by a married woman has no validity until acknowledged. Dower and curtesy are un- known, and the wife need not join in conveying property of the hus- band, nor the husband in conveyance of land belonging to the wife, except in case of homesteads, when both must concur in and sign the same joint instrument, provided the owner is married and both hus- band and wife are residents of the State. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead consisting of not more than 16b acres, with buildings and appurtenances thereon, and personal prop- erty defined by statute, aggregating in value not to exceed $1,500, is exempted to a householder. A firm can claim but one exemption, not a several exemption for each partner. Tools and implements of a mechanic to the value of $200, books and Instruments of a professional man to the value of $600, are also exempt from seizure. MARRIED WOMEN may transact business in all respect- the same as if unmarried. Neither husband nor wife has any interest in the separate estate of the other. The earnings and accumulations of the wife are her separate property and not liable for the husband's debts nor even for household debts contracted by her as her husband's agent. Her separate property is, however, liable for her own debts, contracted before nr after marriage, if such debts are contracted on her own responsibility, MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics, laborers or material • men who shall perform labor upon, or furnish materials, machinerv or fixtures for, any building or other improvement, shall have for such labor performed, or materials, machinery or fixtures furnished, a lien upon such building or improvement, also upon the land upon which it is situate. The receiving of collateral security on the same contract will invalidate the lien. WILLS. Both real and personal property may be disposed of by will by all persons above eighteen years of age. Two witnesses are required, and wills the body of which is in the testator's handwriting, and signed and dated by him, need not be attested. Married women may dispose of their separate property without consent of their hus- bands, A will made by an unmarried woman is revoked by her mar- riage and not revived by the death of her husband. DELAWARE. ASSIGNMENTS must be made for the benefit of all creditors alike. Voluntary assignments are governed by the common law. ex- _M So6 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. . cept that a special partnership may not give preferences. The assignee must file within thirty days a schedule of property as- signed, and two appraisers are then appointed by the chancellor. A domestic insolvent law is in existence, providing for a full surrender and equal distribution of all property, but it is seldom used, and no provision is made for the discharge of the debtor upon his making an assignment. ATTACHMENT may issue in domestic cases when the debtor cannot be found, when defendant has fraudulently left the State, etc., and against foreign corporations or non-residents of the State. In both cases an affidavit setting forth the above facts must be given by the creditor or some responsible person in his stead. A capias may not be issued against the body of any debtor until an execution against his goods has been returned unsatisfied. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES are a valid lien for three years when recorded within ten days after acknowledgment. The lien of a pur- chase-money mortgage recorded within sixty days after it is made has preference over any judgment against the mortgageor or other un- known lien of a prior date. Foreclosure is made by order of the court; no equity of redemption. DEEDS must be recorded in the county in which the land lies within one year after the sealing or delivery thereof. A scroll answers for a seal, and one witness is sufficient. Acknowledgments may be made before any judge or clerk of record, justice of the peace or notary public. Outside of the State, the same as in Alabama. The wife must relinquish her right of dower, must be separately ex- amined, and the examination certified. DIVORCE may be granted by the Superior Court for adultery, im- potency at the time of marriage, habitual drunkenness, extreme cruelty, desertion for three years or conviction of crime sufficient to constitute a felony. In the case of marriage by fraud or for want of age, the wife being less than sixteen, the husband being less than eighteen, at the time of marriage, absolute divorce or divorce from bed and board may be granted, at the discretion of the court. The wife receives all her real estate and such other allowance and alimony as the court may decree where the husband is proved to be in fault. Wilful neglect of the husband to provide the necessities of life also forms sufficient grounds for divorce. EXEMPTIONS. Family pictures, family Bible and library ; lot in burial-ground and pew in church ; family wearing apparel and tools and implements necessary to carry on business, the whole not exceed- ing $75 in value, arc exempt from attachment. In addition to the above the head of a family may claim $200 of personal property. In New- castle county wages of laborers are also exempt. No homestead law. MARRIED WOMEN, married since 1873, retain all real and per- sonal property held at marriage, or since acquired from any person other than the husband, as their separate estate, and not subject to the disposal of the husband or liable for his debts. They may receive wages for personal labor, sue or be sued in respect to their own prop- erty as if unmarried ; and the rents, issues and profits of their separate estate are not controlled by the husband. The widow is entitled to one-third dower of all the lands and tenements whereof her husband was seized at any time during her marriage, unless she shall have re- linquished such right for and during the term of her natural life. She may be an administratrix, and the husband's life may be insured for her benefit if premium docs not exceed $150. MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person who has furnished material or performed labor to an amount exceeding $25 may obtain a Hen upon the building or structure for which such labor was given or such ma- terial furnished. Claims raiiat be filed within ninety days, and con- tractors must file a statement within thirty days after the expiration of ninety days from completion of the building. WILLS must be in writing, signed by the testator, and two wit- nesses are required. Any person, male or female, twenty-one years of age, and of sound mind, may dispose of real or personal property. Married women, in order to dispose of their property by will, must obtain the written consent of their husband, signed, sealed and attested by two witnesses. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. ASSIGNMENTS. No assignment or insolvent law is in force, ex- cept that assignments of the property of a special partnership with preferences are not valid. ATTACHMENTS may issue by plaintiff giving bond when the de- fendant is a non-resident, or removes, or is about to remove bis prop- erty, etc, CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within twenty days after execution. In case of bills of sale, deeds of trust, or other prop- erty which is exempt from execution, the mortgage must be signed by wife of grantor. DEEDS may be acknowledged before any justice or court of record and of law, any chancellor of State, any judge of Supreme, Circuit, District or Territorial Court, any justice of the peace, notary public or commissioner of the Circuit Court of the district appointed for that purpose. The officer must annex to the deed a certificate under his hand and seal. Acknowledgments outside of the District roust be accompanied by certificate of the register, clerk or other public officer, under his official seal, that the officer was what he purported to be at the time of the acknowledgment. Deeds made outside of the United Stales may be executed and acknowledged before any judge or chancellor of any court, master in chancery or notary public, or any secretary of legation or consular officer of the United States. EXEMPTIONS. Family wearing apparel; household furniture to the amount of $300; provisions and fuel for three months ; tools or in- struments necessary to carry on any trade, to the value of %ioa; library and implements of a professional man or artist not above $300; family pictures and library to the value of $400, and a fanner's team and other utensils to the value of $100, are exempt from attachment or sale on execution, except for servants' or laborer*' wages. There is no homestead exemption. MARRIED WOMEN may bequeath, devise or convey property or interest therein in the same manner as if unmarried. Real or per- sonal property belonging to the wife at marriage or afterwards ac- quired is separate estate. She may sue and be sued in all matters pertaining to her property, and the husband is not liable for any con- tracts made by her in respect to her personal estate. MECHANICS' LIENS. Any mechanic or laborer or material-man who shall perform labor or furnish materials for the construction or re- pair of any building, shall have a lien upon such building, and the land upon which the same is situated, for such labor done or material fur- nished, when the amount exceeds $jo. Claims must be filed with the clerk of the Supreme Court of the District within sixty days after the work is completed. WILLS. To dispose of real estate or personal property by will, males must be twenty-one, and females eighteen years of age, must be of sound mind and capable of making a deed or contract. Three wit- nesses are required. Married women may bequeath their m estate. Wills are recorded in the registry of wills. FLORIDA. ASSIGNMENTS. As no insolvent or assignment laws are in exist- ence In this State, debtors may assign their property with or without preference. V- \ \W SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. A 5°7 ATTACHMENT may issue by plaintiff giving bond with two se- curities in at least double the debtor sum demanded. Adffia- vit must be made setting forth the amount actually due; that de- fendant is a non-resident, and that plaintiff has good reason to believe he is about to part with his property fraudulently before judgment can be obtained, or intends to remove from the State, or to fraudulently secrete his property, etc. No arrest is al- lowed in civil actions, and no imprisonment for debt except in case of fraud. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, unless property is delivered within twenty days and remains in the possession of the mortgagee. Unless the mortgaged property be delivered at the time of execution of the mortgage, or within the twenty days, and unless such mortgage shall be recorded in the office of record for the county in which the mortgaged property shall be at the time of said execu- tion, the mortgage becomes ineffectual and invalid. Foreclosure is made by bill in equity or petit. on to the Circuit Court of the county in which the property lies. DEEDS may be acknowledged before any judge, justice of the peace or notary public, or before the clerk of a Circuit Court. If exe- cuted in another State, or foreign country, they may be acknowledged the same way as in Alabama. Deeds must be in writing, sealed and delivered in the presence of two witnesses, and must be recorded within six months after the sealing and delivery of the instrument. A scroll is sufficient for a seal. DIVORCE. Applicants for divorce must have resided two years within the State. Absolute divorces may be granted only by the Cir- cuit Courts. Adultery, impotency, bigamy, extreme cruelty, habitual intemperance or desertion for one year are sufficient causes. Alimony may be granted to the wife by the courts, and provision for a division of property when a decree is granted. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead of 160 acres of land, together with improvements, in the country, or a residence and one-half acre of ground in a village or city, is exempted to the head of a family. Also personal property to the value of $1,000. No property is exempt from sale for taxes or for obligations contracted for its purchase or for the erection of improvements thereon. The wages of every laborer who is the head of a family are also exempt under any process of law. MARRIED WOMEN retain all real or personal property owned at marriage or acquired thereafter, and are not liable for the husban d's debts. In order that it shall be free from his debts, the property must be inventoried and recorded within six months after mar- riage or subsequent acquirement of the property. The wife may sell and convey all real estate inherited by her the same as if she were unmarried; but her husband must join in all sales, transfers and conveyances of her property, both real and per- sonal. She is entitled to dower in a life estate in one-third of all the real estate of which her husband was seized and possessed at his death or at anytime during his life, unless she has relinquished the same; also an absolute one-third of his personalty. MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics and laborers have a lien upon a building for which they have furnished labor and materials, and upon the owner's interest in the lot on which the building stands. Claims must be filed within six months after the work is done or materials furnished, and suit be brought within one year. Agricultural laborers have a lien on the crops cultivated by them to the amount of their wages, and laborers and contractors have a prior lien on logs, lumber, etc., for their labor in cutting or manufacturing the same into boards, laths or shingles. Machinery furnished for any mill, distillery or manufactory obtains a lien to the extent of the interest of the tenant or contractor. WILLS. Any person twenty-one years of age and of sound mind may dispose of real or personal property. Three witnesses are required. Nuncupative wills must be proved by three witnesses who were pres- ent when it was made,, and such will may be reduced to writing and sworn to within six days. GEORGIA. ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by a statute which permits prefer- ences, except by special partnership, but every assignment made by a debtor insolvent at the time, either in trust or in behalf of a creditor, is fraudulent and null and void when any trust or bene- fit is reserved to the assignor, or any person for him. There is no insolvent law and no imprison* ment for debt. ATTACHMENTS may issue by plaintiff filing bond in double the amount involved, when de- fendant is a non-resident, is about to remove without the lim- its of the county, absconds, con- ceals himself, or resists legal arrest, attempts to remove property be- yond the State, or fraudulently disposes of property, or threatens or prepares so to do, or creates a fraudulent lien thereon. First attach- ment levied has priority. Garnishment issues in aid of attachment or judgment, but wages of journeymen, mechanics and laborers are exempt from garnishment. Jurisdiction of justice of the peace is limited to $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within thirty days in the county where the mortgageor resides ; and if the property is situ- ated in anothercounty.it should be recorded there also. Foreclos- ure by affidavit before justice, notary, or, if non-resident, before commissioner for the State. DEEDS must be attested by two witnesses, and if not recorded within one year the deed loses priority over a subsequent deed re- corded within the year. A deed roust be in writing, under seal (a scroll will answer), and made for a consideration. Acknowledgments within the State may be taken by a judge or clerk of a court of record, commissioner of deeds, justice of the peace or notary public. In other States or Territories, by a commissioner of deeds for Georgia, or judge of court of record in the State where executed, with a certi- ficate of the clerk under the seal of such court of the genuineness of the signature of such judge. DIVORCE. Grounds for total divorce are as follows: Marriage within the prohibited degrees of affinity or consanguinity ; mental or physical incapacity at the time of marriage; force, menace, duress or fraud in obtaining it; adultery, wilful desertion by either party for three years, cruel treatment by, or habitual intoxication of either party, or sentence to the penitentiary for two years or over for any offence involving moral turpitude. No total divorce may be granted except by the concurrent verdict of two juries, rendered at different times of court; and when a divorce is granted, the jury rendering the final verdict determines the rights and disabilities of the parties. EXEMPTIONS. Each head of a family, or guardian, or trustee of a family of minor children, and every aged or infirm person, or per- son having the care and support of dependent females of any age, who is not the head of a family, is entitled to realty or personalty, or both, to the value in the aggregate of $1,600. Said property shall be exempt from levy and sale by virtue of any process whatever, under the laws of this State, except for taxes, purchase -money of the home- stead, labor done thereon, or material furnished therefor, or for the removal of encumbrances. MARRIED WOMEN retain as a separate estate all property in their possession at the time of marriage, or afterwards acquired and are not liable for any debts, defaults or contracts of the husband. By ^J :«F 5 o8 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. consent of her husband advertised for four weeks she may become a free trader, In which event .s.!ie is liable the same as if unmarried. The wife may not bind her estate by any contract of suretyship, either in behalf of her husband or any other person. The widow takes dower in one-third of all the lands of which her husband was seized at his death; and wife and children, after the husband's death, arc entitled to one year's support from his property, all other claims yield- ing to this. MECHANICS* LIENS. Mechanics, not having taken personal security, have a prior lien on the property built or repaired by them, which lien attaches, without regard to the title, in said property. The claimant must have substantially complied with his contract, must have recorded his lien within three months in the clerk's office of the county in which the property is situated, and must bring- suit within one year after it becomes due. Those furnishing machinery, or labor for its repair, officers and employes of steamers or other water craft, millwrights, and builders of railroads, have a like lien if similarly en- forced. Landlords have a special lien for rent on crops, which is superior to the homestead exemption law, and to all other liens except for taxes. WILLS may be made by persons of either sex who have arrived at the age of twenty-one years. Three witnesses are required. Wills are recorded in the Ordinary's Court. Married women may bequeath their separate estate. IDAHO. ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law exists, under which the debtor is discharged upon making an assignment, as therein provided, except in cases of fraud. ATTACHMENTS may issue in actions upon contract for the direct payment of money, when the plaintiff has no lien or security, or when the defendant is a non-resident, etc. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded in the county where the debtor resides ; otherwise they ure null and void as regards credit- ors and purchasers. Record should also be filed in the county where the goods may be. Affidavit must be made as to good faith, and no intention to defraud creditors. DEEDS must be acknowledged the same as in Dakota; they must be in writing, signed and scaled (scroll will do), and no witnesses are required. Dower and curtesy are unknown. The husband must join in conveying the realty of the wife, who must be examined privatelv, certifying that the act 13 free and voluntary, without fear or compul- sion, or influence of the husband, and that she does not desire to re- tract the execution of the same. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead worth $5,000 is exempted to a house- holder who is head of a family ; either husband or wife may select the homestead. Personal property is also exempted to the value of $300. Exemption does not extend to purchase* money or to mortgages on the property. MARRIED WOMEN. All property, both real and personal, owned at marriage or afterwards acquired, by either wife or husband, re- mains a separate estate. All property acquired after marriage is held in common. Separate property of the wife should be inventoried with the county recorder; the husband has control of it during marriage, but cannot create a lien or encumbrance unless joined by the wife, >vhu i I uciunlned ••'■paruiely. If the husband mismanages, or commits tba District Court may, on application of wife, appoint a trustee to manage her separate property. Upon the death of husband or wife half the common property goes to survivor; if no direct descendants, all goes to survivor. MECHANICS' LIENS. The Improvement and development of mines, claims, flumes, bridges and ditches come under the law of me- chanicV liens. Claims must not be less than $35. Original contractor must file his claim within sixty days ; others within thirty. The lien | \M' & expires after one year unless suit is brought, and continues in force two years and no longer. Mechanics or artisans have a lien on arti- cles left with them to repair or alter, and may sell them within two months unless charges are paid, provided the sale be advertised for three weeks. WILLS. At twenty-one years of age testator may dispose of realty, and at eighteen of personal property; two witnesses are required. Married women may dispose of their separate estate, both real and personal. Husband must leave wife one-half of common property. The will must first be recorded in the Probate Court, afterwards in all counties where any realty is conveyed by the will. ILLINOIS. ASSIGNMENTS are made without preference, and all debts must be paid / *v rata. While no provision is made for the discharge of the debtor, yet all proceedings may be discontinued with the assent of the debtor and a majority of the creditors in number and amount. The County Court has jurisdic- tion in all cases of assignment for benefit of creditors. Assignee must file bond, inventory and valuation, and send notice to creditors, who must present their claims under oath within three months. Claims not so presented do not share in dividends until after the payment of all claims properly presented and allowed. Assignee is required to make legal division among creditors at the Ant term of court after the three months allowed, and to render final account within one year. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS may issue by plaintiff giving bond with approved security, in double the amount of the claim. Plaintiff must also make affidavit to one or more of the following facts: That the debtor Is non-resident, conceals himself, resists process being served on him, has departed from the State or is about to do so, with the intention of removing his effects ; or has, within two years preceding, fraudulently disposed of his property, or a part thereof, so as to hinder or delay creditors; or where the debt sued on was fraudulently contracted. Writs may issue from courts of record on claims exceeding $», from justices' courts not exceeding $200, and in county courts claims may not exceed $1,000. The wages of any person who is head of a family are exempt from garnishment to the amount of 550. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $joo. CHATTEL MORTGAGES should be properly acknowledged and recorded, although as between the parties themselves this is not neces- sary. Property must be fully described so it may be identified. They are invalid as to third parties if given fur longer than two years, or if the property mortgaged is allowed to remain in poaseasion of the mort* gageor, unless expressly provided for in the mortgage. A mortgage given on a stock of goods is fraudulent as to third parties, if the mort- gageor be allowed to remain in possession of the goods. DEEDS may be acknowledged before a master in chancer)*, notary public, United States commissioner, circuit or county clerk, justice of the peace, any court of record having a seal, or any judge, clerk or justice of any such court. Outside of the State and in the United States, In c»nformity with the laws of the State, Territory or District where made. The officer must be authenticated by the certificate of the county clerk or clerk of record under his official seal. If before a justice of the peace, it must be certified by the proper clerk, under the seal of bis office, that the person before whom the acknowledg- ment was made was a justice of the peace at the time of making the same. No deed will waive homestead right, unless expressly stated, both in the deed and certificate of acknowledgment A scroll answers for a seal, and no witnesses are required. SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 71 5°9 DIVORCE may be granted, where complainant has been a resident of the State for one year, for impotency, bigamy, adultery, desertion or drunkenness for two years, attempt upon the life of the other by poison or other means showing malice, extreme cruelty, conviction of felony or other infamous crime. If no defence is interposed, decree may be granted on testimony of complainant alone ; but examination of witnesses must be had in open court, and the judge is required to be satisfied that all proper means have been taken to notify defendant. When decree is granted the court may restore the wife's maiden name. During pendency of suit the court may require the husband to pay such sum as may enable the wife to maintain or defend the suit, and alimony, when declared just and equitable. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead valued at $i, coo is exempted to every householder who has a family ; such exemption not covering liabilities for purchase-money or improvementof the homestead. After the death of a householder his family are entitled to the exemption so long as the survivor occupies it, or until the youngest child is twenty-one years of age. There are also exempted to every person wearing apparel, school books, family pictures and family Bible, and $100 worth of other property selected by the debtor. In addition to this, $300 worth may be selected by the debtor if a head of a family ; but such selection cannot be made from any money or wages due; no exemption is allowed when the debt is for the wages of laborer or servant; $50 of wages is exempt to every head of a family if residing with the same. MARRIED WOMEN may own in their own right realty and per- sonalty, may sue and be sued, contract and incur liabilities, the same as if unmarried ; but they may not enter into or carry on any partner- ship business without consent of the husband, unless abandoned by him or he is incapable of giving assent. Beyond the necessaries, the husband is not liable for debts of the wife, except in cases where he would be jointly liable if the marriage did not exist. The estate of both is liable for family expenses, but the wife's separate earnings are her own. A surviving wife or husband takes one-third of all the realty of the deceased, unless relinquished in due form. The husband and wife are put upon the same footing as to dower, and the estate of curtesy is abolished. MECHANICS* LIENS. Any person who shall, as principal con- tractor, by contract, express or implied, with the owner of any lot or piece of land, furnish labor, material or services, in building, altering, repairing or ornamenting any house or building on said lot, shall have a lien upon the lot or building for the amount due him for such labor, material or services; provided, that the owner shall only be liable to the extent of his interest therein ; and every sub- contractor, mechanic, workman or other person who shall, in pursu- ance of the original contract, perform any labor cr furnish any ma- terials for the purposes above mentioned, shall have a lien as in the case of principal contractors, the aggregate of such liens not to exceed the price stipulated in the original contract, unless it shall appear to the court that the owner and principal contractor designed to defraud sub-contractors by fixing an unreasonably low price in the contract. When the contract is expressed, if the time stipulated for its comple- tion is beyond three years from its commencement, or if the date of payment is more than one year from its completion, there shall be no lien. If the contract is implied, no lien shall be had unless the con- tract be completed within one year from its commencement. WILLS. All males twenty-one, and all females eighteen years of age, may dispose of real and personal property. Two witnesses are necessary. Wills are filed in the Probate Court, and originals remain there. INDIANA. ASSIGNMENTS. By filing with the recorder of the county in which assignor resides, within ten days after its execution, an indenture duly signed and acknowledged, setting forth a full description of all his realty and accompanied by a schedule of all his personalty, to which assignor makes oath, any debtor in embarrassed circumstances may make a general assignment of all properly m trust for the benefit of all bona fide creditors. Trustee makes oath and files bond in Circuit Court, also copy of assignment, within fifteen days after execution of indenture. If the trustee named fails to act, the court may appoint a substitute upon petition. Trustee's com- pensation is fixed by the court, and dividends are declared pro- rata on all claims allowed by trustee or the court. No pro- vision for discharge of debtor from his liabilities. ATTACHMENTS may issue against the property of non-residents or foreign corporations, and against all who have disposed of, or are about to dispose of their property to defraud, hinder or delay credit- ors. Plaintiff must give bond to answer damages if proceedings are unjust or oppressive. An affidavit is also required, which may be made by the creditor or his attorney. All creditors who file under the original attachment, before final judgment, share pro rata in the pro- ceeds of the attached property. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $200; or $300 upon confession. CHATTEL MORTGAGES are not valid as to third parties unless recorded within ten days ; a mortgage of perishable articles left in the hands of the grantor, with right to use the same, is void; a mortgage on a stock of goods, the grantor having a right to sell, is void ; any mortgage is void if unregistered and the chattels left with the grantor; so also is a recorded mortgage if the goods are left unreason- ably long with the grantor, after default is made in payment. DEEDS must be in writing, and acknowledged and recorded within forty-five days from their execution ; seals are abolished and witnesses are not necessary; dower and curtesy are unknown ; hus- band and wife must join in conveying the separate estate of either. Acknowledgments within the State may be taken before a judge or clerk of a court of record, justice of the peace, auditor, recorder, no- tary, or mayor of a city; in other States and Territories before similar officers or a commissioner of deeds for Indiana. DIVORCE. Petitioners for divorce must be bona fide residents of the State for two years, and of the county at the time of, and for at least six months prior to filing the petition ; the oath of two resident freeholders being required to this fact. Decrees may issue by the Superior or Circuit Court for the following causes; Impotency at marriage; adultery (where connivance or collusion is not proven); habitual cruelty or habitual drunkenness by either party ; abandon- ment for two years ; failure by the husband to provide for the family for a period of two years, and conviction of either party of an infa- mous crime at any time subsequent to marriage. EXEMPTIONS. There is no homestead exemption; any resident householder has exempted real or personal property, or both, to the amount of $600 on any debt founded on contract since May 31st, 1S79. On debts founded on contracts made previous to that date, exemption is $300. Exemption does not, in any event, affect liens for labor, purchase-money or taxes. MARRIED WOMEN retain all realty and personalty owned by them at marriage, or afterwards acquired, and are not liable for the husband's debts. The husband is liable for debts of the wife con- tracted before marriage only to the extent of the personal property he may receive from or through her, or derive from sale or rent of her lands. She may sell personal property, but she may not convey or encumber her real estate unless the husband joins. Suits against her separate estate should be brought in the name of both. A widow takes one-third of her deceased husband's real estate in fee simple, free from all demands of creditors, where the estate does not ex- ceed $10,000; where the estate is over $10,000 and under $20,000, she takes one-fourth; and one-fifth if it exceeds $20,000. She also takes one-third of the personalty after payment of debts, and in all cases ~T 5"> / SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. takes $500, without accounting, and may occupy the dwelling and forty acres of land for one year, rent free. MECHANICS' LIENS. "Workmen, contractors, mechanics and others who may furnish labor or materials have a lien on the land and buildings for material or labor furnished ; the statute also pro- vides a lien on all boats, for work or repairs, or wages earned. Em- ployes of corporations have a Hen on the property and earnings for all labor done, which takes precedence of all other claims. Con- tractors have a lien on railroads where they are not in operation; commission merchants on goods left for storage, artisans on articles left for repair, and landlords on crops raised on leased lands. Notice must be filed within sixty days after the completion of the work, and suit must be brought within one year. WILLS. All persons twenty-one years of age may bequeath both real and personal property. Record must be made in the office of the county clerk where probated. Two witnesses are required. Nuncu- pative wills may not exceed $100. Married women may dispose of their separate estate. IOWA. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences are allowed, regulated by statute. A debtor may make assignment for the benefit of all credit- ors, with inventory and schedule of debts. Claims must be filed with the assignee within three months after publication of as- signment. Dividends arc made pro rata after State and mu- nicipal taxes have been paid la full. An assignment does not discharge the debtor from all lia- bilities. ATTACHMENTS are sub- stantially the same as in Illinois. Upon plaintiff giving bond for penalty and making affidavit that defendant is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, has disposed of or is about to remove his prop- erty, intends to permanently remove from the State, has absconded or concealed his property, a writ of attachment may issue. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $100; by consent of parties, $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be acknowledged and recorded the same as deeds and other conveyances. The mortgaged property is left in possession of the mortgagee unless otherwise provided. Sales under foreclosure may be made in the same manner as other sheriff sales, and foreclosure may be made by sheriff without actio 1 ot court. DEEDS must be in writing, signed and acknowledged; no seat or scroll is necessary ; no witnesses are required. Acknowledgments la the State may be made before a judge or clerk of any court of record, county auditor or his deputy, each notary or justice of the peace in hts own county. Out of the State, before some court of record, notary public or justice of the peace, or a commissioner for the State of Iowa. DIVORCE may be granted by the District or Circuit Court of the county in which plaintiff resides. Plaintiff must declare under onth that he or she has resided in the State for one year next preceding the filing of the petition, unless defendant is resident, and N personal service of the writ. A decree may issue against the hus- band for adultery, wilful desertion for two years, conviction of felony subsequent to marriage, habitual drunkenness and continued ill-treat- ment. The husband may obtain a decree for like causes, and also when the wife at the time of marriage was pregnant by aimtlur. Bigamy or impotency at the time of marriage is also a sufficient cause to annul. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead in country of 40 acres, or in town or city of one-half acre, with improvements and buildings to the aggregate value of $500, is exempted to the head of every family. If less than $500 in value, it may be increased to that amount. It is not exempted from execution for the purchase-money thereof, or for debts contracted prior to its acquirement. Upon the death of either hus- band or wife the homestead passes to the survivor. Professional men are allowed their libraries, instruments, etc., and a team and wagon; printers retain their presses and type to the value of %\ ,200. The head of a family may claim wearing apparel, tools, a gun, his library and furniture to the extent of $200 in value. The personal earnings of the debtor for ninety days preceding the execution, certain stock, with food for them for six months, a pew in church and a lot in a burying ground are also exempt. Non-residents and unmarried persons, not being heads of families, can only claim their ordinary wearing ap- parel and trunk necessary to carry the same, to the value of 175. MARRIED WOMEN may own in their own right real and per- sonal property acquired by descent, gift or purchase, may sell, convey and devise the same, may sue and be sued, make contracts and buy goods in their own name. Wife or husband are not liable for the debts of the other before marriage, or for separate debts incurred aftctwards. The wife's earnings are her own, and her note is good against her own estate. Women attain majority at eighteen, or ear- lier upon marriage; a female of fourteen may marry. The surviving wife or husband is entitled to one-third of the real estate of the de- ceased, free from all claims of creditors. If they leave no children, survivor takes one-half, parents the other half. MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics and workmen have a Hen upon buildings and improvements, and the ground upon which they are sit- uated, for work done or materials furnished. Railways are liable for construction and improvements. The taking of collateral security invalidates a lien. The lien must be filed by principal contractor within ninety days; by sub -contractor and others, within thirty days- Suit must be brought within two years after filing statement. Liens have priority in the order in which they are filed, and are assignable; and when for labor alone, they are exempt from execution. WILLS. Testators must be twenty-one years of age. Two wit- nesses are required. Nuncupative wills cannot exceed $300 worth of property, and must be sworn to by at least two disinterested witnesses. Foreign wills must be probated in the State. KANSAS. ASSIGNMENTS must be for the benefit of all creditors alike, and do not discharge the debtor. Creditors whose claims amount to more than ten dollars are notified by th, clerk of the District Court', and a meeting Is held to choose i.;nee. Unless a majority of the creditors are present the appointment rests with the court. Those who fail to appear are pre- cluded. One month is given assignee to pay out funds in his hands after allowance of de- mands. The property must be appraised, and assignee is in all respects subject to order of the court, and his accounts are ad upon by a commissioner bafaw hJ* disch a rge. An assignment must be executed' and recorded tne same as any conveyance of real estate. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS arc substantially the same as in Illinois. They may be had agahnc the property of non-resident debtors, or in cases of fraud or attempt to remove or secrete property. Moncv or prop- erty due or belonging to defendant may be reached by garnishment. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to S300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES need not be acknowledged; copy of mortgage deposited with register of deeds in county where mnrtgagcor livrs. Mortgage of perishable articles left in the hands of mortgagcor ■7Z 1A SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. ;& 5" with right to use them, or of ;i stock of goods left in the hands of the mortgageor with privilege to sell, are void as to creditors of the mortgageor unless they are duly notified. DEEDS must be in writing; neither seals, scrolls nor witnesses are required. Acknowledgments in the State must be before a court hav- ing a seal, a judge, justice or clerk thereof; a justice of the peace, notary public, county clerk or register of deeds, or mayor or clerk of a city; outside the State, before a court of record, or clerk or officer holding the seal thereof, a notary public, justice of the peace, or com- missioner appointed by the Governor of Iowa; if before a justice of the peace they must be accompanied by a certificate of his official character, to which the seal of some court shall be affixed. No sepa- rate acknowledgment is necessary on the part of the wife, but she should join the husband in conveying, whether the property is her separate estate or not. DIVORCE. To obtain a decree of divorce, p'laintiff must have re- sided in the State one year, and must bring suit in the county of resi- dence. Decrees are granted in the Circuit Court on the following grounds: Adultery, impotency, fraudulent contract, extreme cruelty, habitual drunkenness, gross neglect, abandonment for one year or conviction of felony. EXEMPTIONS. An independent fortune is exempted in this State. A homestead of 160 acres of farming land, or of one acre within an in - corporated town or cit)', with buildings and improvements thereon, with no limit to value. The head of every family is allowed personal property as follows: The family library, school books and family Bible ; family pictures and musical instruments in use ; pew in church and lot in burial ground ; all wearing apparel of the family, beds, bed- steads and bedding, one cooking stove and appendages and all other cooking utensils, and all other stoves and appendages necessary for the use of the debtor and his family; one sewing-machine, spinning- wheel and all other implements of industry, and all other household furniture not herein enumerated, not exceeding $500 in value; two cows, ten hogs, one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, or in lieu of one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, a span of mules or horses ; twenty sheep and their wool ; food for the support of the stock for one year; one wagon, two plows, drag and other farming utensils not ex- ceeding in value $300; grain, meat, vegetables, groceries, fuel, etc., for the family for one year; the tools and implements of any me- chanic, miner or other workman, kept for the purpose of carrying on his business, together with stock in trade not exceeding $400 in value ; library, instruments and office furniture of any professional man. Residents, not the head of a family, have tools, implements and stock iu trade up to $400. No personal property is exempt for the wages of any clerk, 'mechanic, laborer or servant. A Hen on the homestead may be created by husband and wife joining in the mortgage. MARRIED WOMEN have the same property rights as men, and may make contracts, carry on business, sue and be sued, and sell or convey real estate precisely as their husbands ; their earnings or profits r.re their own. A note or endorsement made by a married woman will bind her property the same as if unmarried. Homestead is absolute property of widow and children, and neither wife nor husband may bequeath more than half their property without written consent of the other. If either die intestate and without children, the entire property goes to the survivor, MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics, workmen and others perform- ing labor, or furnishing materials for the construction or repair of any building, have a lien on the building and the whole tract of land. Original contractor must file his claim in the office of the Circuit Court within four months; sub-contractors and others, within two months. Suit must be brought within one year. Artisans or mechanics may hold articles of construction or repair, and if charges are not paid within three months they may sell the same. WILLS are recorded in the office of the Probate Court; if made in other States they must be probated in the county where the property lies. The testator must be twenty-two years of age, and two witnesses are required. & l HSZS3SEHE5aS25E5'H5H5ZSH5E5aSa l KENTUCKY. ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by statute. Any preference may be set aside in six months. Trustee must give bond, and settle his account in two years. A general assignment for the equal benefit of all creditors may be made, and all claims must be proven. There is no provision for the discharge of an insolvent debtor unless debts are paid in full. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENT issues where defendant is non-resident or a foreign corporation, or has been absent from the State, evades service, conceals, attempts to re- move, disposes of or conveys property with intent to defraud or delay creditors. Plaintiff must give bond in double the amount of his claim, with security. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be duly acknowledged and re- corded, and, except as to craditors having actual notice, lake effect only from the time they are recorded in the county clerk's office. The mortgaged property may remain in possession of the mortgageor, and may be redeemed within five years. DEEDS executed in this State by others than married women are acknowledged before the clerk of a County Court, or may be proved by two subscribing witnesses, or by one who also proves the attesta- tion of the other, or by proof of two witnesses that the subscribing witnesses are both dead or out of the State, or one so absent and the other dead, and like proof of the signature of one witness and the grantor. The deed of a married woman must be acknowledged before a clerk of the County Court, who shall explain to her the contents and effect of the deed separately and apart from her husband ; if she freely and voluatarily acknowledge the same, and is willing for it to be recorded, he shall certify the same. Deeds made by residents of Kentucky must be recorded within sixty days from the date thereof; four months is allowed to non-residents, and if living out of the United States, twelve months. The record dates from the time when the clerk's fee is paid. No seal or scroll need be used, and no wit- nesses are required. DIVORCE. Before a petition can be presented for a decree of divorce, one year's continuous residence in the State is required. Jury trials are not permitted, and decrees are granted by courts having equitable jurisdiction. An absolute divorce maybe granted to the party not in fault on the ground of adultery, impotency, etc., separa- tion for five years, condemnation for felony subsequent to the mar- riage, force, duress or fraud in obtaining the marriage, or uniting- with any religious society which requires a renunciation of the marriage contract. Habitual neglect or maltreatment on the part of the hus- band, or where the husband is a confirmed drunkard, may give the wife a divorce ; and where the wife is proven unchaste, or pregnant by another man at the time of marriage, the husband is entitled to divorce. The parties are free to marry again, and their personal property is restored. EXEMPTIONS. To bona fids housekeepers with a family are ex- empted from execution and attachment for debt: A homestead to the value of $1,000; two work beasts, or one work beast and one yoke of oxen ; two cows and calves; one wagon or cart; two plows and geat ; five head of sheep; provisions for family and provender for stock for one year ; the tools and stock of a mechanic who is a housekeeper and has a family, not exceeding $200 in value ; libraries or instruments of professional men, which may vary in value from one to seven hundred dollars; the wages of a laboring man to the amount of fifty dollars, except for house rent and necessaries. MARRIED WOMEN may hold real or personal property as a sep- arate estate free from the control of the husband or liability for his debts. By petition to the Circuit Court, in which the husband must Y- -M !C **1 — join, she may acquire the right to transact business in her own name. Unless dower be barred, forfeited or relinquished, she takes one-third of the real estate and one-half of the personal property. MECHANICS' LIENS. Mechanics, laborers and workmen, under the general law, have a lien for labor performed or materials furnished upon the improvements and interest of the employer in the land. 8ub-contractors and workmen have a lien by giving- the owner written notice of their claim, and that they look to the land and improvements for compensation. Claims must be filed within sixty days. Suit must be brought within six months after filing the account. WILLS. Any person twenty-one years of age may make a will. The will must be proved in the County Court of the county where tes- tator resided. If the will was written by the testator himself, only one witness is necessary; if written by any other person, two witnesses arc required. Married women may dispose of their separate estate. LOUISIANA. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences may be made without re- gard to the insolvent law. Under the State laws an insolvent debtor may make surrender of property to creditors, or an involuntary surrender may be forced by any creditor who issues an execution which is returned unsatisfied. Surrender vests all property in creditors, and stops all legal pro- ceedings against the debtor; the latter must file sworn schedules of assets and liabilities. The debtor may be discharged by con- sent of a majority of creditors in number and amount, unless guilty of fraud or preference, in which case he is deprived of the benefit of the insolvent laws, and is liable to imprisonment. ATTACHMENTS may issue on application of creditor, under oath, when the debtor is about to leave the State permanently, without there being a possibility of obtaining judgment against him previous to his departure; when the debtor resides out of the State; when he conceals himself to avoid service of suit; when he has or is about to mortgage, assign or dispose of his property with intent to defraud his creditors or give an unfair preference to some of them ; and when he has converted, or is about to convert, his property into money or evi- dence of debt with intent to place it beyond the reach of his creditors. Defendant must give bond equal to the amount of his claim, with at least one solvent surety. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $n jo. CHATTEL MORTGAGES are unknown to the laws of Louisiana. DEEDS may be acknowledged, within the State, before a no« tary public, parish recorder or his deputy, in the presence of two wit- nesses. In other States, before a commissioner of Louisiana, or in conformity to the laws of the State where acknowledged. The hus- band must join the wife in conveying her real estate, and authorize her; in disposing of his own real estate, the wife must be examined separately and renounce all her rights. DIVORCE. Sentence of cither party to imprisonment in the peni- tentiary is sufficient ground for divorce. A decree may also be ob- tained by cither party for adultery, habitual intemperance or cruel treatment of such a nature as to render living together insupportable. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead of 160 acres of land, with buildings and improvements thereon, is exempted to the head of a family, if owned and occupied as a residence, together with personal property, the whore not to exceed $j,ooo; all wearing apparel, implements, stock, etc., with provisions and supplies necessary for the plum it um for one year. If the wife own separate property in her own right to the value of $j,ooo, there is no exemption. MARRIED WOMEN may hold and control both real and personal property owned at time of marriage ; all property or revenues of sep- arate property acquired by either husband or wife after marriage is held in common, and is divided equally between them at dissolution of the marriage either by death or divorce. The wife may carry on a separate business, but her husband will be bound by her contracts, so long as the community of property exists; she cannot sue without the concurrence of her husband, and - ' s cannot hind herself or her prop- erty for his debts. There is no right of dower to the wife. MECHANICS' LIENS are known as "privileges;** these are allowed to architects, contractors, workmen and furnishers of mate- ria). For all work exceeding in value five hundred dollars, the agree- ment must be reduced to writing and registered with the recorder of mortgages. To be of effect against third parties, all privileges and liens must be recorded in the parish where the property is situated. WILLS of four kinds are recognized: nuncupative by public act; nuncupative by private act; mystic or sealed wills, and olographic wills. The first must be dictated by testator to a notary public and read in the presence of three resident or five Don-resident witnesses, and must be signed by the testator and witnesses. The second most be written in the presence of five resident or seven non-resident wit- nesses, read to them and signed by the testator and the witnesses, or at least two of them. In the country three resident or five non-resident witnesses will suffice, if more cannot be obtained. The third form, or mystic will, is first signed by the testator, then enclosed in an envel- ope and sealed up. The testator then declares in the presence of a notary and seven witnesses that that paper contains his will, signed by himself, the notary endorses the act of superscription on the will or envelope, and that act is signed by the notary, the testator and the witnesses. Olographic testaments are written entirely by the testator himself, and dated and signed by him. No attestation or other form is required. The following cannot act as witnesses: Women of any age ; males under sixteen ; the deaf, dumb, blind or insane ; those de- barred by the criminal law from exercising civil functions ; those who stand as heirs or legatees under the will, except in case of mystic tes- taments. MAINE. AN ASSIGNMENT without preferences may be made for the benefit of creditors, who have three months thereafter to become par- ties. All property, except what is lawfully exempt, of the insol- vent debtor is transferred by such assignment and may not be at- tached for six months after first publication. Only creditors who are parties to an assignment arc benefited. By the insolvent law 1S7S-79, where his debts exceed $.yx), a voluntary petition may be filed by the debtor. For involun- tary proceedings, at least two creditors, owning one -fourth of the debts, should act. Assign- ees, approved by the court, may set aside an assignment made within four months of the filing of insolvency petition. They dispose of the property and divide the assets. The insolvent debtor is then discharged. Preferences or fraudulent conveyances are void. Proof, brought within two years, of fraud, may annul the discharge. For debts of less than three hundred dollars the debtor makes a general disclosure and is dis- charged, ATTACHMENTS. All property not exempt by law is liable to attachment for debt; neither affidavit nor security being re- quisite, unless the creditor is a non-resident. Hv consent of par- tics or by appraisement, attached perishable property may be sold at once, and the proceeds held by the oAcar, Upoa affidavit of creditor of his belief that the debtor 1» going to It w e the State and take away more property than is necessary for his present support, and that his £ SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 5<3 V claim is for over ten dollars, the debtor maybe arrested. Debtors under arrest may make complete disclosure and be discharged. Any person owing an insolvent debtor may be held as trustee ; but claims for wages under twenty dollars cannot be garnisheed except in case of debt incurred for necessaries. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace has been transferred to trial justices and municipal courts. CHATTEL MORTGAGES for over $30 must be recorded where the mortgageor resides, or possession of properly pass to mortgagee. Mortgageor may redeem within sixty days after notice of foreclosure. DEEDS. All deeds must be under seal. Within the State ac- knowledgments are made before a justice of the peace or a notary 1 public; in other States, before a magistrate, justice of the peace, no- tary public or commissioner of deeds for this State ; in foreign coun- tries, before a notary public or United States minister or consul. One grantor may make the acknowledgment. The wife joins to relinquish dower. DIVORCE. The Supreme Judicial Court grants divorce for impo- tency, adultery, or for three years' wilful desertion. Alimony may be allowed and dower if the husband be to blame. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead $500, or any lot purchased from State as a homestead; $50 furniture, $150 library, $300 team, $50 poultry, $100 sewing machine, $10 lumber; cow and heifer, ten sheep and lambs, plow, wagon, mowing machine, a two-ton boat, the ilax, raw and manufactured, from one acre of ground, wearing apparel, pro- visions, fuel, seed grain, provender for stock, and tools. After the debtor's death, his family has the benefit of the exemptions. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds real and personal property, acquired in any way except from the husband, the same as if single. She may make contracts, sue and be sued and do business in her own name ; and her property may be takeli to satisfy judgments against her. Her property is liable only for her own debts. She joins husband in a deed selling his property to relinquish dower. He joins with her in selling hers only when such property comes from him. A wife, being abandoned by her husband, may be allowed to take and use his personal property. Dower, life estate in-one-third of all husband's real property owned during coverture ; one-half if no children. He has same interest in deceased wife's estate. MECHANICS' LIEN on buildings holds good and may be en- forced by attachment within ninety days. Statement must be filed within thirty days after work is done or material furnished. Lien against vessels four days after launching. WILLS. Three disinterested witnesses. Testator must be twenty- one years of age and of sound mind. Nuncupative wills must be reduced to writing within six days. Wills devising real estate must be recorded the same as deeds. MARYLAND. ASSIGNMENTS. Either on his own application, or that of two or more creditors whose claims exceed $250, a debtor is decided to be in- solvent. Except on proof of fraud or preference, he is dis- charged by surrender of his prop** erty. Claims of non-resident creditors are not affected, unless filed in the proceedings. Assign- ments without preferences or pro* visions for release of debtor are allowed. ATTACHMENTS may be ob taincd by simple affidavit when defendant is a non-resident, or has absconded; and by affidavit with security in double amount of claim, where plaintiff believes defendant is about absconding, or has disposed of, or intends to dispose of or conceal his property to defraud his creditors. Attachments reach debtor's property whether in his own hands o,r in those of others. Wages for loss than $100 not 34 yet due cannot be attached. No imprisonment for debt. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must have scal.be acknowledged and recorded within twenty days. Before recording affidavit must be made that the consideration is true and bonajide. To foreclose, mortgagee gives bond and twenty days' notice before sale. Court must confirm sale. DEEDS must be sealed and have at least one witness. Acknowl- edgments within the State are taken by any court of record, or justice of the peace who is certified to under seal of a court of record. In other States, by a notary public, court of record or commissioner of deeds for Maryland. In foreign countries, by United States minister or consul or notary public under seal. Wife joins husband to release dower. No separate examination. Deeds must be recorded within six months from date of execution. DIVORCE. Absolute, for adultery, three years* abandonment, or antenuptial misconduct of wife. Partial, for crueltv, abandonment and desertion. Alimony and restoration of wife's property. EXEMPTIONS. Besides wearing apparel, books, and tools used for earning a living, there is exempt other property to the value of $100. No homestead. MARRIED WOMEN. Property acquired by a married woman is her own, controlled by herself, and is free from her husband's debts. She conveys by joint deed with the husband, but devises and be- queaths the same as if single. She may be sued with her husband on joint contracts made by them, and the property of both is equally liable. Dower one-third, if they have children; one-half, if none. MECHANICS' LIEN is to one-fourth of the value. Lien lasts four ye-.rs on stationary and two years on floating property. In Calvert, Charles, Kent and St. Mary's counties there are no. liens on stationary property. Notice must be given to owner within sixty days and claim filed within six months. WILLS. Age twenty-one for males, eighteen for females. Three witnesses. No witness needed for wills granting personal property. MASSACHUSETTS. ASSIGNMENTS. An assignment for the benefit of all creditors is good against an attaching creditor, but maybe voided by an assignee in insolvency. One creditor may file petition for bankruptcy pro- ceedings. Discharge, barring fraud or preference, is granted upon payment of fifty per cent, or by consent of majority in num- ber and value of creditors. At- tachments less than four months old are dissolved by insolvency proceedings. ATTACHMENTS. All unex- empted property is liable to at- tachment, but real estate may not be attached in suits for less than $20. Bond with good security being furnished by the debtor, the attachment is dissolved. The debtor may be arrested and held to bail on sworn testimony that he is about leaving the State, and that he has property which he is reserv- ing from the payment of his debts. A debtor against whom a judgment has been obtained may be sworn as to the amount of his prop- erty, and if he refuse to surrender it, he maybe arrested. He may then apply for relief by taking the poor debtor*s oath. Jurisdiction of trial justices, $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within fifteen days. Foreclosure requires three weeks' notice. DEEDS require to be under seal. No witness is needed. Ac* knowledgment of one grantor is sufficient. Wife joins to bar dower. No separate examination. Acknowledgments are taken by justices of the peace or notaries public. In other States, by justices of the peace, ^ aw. 5M V SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. aotaries public, magistrates or commissioner of deeds for Massachu- jetts. In foreign countries, by United States Consuls. A certificate of his official character should accompany the acknowledgment taken by any officer other than the commissioner of deeds. DIVORCE. Unfaithfulness, Incapacity, three years* desertion, cru- elty, drunkenness, neglect to provide, sentence to five years' impris- onment and joining a sect which disavows marriage., are grounds for absolute divorce. Alimony is allowed, and where the husband is at fault the wife's personal property is restored. EXEMPTION. Homestead, $800 (must be recorded as such) ; fur- niture, $300; sewing machine, $ioo; library, $50; tools and imple- ments, $100; stock in trade, $100; boats and outfit, $100; one cow; one hog and six sheep, and wages under $20. MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is man- aged by herself, and is not liable for her husband's debts. She may make contracts, sue and be sued and do business in her own name, provided a certificate is filed by her or her husband in the office of the town clerk. Contracts and conveyances between husband and wife are not allowed. Her conveyances of real estate are subject to hus- band's tenancy by curtesy. A wife cannot make a will affecting her husband's right to one-half of the personal property and his tenancy by curtesy in her real estate, without his written consent. Dower as by common law. MECHANICS' LIEN covers building and the lot on which it stands. A lien for material not ordered by the owner will be defeated un- less he has been served with written notice when furnished. Claims must be filed within thirty days, and suit begun in rinety. Bond with security to pay the claim dissolves the lien. Timely notice in writing from the owner to sub -contractors or journeymen that Tie will not be responsible, will bar a lien for their claims. WILLS. Testator must be of full age and sound mind. Three wit- nesses. Bequest to subscribing witness is void. Will of a married woman, unless by consent of husband, is subject to his rights by curtesy. Probate within thirty days after death becomes known. MICHIGAN. ASSIGNMENTS may he made either with or without preferences, providing no intent to defraud is evident. By insolvent law the debtor, with consent of two- thirds of his creditors, surrenders his property and is discharged. ATTACHMENTS issue when defendant is a non-resident or foreign corporation. Also when he is about to remove himself or his property with intent to de- fraud. Garnishment whenever requisite. Wages, less than twen- ty-five dollars, due the head of a family, are free from garnish- ment. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded. Each mortgage must contain provisions for its own foreclosure. Mortgagee must file aitidavit every year for continuance. DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgment before judge of court of record, justice of the peace or notary public. When a mar- ried woman joins her husband In a deed, her acknowledgment Is taken separately. Record in county where land is located. DIVORCE. Absolute divorce may be granted forincapaclty at time of marriage, adultery, two years' continuous desertion, drunkenness or three years* sentence to Imprisonment. A life sentence dissolves the marriage without any proceedings In court. Divorce from bed and board for cruelty and neglect to provide. Separation of property, duwer and alimony as per statute. EXEMPTIONS. Forty acres of land, with improvements, in the country, or house and lot worth $f ,500 in town ; furniture, $250 ; library, $150; two cows, five hogs, ten sheep, team, tools, provisions and fuel. No exemption* from execution for purchase -money. MARRIED WOMEN own and control property the tame as if ■ingle. A wife may do business in her own nam* and make contracts, even with her husband. Her separate property U liable for wrong* committed by her. Widow has dower, but there U for the snrrivins; husband no right of tenancy by curtesy. MECHANICS' LIENS. Copy of contract or statement of agree- ment must be filed. Lien holds for six months, within which time suit must be begun. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one. Two witnesses. Witnesses may not be beneficiaries. Record in counties where lands lie. Nun- cupative wills for more than $300 not allowed. MINNESOTA. ASSIGNMENTS. Inventory of property must be filed within ten days after making an assignment. Order of payments: First, debts due the United States, or the State of Minnesota, in full; sec- ond, wages for labor and ser- vice within three months preced- ing the assignment, in full if there be sufficient, otherwise fro rata; third, all other debts. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS are issued on plaintiff giving bond in double amount, and making affidavit that he believes defendant is a non-resident, has absconded or is about to abscond, that he has removed or is about to remove his property; that he conceals himself to avoid summons; that he has fraudulently contracted the debt, or fraudulently evades payment. No arrest for debt. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be acknowledged and recorded where mortgageor resides, and also where the property is. They hold good for two years without renewal. If no special terms in the in- strument, there must be three weeks* notice to foreclose. DEEDS require two witnesses. Acknowledgments are taken, within the State, by justice of the peace, notary public, register of deeds, court commissioner, county auditor or judge or clerk of court of record. Outside of the State, by notary public, justice of the peace, judge of court of record or commisioner for this State. Wife join* to release dower, but need not be questioned separately. DIVORCE. Absolute divorce for unfaithfulness, incapacity, three years' abandonment, one year's drunkenness, cruel treatment *>r sen- tence to State's prison. Limited divorce for abuse, desertion or fail- ure to support. Plaintiff, except where breach of faith occurred in the State, must have been one year a resident. The court may order ali- mony and custody of children, and the wife regains possession of her real estate, unless decree has been obtained on account of her bad conduct. EXEMPTIONS. Eighty acres with Improvement*, in country, or lot with dwelling on it, in town. Household property, $500; wagon, plows and farming Implements, $300; three cows, ten hogs, twenty sheep, yoke of cattle and a horse, or, Instead, a pair of horses; one year's provisions, fuel, feed for stock and seed grain. A miner's or mechanic's tools and stock in trade to $400; the library and instru- in. tils of a professional man. Wages under $;oof a laboring man, earned within the last ninety days, and where the debtor Is publisher of a newspaper, his complete outfit to value of $1,000, and stock $400. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property In her own name. She may make contracts, and her propertv is liable only for her own debts. She cannot sell 01 convey real estate, further tkan *** ^ SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 5'5 r » mortgage for purchase-money or a three years* lease, without her husband joining her. Contracts between husband and wife are void. The surviving husband or wife keeps the homestead for life, and is entitled to one-third of all the lands possessed by the deceased after all debts have been paid. MECHANICS' LIENS. Account must have been filed within one year, and lien holds good for two years. Sub-contraclors and jour- neymen claiming a lien by service of the papers on the owner will have the amount of their claims retained from what is due the con- tractor. There is also a lien for work done on personal property, which may be sold after three months if charges be not paid. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one for men, eighteen for women. Two witnesses. MISSISSIPPI. ASSIGNMENTS, even with preferences, but without reservations for the debtor's benefit, may be made. Intent to defraud, being evident, will void any assign- ment.. No insolvent law, and no provision for discharge of debtor. ATTACHMENTS issue after plaintiff furnishes bond and makes affidavit that the debtor is a non-resident or has absconded or is about to abscond, has con- cealed himself or his property, or in any manner, by conveyance or otherwise, put his property be- yond reach of his creditors, so as fraudulently to avoid payment of his debts. Resident and non-res- ident creditors have equal rights. The first attachment has priority over subsequent ones. No arnest or imprisonment for debt. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the property must be taken into the possession of the mortgagee. Foreclosure and sale must be provided for in the mortgage. DEEDS. Two witnesses are needed if not acknowledged ; other- wise one. Acknowledgments may be made before judges of any of the United States Courts, judges of the Supreme or Superior Courts of any of the States or Territories, justices of the peace, notaries public, or before commissioners appointed by the Governor of this State. In case of a justice or notary, his official character must be certified to under seal of some court of record. A married woman joins her husband in a conveyance to release dower, and, in making her acknowledgment, must be questioned separate and apart from him. DIVORCE. After one year's residence in the State, divorce may be obtained for impotency, adultery, bigamy, cruelty, two years' aban- donment or imprisonment in the penitentiary. Alimony is allowed when the wife is the injured party, and the court awards the custody of minor children. EXEMPTIONS. To householding head of family, 160 acres of land and improvements in country, or house and lot in town, either to value of $2,000. Tools and farming implements necessary for two male laborers; library and instruments of professional man to value of $250; two horses or mules or a yoke of oxen, two cows and calves, five hogs, five sheep ; wagon, $10-1; personal property, $250; one sew- ing machine ; provisions and provender ; wages of a laborer, $100. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property acquired in any manner, and the revenues therefrom, for her own use and free from control or liability of her husband. She may convey and en- cumber the same as if single, but husband joins in conveyance. She may devise and bequeath. Deed from husband to wife is void as to creditors at time of making it. A wife may not encumber her estate by mortgage or otherwise for her husband's debts; she may do busi- ness on her own account the same as if single, and is then liable for her contracts, housekeeping and family expenses. She joins her husband in conveyance of homestead, but not in that of his other property. Dower in property of which the husband dies seized. MECHANICS' LIENS must be enforced by suit within six months. Liens reach land, buildings and fixed machinery, boats and vessels. Bona fide purchasers cannot suffer unless they have been served with notice. WILLS. Testator must bs twenty-one years of age. Three wit- nesses. MISSOURI. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences. Inventory of assets must be filed within fifteen days. Assignee gives threo months' notice of a day fixed for hearing all claims. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS issue when defendant is a non-resident, or a foreign corporation, or conceals or absents himself, makes away with or attempts to place his property out of reach to defraud his creditors, or has fraudulently contracted the debt, or where the action is for damages arising from misconduct; or where debtor fails to pay for goods that were to be paid for on delivery. Garnishee process when there is occasion. No arrest for debt. Justices of the peace limited to $150. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Possession of property must pass into hands of mortgagee, or else the mortgage must be recorded. Fore- closure, if for less than $100, requires sixty days' notice. If for larger amount, a judgment in court is necessary. DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before judge or clerk of a court having a seal, a justice of the peace or notary public. In other States, before commissioner of Missouri, or court with seal, or notary public. Wife joins in deed and must be examined separately. Rec- ord in county where land is located. DIVORCE. Grounds: Impotency at time of marriage, unfaithful- ness, bigamy, conviction of crime, drunkenness, cruelty, and one year's desertion. Petitioner must have been one year a resident of the State. Trial without jury. EXEMPTIONS. To head of family one hundred and sixty acres in the country to the value of $1,500, a lot (thirty rods) in small town to same value, or lot (eighteen rods) in city having 40,000 inhabitants, to value of $3,000. Personal property, $300. One month's wages. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman controls her own prop- erty, und holds it through a trustee free from liability for her husband's debts. She may make contracts, sign notes and do business in her own name. She may make a will. She joins her husband in his con- veyances to release dower. Her dower is one-third for life of all lands owned by husband. MECHANICS' LIENS have priority over all other encumbrances that may be placed on property after the work has begun. Claims of original contractors must be filed within six months. Those of jour- neymen and laborers in thirty days. Of other persons in four months. Action within ninety days of claims being filed. WILLS, Testator's age to devise real estate, twenty-one for male, eighteen for female; to dispose of personal property, eighteen, either sex. Two witnesses. Must be recorded thirty days after probate. Copy of will must be recorded in each county where devised lands may be situated. « ^ V 516 *fr SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. MONTANA. ASSIGNMENTS. No insolvent or assignment law. ATTACHMENTS are allowed in suits on contracts for payment of money. Plaintiff gives bond in double amount. An attachment may be had before a debt is due, if debtor fraudulently disposes of prop- erty to avoid payment. Jurisdiction of justices (si the peaoe $3. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Possession uf property must pass to mortgagee, or the mortgage must be recorded, and must explictly state that possession is to be retained by mortgageor. Holds good for one year, during which any one selling said mortgaged goods forfeits double the value to the purchaser, is guilty of misdemeanor, and is liable to fine of from $50 to $500. DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a judge or clerk of court of record, justice of the peace, mayor of a city, or a register of deeds. Officer taking acKnowledgment must affix his official seal. A wife must be questioned separately. EXEMPTIONS. House and a quarter acre lot in town, or a farm of eighty acres, neither to exceed $2,500 in value. Personal property to the value of $1,400. No exemptions are good against a mortgage, a mechanics' lien or a claim for purchase-money. MARRIED WOMEN. A list of a married woman's property filed and recorded saves it from being liable for the husband's debts, ex- cept necessaries for herself and children under eighteen. A married woman may become a sole trader by recording her intention. If she invests more than $10,000 in business she must make oath that the surplus did not come from her husband. The husband is not liable for debts contracted by her in business. She is also responsible for the maintenance of her children. A surviving husband or wife takes one-half of deceased's property, if no children ; one-third if there are. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim of an original contractor must be filed within ninety days ; that of a sub-contractor within thirty days. All liens filed within thirty days of the filing of the first one share alike. Sub-contractor's suit must begin within ninety days. That of original contractors in one year. WILLS. Testator's age for either sex, eighteen yean. Two wit- rrmtt- NEBRASKA. ASSIGNMENTS. Preferences, except for amounts under $100 that may be due for labor, are not allowed. Nor is an assignment clogged with conditions for release of debtor of any value. Assignee files sworn schedule within thirty days and gives bond in double amount. Recording within the thirty days is a positive feature in the validity of an assignment. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS. When de- fendant is a non- resident, affida- vit and bond in double amount must be furnished. Attachments arc allowed when defendant is a non-resident or foreign corpor- ation, removes or conceals his property, or absconds, or when the claim has already been allowed by a decree in court. On appearance of fraud the debtor may be attached in person. Garnishment in aid. No insolvent law. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace #200. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded (mortgagee renewing annually} and holds good for five years. Foreclosure, twenty days' notice and public sale. If provided for in the instrument, no court proceedings are needed for foreclosure. DEEDS mwt have one witness. Acknowledgments within the State are taken by judges, clerks of courts, justices of the peace or notaries public. In other States, by commissioners of deeds for Nebraska or by the legally authorized looal officers. In foreign countries, by no- taries public or United States ministers or consuls. To bar dower or curtesy a wife or husband must join in deed. No separate examin- ation required. DIVORCE. Unless the marriage took place in the State, and the plaintiff has since continuously resided therein, a residence in the county of six months next preceding the application is necessary. Divorce is granted on the grounds of impotency at the time of mar- riage, adultery, two years' desertion, drunkenness, cruelty, three years' sentence to imprisonment, or failure on the part of husband to support wife. The court may order alin.ony, and where a decree is granted on account of the husband's bad conduct the wife take* dower. EXEMPTIONS. Dwelling and 160 acres of land in country, or two adjoining lots in town, value $2,000. If he has no real property, the debtor may retain personal property to value $500. Clothing, furni- ture, provisions, animals, tools and other things as per statute, and sixty days' wages of laborer. Exemptions are not good against mechanics' lien, mortgage or purchase -money. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds her separate prop- erty free from the disposal of her husband and from liability for his debts. She may bargain, sell, make contracts, do business, sue and be sued, all so far as her separate estate may warrant ; but she cannot become surety for another, not even being allowed to bind herself for her husband's debts. Property coming to the wife from the husband is not privileged as her separate property. Dower, use for life of one -third of real estate owned by husband during coverture. MECHANICS' LIENS. A sworn itemized account must be filed within four months of the performance of work or the furnishing of material. Lien holds two years. WILLS. Two witnesses. NEVADA. ASSIGNMENTS. Insolvent law provides for discharge of the debtor without any certain percentage or consent being requisite. Discharge is only from debts entered on the filed schedule. Assignments, to be valid, must comply with the insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS. In an ac- tion on a contract for the pay- ment of money not secured by mortgages or lien on property within the State, an attachment may be issued, plaintiff making affidavit and giving bond. Also when defendant is a non-resident. A fraudulent or absconding debtor may be arrested, plaintiff giving at least $500 security. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. With the exception of a mortgage on growing crops, no chattel mortgage is valid unless possession p— act to mortgagee. DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made within the State before a judge or clerk of a court having a seal, a justice of the peace or no. tary public. In other States, by judge or clerk of court having a seal, a justice of the peace, notary public or commissioner for the State Acknowledgments taken by a justice of the peace must be accompa- nied by sealed certificate from court of record declaring his official character. Wife joins husband in a deed and is separately examined. Signature and deed, not having been acknowledged, may be approved by competent evidence. DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have resided six months in the county. Grounds of divorce are physical incompetency at time of marriage, adultery, one year's desertion, drunkenness, cruelty, conviction of crime and failure on part of husband to support* EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $5,000; tools. Implements and other personal property, as per statute ; miner's cabin, $500. ■f? Sr- SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 517 MARRIED WOMEN. The separate property of a married woman which is controlled by herself is such as she may have owned before marriage or acquired afterwards by gift, devise or descent. All prop- erty acquired otherwise, by either husband or wife, is common property, and under the absolute control of the husband. On the death of the husband the widow receives one-half of the common property. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must exceed $25, must be recorded within sixty days, and suit must be begun within six months. A sub- contractor must file within thirty days. Railroads, canals, mines, tunnels, ditches and buildings subject to lien. WILLS. Testator's age, eighteen years. Two witnesses. A mar- ried woman disposes of her separate estate, and, with the consent of her husband, of her interest in the common property. A child whose name nas been unintentionally omitted in the provisions of a will takes a share the same as if a parent had died intestate. NEW HAMPSHIRE. ASSIGNMENTS. Without preferences. Assignee files schedule within ten days. Claims must be proved up within six months. Dis- senting creditors must give no- ticeinside of thirty days after the assignment. They receive no benefit, but continue their claims and hold any liens they may have obtained. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS are taken out on original writ, and are a lien for thirty days after judg- ment, during which time execu- tion must be levied. Mechanics' lien has precedence over attach- ments. Trustee process to attach debtors* money or other property. Wages, to $20, exempt. On plain - tiff's oath, the debt being over $13.33, debtor may be arrested if he has concealed his property or is about to leave the State to avoid payment. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Mortgagee must take immediate pos- session, or mortgage must be recorded with the affidavits of both the mortgageor and mortgagee that it is bona fide and for a real debt. Foreclosed after thirty days from breach of condition, and sale held after four days' notice. Mortgageor has a right to redeem until sale. DEEDS. Every conveyance of real estate requires a seal, and must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments may be taken by notaries public, justices of the peace or commissioner of deeds. Wife joins to release dower. No separate examination. DIVORCES are granted by the Supreme Court for physical incom- petency, adultery, drunkenness, cruelty, three years* desertion, one year's sentence to prison or adherence to a religious sect that con- demns marriage. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $500; $100 furniture; $100 tools; $200 books; $500 fuel and provisions; sewing machine, cook stove, bedding and clothing, one hog, six sheep, one yoke of oxen or one horse, and four tons of hay. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property owned before marriage or acquired afterwards, except what may come from the husband, for her own use. She may sell, convey and encumber, devise and bequeath, do business, give notes, sue and be sued. Her contracts are binding, excepting that there can be no con- tracts or conveyances between husband and wife, nor can the wife become security for her husband. Wife is entitled to dower. MECHANICS' LIENS take precedence of all attachments, and hold on stationary property for ninety days ; on lumber, logs and bark for sixty days, and on vessels for four days. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one. Three witnesses. Nuncu- pative wills must be reduced to writing within six days. Probate within six months. NEW JERSEY. ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are void. Swora inventory must accompany assignment. An insolvent debtor is discharged on sur- render of all his property. Wages R5vsas25S5252SHS2szs252szs2sas2saszv over other claims. ATTACHMENTS issue when defendant is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, or absconds or assigns or conceals his prop* erty to defraud his creditors. If fraud be evident, the defendant may be arrested. Limit of juris- diction of justices of the peace, $200. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must either be recorded or the property must pass into possession of mortgagee. To continue claim mort- gagee must renew record thirty days before the expiration of one year. Foreclosure by suit in court. No redemption. DEEDS must be under seal, and have one witness. The word " heirs " must appear in an instrument to convey in fee simple. Ac- knowledgments are taken by the chancellor or justice of the Superior Court, master in chancery, judge of the Court of Common Pleas, or commissioner of deeds. In other States, by commissioners of deeds for this State or by legally authorized local officers. Husband and wife join in a deed conveying the estate of either, he to give his con- sent, she to release dower. DIVORCE. Absolute for adultery, bigamy or three years' abandon- ment. Partial for cruelty. Applicant must reside in the State, unless the marriage or the alleged misconduct occurred here. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead $1,500, and $200 household property. MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned before marriage, and such as she may acquire afterwards by gift, descent or bequest, is the sole property of a married woman and is not liable for the husband's debts. She may make contracts, but cannot sell or encumber her real estate without consent of husband. She cannot endorse notes or be- come security. She joins husband in his conveyances and mortgages. Dower and curtesy. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claims must be filed and suit brought within one year. On a structure erected by contract which has been filed and recorded only the contractor may claim a lien. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses. Wit- ness cannot be a beneficiary. A married woman making a will can- not impair her husband's rights by curtesy. NEW MEXICO. ASSIGNMENTS. No assignment or insolvent laws. ATTACHMENTS when defendant is non-resident, absconds, con- ceals property or shows intent to defraud. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Growing crop is the only sort of per- sonal property that may not be mortgaged. Possession of property must pass into hands of mortgagee, or the mortgage must be re- corded. Mortgage holds for one year. For continuance, mortgagee must file renewal thirty days before each year expires. DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a judge or clerk of a court of record, notary public, justice of the peace, mayor of a city or register of deeds. A married woman's separate property is conveyed by deed signed by both husband and wife. Her acknowledgment must be taken apart, and she must be questioned as to her freedom of action in the transfer. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $100; $10 furniture; $20 tools; $25 provisions. ™" s > MARRIED WOMEN. The separate property of a married woman !■ what she owned previous to marriage, or what she may inherit. All that she acquires afterwards, and the revenues of her separate estate, go into the common property. The husband has control and management of her separate estate and the common property. There is no dower, but on decease of a husband the wife's private property Is first deducted ; then she receives one-half of the common property, after all debts are paid. If there be no children she has a right to all the common property. MECHANICS' LIENS. Must file claim within sixty days, 'and bring suit within one year. A lien may be had on movables repaired by mechanics. Landlords may have lien on property of tenants, and inn-keepers on the baggage of their guests. WILLS. Testators' age, fourteen for males, twelve for females. Written wills require three witnesses ; verbal wills five. Probate judge may disapprove of a will, but appeal can be carried to District Court, NEW YORK. ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are allowed. A debtor who has been imprisoned on an execution for a sum less than $500, on making an assignment of his property, barring fraud, may be discharged immediately ; and for a larger sum, after three months* imprisonment. Consent of two- thirds of creditors may hasten discharge. ATTACHMENTS. When de- fendant is a non-resident or has absconded, conceals himself or is about to place his property be- yond reach to defraud creditors, or in an action for damages, at- tachments may be issued. An unsatisfied execution being re* turned after a judgment, the defendant or any other persons may be examined as to property of debtor in their hands, and be forced to use what Is not exempted towards payment of the debtor. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $joo; to take contession, I500. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or property must change hands. Good for only one year unless record be renewed. Foreclosure, unless by terms of mortgage, by seizure and sale after three days* notice. DEEDS must be under seal. Within the State, acknowledgments are made before notary public, justice of the peace, surrogate, judge of court of record, recorder or commissioner of deeds. In any other State, before commissioner for this State, judge of United States Court, judge of Supreme, Circuit or Superior Court, or the mayor of a ■ ity, or before any legally authorized officer. DIVORCE. Only for adultery will an absolute divorce be granted. Partial divorce is ordered for cruelty, desertion and neglect. Mar- riages are annulled for fraud or force, idiocy, lunacy or impotency at the time of marriage, or for bigamy. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; $250 furniture, tools, team and other personal property ; sixty days' wages. MARRIED WOMEN may have real and personal property, buy and sell and do business in their own names. A carried woman i* liable for debts contracted in her own trade or business, or when an agreement or contract has been made for the benefit of her separate property, when, by the terms of such instrument, her separate prop- erty is to be charged with the liability. Dower. MECHANICS' LIENS. Time for filing notice varies in different counties from thirty days to three months. Suit must be brought with* in one year. WILLS. Testator's ag* to dispose of real estate, twenty-one years; of personal property, eighteen for males, sixteen for female*. Two witnesses. The at' dress of a witness acompanics his signature. NORTH CAROLINA. ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are allowed. An insolvent debtor, by filing petition and assigning his property to trustee for benefit of all creditors, is dis- charged. But property that he may afterwards acquire is liable for the feame old debts. If con- cealment or fraud is proved the debtor may be imprisoned until he discloses all his property. ATTACHMENTS. The cred- itor must give bond and security for costs and damages, and must file affidavits. An attachment is issued against the property of a debtor who is non-resident or a foreign corporation, who has left the State or conceals himself to avoid summons, or has removed or is about to dispose of his property to defraud his creditors. Personal service of summons or publication within thirty days after obtaining order for attachment is required. Publication must be continued four weeks. Justices of the peace limited to fxc. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded; may only be for property to value of $300. Foreclosure by seizure and sale after twenty days* public notice. DEEDS must have one or more witnesses. Acknowledgments within the State are made before a justice of the peace, notary public or judge or clerk of a court of record. In other States, before a clerk of court of record or a commissioner of deeds for North Carolina. In foreign countries, before a mayor or chief magistrate of a city, or before a United States consular officer. Wife joins husband to bar dower and must make her acknowledgment separate and apart. DIVORCE. Only for impotency or adultery car* absolute divorce be obtained. Partial divorce is granted for cruelty, desertion or drunk- enness. EXEMPTIONS. A homestead to value of Jr. 000, ami personal property worth $500. No exemption is good agaiu.-t taxes, purchase- money or mechanics* liens. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman's separate property is not liable for her husband's debts. She may devise and bequeath, but must have husband's consent to convey. Unless she be a free trader, she can make no contract other than for personal or family necessities or for payment of ante-nuptial debts, without the consent of her husband. She becomes a free trader, the husband assenting, by filing her intention. Common law dower and one year's subsist- ence out of husband's personal property. MECHANICS' LIEN holds building and lot. Notice in thirty days; suit in ninety days. Alien for making or mending may be bad on movables. Farm laborers or persons making advances for raising crop may have a lien, WILLS require two witnesses, not beneficiaries. If an unwit- nessed will be ottered for probate it must be satisfactorily provsd by three witnesses to be wholly in testator's handwriting. OHIO. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences, except wages to amount of $100 and individual taxes, are allowed. Assignment is tiled in ten days, and schedule in thirty. Creditors must bring in their claims within six months. First dividends in eight months. Debtor is always liable. ATTACHMENTS arc issued when defendant is a non-resident, or a foreign corporation, has absconded or has removed or concealed his property, or (a .my manner placed it or attempted to place it bc- ^ ontf reach todefraasl btectesUtoe*. Plaintiff prlving bond with turrty to cover damages, and making affuU% it ol tr.u.tl. the defendant will 4^ ■I be arrested. Garnishee except for unmatured notes. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100; concur- rent jurisdiction, $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded ; good for only twelve months unless renewed by again recording within thirty days before the expiration of the yeiir. Same for each succeeding year. DEEDS mustbe acknowledged in presence of two witnesses, before some officer in the State who is authorized to take depositions. In other States or countries, deeds may be executed and acknowledged in accordance with the local laws. Wife joins husband in a deed, and is questioned apart. DIVORCE is granted for unfaithfulness, bigamy, incapacity, cruelty, drunkenness, deception, three years* neglect and abandon- ment, or imprisonment in a penitentiary. Alimony may be granted ; and if the decree is obtained on account of the husband's ill conduct, the wife has her separate property and her maiden name restored. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead is exempt to value of $1,000; if ap- praised to a higher value a partition is made, or an appropriate rental is charged. Clothing and necessary furniture are exempted; tools and farming implements to value $100; $50 worth of provisions and three months' wages ; one horse or yoke of cattle, harness and wagon ; one cow, two hogs, six sheep, and sixty days' provender, or instead, $65 in household property. A professional man's books, $100. When res- ident debtor, being head of a family, has no homestead, he may retain personal property to value of $500, besides other exempted property. MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is not liable for her husband's debts; beyond a three years' lease, or a con- tract for the improvement of her real estate, she cannot sell or en- cumber it without the consent of her husband. If a married woman engages in trade, her separate property is liable for the debts she may then contract, and she may sue and be sued the same as if sin- gle. A deserted wife must procure an order from court, by which she shall have all property rights as a feme sole. Dower in all real estate owned by husband during coverture. MECHANICS' LIENS. Within four months after the perform- ance of labor or furnishing ot material, a detailed statement of tne claim must be sworn to and recorded, to procure a mechanics' lien. The lien holds a building and the ground on which it stands, or a bridge or any kind of water craft. A lien is good for on*- year, or until the lawsuit begun within the year is finally settled. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years for men, eighteen for women. Two witnesses. Unless the will had been made at least one year before the death of testator, a bequest for religious, be- nevolent, educational or charitable purpose would be void against the claims of children. OKLAHOMA. The laws of Oklahoma were compiled from the statutes of Ne- braska, Indiana, Illinois and the Dakotas. The code of civil pro- cedure is borrowed entire from that of Nebraska. Jurisdiction of justices, $100. OREGON. ASSIGNMENTS. A general assignment for the benefit of all creditors must be without preferences. It dissolves all attachments on vrhich judgments have been rendered. Creditors must receive notice to present their claims, or their objections to claim. Debts to become due will be taken into account, as well as those already due. Payments are Pro rata. The debtor is still liable. No insolvent law, but an imprisoned debtor is discharged after ten days by complying with pre- scribed conditions. He cannot be again arrested for the same debt. ATTACHMENTS. Defendant being a non resident or s foreign cor- poration, or where the action is on a contract for the payment of money which was not secured by mortgage or otherwise, or if so se- cured, where such security has been vitiated by defendant, an attach- ment may be issued. The plaintiff gives bond in double amount. Where the debt was fraudulently contracted, or property has been removed with intent to defraud, or where person.: property is un- justly withheld, or the defendant is a non-resident, he maybe ar rested. Limit of justices of the peace, $250. , CHATTEL MORTGAGE must be recorded at once, and is good for only one year, unless renewed by mortgagee making and record- ing affidavit within the thirty days before the end of the year that the debt is still due. Renewal each year in the same way. DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgment may be taken before a commissioner of deeds for this State or before any duly authorized officer in any State or Territory, providing that the legal status of the officer taking the acknowledgment and the compliance of the deed with the laws of such State or Territory are properly cer- tified to under seal by the clerk of a court of record in the county or district where such officer has performed such service. Married women examined separately. DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have been a resident for one year before bringing suit. Grounds are impotency, adultery, two years' drunken- ness, three years* abandonment, cruelty, conviction of felony. Plain- tiff gaining the suit has a right to one-third of the real estate belonging to defendant; and if a successful plaintiff be the wife, she may have a maintenance awarded her. EXEMPTIONS. Musical instruments, books and pictures, $75; household effects, $300; clothing, $100, and clothing to each member of the family, $50; team, tools, instruments, library or whatever is needed in the trade or profession of debtor, $400; ten sheep, two cows, five hogs, three months* provisions and six months' provender. No exemption is good against a claim for purchase-money. No home- stead. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds her property free from the control or debts of her husband. She may make contracts, buy and sell, and give notes, and her own property wid be liable. The husband joins in her conveyances. She may make a will, but it must not interfere with her husband's rights of curtesy. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claims must be filed within three months. Suit begun within one year. Sub-contractors and workmen, to obtain a lien, must serve written notice on the owner before payments be- come due. Payments to contractors before they are due are no offset against lien of sub - contractors and workmen. WILLS. Age, twenty-one to dispose of real estate, eighteen for personal property. Two witnesses. Children unprovided for in a will share as if the parent had died intestate. PENNSYLVANIA. ASSIGNMENTS must be without preferences. Sometimes a debtor prefers a creditor by confessing judgment, or making a specific assignment of certain property. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS issue where debtor removes, conceals or dis- poses of his property, or is about to do so, to defraud his creditors,- or has fraudulently contracted the debt. Also when debtor is a non-resident. On proof of fraud a defendant maybe arrested, and he will be imprisoned unless he pays or gives security. Justices of the peace limited to $300. CHATTEL MORTGAGES ^^^sesssEssstsssssssBssstseseB9 cannot be for less than $500, and must be recorded. Must be renewed within thirty days of expiration of the year, and the same for each ===» it *■ 520 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. *3r" k succeeding year, to maintain mortgagee's right. Thirty day*' notice, or four weeks' publication before sale by public auction. DEEDS. Acknowledgments may be taken by the mayor of a city or incorporated town, judge of a court of record, commissioner for this State, or by tMJ officer appointed by the laws of the Stale where taken, providing such officer be certified to under seal by the clerk of a court of record. Wife joins to bar dower; examination separate. DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have been a resident of the State for one ve;ir next preceding the application. Grounds: deception or force in procuring the marriage, impotency, adultery, bigamy, cruelty and two years' abandonment, and two years' sentence to imprisonment. Di- vorce will not be granted on the ground of adultery if proved to have been condoned. Even after a divorce, defendant is not allowed to marry a co-respondent. A wife may obtain partial divorce and ali- mony for ill-treatment. EXEMPTIONS. Clothing, books, sewing-machine and $300 worth of other property. Right may be waived. No homestead. MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is held as her separate estate, but is chargeable for family necessaries ordered by her. A wife cannot make a contract or conveyance without her husband joining her. By obtaining leave from the court she may have the benefit of her own earnings. She may make a will, saving the husband's right by curtesy. She may deposit money in bank and write checks against it in her own name. Dower, one-third of all real estate owned by husband during coverture. MECHANICS' LIEN takes precedence of every other lien or en- cumbrance. Claims must be filed within six months, and liens hold good for five years. There may also be a lien held for wages up to the amount of $200 by the employes on any manufactory, mine or similar establishment. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses are required, but they need not attach their signatures. A husband can- not serve as witness to wife's will. RHODE ISLAND. ASSIGNMENTS without preferences allowed. No provision for the discharge of the debtor. ATTACHMENTS issue when debtor is a non-resident or a for- eign corporation, lias absconded or fraudulently contracted the debt, or retains property and re- fuses to pay. Garnishment for personal property of debtor in other people's hands. Jurisdic- tion of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the inortga- "^^M HbssP^ S gee must take possession. Hore- ^^■■^■■^^^ H closure by seizure and sale. ■■■■■■■ nmuinniuimJ DEEDS require a seal. Ac- knowledgments may be wiken by a senator, judge, justice of the peace, notary public or town clerk. In other States, by the author- ized officers in such States, or by commissioner of deeds for Rhode Island. The wife joins in deed to release dower; only the husband need make the acknowledgment. DIVORCE is granted for impotency, adultery, cruelty, drunken- ness, neglect to support, live vears' abandonment, conviction of mur- der or arson, presumption of death from long absence, or for defect in marriage rendering it void. Divorces may only be decreed bv Su- preme Court. Alimony may be ordered, and restoration of wife's sep- ititr property. EXEMPTIONS. Furniture and supplies for family, $300; tools, $aopj library, $300; wages, $10; clothing; one cow and oue hog; debts secured bv negotiable paper. No homestead. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman'* p-operty is held by for her separate use free from her husband's debts. She cannot make contracts or do business. She may make a will subject to husband's right by curtesv. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be tiled and -nit begun within four months. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty-one yean for disposal of real estate; eighteen for personal property. Two witnesses. SOUTH CAROLINA. ASSIGNMENTS. An assignment maybe made, and one or more agents appointed by the creditors to act with the Creditors who do not take part in the proceedings, or accept div- idends, retain their claims against the debtor. An imprisoned debt- or may be discharged on making an assignment of all his prop- erty. ATTACHMENTS are issued where debtor is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, or has ab- sconded or concealed himself, or has removed or is about to re- move his property, or has se- creted or disposed of ar assigned his property, or is about to do so. with fraudulent intent. Garnishment in aid. Jurisdiction of trial justices, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within sixty days. Foreclosure by seizure and sale. DEEDS must be under seal, and have two witnesses, and be recorded within thirty-three days in county where the land lies. In- side the State, acknowledgments are made only before notaries public and trial justices. In other States, before commissioners of deeds fortius State. Wife joins to bar dower. Separate examination. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; this right cannot he waived. Furniture, wagons, live stock and tools, to value of $500. Homestead exemption cannot hold against an execution for the purchase-money, a lien for improvements or for taxes. Any person not the head of a family may have one-third of his annual earnings exempted. MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman cannot be seized for her husband's debts. A married woman can bequeath, devise and encumber her separate property. She can buy in her own name and have conveyances made to her, and make contracts, the same as if she were single. A gift from husband to wife is not good against a creditor's claim. Dower rights. MECHANICS' LIENS. Account must be filed in ninety days and suit begun in six months. The owner, by giving timely notice that he will not be responsible for the contractor's debts, may avoid the iin- position of a lien by sub-contractors and journeymen. WILLS. Three witnesses. TENNESSEE. ASSIGNMENTS with preferences allowed. The debtor is not dis- charged from bis liabilities. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS are issued when debtor is a non resident, or is about to remove h ! :n.self or his property from the State, or con- ceals himself or his property, or absconds, or has fraudulently disposed of his property, or dies out of the State. Garnishee pro- It reach debts due the de- fendant, and that are to become due, as well as property of de- fendant in other people's hands. No imprisonment for debt. Juris- diction of justices, I500, -^ ■^ — . 9 ~A SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. S 21 CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be registered. Foreclosure by proceedings in court unless the instrument contains power of sale. DEEDS require two witnesses. Acknowledgments within the State are made before judge or clerk of a County Court or a notary public. In other States, before any court of record or clerk thereof, notary public or commissioner of deeds for this State. .Wife need not join in deeds conveying in fee simple, but must ipin in trust deed. Separate examination. DIVORCE. The applicant must have been a resftent of the State for two years next preceding the petition. Grounds: physical inca- pacity at time of marriage, bigamy, adultery, two years' abandon- ment, conviction of crime, imprisonment in penitentiary, drunkenness, ante-nuptial immorality of wife, attempt of either party upon the life of the other. Limited divorce may be granted for cruelty, d«pertion or failure to provide. EXEMPTIONS. Only the head of a family can have the benefit of exemptions; $1,000 homestead and a variety of personal property designated by statute, prominent items being horses, mules, oxen, cows, calves, wagon, tools, lumber, grain, provisions, beds, bedding, furniture and $30 wages. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman has her separate prop- erty free from the husband's control and from liability for his debts. She may encumber, convey or devise her separate property without being joined by her husband in the deed. Widow has dower in one- third of husband's real estate, and a child's share in his personalty. The husband dying intestate, leaving no heirs, the wife inherits all his property. MECHANICS' LIEN lies on buildings and fixed machinery, and the ground on which they are erected; also on water craft. Land- lords have lien on crops, growing and garnered, for advances of sup- plies and clothing, and for their rent. WILLS. Two witnesses. If for only personal property, witnesses need not subscribe their names. The handwriting of an unattested will maybe proved by three witnesses. Nuncupative wills have no force for amounts over $250. TEXAS. ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent debtor making an assignment must have it recorded, accompanied by a sworn inventory of debts, assets, creditors, collaterals held by them and all evidences of debts to or against debtor, with complete statement of his estate, with val- ues. The assignment may be made for the benefit of assenting creditors only; and accepting a fro rata will be equivalent to discharge of debtor from liabil- ity. A creditor believing debtor has concealed his property may have him summoned and exam- ined under oath. Any fraudulent action on part of debtor is felony. ATTACHMENTS. The plaintiff making affidavit and giving bond in double amount, an attachment is issued where defendant is a non-resident or a foreign corporation, is about to remove from the State, or secretes himself to avoid summons, conceals his property or is about to conceal it, or is about to remove it from the State, or from the county, has disposed of his property, or is about to dispose of it, is about turning his property into money, so that it cannot be reached, or has obtained property by deception. Intent to defraud is surmised in any of the allegations. Limit of justices of the peace, $200. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the property must change hands at once. Foreclosed by suit; sheriff's sale sixty days' notice. DEEDS. Acknowledgments anywhere within the United States are made before the clerk of a court of record having a seal, a notary public or a commissioner of deeds for this State. Where a deed is not acknowledged it must be proved by two witnesses. Married women, separate examination, DIVORCE. Applicant must be really an inhabitant of the State and a resident of the county for six mouths previous to filing petition; grounds, adultery, three years' desertion, unendurable cruelty. EXEMPTIONS. Two hundred acres of land with improvements in the country, or city property to value at time of being designated as homestead! (regardless of the value of after improvements) of $5,000. Furniture, farming implements, tools, books, five cows and calves, two yoke of cattle, two horses and wagon, a carriage or buggy, twenty hogs, twenty sheep, provisions, provender and many other articles. The exemption of the homestead is not good against taxes, purchase-money or mechanics' lien ; but in this last case the contract must have been signed by both husband and wife. On the death of a husband, the widow and children may have one year's support out of the estate, and if the property be not in such shape as to be exempted by law, enough may be sold to raise an allowance for homestead to value of $5,000 and other property $500. Any person not the head of a fam- ily may have exempted clothing, books, horse, bridle and saddle. MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned by husband or wife before marriage, and what either may acquire afterwards, by gift, devise or descent, is community property. The husband controls the common property and the wife's separate estate. The common prop- erty is liable for the debts of either, and the husband may dispose of it. At the death of either the survivor takes one-half and the children the other half of the common property. The husband joins wife in conveyance of her separate property. She joins him in conveyance of homestead. A married woman cannot do business in her own name, but she may become security for her husband by mortgaging her separate estate. MECHANICS' LIENS must be on a written contract and recorded within six months. Sub -contractors and journeymen may furnish the owner with their accounts, and he must retain the amount of their claims. Landlords have lien for rent and for supplies advanced. WILLS. Age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses. Only written wills can devise real estate. UTAH. ASSIGNMENTS. Common law. ATTACHMENTS. Plaintiff holding no security gives bond and takes out an attachment where there is an appearance of the debtor's probable failure to pay the debt. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. No statutes. Mortgagee must take immediate possession. DEEDS must have one witness. Acknowledgments before notary public, justice of the peace, mayor of a city or judge or clerk of court of record. A married woman conveys the same as if single. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; personal property to head of the family, $700, and to each member $250. Not good against pur- chase-money, mechanics' lien or a mortgage. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman's separate property is held, managed, controlled and disposed of by herself. A wife may carry on business, sue and be sued, give notes and make contracts the same as if single. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be filed within three months; suit brought within one year. Sub-contractors and journeyman must serve the owner with timely written notice. WILLS. Testator's age, eighteen years. Two witnesses. Married women make wills the same as if single. SfTY <8 A V 522 SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. VERMONT. ASSIGNMENTS tnuxt be without preferences. Insolvent law by which involuntary proceedings may be entered by one creditor having claim to $250. If assets pay thirty per cent of debts, or if majority of creditors consent, the debtor is discharged. ATTACHMENTS on mesne process. Trustee process for property in hands of third per- sons. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. All property, except fixed ma- chinery, must be taken into the possession of the mortgagee. Foreclosed by bill in equity. Court orders sale. DEEDS must be under seal and h:tve two witnesses. Acknowledgments are made before a mas- ter in chancery, justice of the peace or notary public. No separate examination for married women. DIVORCE is granted for adultery, cruelty, three years' abandon- ment, three years* imprisonment in penitentiary or seven years* ab- sence without being heard of. The wife may obtain divorce where the husband, being able, fails to support. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $500; growing crop, clothing, furni- ture, sewing-machine, tools, one cow, ten sheep, one hog, three hives of bees, poultry, one yoke of oxen or two horses, fuel, provisions and provender; also the instruments and library of a professional man, $200. MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is held separate, and is not liabit for her husband's debts. In conveyance of the wife's real estate, the husband must join in deed. A married woman may make a will. Widow has dower in one-third the real estate of which the husband died seized. MECHANICS' LIENS. On buildings suit must be brought within three months; on vessels in eight months. WILLS. Three witnesses. VIRGINIA. ASSIGNMENTS may be made with preferences. The debtor is still liable. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS arc issued against anon-resident debtor or a defendant who is removing or about to remove his property out of the State pendente lite t or a tenant removing his property be- fore the rent becomes due* or a debtor taking his property out of the State before a debt is due. Garnishment will reach debts due the defendant. Plaintiff must give bond and file affidavit. Also, an arrest will be made on plain- tiff's affidavit that he believes de- fendant is about to abscond. The defendant will then have to give a bail-bond or be imprisoned. DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a notary, justice, com- missioner in chancery, or before the judge or clerk of any county or corporation court. In other States, before any court or clerk of a court, or justice, or notary, or commissioner in chancery, or commis- sioner of deeds for Virginia. Record must be made within sixty days. Wife joins to bar dower. Separate examination. The acknowledg- ment of a married woman must be made before two justices of the peace, or before an officer having a seal. DIVORCE. Grounds: impotency, adultery, sentence to penitentiary, guilt of cither of infamous crime before marriage, the other being ig- norant, notorious immorality of wife before marriage, five years* abandonment. Partial divorce for cruelty or desertion. Alimony and maintenance of children are decreed, and the care of the children is given to either parly at the discretion of the court. EXEMPTIONS. The head of a family who is a householder has a homestead exemption to value of $2,000, which may be in real or per- sonal property, both or either. Also clothing, sewing-machine, fur- niture and animals ; books, $100; tools, $100. The value of the exemp- tions outside of the homestead is varied according to the number in family, and ranges from $50 to S500. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds the property owned by her previous to marriage, and what she may afterwards acquire, as sole trader, free from the control of her husband, and from liability for his debts. She may make a will subject to husband's rights by curtesy. Common law dower. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be filed within thirty days; suit brought within six months. Sub-contractors and journeymen must notify owner within ten days. WILLS. Age, over twenty- one to dispose of realty ; eighteen, per- sonalty. Two witnesses. WEST VIRGINIA. ASSIGNMENTS are made by deed, acknowledged and recorded as are all such instruments. If real estate is assigned, the wife must join in the deed. There being no insolvent law, an assignment does not cancel the liability of the debtor. A defendant under arrest for debt, on making a con- veyance of his property, will be discharged from such arrest. ATTACHMENTS. The cred- itor first making affidavit, attach- ments are issued, where debtor is a non-resident, or is about leaving the State, or conceals himself to avoid summons, is re- moving his property out of the State, or is in any manner trying to put it out of reach to defraud his creditors. Bond and security being furnished by creditor, the sheriff takes complete possession of the attached property. Garnishment «■- third parties. No imprisonment for debt. Rut defendant may be arrested if about removing himself or his property with intent to defraud. CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Common law. Form, deed of trust. DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a notary public, re- corder, or judge or clerk of any court of record la United States, or before a commissioner of deeds for West Virginia. A married woman must be examined separate and apart from her husband. DIVORCE is granted for mental or physical defect at time of mar- riage, unfaithfulness, three years' abandonment, sentence to peni- tentiary, conviction of crime before marriage, or notorious immorality of cither before marriage, the other party being ignorant. Partial divorce may be obtained for cruelty or desertion. Alimony and cus- tody of children is decreed by the court. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000, where the property has been granted or devised for the purpose, to the head of a family, or where he has devoted such property to that purpose by having it so recorded. Also personal property to value of $200. Tools to mechanic, $50. MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman, however acquired, except from the husband, is held for her sole and separate use. Husband must join in conveyances of real estate. Dower. MECHANCS' LIENS. Must file claim within thirty daysand bring *ni; w.ihin six months. WILLS. Testator's age, twenty -one years. Two witn A ^^=^ SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 5 2 3 WASHINGTON. ASSIGNMENTS. Unless fraud or preference is evident, the insolv- ent law allows the discharge of debtor whose assets equal thirty-three per cent of debts. Wages to amount of $100 are preferred claims. ATTACHMENTS issue where debtor is non-resident or a foreign corporation, absconds, removes his property or attempts to place it out of reach of his creditors. Plaintiff gives bond. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGE must be accompanied by the affidavit of both parties that it is bona fide ^ and made with no fraudulent de- sign. When for exempted property, wife must join. A chattel mort- gage must be acknowledged and recorded the same as a deed of con- veyance. DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments arc taken by notary public, justice of the peace, judge or clerk of court of record, mayor of a city or register of deeds. In any other State or Territory, according to the laws of such State or Territory. For conveyance of separate real estate of a wife, she must be joined in the deed by her husband, and she must be questioned apart from him. No dower or curtesy rights. EXEMPTIONS. Homestead (must be actually occupied) to the value of $1,000; clothing, books, bedding and household goods, to value of $1,500; one small boat, to value of $50; two cows, five hogs, bees, poultry, fuel and provisions. To a farmer, two horses, or two yoke of oxen, and farming implements to value of $200. To profes- sional man, library worth $500, office furniture and fuel. To lighter- man, his boats, to value of $250. To drayman, his team. MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned before marriage by husband or wife, and all acquired afterwards by gift, devise or descent, to either, is separate property. All otherwise acquired is common property, subject to control of the husban,d. He also controls the separate property of the wife, but cannot sell or convey it without her joining in the deed. To save the separate property of the wife from attachment for husband's debts, there must be an inventory of it on record. MECHANICS' LIENS. Notice must be filed within sixty days, and suit begun in four months. Every kind of structure, and the land thereunder, is covered by lien. There may also be a lien on logs, timber and lumber for work; and by the owner of land where such timber is cut. Farm laborers have lien on crops, but where crop is raised on shares, the landlord's portion cannot be touched. WILLS. Age, twenty-one for men, eighteen for women. Two wit- messes. WISCONSIN. ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law, whereby debtor may file peti- tion, list of assets and liabilities with his affidavit, and make an assign- ment for the benefit of all credit- « ors. After publication a jury trial may be exacted by the cred- itors. If the decision is in favor of the debtor, the assignment is decreed, and debtor is discharged from all his debts. Proof of fraudulent practice on part of debtor would void the discharge. ATTACHMENTS issue when the debt is over fifty dollars in amount, on affidavit being made and bond given that the defend- ant has gone away or concealed himself, is a non-resident or for- eign corporation, or is about removing his property. On affidavit and bond of creditor, defendant may be arrested if he is about to leave trie State, or conceals property. Garnishment in aid. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or possession of property pass into hands of mortgagee. Foreclosure by seizure and sale. DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments are made before notaries public, justices of the peace, judges and clerks of courts, commissioners of deeds ; and in other States, according to the laws of such States. A married woman must join in a deed to bar dower. DIVORCE. Unless the parties had been married and since remained in the State, the applicant must have been for one year a resident be- fore filing petition. Absolute divorce is granted for impotency, adul- tery, one year's abandonment, five years' separation, three years' sentence to penitentiary, cruelty and drunkenness. Partial divorce for desertion, cruelty, drunkenness or failure to provide. The court may decree alimony, and the wife regain her separate property. EXEMPTIONS. Forty acres in the country, or one-quarter of ai acre in town, with the dwelling thereon. Clothing, household furni- ture, $200; books, two cows, ten hogs, ten sheep, one horse and yoke of cattle, or a pair of horses and mules, farming tools, one year's pro- visions and provender. To a mechanic, tools, $200; professional man, his library, $200 ; a publisher or printer, his outfit to $1,500. To any head of a family, sixty days* earnings. No exemption good against a mechanic's lien or claim for purchase-money. MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman has all property rights the same as if single. She may buy and sell, lend and borrow, make conveyances, and have real estate conveyed to her, and all such busi- ness may be transacted between her and her husband as between strangers. She may sue alone, but in being sued she must be joined to husband. Dower, life interest in one-third of all husband's realty held during the marriage. Husband has wife's realty for life. MECHANICS' LIEN. Must file petition in six months and bring suit in one year. Sub -contractors and journeymen must notify owner within thirty days of the furnishing of material or labor. WILLS. Two witnesses. WYOMING. ASSIGNMENTS. Must be without preferences, without reserv- ations for benefit of assignor and without provisions forcing creditor into a compromise or release of his claims. No insolvent law. ATTACHMENTS. Plaintiff must make affidavit and give security before an attachment is issued. A non-resident or absconding debtor, or one who conceals his property to avoid payment, Is liable to the process. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded or the property must pass into possession of mortgagee. Sale without consent of mort- gaged property by the mortgageor is a felony and maybe punished by imprisonment in the penitentiary for a term less than ten years. DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments may be taken before justices of the peace, notaries public, judges and clerks of courts of record, registers of deeds and mayors of cities. In the States and other Territories, before commissioners of deeds for Wyoming or before officers authorized by the laws of such States or Territories. Married women join in conveying common property. Separate property they convey alone. EXEMPTIONS. House and lot in town or one hundred and sixty acres of land in the country, either to value of $1,500. Tools, team and stock in trade of mechanic, miner or other person, $300. Benefit of exemption can only be claimed by a bona fide resident householder. A MARRIED WOMAN may carry on business, make contracts, keep her own earnings, hold property, real or personal, receive the rents in her own name, sue and be sued, make a will, free from any control or interference of her husband, the same as if she were single. Her property is not liable for the debts of her husband. Women in this Territory have the right to vote and hold office. MECHANICS' LIENS. Claim must be filed within sixty days, and suit begun within one year. WILLS. Xo statutes. Common law. i^ "Ff 524 CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. *HILE it is impossible, in a world made up of widely differing individuals, to formulate a set of rules by which each could be shown the surest and swiftest way to secure success in life, still it is possible to call attention to certain qualities of mind and character whose possession has come to be universally looked upon as essential to those who may aspire to struggle into the front rank of the world's workers. As a matter of fact, it would be as difficult to define the common expression "success in life" as it would be to lay down a royal road which leads to it. Given a hundred definitions, from as many men, each treating the subject from his own standpoint, and no two of them would be found alike; and the opinion of each of these, as time passed along with its inevitable ups and downs, would be found to vary considerably. Flushed with recent success, the speculator to-day would see in the possession of millions and in the control of vast interests the only proper goal for a man of his great genius ; tamed a few days later by unexpected reverses, and he sees in some conservative enterprise the fittest sphere of his future usefulness. Perhaps, then, without attempting the impossible, in a defi- nition of success in life which will fit all who are seeking it, it will do to look upon it as the accomplishment of the laudable life-purpose of a man of natural or cultivated parts, who has found an object in life worth living and working for, and has worked honestly and perseveringly to attain it. As a rule, the larger the endow- ment of those faculties which go to build up success in life, the higher the aim which accom- panies them; but it must not be forgotten that man is the most cultivable of all God's crea- tures, and that by careful and intelligent study of the qualities which have enabled others to shine, one may acquire them and employ them in building up similar accomplishments. This being so, it does not lie in the power of the young man who feels that he possesses only a moderate share of intelligence, force and abil- ity, to decide, on this account, that he is not called upon to make fight for one of the front places in the life of his generation. The most brilliant lives have often been those of men of ordinary gifts, who, exerting to the utmost such power as has been given them, have accom- plished more than hundreds of men who were much more bountifully supplied with mental qualifications. If any man look among the circle of his acquaintances he will be surprised to see how few have made the voyage of life successfully, and sorrow cannot but arise when he considers the impotent conclusions to which u CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 525 *^|5— young men of brilliant parts frequently come. Every day witnesses the triumph of patient and studious mediocrity, and men of great intellect are constantly being forced to acknowledge, with surprise, the success of persons whose abilities, in comparison with their own, have been deemed inconsiderable. These men know precisely the scope of their faculties, and never wander beyond them. They wait pa- tiently for opportunities which are of the kind they can improve, and they never let one pass unimproved. Being unnoticed, they excite so much the less opposition, and at last they sur- prise the world by the attainment of an object which others deemed as far away from their ambition as it seemed beyond their reach. . How to Avoid Failure. It is a common thing, with both the brilliant and the mediocre, when the reward of their exertions and the restilt of their plans seem unsatisfactory, to blame the ever-ready scapegoat, bad luck, as the cause of the untoward outcome. , One of the most healthful and profitable exercises which a young man who has just experienced failure of any kind can perform, will be to analyze the whole transaction with merci- less candor, finding out just what proportion of the disaster is due to his own fault and what is due to fortuitous circum- stances, and then make a cold-blooded comparison. If this were more generally done than it is, there would be far fewer believers in, or rather blamers of, luck as a business marplot than are at present to be found. To come down to the facts in the case, without going so far as to dispute the existence of such a thing as chance, in almost all cases of failure the cause is to be found in the man, and the reason it is not found there is because that is the last place in which the man hunts for it. " Untoward accidents," "fate," "destiny," "ill- fortune," "evil star," "chance," "luck," or some other synonym of the scapegoat, suggests itself to the victim of ill- success, and he consoles himself with charging upon it his failure. He has the poets on his side, too. Does not Shak- spere say : " There's a divinity that shapes our ends, Rough-hew them how we will." And Byron : " Men are the sport of circumstances, when The circumstances seem the sport of men." And, after all has been said, it were better, perhaps, that the young business man place some little, very little, credence in luck's existence, just enough, in fact, to cause him to so organize upon solid and substantial foundation each of his enterprises, and to so honestly and perseveringly conduct them, that the smallest possible loop-hole will be left for ill- luck to make its appearance. Choosing an Occupation Is seldom an easy matter. In some few cases, a young man feels the possession of such an unmistakable bias to some peculiar profession that neither he nor his friends have any hesitancy in deciding upon his future. In most cases, however, there is no particular preference, and a wise decis- ion is not reached before many considerations have been carefully weighed. In far too many cases wrong considera- tions are given attention, and a decision is reached whose ultimate result is a life failure which, had the profession been selected with greater wisdom, would not have happened. A socially ambitious father and mother check their young son's honest ambition to become a mechanic, send him to college, and make a briefless barrister out of the material which could have been moulded into an honest and efficient artisan. Many a boy whose soul yearned for the higher walks of intellectual culture, to share in which he had been endowed, has been doomed by injudicious parents, who despised colleges, to dull life at a dry-goods counter or counting- room desk. Parents are not by any means infallible judges upon this point, and every young man about to start out in search of success in life should study himself carefully in order to discover his aptitudes. The natural bent may be hard to find, but the discovery will well repay the search. Historical biography teems with the lives of men whose peculiar aptitude was early displayed to the advantage of themselves and the world. Napoleon, a school boy at Brienne, led the mimic armies of his youthful associates ; Nelson had conceived the idea of future greatness as a sailor before he entered the navy ; Pascal contributed to the mathe- matical literature of his age before he was seventeen; Pope acknowledged that " While yet a child and still a fool of fame, I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came;" Dryden illustrated the growth of natural aptitude when he wrote : " What the child admired The youth endeavored, and the man acquired ; " Michael Angelo stayed away from school to draw pictures ; Murillo covered his text-books with them ; West, at seven, plundered the cat's tail of hair with which to make pencils; Calhoun, a student, held his own in debate with the college president — and so on, until the examples of the theory of natural aptitude become too numerous for recapitulation. Taking for granted that one has discovered, or believes that he has discovered, his bent, he must beware of the danger which lies in fickleness of purpose, which may, shortly after the weariness of work begins to be felt, lead him to suppose that he has chosen unwisely, and that some other field of use- fulness would be more suitable to his temper and parts. It is the practical repetition of the old story of the traveller in the express train sighing for the quiet pleasure of the farmer, whose broad fields are flying past, while the farmer looks longingly at the train as it dashes by, and dreams of the enjoy- able excitements of a life of endless bustle, stir and energy. Whatever the calling, there will be toil and trial for its ^ a «b_ 526 CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. follower, and these come from him rather than from the occu- pation, which might be changed a dozen times in the vain hope of escaping from them. Having deliberately selected a profession, stick to it The longer you remain in it, the more expert you become and the easier becomes the work and the larger the pay. It is only the early days which bring weari- ness and pain. These conquered by perseverance, the rest is easy, and the success in conquering the first pleadings of the siren fickleness of purpose, who is of closer kin to laziness than one might think, lays the corner-stone of success in life. Excelsior ! Having chosen his occupation, the young man of proper ambition will not be long in selecting for himself an honorable position in it, to be filled as soon as he has shown himself worthy and able. What men have accomplished shows that hardly any ambitious longing can be considered as unwise on the part of those who are willing to undertake all work and suffer all want in the struggle. The extremest poverty has been no obstacle ia the way of men devoted to the duty of self-culture. Professor Alexander Murray, the linguist, learned to write by scribbling his letters on an old wool-card with the end of a burnt heather-stem. The only book which his father, who was a poor shepherd, possessed, was a penny Shorter Catechism ; but that, being thought too valuable for common use, was carefully preserved in a cupboard for the Sunday catechizings. Professor Moor, when a young man, being too poor to purchase Newton's " Principia," borrowed the book, and copied the whole of it with his own hand. Many poor students, while laboring daily for their living, have only been able to snatch an atom of knowledge here and there at intervals, as birds do their food in winter time when the fields are covered with snow. They have struggled on, and faith and hope have come to them. A well known author and publisher, William Cham- bers, of Edinburgh, speaking before an assemblage of young men in that city, thus briefly described to them his humble beginnings for their encouragement: "I stand before you," he said, " a self-educated man. My education is that which is supplied at the humble parish-schools of Scotland; and it was only when I went to Edinburgh, a poor boy, that I devoted my evenings, after the labors of the day, to the cultivation of that intellect which the Almighty has given me. From seven or eight in the morning till nine or ten at night was I at my business as a bookseller's apprentice, and it was only during hours after these, stolen from sleep, that I could devote myself to study. I did not read novels; my attention was devoted to physical science and other useful matters. I also taught myself French. I look back to those times with great pleasure, and am almost sorry I have not to go through the same experience again ; for I reaped more pleasure when I had not a sixpence in my pocket, studying in a garret in Edinburgh, than I now find when sitting amid all the elegancies and comforts of a parlor." William Cobbett learned English grammar when he was a private soldier on the pay of sixpence a day. These are men who have selected an aim in life and have attained it through sticking to it. Concentration of purpose carried them through. The "Admirable Crichtons " are scarce geniuses, and no young man need be ashamed, in these days of special accomplishment, of having decided to follow a single pursuit in life — to become a man of one idea — provided it is a good one. Almost all the great men in war, literature, science, diplomacy, business, the professions, have been men of "one idea," not because they were incapable of harboring more than one, but because, having selected some one object as worthy of attainment, they gave themselves up to it solely. If was often long of coming, but it came at last. Adam Smith gave ten years to his "Wealth of Nations;" Edward Gibbon, twenty to the "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Bishop Butler, twenty to his famous "Analogy;" Kant, fifty years to his metaphysical re- searches ; Dr. Johnson, seven years to his Dictionary. These men sought one prize and gained it. As many years have been spent by thousands of men of equal ability, who sought each a number of prizes and gained none. A Sound Body Is another of the essentials of success in life which are largely attainable by those who lack their possession. Mental as well as physical accomplishment depends largely upon the condition of the worker's digestion, and the thorough aeration of his blood. This can only be obtained with healthy exercise, which can only be taken by those whose muscles and nerves and wind are in good condition. " Walk twelve miles before speaking and you'll never break down," says Sidney Smith to an English Parliamentary debater. A strong intellect cannot well work with a weak body as its case. Energy without talent will accomplish more than talent without energy. The sharp edge of the woodman's axe avails noth- ing until the sinewy arm throws it, stroke upon stroke, against the monarchs of the forest. Take the great men of the century, and it will be seen that they combined intellectual force with physical vigor. In England, Brougham, Lynd- hurst, Peel, Bright, Gladstone, Palmerston; in America. Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, Lin- coln — all these were men capable of strong muscular exertion and of standing a prolonged physical as well as mental strain. It is told of Lord Brougham that he once worked six days on a stretch without sleep, slept from Saturday night to Monday morning, and began work again thoroughly refreshed. These men are the conservers as well as the possessors of physical force, and the young man. who seeks to retain the "sound mind in a sound body " will remember that it is not so much in the cultivation of additional body strength as in the economy of what he already possesses that the art of physical culture is best applied. The idea used to be that mus- cularity and rowdyism were natural associates, but people found out that it is possible for a young man to be a good rower, or boxer even, and still be a worthy Christian and admirable member of society, and even that it was difficult for him to be these unless with the employment of manly _M 9 ~A CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 527 exercises he brought his physical condition up to the healthy standard. This is merely a recurrence to the old belief of the Greeks, who reverenced the muscular body as one of the noble parts of man, and made gymnastics and calisthenics a regular school exercise. Without good health and a sound body, moderate success in life may be painfully possible; with it a place in the front rank may be attained with far greater ease than otherwise. Self-Reliance. Among all the mental qualifications which help on to success in life, there is none which is of more importance than self-reliance. If you want a thing well done, do it yourself, says the old saw, and heace comes it that those who rely most upon themselves for the accomplishment of any aim are the ones who do the best work. " Heaven helps those who help themelves " is a well-tried maxim, embody- ing in small compass the results of vast human experience. The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in the individual; and, exhibited in the lives of many, it consti- tutes the true sourco of national vigor and strength. Help from without is often enfeebling in its effects, but help from within invariably invigorates. Whatever is done for men or classes, to a certain extent takes away the stimulus and neces- sity of doing for themselves; and where men are subjected to over-guidance and over-government, the inevitable tendency is to render them comparatively helpless. It is energetic individualism which produces the most powerful effect upon the life and actions of others, and really constitutes the best practical education. The determination to be one's own helper is the secret of this individual develop- ment and strength. No greater misfortune could befall an ambitious and able young man than a legacy. A story is told of a critic who, after reviewing the promising work of a young artist, praised it, but added : " It is a pity that he can never make a great painter." " And why not?" rejoined his com- panion. "Because he has ten thousand pounds a year," was the sententious response. When John C. Calhoun was ridi- culed by his fellow-students at Yale for his intense application to study, he raised a louder laugh against himself by replying, " I am forced to make the most of my time that I may acquit myself creditably when in Congress," and then, when the laugh was over, adding, " I assure you, if I were not satisfied of my ability to reach Congress in three years, I would at once leave college." Here was self-reliance and self-help. Calhoun knew the difficulties that lay between him and the goal of his ambition, and, while the other students were laughing at him, he was helping himself to overcome them. '* The man who dares to think for himself and act independ- ently, does a service to his race, " says one of the brightest modern thinkers, and daily experience shows that it is ener- getic individualism which produces the most powerful effects upon the life and action of others, and really constitutes the best practical education. Schools, academies and colleges give out the merest beginnings of culture in comparison with It Far more influential is the life-education daily given in our homes, in the streets, behind counters, in workshops, at the loom and the plough, in counting-houses and manu- factories, and in the busy haunts of men. This is that finishing instruction as members of society which Schiller designated "the education of the human race," consisting in action, conduct, self-culture, self-control — all that tends to discipline a man truly, and fit him for the proper performance of the duties and business of life — a kind of education not to be learned from bouks, or acquired by any amount of mere literary training. With his usual weight of words, Bacon observes that "studies teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them and above them won by observation " — a remark that holds true of actual life as well as of the culti- vation of the intellect itself. For all experience serves to illus- trate and enforce the lesson that a man perfects himself by work more than by reading — that it is life rather than litera- ture, action rather than study, and character rather than biography, which tend perpetually to renovate mankind. Attention to Detail Is a matter which constitutes much more than half of the battle in many spheres of usefulness, and, the more intellectual the task, the greater the necessity, very frequently, of careful and constant devotion to the little things which help to form it. Sedulous attention and painstaking industry always mark the true worker. The greatest men are not those who "de- spise the day of small things," but those who improve them the most carefully. Michael Angelo was one day explaining to a visitor at his studio what he had been doing at a statue since his previous visit. "I have retouched this part — polished that — softened this feature — brought out that mus- cle — given some expression to this lip, and more energy to that limb." "But these are trifles," remarked the visitor. " It may be so," replied the sculptor, "but recollect that trifles make perfection, and perfection is no trifle." So it was said of Nicolas Poussin, the painter, that the rule of his con- duct was, that "whatever was worth doing at all was worth doing well;" and when asked, late in life, by his friend Vigneul de Marville, by what means he had gained so high a reputation among the painters of Italy, Poussin emphatically answereu, " Because I have neglected nothing." On the first publication of Wellington's dispatches, one of his friends said to him, on reading the records of his Indian campaigns : " It seems to me, Duke, that your chief business in India was to procure rice and bullocks." "And so it was." replied Wellington, "for, if I had rice and bullocks, I had men; and if I had men, I knew I could beat the enemy." All men who have accomplished success in life have been conspicuous for minute attention to details as well as for general scope and vigor. The great Napoleon was a wonderful example of this. His correspondence shows him arranging for supplies of saddles, directing where cattle could be purchased, advising the procurement of shoes for the infantry, and making sugges- tions as to various minor details, and complaining because of discovered carelessness in the reports upon matters of detail supplied by others. Lord Brougham, alluding to this quality, A 5*8 CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 7 said: "The captain who conveyed Napoleon to Elba ex- pressed to me his astonishment at his precise and, as it were, familiar knowledge of all the minute details connected with the ship." In the face of these examples, no one should come to the conclusion that datails are beneath one's notice, or that one is less brilliant in the great things of life because he pays atten- tion to the little things. Of General Thomas it is said that he was careful in all the details of a battle, but, once in the fight, was as "furious and impetuous as Jackson." Attention to details makes a business man, or any other kind of man, "sure that he is right," and then, of course, it only remains for him to " go ahead." Perseverance Is the ever ready and kindly ally of those who are seeking success and feel that they do not possess the ability to attain it so quickly as others. The greatest results in life are usually attained by simple means and the exercise of ordinary quali- ties. The road of human welfare lies along the old highway of steadfast well-doing; and they who are the most per- sistent, and work in the truest spirit, will usually be the most successful. Buffon's definition of genius, "It is patience," may be exaggerated, but it hardly seems so when the accom- plishments of patience are considered. Fortune has often been blamed for her blindness ; but Fortune is not so blind as men are. Those who look into practical life will find that Fortune is usually on the side of the industrious, as the winds and waves are on the side of the best navigators. In the pur- suit of even the highest branches of human inquiry, the com- moner qualities are found the most useful — such as common sense, attention, application and perseverance. Genius may not be necessary, though even genius of the highest sort does not disdain the use of these ordinary qualities. The very greatest men have been among the least believers in the power of genius, and as worldly-wise and persevering as successful men of the commoner sort. The extraordinary results effected by dint of sheer industry and perseverance have led many distinguished men to doubt whether the gift of genius be so exceptional an endowment as it is usually supposed to be. Thus Voltaire held that it is only a very slight line of separation that divides the man of genius from the man of ordinary mould. Bcccaria was even of opinion that all men might be poets and orators, and Rey- nolds that they might be painters and sculptors. If this were really »o, that stolid Englishman might not have been so very far wrong, after all, who, on Canova's death, inquired of his brother whether it was "his intention to carry on the business!" Locke, Helvetius and Diderot believed that all men have an equal aptitude for genius, and that what some are able to effect, under the laws which regulate the opera- tions of the intellect, must also be within the reaah of others who, under like circumstances, apply themselves to like pur- suits. But, while admitting to the fullest extent the wonder- ful achievements of labor, and recognizing the fact that men of the most distinguished genius have invariably been found the most indefatigable workers, it must nevertheless be sufficiently obvious that, without the original endowment of heart and brain, n* amount of labor, however well applied, could have produced a Shakspere, a Newton, a Beethoven or a Michael Angelo. The world's history is full of the triumphs of those »ho have had to fight from beginning to end for recognition. Carey, the great missionary, began life as a shoemaker ; the chemist Vanquelin was the son of a peasant; Richard Cob- den was the son of a small farmer ; Cook, the navigator, and Burns, the poet, were day-laborers; Ben Jonson was a brick- layer; David Livingstone, the traveller-missionary, was a weaver; Sturgeon, the electrician, and Bloomfield, the poet, were shoemakers ; Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, was a tailor. At the plow, on the bench, or at the loom, these men dreamed of their future greatness, and persevered in their endeavors to accomplish it, and did so at last. Literature has provided several examples of single- handed triumph over difficulties by the persevering. Lord Brougham, working for over sixty years at law, literature, politics and science, and achieving distinction in all, was advised by Sir Sidney Smith to confine himself to only the transaction of so much business as three strong men could get through. Another hard-working man of the same class was Lord Lytton. Few writers did more, orachieved higher distinction in various walks — as a novelist, poet, dramatist, historian, essayist, orator and politician. He worked his way step by step, disdainful of ease, and animated throughout by the ardent desire to excel. On the score of mere industry there are few living English writers who have written so much, and none that have produced so much of high quality. Like Byron, his first effort was poetical (" Weeds and Wild Flow- ers") and a failure. His second was a novel (" Falkland "), and it proved a failure too. A man of weaker nerve would have dropped authorship; but Bulwer had pluck and per- severance; and he worked on, determined to succeed. He was incessantly industrious, read extensively, and from failure went courageously onward to success. " Pelham " followed "Falkland" within a year, and the remainder of Lord Lytton's life was a succession of triumphs. The late Premier of England, Lord Beaconsfield, affords a similar instance of the power of industry and application in working out an eminent public career. His first achieve- ments were, like Bulwer's, in literature ; and he reached success only through a succession of failures. His "Won- drous Tale of Alroy " and "Revolutionary Epic" were laughed at. and regarded as indications of literary lunacy. But he worked on in other directions, and his " Coningsby," "Sybil" and "Tancred" proved the sterling stuff of which he was made. As an orator, too, his first appearance in the House of Commons was a failure. It was spoken of at "more screaming than an Adelphi farce." Though com- posed in a grand and ambitious strain, every sentence was hailed with "loud laughter." " Hamlet " played as a com- edy were nothing to it. Bat he concluded with a sentence V -M -Tf CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 5 2 9 £ which embodied a prophecy. Writhing under the laughter with which his studied eloquence had been received, he ex- claimed, " I have begun several times many things, and have succeeded in them at last. I will sit down now, but the time will come when you will hear me." The time did come; and how Disraeli succeeded in at length commanding the attention of the first assembly of gentlemen in the world affords a striking illustration of what energy and determina- tion will do ; for Disraeli earned his position by dint of patient Industry. He did not, as many young men do, hav- ing once failed, retire dejected, to mope and whine in a corner, but diligently set himself to work. He carefully unlearned' his faults, studied the character of. his audience, practiced sedulously the art of speech, and industriously filled his mind with the elements of parliamentary knowledge. He worked patiently for success ; and it came, but slowly ; then the House laughed with him instead of at him. The recollection of his early failure was effaced, and by general consent he was at length admitted to be one of the most finished and effective of parliamentary speakers, and finally became the favored Frime Minister of Queen Victoria. Decision of Character Is one of the greatest of God's gifts to man, and, as every man has the germ of this quality, it can be cultivated to great advantage. It outstrips even talent and genius in the race for success in life. Thousands and thousands of brilliant men have failed for the want of courage, faith and decision, perish- ing in the sight of less gifted but more adventurous competi- tors. As Sidney Smith says, " We must not stand shivering on the brink and thinking of the cold and the danger, but jump in and scramble through as well as we can." The old poem says : " He either fears his fate too much. Or his deserts are small, That dares not put it to the touch, To gain or lose it all." Decision of character enables one to do the right thing at the right time. Every one knows that " There is a tide in the affairs of men Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;" but not every one has the ability to tell the time of flood, and many, after telling it, have lost its advantages through lack of nerve to embark upon it before the ebb came, and the opportunity was lost. In the smoke and din of battle, it was the genius of Napoleon which enabled him to see where one or two bold and rapid movements would secure the advantage ; but it was his decision of character which enabled him to profit to the full by the discovery. To be decisive on im- portant occasions, one must keep cool. The Duke of Wellington's calmness never forsook him, even in the most trying emergencies. At sea, one terrible night, the captain of the vessel rushed to the Duke, who was preparing for bed, and announced that the vessel would soon sink. "Then I shall not take off my boots," the imperturbable hero of Water- loo responded as he paused in his preparations for sleep. There is need for this coolness of manner and decision of action in all lines of business. The surgeon, brought face to face with a sudden complication in the case beneath his knife ; the lawyer, surprised by the springing of the trap which his wily opponent had prepared for him ; the merchant, apprised of a turn in his enterprises that threatens immediate disaster — all are called upon to exercise this quality, and in thousands of cases the dullest man in a company has obtained the prize simply because he grasped it while others were revolving in their minds what they had better do in order to secure it. Other Causes of Success and Failure. Attention, application, accuracy, method, punctuality and dispatch are the principal qualities required for the efficient conduct of business of any sort. These, at first sight, may appear to be small matters; and yet they are of essential im- portance to human happiness, well-being and usefulness. They are little things, it is true; but human life is made up of comparative trifles. It is the repetition of little acts which constitutes not only the sum of human character, but which determines the character of nations; and where men or nations have broken down, it will almost invariably be found that neglect of little things was the rock on which they split. Every human being has duties to be performed, and, there- fore, has need of cultivating the capacity for doing them — whether the sphere of action be the management of a house- hold, the conduct of a trade or profession, or the government of a nation. It is the result of every-day experience that steady attention to matters of detail lies at the root of human progress ; and that diligence, above all, is the mother of good luck. Accuracy is also of much importance, and an invariable mark of good training in a man — accuracy in observation, accuracy in speech, accuracy in the transaction of affairs. What is done in business must be well done; for it is better to accom- plish perfectly a small amount of work than to half-do ten times as much. A wise man used to say, " Stay a little, that we may make an end the sooner." Too little attention, however, is paid to this highly impor- tant quality of accuracy. As a man eminent in practical science lately observed to us, " It is astonishing how few people I have met with in the course of my experience who can define a fact accurately." Yet in business affairs, it is the manner in which even small matters are transacted that often decides men for or against you. With virtue, capacity and good conduct in other respects, the person who is hab- itually inaccurate cannot be trusted ; his work has to be gone over again ; and he thus causes an infinity of annoyance, vexation and trouble. Method is essential, and enables a larger amount of work to be accomplished satisfactorily. "Method," said the Rev. Richard Cecil, "is like packing things in a box ; a good packer will get in half as much again as a bad one." Cecil's dispatch of business was extraordinary, his maxim being, "The shortest way to do many things is to do only one thing ^J 35 V 7f 53° CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. at once ;" and he acver left a thing undone with a view of recurring to it at a period of more leisure. A French Minister, who was alike remarkable for his dispatch of business and his constant attendance at places of amusement, being asked how he contrived to combine both objects, replied, " Simply by never postponing till to-morrow what should be done to-day." Lord Brougham has said that a certain English statesman reversed the process, and that his maxim was never to transact to-day what could be postponed till to-morrow. Unhappily, such is the practice of many besides that Minister, already almost forgotten ; the practice is that of the indolent and the unsuccessful. Such men, too, are apt to rely upon agents, who are not always to be relied upon. Important affairs must be attended to in person. "If you wantyour business done," says the proverb, "go and do it; it you don't want it done, send some one else." An indolent country gentleman had a freehold estate pro- ducing about five hundred a year. Becoming involved in debt, he sold half the estate, and let the remainder to an in- dustrious farmer for twenty years. About the end of. the term the farmer called to pay his rent, and asked the owner whether he would sell the farm. " Will you buy it ? " asked the owner surprised. " Yes, if we can agree about the price." " That is exceedingly strange," observed the gentleman ; " pray, tell me how it happens that, while I could not live upon twice as much land for which I paid no rent, you are regularly paying me two hundred a year for your farm, and are able, in a few years, to purchase it ? " " The reason is plain," was the reply; "you sat still and said Go; I got up and said Come: you lay in your bed and enjoyed your estate; I rose in the morning and minded my business." Men of business are accustomed to quote the maxim that time is money ; but it is more : the proper improvement of it is self-culture, self-improvement and growth of character. An hour wasted daily on trifles or in indolence would, if devoted to self-improvement, make an ignorant man wise in a few years, and, employed in good works, would make his life fruitful and death a harvest of worthy deeds. Fifteen minutes a day devoted to self-improvement will be felt at the end of the year. Good thoughts and carefully gathered experience take up no room, and may be carried about as our com- panions everywhere, without cost or encumbrance. An economical use of time is the true mode of securing leisure ; it enables us to get through business and carry it forward, instead of being driven by it. On the other hand, the mis- calculation of time involves us in perpetual hurry, confusion and difficulties ; and life becomes a mere shuffle of expedients, usually followed by disaster. Nelson once said, "I owe all my success in life to having been always a quarter of an hour before my time." Some take no thought of the value of money until they Lave come to an end of it, and many do the same with their time. The hours are allowed to flow by unemployed, and then, when life is fast waning, they bethink themselves of the duty of making a wiser use of it. But the habit of listlessness and idleness may already have become confirmed, and they are unable to break the bonds with which they have permitted themselves to become bound. Lost wealth may be replaced by industry, lost knowledge by study, lost health by temper- ance or medicine, but lost time is gone forever. A proper consideration of the value of time will also inspire habits of punctuality. "Punctuality," said Louis XIV., "it the politeness of kings." It is also the duty of gentlemen, and the necessity of men of business. Nothing begets con- fidence in a man sooner than the practice of this virtue, and nothing shakes confidence sooner than the want of it. He who holds to his appointment and does not keep you waiting for him, shows that he has regard for your time as well as for his own. Thus, punctuality is one of the modes by which we testify our personal respect for those whom we are called upon to meet in the business of life. It is also con- scientiousness, in a measure; for an appointment is a con- tract, express or implied, and he who does not keep it breaks faith, as well as dishonestly uses other people's time, and thus inevitably loses character. We naturally come to the conclusion that the person who is careless about time is care- less about business, and that he is not the one to be trusted with the transaction of matters of importance. When Wash- ington's secretary excused himself for the lateness of his attendance, and laid the blame upon his watch, his master quietly said, " Then you must get another watch or I another secretary." Napoleon was a thorough man of business. Though he had an immense love for details, he had also a vivid power of imagination, which enabled him to look along extended lines of action, and deal with those details on a large scale with judgment and rapidity. He possessed such knowledge of character as enabled him to select, almost unerringly, the best agents for the execution of his designs. But he trusted as little as possible to agents in matters of great moment, on which important results depended. Like Napoleon, the Duke of Wellington was a first-rate man of business ; and it is not perhaps saying too much to aver that it was in no small degree because of his possession of a business faculty amounting to genius that the Duke never lost a battle. His magnificent business qualities were every- where felt; and there can be no doubt that, by the care with which he provided for every contingency, and the personal attention which he gave to every detail, he laid the foundations of his great success. YL THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. V 531 -'HE science of Phrenology is based on the S theory that the faculties of the mind are shown on the surface of the human skull. It points out those connections and rela- tions which exist between the conditions and developments of the brain and the mani- festations of the mind, dis- covering each from an obser- vation of the other. *0$o« THE ORIGIN E?HI^ENOLOGY. Franz Joseph Gall, born at Tie- fenbrunn, in Baden, March 9, 1758) was the first to mark the separate functions of the human mind and trace the location of the respective organs in the human brain. After studying the natural sciences at Strasburg, he graduated as a physician at Vienna in 1785, practicing there for many years. As a boy he had observed that among his schoolmates good memories were invariably indicated by large eyes, and from this he conceived the idea that individual char- acteristics could be determined by external signs. The result of long-continued observation in schools, prisons, lunatic asy- lums and other places was the conviction that the brain, and not the heart, was the seat of all mental manifestations. After twenty years of study he decided the location of some twenty distinct mental organs and satisfied himself that their degree of activity could be determined from the shape of the skull. In 1791 he published "Medi- cal and Philosophical Researches on Nature and Art," and in 1796 he began lecturing in Vienna on his novel theories, creating a marked sensation. In 1802 his lectures were prohibited by the Austrian government as dangerous to religion, but in company with Johann Gaspar Spurzheim, he made considerable headway in Central and Northern Europe. His principal work is entitled, " The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System and of the Brain." MEASUREMENT OF THE HEAD. Other things being equal, the size of the head, and of the brain, the differ- ent portions of which are called organs, and classified according to their par- YL .M -a V V S3' THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. J ticular functions, constitute* the principal phrenological condition by which character is determined. Most great men have had great heads. Webster's head measured a little more than 24 inches, and Clay's considerably over 23. Napoleon's reached nearly 24. Hamilton's hat passed over the ears of a man whose head measured 23^. Burke's head was very large ; so was Jefferson's, while Franklin's hat passed over the ears of a 24-inch head. Small and average heads often astonish us by their brilliancy and learning, and perhaps eloquence, yet fail in that commanding greatness which im- presses and sways. The general rule laid down for head-measurement of adults is as follows : The smallest size compatible with fair talents, 20^ ; moderate, 20^ to ai# ; average, 21 % to 22 ; full, 22 to 22^ ; large, 22^ to 33^ ; very large, above 23)^. Female heads J£ to % below these averages; but as some heads are round, others long, some low and others high, these measure- ments cannot be depended upon to carry any accurate idea of the actual quantity of brain. In judging of the manifestations of the mind, the activity of the brain is a consideration quite as important as its size. While size gives power or momentum of intellect and feeling, activi- ty imparts quickness, intensity, willingness and even a restless desire to act, which go far to produce efficiency of mind, with accompanying effort and action. Under the heads of size, given below, the effects of the different degrees of activity are presented. Very Large. One having a very large head, with activity average or fu/i, on great occasions, or when his powers are thoroughly roused, will be truly great, but ordinarily will sel- dom manifest any remarkable Amount of mind or feeling, and perhaps pass through life with the credit of being a person of good natural abilities and judgment, yet nothing more. With activity great, ^ strength, and the intellectual organs the same, will be a natural genius, endowed with very superior powers of mind and vigor of intellect ; and even though deprived of the advantages of education, his natural talents will sur- mount all obstacles. With activity very great, and the organs of practical intellect and of the propelling powers large or very large, wltl possess the first order of natural abilities, manifest a clearness and force of intellect that will astonish the world, and a power of feeling that will carry all before him, and, with proper cultivation, enable him to become a bright star in the firmament of intellectual greatness ; his mental enjoyments will be most exquisite, and his sufferings equally excruciating. Large. One having a large-sized brain, with activity average, will Possess considerable energy of intellect and feeling, yet seldom manifest it unless it is brought out by some powerful stimulus. With activity /it//, will be endowed with an uncommon amount of the mental power, and be capable of doing a great deal, yet require considerable to awaken him to that vigor- .mi effort of mind of which he is capable. If the perceptive faculties are strong or very strong, and his natural powers put in vigorous requisition, ho will manifest a vigor and energy of intellect and feeling quite above 1 rity. With activity great or very great, will exercise a comma: ence over those minds with which he comes in contact ; when he enjoys, will enjoy intensely, and when he suffers, suffer equally so ; be susceptible of strong excitement, and with the organs of the propelling powers and of practical intellect large or very large, will possess all the mental capabilities for conducting a large business, for rising to eminence, if not to pre- eminence, and discover great force of character and power of intellect and feeling. With activi'.y moderate, when powerfully excited, will evince con- siderable energy of intellect and feeling, yet be too indolent and too **"ff*«*» to do much ; lack clearness and force of idea and intensity of feeling; un- less literally driven to it, will not be likely to be much or do much, and yet actually possess more vigor of mind and energy of feeling than he will mani- fest. With activity sma//, will border on idiocy. Full. One having a full-sized brain, with activity great or very great, with the organs of practical intellect and of the propelling powers large or very large, although he will not possess greatness of intel- lect, nor a deep, strong mind, will be very clever ; have consider- able talent, and that so dis- tributed that it will show to be more than it really is; is capable of being a good scholar, doing a fine business, and with advantages and application, of dis- tinguishing himself somewhat, yet he is inadequate to a great undertaking, can not sway an extensive in- fluence, nor be really great. With activi- ty fu// or average, will do only tolera- bly well, and mani- fest only a common share of talents. With activity moderate or sma//, will neither be nor do much worthy of notice. Average. One hav- ing an average-sized brain, with activity only average, will discover only an ordinary amount of intellect ; be inade- quate to an important undertaking, yet, in a small sphere, or one that requires only a mechanical 1 nKJM of business, may do well. With activity great or very great, and the organs of the propelling powers and of practical intellect large or very large, is capable of doing a fair business and may pass for a man of some talent. With moderate or sma// activity, will hardly hare common sense. Moderate. One with a head of only moderate size, combined with great or very great activity, and the organs of the propelling powers and of practical intellect, large, will possess a tolerable share of intellect. With others to plan for and direct him, will execute to advantage, yet be un- able to do« much alone. Will have a very active mind, and he quick of perception, yet, after all, lack momentum both of mind and character. With activity only average ox fair, will have but a moderate at me mm t of intellect. With activity moderate or sma//, will be an idiot. Small or Very Small. One with a very small head, no matter what may be the activity of his mind, will be incapable of Intellectual effort, of comprehending even easy subjects, or of experiencing much pain or pleasure ; in short, will be a natural foot K THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. A 533 r j=v t zp«*tl. WHAT WILL THE IIjLENESS. DISSIPATION. BOY BECOME? ^HE illustrations on this page are intended to show the effects' of training and circumstances and different modes of life upon the human countenance. Although the inheritance at birth of a sound constitution, well-balanced mental organization and favorable temperament are most impor- tant factors in shaping character, yet the possessor of all these natural endowments may so pursue the path of life that the close will find him a miserable wretch, to go from beggary and vice to an unhonored grave. On the contrary, education and moral training can atone for the lack of natural advantages, and make of a less favored child a useful and honored citizen. The human face has in it something expressive of that which enters into and constitutes the character of a man, and on it are written, by an unseen hand, but in indelible lines which all may read, the records of life's history. Who can divine, on looking at the head and face of the child represented above, what that young intelligence will become in the future of his life ? Look at the eye, nose and mouth of the boy at school, and you will not fail to perceive, from the very contour of the countenance, that his destiny depends on the influences by which he may be surrounded. In the one instance you see him choosing his profes- sion and contemplating a settlement in life, wedding himself to a virtuous, loving and devoted woman, and in course of time becoming surrounded by a loving family ; in the other you see the man emerging from the scenes of brutal intoxication to plunge into deeper, darker vices, until life becomes a burden, and he goes down to the grave unlamentcd and unwept. How different this from the career of the man whose happiest days are spent in the bosom of his loving family, and who grows old amid the most genial influences, honored, revered, beloved; who goes down to his last resting-place amid the prayers and tears of those he loved, cheered by the hope of a happy reunion in a world where life is perfect and joy complete. INDUSTRY AND STUDY. HONORABLE SUCCESS. HONORED AGE. y ri b ■ «■ A t K 534 THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. -c«>-x— --<—>-> PHRENOLOGISTS do not claim that the system in which they believe is perfect, but that they have demonstrated the following facts beyond question: That the brain is the organ through which the mind manifests itself, and that each faculty of the mind has a separate and distinct organ in the brain; that the organs relating to each other are grouped together in the brain ; that, other things being equal, the power of the brain may be estimated by its size ; that the manifestations of brain are affected by the bodily conditions ; that every faculty of the mind is devised for a good purpose, and that every faculty may be enlarged and cultivated by exercise, or may be lessened by neglect. While differences of opinion may exist as to the right which Phrenology has to be considered one of the exact sciences, all mankind tacitly acknowledges the fact that the face is a reliable reflex of FIG. I. THE GRAPES OF INTELLIGENCE. taneously formed by the shape of the head, the nose, the chin and the lips. In the next illustrations are contrasted a pair of faces whose features and expression exemplify boldly the theory of physiognomy. Figure 2, with its straight, darting, frank eye, its intellectual Grecian nose, forehead which bears the stamp of strong perceptive faculty, firm closed lips and res- olute chin, at once impresses the beholder with the presence of a person of strong and clearly defined characteristics, which have been improved by culti- vation. Figure 3, on the other hand, bears all the evidences of vulgarity and ignorance, untempered by culture's softening influences. The smoothly rounded and re- treating brow, the small and sunken eye, the coarse, mis- shapen nose, thick and sen- suous lips, and weak, reced- ing chin, indicate at a glance a nature which is strong only in vulgar and vicious pro- file mind and character. Upon meeting a stranger we instinct- ively scan his face to learn whether we will like or dislike him. Our judgment is instantaneous, the impression being favorable or unfavorable. To what instinct or fact do we ascribe this? We of course judge by the expression of the face — in other words, by the physiognomy. This unfailing index tells whether he is intellectual or dull, kind or brutish, strong or weak of mind. Beyond and outside of all physical characteristics, it is claimed that the mental peculiarities of the individual can be seen and known in the tone of the voice, the rapidity of speech, the sprightliness of motion, the grasp of the hand, etc. The five faces given above, in Figure 1, illustrate the various grades of intelligence. The face at the left is easily recog- nized as one of intellectual vigor. The one to the right, with its thick lips and retreating chin and forehead, bears all the evidence of intellectual feeble- ness. The intervening faces represent the gradations from a high to a low state of intelligence, and our opinion as to the relative intellectuality of these five facet is instan- fig. 3. pensities, and lacking almost entirely the intellectual and moral power to restrain them. lEIllM£llAMlSl§I One of the arguments frequently used against the claim that mental ability can be determined by the size of the brain is the fact that men with small heads often accom- plish more than those who have heads and bodies of much greater size. The reply of phrenologists to this is that there are four temperaments, viz. : the Lymphatic, the Sanguine, the Bilious and the Nervous; and that every person possesses more or less of these in his physical consti- tution. The Lymphatic. The Lymphatic temperament is no. ». indicated by the predominance of stomach, which makes roundness of form, softness of flesh, a weak pulse and a languid condition of the system. With such the hair is light, complexion pale, eyes blue and dull. i* THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 535 The Sanguine. The Sanguine temperament largely depends upon a pre- ponderance of the arterial system. He who possesses it will have light hair and blue eyes, will be fairly rounded in muscle, will be ardent, active and enthusiastic. The Bilious. With the Bilious temperament the liver is taken as the basis. This is indicated by black eyes and hair, a dark and tawny skin, solid and spare flesh, angular form, great energy and activity, and, if coupled with superior mental development, large power. The Nervous. The Nervous temperament rests upon a preponderance of the nervous system. Those possessing it are known by their delicacy of health, thin and angular fea- sts tures, light, thin hair, rapid e movements and mental ac- tivity. COMBINATION OF TEMPERAMENTS. Fortunately these temper- aments are generally found blended more or less with each other, and out of the combination phrenologists designate another class of temperaments called the Motive, the Vital and the Mental. The Motive. The Motive temperament, cor- responding to the Bilious, has a strong, bony system, an abund- ance of muscle, dark, wiry hair, dark eyes, rough, prominent fea- tures, dark complexion and great executive force. The Motive temperament, in its influence on \ mental manifestation, is favorable to dignity, sternness, determi- nation, power of will and desire to govern and control others. It gives slowness of passion, desire for heavy labor or large business, and a liability to mias- matic diseases. The Vital. The Vital temperament is evinced by large lungs, a power- i ful circulatory system, and large digestive and assimilating organs, abundance of blood aad animal spirits. The form is plump and limbs rounded and tapering, the complexion light or florid, with an inclination to take on flesh as age advances. This temperament is a combination of the Sanguine and the Lymphatic, as set forth by Combe and other writers ; but as the digestive and assimilating organs, which constitute the Lymphatic temperament, together with the respiratory and circu- latory systems, which constitute the San- guine temperament, are really vital organs, their combination into one, under the name of Vital temperament, is both convenient and philosophical. The Mental. The Mental temperament depends on the development of the brain and nervous system, and is indicated by 'c^mxja* mental activity, light frame, thin skin, fine hair, delicate features, and large brain as compared with the body. It imparts sensitiveness and vivacity to the mind, a dis- position to think, study, or •'] follow some light and deli- cate buwess. The structures which, in excess or great predomi- nance, determine these tem- peraments, exist in each individual. In one person one temperament may predominate; in the next, another. ' They can be modified by proper training. When combined, they give har- mony of character and excellent health. The Brain. There are still other condi- tions upon which the phrenolo- gist rests his case, without which he admits the mental power of the individual cannot be deter- mined. It is claimed, for in- stance, that a loose and flabby flesh reveals a soft and spongy brain, and that a close-knit frame and firm flesh show in- tellectual power. Then, again, the state of the health must be taken into consideration. In perfect health the brain is strong. "K 536 THE STUDY OF CHARACTER SN'^V -»-+*- i&fi * 3 3E=3> COMPARATIVE* PHYSIOGNOMY. -tH Ira FACIAL RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN MEN AND ANIMALS. ^^ CN^t^* ^§mS1 ib^>^ ^iltilF #1 jKiiiiW <*\ '** JS M A.I "litf i^^ — I — Liwl ..if^jffl Jf% K GOOSE. GOOSBY. ; AN is distinguish ■ ' ed from the lower animals by his reasoning powers -vfr*~ and spiritual sen- timents. The more these are developed and refined, the greater his superiority over the rest of creation. But there are many things which man has in common with the inferior crea- tures. Both have the senses of sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch; in both has been im- planted love of life and the in- stinct of self-preservation. Affection and anger, cau- tion, sccretiveness, acquisitiveness, combativeness and destructiveness.in great or small degree, are manifested in animals as in men. The fox is known for his cunning. It does not surprise us, therefore, when we see in the face of a wily, crafty man, a strong resem- blance to the wiliest of animals. In the illustrations the artist has depicted some striking resemblances, showing how those qualities and instincts which man has in common with the lower animals are often plainly stamped on the human face. " What a goose ! " is an expression we often hear, and no one will doubt that the young man depicted in the first of the comparative illustrations is just the kind that will be easily " plucked " if he go " gab- bling" about. %«zm&A ^i^ii^jl^ ^Jv ~3| 89BII Sjtf-5N)_ s® •If lb* FOX. POXY. The lion is noted for his strength and consciousness of power He is ferocious and bloodthirsty, but also capable of generosity and magnanimity. Disdaining cunning devices, he leaps upon his prey with terrible and resistless impetuosity. These charac- teristics are apparent in the face of his human counterpart, in which, though gentleness and amiability may be lacking, there are certainly depicted nobility and consciousness of power. Such a man, though he may crush the strong, will spare the weak and defenseless, and, though he may take counsel of his sagacity, will never descend to low cunning. When we call one " a great bear," we hardly mean to pay him a compliment. It may be inferred that he is somewhat rough, coarse and uncouth — hardly a gentleman — but he may have his good qualities and be a useful member of society. One may be bearish and yet not unbearable. The ancients seem to have had considerable respect for the bear, at least in the feminine gender, for we have from the Latin the not uncommon name of Ursula, meaning a she-bear. We have all seen people that may with great propriety be called *' hoggish," though a resemblance as strong as that depicted in the illustration is but seldom met with. The characteristics of the hog are selfishness, filthiness, acquisi- tiveness, and, in a low sense, mquisitiveness. The hoggish man is greedy, makes a god of -*p THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 537 his belly, and, however well supplied his table may be, he has only enough for himself. Selfishness, however, is natural and inherited by most men, while kindness and generosity are more often the result of culture. Were children not taught to be generous, to divide, there would be far more selfishness in the world than there is. We read in one of Shak- spere's comedies of a certain character who loudly lamented that no reporter was present to write him down an ass.* In our day the reporter is gen- erally at hand, and men who "make donkeys of them- selves" are often "written down" in that way without even being consulted in the matter. There is little harm done, of course, for if left alone they are sure to make the record themselves. Mulisliness or obstinacy lias ruined many a man, and where there is little culture and much ignorance, we may look for conceit, prejudice and stupidity. The dog will take on something of the spirit of his master, will even come to slightly resemble him by constant associa- tion. Hogarth was always painted with his dog, and it has been said that ultimately he came to resemble the animal, although it is more than probable that the latter, by remain- ing almost constantly in the presence of his master and en- deavoring in a doggish way to understand his thoughts, words and expressions, had really come, in a limited manner, to resemble the great humorous artist. We cannot believe that the man was lost in the dog, but it is not entirely unreason- able to suppose that the dog had taken on something of the man. The ancient physiognomists laid great stress upon the real or * " O, that he were here to write me down an ass ! " — Much Ado About \J^Z WmS^Sk 1 is only by a careful study of all the organs in combination that one may come to understand the various mental char- acteristics as shown by Phrenology. The accompanying diagrams give the exact location of the organs, and through *§S" the kindness of Messrs. Fowler & Wells we are enabled to give on the following pages a brief description of them, accom- panied by an explanation ot their influence on the character as determined by their size. L* Amativeness. Reciprocal attachment and love of the sexes. Very large, experiences a power and activity of sexual love almost un- controllable. Large, is an ardent admirer and tender lover of the other sex ; feels strong sexual impulses, desire to marry, etc. Full, feels much love and tenderness for the opposite sex ; yet, with activity great, has excitability rather than power. Average, loves the other sex, and enjoys their society well. Mod- erate, is rather deficient in sexual love, attentions to the opposite sex, etc Small, feels little sexual or connubial love, or desire to marry. Very small, seldom or never experiences this feeling. 2. Philoprogeni- tiveness. Parental attachment ; love of one's offspring. Very large, is passionately fond of all children; a general favorite with them ; idolizes his own children ; is liable to over- indulge them. Large, feels strong, tender parental love; is devotedly attached, and very kind to his own if not all children. Full, is tender, but not indulgent ; fond of his own children, yet not partial to others. Average, loves his own children, yet not fondly ; dislikes those of others. Moderate, loves his own children some, yet bears little from them. Small, feels little interest in even his own children. Very small, has no parental love ; hates all children. 3. Adhesiveness. Friendship; social feel- ing ; love of society. Very large, loves friends with indescribable tenderness and strength of feeling; will sacrifice almost every- thing upon the altar of friendship. Large, is eminently social ; an ar- dent, sincere friend ; en- joys friendly society ex- tremely ; forms strong if not hasty attachments. Full, is highly social, yet not remarkably warm- hearted. Average, is quite friendly, yet will not sacrifice much for friends. Moderate, loves friends some, yet self more ; quits friends often. Small, is unsocial, cold- hearted; likes and is liked by few or none. Very small, is a stranger to friendly social feeling. VIC. 4- THB PHRENOLOGICAL ORGANS SYMBOLICALLY ILLUSTRATED. The above chart shows the location of the phrenological organs, and in the field ol each organ iis character is symbolically tlluitr.ted. Thus Firmness is indicated by the stability of the pyramid and the obstinacy oi the mule, or the man who is contending with him ; Veneration, by the attitude of prayer, and the courtesy of the boy toward old age ; Benevolence , by the Good Samaritan ; Cautiousness , by the frightened hen that fears detriment to her chicks; Secretiveness, by the lox : Acquisitiveness, by the miser, etc. These symbols arc intended to make vivid the impression and thus help the memory. A. Conjugality. Monogamy, union for life, first love, the pairing instinct. Very large, se- lects some one of the op- posite sex as the sole object of„love; concen- trates the whole soul on the single one beloved, magnifying excellences and overlooking faults; longs to be always with that one; is exclusive, and requires a like cxclusiveness; is true and faithful in wedlock, if married in spirit. Large, seeks one, and but one, sexual mate, and < « — •• * The numbers refer to Fig. 5. -- ^l .? V THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. rr 539 feels perfectly satisfied in the society of that one. Full, can love cordially, yet is capable of changing the object. Average, is disposed to love but one for life, yet, with secretiveness and approbativeness large, and conscientiousness only full, is capa- ble of coquetry. Moderate, is somewhat disposed to love only one, yet allows stronger faculties to interrupt that love. Small, has but little conjugal love and seeks the promiscuous society and affection of the opposite sex, rather than a single partner for life. Very small, manifests none of this faculty. 4. Inhabitiveness. Love of home as such ; attachment to the place where one has lived; unwillingness to change it; patriotism. Very large, regards home as the dearest, sweetest spot on earth; feels homesick when away; dislikes changing residences; is pre- eminently patriotic ; thinks of his native place with intense in- terest. Large, soon becomes strongly attached to the place in which he lives; loves home and country dearly; leaves them reluctantly; is unhappy without a home of his own. Pull, loves home well, yet does not grieve much on leaving it. Average, forms some, though not strong, local attachments. Moderate, has some, but not great, regard for home as such. Small or very small, makes any place home. 6. Concentrativeness. Unity and continuity of thought and feeling ; power of eDOre and concentrated application to one thing. Very large, places his mind upon subjects slowly ; cannot leave them unfinished, nor attend to more than one thing at once ; is very tedious; has great application, yet lacks intensity and point. Large, is able and inclined to apply his mind to one, and but one, subject for the time being, till it is finished ; changes his mental opera- tions with difficulty; is often prolix. Full, is disposed to attend to but one thing at once, yet can turn rapidly from thing to thing; is neither disconnected nor prolix. Average, pos- sesses this power to some, though to no great, extent. Moder- ate, loves and indulges variety and change of thought, feeling, occupation, etc.; is not confused by them ; rather lacks applica- tion ; has intensity, but not unity, of the mental action. Small, craves novelty and variety ; has little application ; thinks and feels intensely, yet not long on anything ; jumps rapidly from premise to conclusion ; fails to connect and carry out his ideas. Very small, is satisfied only with constant succession. E. Vitativeness. Love of existence as such ; dread of annihilation. Very large, however wretched, shrinks from and shudders at the thought of dying and being dead ; feels that he cannot give up existence. Large, loves and clings tenaciously to existence for its own sake ; craves immortality and dreads annihilation, even though miserable. Full, desires life, but not eagerly, from love of it and of pleasure. Average, is attached to life and fears death, yet not a great deal. Moderate, loves life, yet is not very anxious about living. Small or very small, heeds not life or death, existence or annihilation. 6. Combativeness. k Feeling of resistance, defence, opposition, boldness, willing- ness to encounter, courage, resentment, spirit. Very large, is powerful in opposition, prone to dispute, attack, etc.; contrary ; has violent temper, governs it with difficulty. Large, is res- olute and courageous, spirited and efficient as an opponent, quick and intrepid in resistance, loves debate, boldly meets, if he does not court, opposition. Full, seldom either courts or shrinks from opposition ; when roused, is quite energetic ; may be quick-tempered, yet is not contentious. Average, is pacific, but when driven to it, defends his rights boldly. Moderate, avoids collision; is rather pacific and inefficient. Small, has feeble resistance, temper, force, etc.; is cowardly. Very small, withstands nothing; is chicken-hearted, an arrant coward. T. Destructiveness. Executiveness, indignation, force, severity, sternness; a destroying, pain-causing disposition. Very large, when pro- voked, is vindictive, cruel, disposed to hurt, take revenge, etc.; bitter and implacable as an enemy ; very forcible. Large, when excited, feels deep-toned indignation ; is forcible, and disposed to subdue or destroy the cause of his displeasure. Full, can, but is loth to, cause or witness pain or death ; has sufficient severity, yet requires considerable to call it out. Average, has not really deficient, yet none too much.indignation. Moderate, is mild, not severe or destructive enough ; when angry, lacks power; can hardly cause or witness pain or death. Small, would hardly hurt one if he could, or could if he would; has so feeble anger that it is derided more than feared. Very small, is unable to cause, witness or endure pain or death. 8. Alimeutiveness. Appetite for sustenance ; cause of hunger. Very large, sets too much by the indulgence of his palate ; eats with the keenest appetite; perhaps " makes * god of his belly." Large, has an excellent appetite, a hearty relish for food, drink, etc. ; enjoys them much; is a good liver; not dainty. Full, has a good appetite, yet can govern it ; is not greedy. Average, enjoys food well, but not very well; hence is particular. Moderate, has not a good, nor very poor, but rather poor, appetite. Small or very small, is dainty, mincing, particu- lar about food • eats with little relish. 9. Acquisitiveness. Love of acquiring and possessuig property as such ; desire to save, lay up, etc. ; innate feeling of mine and thine, of a right to possess and dispose of things. Very large, makes money his idol ; grudges it ; is tempted to get it dishonestly ; penurious, sordid, covetous, etc. Large, hns a strong desire to acquire property ; is frugal, saving of money, close and particular in his dealings, devoted to money-making, trading, etc.; generally gets the value of his money. Full, values property, both for itself and what it procures, yet is not penurious; is industrious and saving, yet supplies his wants. Average, loves money, but not greatly ; can make it, but spends freely. Moderate, finds it more difficult to keep than to make money ; desires it more to supply wants than to lay up ; is hardly saving enough. Small, will spend money injudiciously ; lays up little ; disre- gards the prices of things. Very small, cannot be taught the value or use of money. ^ 54* "7[ THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 10. Secretiveness. Desire and ability to secrete, conceal, etc. Very large, seldom appears what he is, or says what he means ; often equiv- ocates and deceives; is mysterious, dark, cunning, artful, given to double-dealing, eye-service, etc. Large, seldom discloses his plans, opinions, etc. ; is hard to be found out ; reserved ; non-committal. Full, can keep to himself what he wishes to, yet is not cunning. Average, is not artful nor very frank ; is generally open ; can conceal. Moderate, is quite candid and open-hearted; loves truth; dislikes concealment, underhand measures, etc. ; seldom employs them. Small, speaks out just what he thinks; acts as he feels; does not wish to learn or tell the secrets of others, yet freely tells his own ; is too plain- spoken and candid. Very small, has a transparent heart. 11. Cautiousness. Carefulness; provision against danger. Very large, hesi- tates too much ; suffers greatly from groundless fears ; is timid, easily frightened, etc. Large, is always watchful; on the look- out; careful, anxious, solicitous; provident against real and imaginary danger, etc. Full, has prudence and forethought, yet not too much. Average, has some caution, yet hardly enough for success. Moderate, is rather imprudent, hence unlucky ; liable to misfortunes caused by carelessness ; plans too imperfectly for action. Small, acts impromptu ; disregards consequences ; fears nothing ; is imprudent, luckless, often in hot water. Very small, is destitute of fear and forethought. 12. Approbativeness. Sense of honor ; regard for character ; ambition ; love of popularity, fame, distinction, etc. Very large, regards his honor and character as the apple of his eye ; is even morbidly sensitive to praise and censure; over-fond of show, fashion, praise, style, etc.; extremely polite, ceremonious, etc. Large, sets everything by character, honor, etc.; is keenly alive to the frowns and smiles of public opinion, praise, etc.; tries to show off to good advantage ; is affable, ambitious, apt to praise himself. Full, desires and seeks popularity and feels censure, yet will neither deny nor trouble himself to secure or avoid cither. Average, enjoys approbation, yet will not sicnfice much to obtain it. Moderate, feels reproacli some, yet is little affected by popularity or unpopularity ; may gather the flowers of applause that are strewed in his path, yet will not deviate from it to col- lect them. Small, cares little for popular frowns or favors ; feels little shame; disregards and despises fashions etiquette, etc.; is not polite. Very small, cares nothing for p >pular favor. 13. Self-Esteem. Self-respect ; high-toned, manly feeling; innate love of per- sonal liberty, independence, etc. ; pride of character. Very large, has unbounded self-confidence; endures no restraint ; takes no advice; is rather haughty, imperious, etc. Large, is high-minded, independent, self-confident, dignified, his own master; aspires to be and do something worthy of himself; assumes responsibilities ; does few little things. Full, has much self-respect; pride of character; independence. Average, respects himself, yet is not haughty. Moderate, has some self- respect and manly feeling, yet too little to give ease, dignity, weight of character, etc. ; is too trifling. Small, lets himself down ; says and does trifling things ; associates with inferiors; is not looked up to ; lacks independence. Very small, is ser- vile, low-minded, destitute of self-respect. 14. Firmness. Decision, stability, fixedness of character, etc. Very large, is wilful, and so tenacious and unchangeable of opinion, pur- pose, etc., that he seldom gives up anything. Large, may be fully relied on; is set in his own way ; hard to be convinced or changed at all ; holds on long and hard. Full, has persever- ance enough for ordinary occasions, yet too little for great enterprises; is neither fickle nor stubborn. Average, has some decision, yet too little for general success. Moderate, gives over too soon ; changes too often and too easily ; thus fails to effect what greater firmness would do. Small or very small, lacks perseverance ; is too changeable to be relied upon. 15. Conscientiousness. Innate feeling of du ty, accountability, justice, right, etc.; moral principle; love of truth. Very large, is scrupulously exact in matters of right ; perfecdy honest in motive ; always condemn- ing self and repenting; makes duty everything, expediency nothing. Large, is honest ; faithful ; upright at heart ; moral in feeling ; grateful ; penitent ; means well ; consults duty before expediency ; loves, and means to speak, the truth ; cannot tolerate wrong. Full, strives to do right, yet sometimes yields to temptation ; resists besetting sins, but may be overcome, and then feels remorse. Average, has right intentions, but their influence is limited. Moderate, has considerable regard for duty in feeling, but less in practice; justifies himself; is not very penitent, grateful or forgiving; often temporizes with principle; sometimes lets interest rule duty. Small, has few conscientious scruples; little regard for moral principle, justice, duty, etc Very small, does not feel the claims of duty or justice. 16. Hope. Anticipation ; expectation of future happiness, success, etc. Very large, has unbounded hopes; builds castles in the air. Large, expects, attempts and promises a great deal ; is gener- ally sanguine, cheerful, etc.; rises above present troubles; though disappointed, hopes on still ; views the brightest side of prospects. Full, is quite sanguine, yet realizes about what he expects. Average, h.is some, but reasonable, hopes; is seldom elated. Moderate, expects and attempts too little ; succeeds beyond his hopes ; is prone to despond ; looks on the darker side. Small, is low-spirited; easily discouraged; fears the worst; sees many lions in his way; magnifies evils; lacks enterprise. Very small, expects nothing good; has no hope of the future. 17. Spirituality. Belief in the supernatural ; credulity. Very large, is very superstitious ; regards most things with wonder. Large, believes and delights in the supernatural, in dreams, ghosts, etc.; thinks many natural things supernatural. Full, is open' to conviction ; rather credulous ; believes in divine providences, forcwarnings, the wonderful, etc. Average, believes some, but not much, in wonders, forewarnings, etc. Moderate, be- lieves but little that cannot be accounted for yet is open to / THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 541 conviction; is incredulous, but listens to evidence. Small, is convinced only with difficulty ; believes nothing till he sees facts, or why and wherefore, not even revelation farther than a reason is rendered ; is prone to reject new things without exam- ination. Very small, believes little else than his senses. 18. Veneration. The feeling of worship for a Supreme Being ; respect for religion and things sacred, and for superiors. Very large, is eminent, if not pre-eminent, for piety, heart-felt devotion, religious fervor, seriousness, love of divine things, etc. Large, loves to adore and worship God, especially through his works ; treats equals with respect and superiors with deference. Full, is capable of much religious fervor and devotion, yet is not habitually serious ; generally treats his fellow-men civilly. Average, may feel religious worship, yet little respect for men. Moderate, disregards religious creeds, forms of worship, etc. ; places religion in other things ; is not serious nor respectful. Small, feels little religious worship, reverence, respect, etc. Very small, seldom if ever adores God. 19. Benevolence. Desire to see and make sentient beings happy ; kindness. Very large, does all the good in his power ; gladly sacrifices self upon the altar of pure benevolence ; scatters happiness wherever he goes; is one of the kindest-hearted of persons. Large, is kind, obliging; glad to serve others, even to his injury ; feels lively sympathy for distress ; does good to all. Full, has a fair share of sympathetic feeling, and some, though not great, willingness to sacrifice for others. Average, has kinr\ fellow-feeling without much active benevolence. Moder- ate, has some benevolent feeling, yet too little to prompt to much self-denial ; does good only when he can without cost. Small, feels little kindness or sympathy ; is almost deaf to the cries of distress ; hard-hearted, selfish, etc. Very small, is destitute of all humanity and sympathy. 20. Constructiveness. Mechanical dexterity and ingenuity ; desire and ability to use tools, build, invent, employ machinery, etc. Very large, is a mechanic of the first order ; a true genius. Large, shows great natural dexterity in using tools, executing mechanical opera- tions, working machinery, etc.; loves them. Full, has fair mechanical ingenuity, yet no great natural talent or desire to make things; with practice will do well ; without it, little. Average, has some, yet not great, relish for and tact in using tools. Moderate, with much practice, may use tools quite well, yet dislikes mechanical operations ; owes more to art than nature. Small, hates, and is awkward and bungling in, using tools, etc. Very small, has no mechanical skill or desire. 21. Ideality. Imagination ; taste ; fancy ; love of perfection ; poetry, polite literature, oratory, the beautiful in nature and art, etc. Very large, often gives rein to his erratic imagination; experiences revellings of fancy, ecstasy, rapture of feeling, enthusiasm. Large, has a lively imagination ; great love of poetry, elo- quence, fiction, good style, the beauties of nature and art. Full, has refinement of feeling, expression, etc., without sickly delicacy; some love of poetry, yet not a vivid imagination. Average, has some taste, though not enough to influence him much. Moderate, has some, but not much imagination ; is rather plain in expression, manners, feeling, etc. ; dislikes poetry, finery, etc. Small, or very small, lacks taste, niceness, refinement, delicacy of feeling, etc. , B. Sublimity. Conception of grandeur; sublime emotions excited by con- templating the vast, magnificent or splendid in nature or art. Very large, is a passionate admirer of the wild and romantic; feels the sublimest emotions while contemplating the grand or awful in nature. Large, admires and enjoys scenery, a vast prospect, etc., exceedingly ; hence, enjoys travelling. Full, enjoys magnificent scenes well, yet not remarkably so. Aver- age, sometimes, but not to a great degree, experiences this feeling. Moderate, has some, though not at all vivid, emo- tions of this kind. Small or very small, discovers little to awaken this feeling. 22. Imitation. Disposition and ability to take pattern, imitate. Very large, can mimic, act out and copy almost anything ; describe, relate anecdotes, etc., to the very life; has a theatrical taste and talent; seldom speaks without gesturing. Large, has a great propen- sity and ability to copy, take pattern from others, do what he sees done, etc. ; needs but one showing ; gesticulates much ; describes and acts out well. Full, with effort, copies some, but not well ; cannot mimic. Average, copies some, yet too little to deserve or excite notice. Moderate, cannot mimic at all; can copy, draw, take pattern, etc., only with difficulty ; describes, relates anecdotes, etc., poorly. Small, dislikes and fails to copy, draw, do after others, etc. Very small, has little ability to imitate or copy anything. 23. Mirthfulness. Intuitive perception of the absurd and ridiculous ; a joking, fun-making, ridiculing disposition and ability. Very large, is quick and apt at turning everything into ridicule, throws off constant sallies of wit ; is too facetious, jocose, etc. Large, has a quick, keen perception of the ludicrous ; makes a great amount of fun ; too much for his own good ; is quick at repartee ; smiles often; laughs heartily at jokes. Full, has much mirth- ful feeling; makes and relishes jokes wall. Average, perceives jokes, and relishes fun, but cannot make much. Moderate, has some witty ideas, yet lacks quickness in conceiving, and tact in expressing them; is generally quite sober. Small, makes little fun; is slow to perceive, and still slower to turn jokes; seldom laughs ; thinks it wrong to do so. Very small, has few if any witty ideas or conceptions. 24. Individuality. Observing and individualizing power and desire ; curiosity to see and know ; disposition to specify, personify. Very large, has an insatiable desire to see and know everything ; extraor- dinary observing powers ; is eager to witness every passing event- Large, has a great desire to know, investigate, examine, ex- perience, etc. ; is a great observer of men and things ; quick of perception ; sees what is transpiring, what should be done, etc. V- V 542 . THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. Full, has fair observing powers, and desire to see things. Average, has some, yet no great, curiosity and desire to see things. Moderate, is rather deficient, yet not palpably so, in observing power and desire ; not sufficiently specific. Small, Is slow to see things ; attends little to particulars. Very small, sees scarcely anything; regards things in the gross. 25. Form. Cognizance and recollection of shape or configuration. Very large, never forgets the countenance, form, etc., of persons and things seen ; easily learns to read and spell correctly ; reads and sees things at a great distance ; has excellent eyesight. Large, notices, and for a long time remembers, the faces, countenances, forms, looks, etc., of persons, beasts, things, etc., once seen ; knows by sight many whom he may be unable to name. Full, recognizes persons, countenances, etc., well. Average, recol- lects forms, faces, etc., quite well, but not very well. Moder- ate, must see persons several times before he can recollect them ; sometimes doubts whether he has seen certain persons. Small or very small, has a miserable memory of per- sons, looks, shapes, etc. ; fails to recognize even those he sees often. 26. Size. Cognizance and knowl- edge of relative magnitude, bulk, etc. Very large, detects disproportion, and judges of size, with won- derful accuracy, by intui- tion, and as well without as with instruments ; cannot endure inaccuracy. Large, has an excellent eye for measuring proportion, size, height, angles, perpendic- ulars, etc. ; quickly detects disproportions in them. Full, can measure ordinary and familiar distances well, yet shows no remarkable natural talent in it. Average, measures bulk with tolerable, though not great, accuracy. Moderate, is rather de- ficient in measuring by the eye ; with practice, may do tolerably well in short, but fails in long, distances. Small, judges of relative size, etc., very inaccurately. Very small, can hardly distinguish mountains from molehills. 27. Weight. Intuitive perception and application of the principles of spe- cific gravity, projectile forces, momentum, balancing, resistance. Very large, has this power to a wonderful extent. Large, can walk on a high or narrow place ; hold a steady hand, throw a stone or ball, and shoot, straight ; ride a fractious horse, etc., very well. Full, keeps his centre of gravity well, but ventures little. Average, balances himself tolerably well in ordinary cases, yet has no great natural talent in this respect. Moderate, maintains his centre of gravity, etc., rather poorly. Small or very small, is unlike one with Weight large. FIG. 5. THE PHRENOLOGICAL ORGANS, AS NUMBERED AND DESCRIBED. 28. Color. Perception and recollection of colors, hues, tints, etc. Very large, resembles one with Color large, but excels him. Large, has taste and talent for comparing, arranging, mingling, apply- ing and recollecting colors ; is delighted with paintings. Full, with practice, compares and judges of colors well ; without it- does not excel. Average, can discern and recollect colors, yet seldom notices them. Moderate, aided by practice, can discern and compare colors, yet owes less to nature than art ; seldom notices colors unless obliged to, and then soon forgets them. Small, seldom observes the color of one's hair, eyes, dress, etc.; cannot describe persons by what they wear, or compare colors apart; hardly distinguishes primary colors by candlelight Very small, can tell white from black, but do little more. 29. Order. System ; physical arrangement ; a place for things. Very large, is very precise and particular to have every little thing in its place ; literally tormented by disorder ; is fastidious. Large, has a place for things, and things in their places; can find, even in the dark, what he alone uses ; is sys- tematic ; annoyed by dis- order. Full, likes order; takes much pains to keep things arranged. Average, appreciates order, yet not enough to keep it. Mod- erate, likes but does not keep order; allows con- fusion. Small or very small, is nearly destitute of order. 30. Calculation. Intuitive perception of the relations of numbers; ability to reckon figures in the head; numerical computation. Very large, has an intuitive faculty of reckoning even compli- cated sums of figures in his head ; delights in it. Large, can add, subtract, divide, etc., in his head, with facility and correct- ness ; become a rapid, correct accountant ; delights and excels in arithmetic. Full, aided by rules and practice may excel in reckoning figures, and do well in his head, but not without them. Average, by practice and rules may reckon figures quite well. Moderate, does sums in his head rather slowly and inaccurately. Small, is dull and incorrect in add- ing, dividing, etc.; dislikes it. Very small, can hardly count 31. Locality. Cognizance and recollection of relative position, looks and geography of places, etc. ; desire to travel, see the world, etc. Very large, never forgets the looks, location or geography of any place, or even thing, he has ever seen ; is even passion- ately fond of travelling, scenery, geography, etc Large, rec- ollects distinctly the looks of places where he saw things, etc.; seldom loses himself, even in the dark ; has a strong desire to / V- Iv THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 543 >& travel, see places, etc. Full, remembers places well, yet is lia- ble to lose himself in a city or forest ; ordinarily shows no defi- ciency; seldom loses himself. Average, has a fair, though not excellent, recollection of places. Moderate, recollects places rather poorly ; sometimes gets lost. Small or very small, sel- dom observes where he goes, or finds his way back. 32. Eventuality. Recollection of 'actions, phenomena, occurrences, what has taken place, circumstantial and historical facts. Very large, never forgets any occurrence, even though it is trifling ; has a craving thirst for information and experiment ; literally devours books, newspapers, etc ; commands an astonishing amount of information. Large, has a clear and retentive memory of his- torical facts, general news, what he has seen, heard, read, etc., even in detail. Full, recollects leading events, and interesting particulars, and has a good memory of occurrences, yet forgets less important details. Average, has neither a good nor bad memory of occurrences, etc. Moderate, recollects generals, not details; is rather forgetful. Small, has a treacherous, con- fused memory. Very small, forgets almost everything. ' 33. Time. Cognizance and recollection of succession, the lapse of time, dates, how long ago things occurred, etc. Very large, remem- bers with wonderful accuracy the time of occurrences; is punc- tual; tells the time of day, etc., by intuition. Large, tells dates, appointments, ages, time of day, etc., well. Full, recollects about, but not precisely, when things occurred. Average, notices and remembers dates, times, etc., some, but not well. Moderate, has rather a poor idea of dates, the time •when, etc. Small, can seldom tell when things took place; forgets dates. Very small, is liable to forget even his age. 34. Tune. Tone; sense of melody and musical harmony; ability to learn tunes and detect chord and discord by ear ; propensity to sing. Very large, learns tunes by hearing them sung once or twice; is literally enchanted by good music; shows intuitive skill, and spends much time in making it; sings from the heart, and with melting pathos. Large, easily catches tunes ; learns to sing and play on instruments by rote ; delights in singing ; has a correct musical ear. Full, can learn tunes by ear well, yet needs help from notes. Average, likes music ; with prac- tice, may perform tolerably well. Moderate, aided by notes and practice, may sing, yet it will be mechanically ; lacks that soul and feeling which reaches the heart. Small, learns to sing or play tunes either by note or rote with great difficulty ; sings mechanically, and without emotion or effect. Very small, Can hardly discern one tune or note from another. 35. Language. Power of expressing ideas, feelings, etc., by means of words; ability to talk. Very large, has, by nature, astonishing com- mand of words, copiousness and eloquence of expression, and verbal memory ; quotes with ease ; is an incessant talker ; has too many words. Large, is a free, easy, ready, fluent talker and speaker; uses good language; commits easily; seldom hesi- tates for words. Full, commands a fair share of words, yet uses familiar expressions • is neither fluent northe reverse ; when excited, expresses himself freely, yet not copiously. Average, can communicate his ideas tolerably well, yet finds some diffi- culty ; uses common words ; can write better than speak. Mod- erate, often hesitates for words ; employs too few ; may write well, and be a critical linguist, but cannot be an easy, fluent speaker. Small, employs few words, and those commonplace ; in speaking, hesitates much ; is barren in expression ; commits slowly. Very small, can hardly remember or use words. 36. Causality. Cognizance of the relations of cause and effect ; ability to apply them, or to adapt means to ends ; power of reasoning, etc. Very large, is endowed with a deep, strong, original, comprehensive mind, powerful reasoning faculties, great vigor and energy of thought, first-rate judgment, and a gigantic intel- lect. Large, plans well; can think clearly and closely; is always enquiring into the why and the wherefore, the causes and explanation of things; always gives and requires the reason; has by nature excellent judgment, good ideas, a strong mind, etc. Full, adapts means to ends well; has an active desire to ascer- tain causes, yet not a deep, original, cause-discovering and ap- plying mind. Average, has some, but not great, ability to plan and reason. Moderate, is rather slow of comprehension ; defi- cient in adapting means to ends; has not good ideas or judg- ment. Small, has a weak, imbecile mind; cannot contrive or think. Very small, little idea of causation ; is a natural fool. 37. Comparison. Perception of analogies, resemblances, differences ; ability to compare, illustrate, criticise, classify, generalize, etc. Very large, is endowed with an extraordinary amount of critical acumen, analytical, comparing and illustrating power. Large, has a happy talent for comparing, illustrating, criticising, argu- ing from similar cases, discriminating between what is and is not analogous or in point, classifying phenomena, and thereby ascertaining their laws, etc. Full, illustrates, discriminates, etc., well, but not remarkably so. Average, perceives striking anal- ogies ; illustrates tolerably well. Moderate, may discern obvious similarities, yet overlooks others. Small or very small, is almost destitute of this power. C. Human Nature. Discernment of character and perception of motive. Large or very large, perceives, as if by intuition, the character and motives of men from their physiognomy, conversation, etc. ; is suspicious, and seldom deceived ; naturally understands human nature. Moderate or small, seldom suspects others ; is easily imposed upon, learns human nature slowly ; does not know well how to take men. D. Suavity. Ability to render oneself agreeable ; pleasantness. Large or very large, readily wins confidence and affection, even of enemies ; can say and do hard things without creating difficulty ; obtain favors ; get along well ; so say and do things that they take. Average or full, neither excels nor is deficient in this respect. Moderate or small, is deficient in the power de- scribed ; says pleasant things unpleasantly, and does not succeed in winning people's good graces. / =SH 544 DICTIONARY OK FACTS AND FIGURES. r:R niCTiDNnRYa «-.***: ©ocr ©ne 4)wti)«i> ®!jausan& SSmpariant Kefmntee, arrange*) in Alcljakikal ©rbcr, anb 311ustrateb roiiij ©riginal Diagrams an tljc Hero plan of ©bject-®«acljing. RUE statistics are the record of in- dustrial history. He who cannot read what is written between their lines, or interwoven in their col- umns, may rest content with the narrative of wars and dynasties, or of political changes, and may imagine that he knows the true history of events. But can he tell how the people lived and moved — how wars and dynas- ties have been sustained ? If he cannot, let him study what figures can teach to any one who knows how to master them — the industrial his- tory of free nations. The battle is not to the heaviest battalions, but to the people who can sustain the battalions longest. It is the com- missary-general who wins, for without him the master of the ordnance would be powerless. In the battle of life it is the same, if there were no prophecy of the future in the statistics of the past and present there would be no meaning to the computations, and the disclosures of the census would be without value. It is not the province of the HOME LI- BRARY to advance new theories in political economy, or to discuss theories already put forth, but it has been the endeavor of the editor to present in small compass, in compact, acces- sible and attractive form, a vast amount of valu- able information, gathered from the most reli- able sources. The wealth and resources of States and Nations, population, religion, com- merce, labor and capital, and all important sub- jects of discussion, are treated fully in their proper place, while subjects of minor import- ance, though often of equal interest, have not been neglected. In short, the object of the fol- lowing Dictionary of Facts and Figures is to afford ready reference on subjects of statistical interest. ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY.— The increase in area of the United States, by war and treaty, is shown in the annexed table : Whin. How. Whence. What. . Sq. Miles. By treaty... By treaty. . . By union. . . By treaty.. . By treaty . . . By treaty... England.... England . . . J The thirteen origi- \ \ nal States * .... f Ii 0tt 318,000 308,051 5" .955 45.S35 ■8,5 ■ 846 X •MJ '853 f Califom.a & New) 1 Mexico* .J Gadsden Purchase/7. M%/W a K ■.[mulct! cost of War of Independence, $168,000,000, b Purchased for 115,000,000. c Cost $3,000,000. d Debt of Texas on admission into the Union, $7,500,000. e Rstimated co*t of the Mexican Wax, 415,000,000. /Cost $10,000,000. / Cost $7,000,000. ^ K" DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. V 545 AGE. — A man's working life is divided into four decades : 20 to 30, bronze ; 30 to 40, silver ; 40 to 50, gold ; 50 to 60, iron. Intellect and judgment are strongest between 40 and 50. ( The percentages of population to age in various countries are shown thus: Country. United States . England Scotland Ireland Fr.ince Germany Italy Austria Greece Spain Brazil Belgium Holland Denmark Sweden Norway Percentage of Population. Under From 20 Years. 20 to 60 5° 45 5 46 47 7 46 45 9 46 43 n 36 52 12 43 49 8 44 49 7 ' 43 50 7 48 47 5 42 52 6 46 45 9 4° 50 10 43 49 8 42 5° 8 43 49 8 43 48 9 Average age of all living Years. 24.9 27.1 =7-4 28.6 32.2 28.0 27.6 27.7 25-5 27.3 27.3 29.7 28.3 28.4 28.0 28.0 The Americans are the youngest, the French the oldest. AIR. — In its pure state air is composed thus: Nitrogen, 77 ; oxygen, 21 ; other components, 2; total, 100. The percentage of oxygen varies as follows : Sea-shore, 21.00 ; confined houses, 20.75; mines, 20.50; when candles go out, 18.50. The percentage of carbonic acid ranges thus : In country. .03 ; in town, .04 ; in hospitals, .05 ; in fogs, .07 ; in crowded lanes, 13; in theaters, 30. Each adult inhales a gallon of air per minute, and consumes daily 30 oz. of oxygen. For the conversion of this oxygen a certain amount of food is required — say 13 oz. of carbon for a male, and 1 r oz. for a female, equivalent to 3 lbs. bread and 2]/ z lbs. respectively. ALCOHOL. — The degrees in wines and liquors are : Beer, 4.0; porter, 4.5; ale, 7.4; cider, 8.6; perry, S. 8; elder, 9.3; Moselle, 9.6; Tokay, 10.2; Rhine, 11.0; Orange, II. 2; Bor- deaux, II. 5; hock, 11. 6; gooseberry, 11. 8; champagne, 12.2; claret, 13.3; Burgundy, 13.6; Malaga, 17.3; Lisbon, 18.5; Canary, 18.8; sherry, 19.0; Vermouth, 19.0 ; Cape, 19.2; Malmsey, 19.7; Marsala, 20.2; Madeira, 21.0; port, 23.2; curacoa, 27.0; aniseed, 33.0; Maraschino, 34.0 ; Chartreuse, 43.0; gin, 51.6; brandy, 53.4; rum, 53.7; Irish whisky, 53.9 ; Scotch, 54.3. Spirits are said to be " proof" when they contain 57 per cent. The maximum amount of alcohol, says Parkes, that a man can take daily without injury to his health is that contained in 2 oz. brandy, "^ pt. of sherry, ]/ 2 pt. of claret, or I pt. of beer. ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS.— A table of the comparative con- sumption of alcoholic liquors was compiled by the London Times recently, with some interesting results. The av- erage yearly consumption per head is given in liters (a liter is a little less than a quart) : Spirits. Wine. Beer. Liters. Liters. Liters. Canada 3.08 0.29 8.51 Norway 3.90 1.00 15.30 United States 4.79 2.64 31.30 Great Britain and Ireland 5.37 2.09 143.92 Austria-Hungary 5.76 22.40 France 7.28 119.20 Russia 8.08 Unknown. Sweden 8.14 0.36 German Zollverein 8.60 6.00 Belgium 9.20 3.70 Switzerland 15.30 55.00 Netherlands. 9.87 2.57 Denmark 18.90 1.00 28.42 21.10 4.65 11.00 65.00 169.20 37-5o 27.00 33-33 Belgium, it seems, contains the greatest number of beer- drinkers, with Great Britain second in this list, and Germany, contrary to common opinion, only third. France drinks the most wine, and Switzerland comes next, while the amount ac- credited to the United States, though comparatively small, yet exceeds that of Great Britain. Canada is the most moderate drinker of all. ANIMALS. Weight Years (lbs). of Life. Rabbit 2 5 Dog 10 12 Sheep 70 12 Pig 160 10 Lion 500 40 Weight (lbs}. Cow 750 Ox 900 Horse 1 ,000 Camel 1,200 Elephant 6,000 Years of Life. 25 25 27 40 100 AQUEDUCTS. — Among modern works the most famous are : Length. Miles. Croton (New York) 41 Madrid 47 Marseilles 51 Glasgow 34 Washington 16 Million gal's daily. Cost. 88 $ 9,000,000 40 11,500,000 60 2,250,000 50 7,775,ooo 90 Rome, in the time of the Caesars, had nine aqueducts, measur- ing 249 miles in the aggregate, and with a daily capacity of 320,000,000 gallons, or 200 gallons per inhabitant. The great aqueduct of Peru, built by the Incas, was 360 miles long. ARMY. — Proportions. — According to Napoleon the propor- tions of an army should be 70 per cent infantry, 17 per cent cavalry, and 13 per cent between artillery, engineers and train. Death rate. — In active service the death rate among officers is heavier than among the rank and file. The Duke of Wel- lington's army roll from 1811 to 1814 showed the following percentage : Officers. Men. Killed 14.5 10.2 Wounded 81.0 49.0 Died of Disease 13.0 38.0 Able-bodied. — The percentage of men capable of bearing arms in various countries is as follows : England, 23 ; Scotland, 22; Ireland, 22; France, 27; Airatria, 25; Germany, 24; Italy, 25 ; Belgium, 25 ; Holland, 25 ; Spain, 26 ; Denmark, 25; Sweden, 25; Norway, 24; United States, 23 ; Greece, 23. See diagram Military and Naval Strength, page 335. ARTILLERY.— At the close of tbe Franco-German war the Germans took from the French 7,234 pieces of cannon, includ- ing 3,485 field pieces and 3,300 fortress guns. At the battle of Waterloo the British artillery fired 9,467 rounds, or one for every Frenchman killed. See Ordnance. AUTHORS. — Goldsmith received $300 for the " Vicar of Wakefield;" Moore, $15,500 for " Lalla Rookh ; " Victor Hugo, $12,000 for "Hernani;" Chateaubriand, $110,000 for his works; Lamartine, $16,000 for "Travels in Palestine;" Disraeli, $50,000 for " Endymion ; " Anthony Trollope, $315,- 000 for forty-five novels; Lingard, $21,500 for his " History of England." 36 ■T Receipts and Expenditures United States Government. For the fiscal year 1891. K PUBLIC DEBTS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 1391. UNIT OF SCALE $ 2.475.000. "ggr T FRANCE 4,440,793,393 1 RUSSIA 3,491,018,074 GUEST BRITAIN 3,350,719,563 AUSTRIA HUN. 2,866,339,539 ITALY 2,324,826,329 Bolivia 14,7ti3,e»7 Ecuador 13,738,480 Switzerland 10,S12,tf26 Hawaii 2302,235 Nicaragua 1,711,206 STATE DEBTS, UNITED STATES. UNIT OF SCALE $51,675. Oregon $ Vermont West Virginia. . Idaho Iowa Nebraska Washington .... Wyoming Rhode Island. . . Nevada Colorado North Dakota . . 2.337 148,416 184,511 240,128 245.435 253.879 300,000 320,000 422,984 509.526 599,851 689,807 Arizona South Dakota. New Mexico. . Delaware 757,158 860,200 870,961 887,583 New Jersey 1,022,642 Florida 1,032,500 Kansas 1,119,791 Illinois 1,184,907 Kentucky 1,671,133 Wisconsin 2,295,390 Minnesota 2,239,482 New York $ 2,308,229 California 2,527,624 New Hampshire 2,691,019 Maine 3,470,908 Mississippi 3,503,008 Connecticut .... 3,740,200 Pennsylvania . . . 4,090,792 Texas 4,3i7,5i4 Michigan 5,308,294 South Carolina. 6,566,849 Ohio 7,135,805 Massachusetts . . North Carolina. Maryland . . . . ^ Indiana Arkansas Georgia Missouri Alabama Louisiana Tennessee D. of Columbia. Virginia I 7,267,349 7,703,100 8,434,368 8,540,615 8,671,782 10,449,542 11,759,832 12,413,196 16,008,585 I7-49-.474 19,781,050 31,067,137 MNE&1CT4 CO-.EKfiK 3 CHICAGO iM ^ K 548 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 1fl BALLOONS. — The most remarkable ascents on record : Date. Aeronaut. Place of Ascent. Height. Yards. Distance. Miles. '783 1836 1859 1863 Holland 2, GOO 7.700 12,000 Paris 500 1,150 Wise Wolverhampton During the siege of Paris — September, 1870, to February, 1871 — there were 64 balloons sent up, containing 91 passengers, 354 P'g eons > an d 3,000,000 letters (weighing 9 tons). Mr. Glaisher states that in 3,500 balloon ascents only 15 deaths have occurred, that is, about four per thousand. BANKING. — The capital employed in banking In the prin- cipal countries is as follows : Great Britain, $4,020,000,000 ; United States, $2,655,000,000; Germany, $1,425,000,000; France, $1,025,000,000; Austria, $830,000,000 ; Russia, $775,- 000,000; Italy, $455,000,000; Australia, $425,000,000; Can- ada, $175,000,000. On Sept. 1, 1891, there were 3,577 national hauls in the U. S., with a capital of $660,108,261, and a surplus of $222,766,668. The dividends for one year aggregated $50,- 795,011 and total net earnings for same time, $75,763,614. Since 1840 the banking of the world has increased about eleven-fold, that is, three times as fast as commerce, or thirty times faster than population. BAROMETER. — The mean height of barometer varies ac- cording to latitude as follows : Dogm of Latitude. Degree of Latitude. Barometer. 1° =9-98 ao 30.06 50 30 30.11 60 40 30.03 67 It varies according to elevation as follows Feet Mean .above Sea. Barometer, Sea level .... o 30.00 Rome 151 39.76 20-45 Barometer. 30-00 39.81 29.80 39.67 Feet Mean above Sea. Barometer. Madrid.... 1,995 27.73 151 29.76 St. Remy.. 5,365 34.45 Milan 430 39.45 St. Gothard 6,808 33.07 Moscow .... 984 38.83 Mexico .... 7,471 22.52 Geneva »,33i 28.54 Bogota.... 8,731 31.43 Munich i.7 6 5 ^7-95 Quito 9»54* 20.75 Mr. Glaisher's barometer in his various balloon ascents marked as follows : At a height of 1 mile, 24.7 in. ; 2 miles, 20.3 in. ; 3 miles, 16.7 in. ; 4 miles, 13.7 ; 5 miles, 1 1.3. BARRENNESS. — One woman in 20, one man in 30 — about 4 per cent. It is found that one marriage in 20 is barren — 5 per cent. Among the nobility of Great Britain, 21 per cent have no children, owing partly to intermarriage of cousins, no less than 4 j£ per cent being married to cousins. BATTLES. — The numbers placed hors-de-combat are not rel- atively so large as formerly, as the table below will show : Men Engaged. Hors-de-combat. Ratio. Thrasymene Cannae rckburn Agincourt... Crccy Marengo. . . . Austcrfitt Borodino . .. Waterloo ... Alma Sadowa Gravelotte . . Gettysburg . , 65,000 146,000 135 .000 H/100 117,000 58,000 170,000 35:1,000 145,000 103,000 403, of a 330,000 140,000 17,000 »7 52,000 34 38,000 a 11,400 ■8 31,200 »7 13,000 aa 7 090 »3 3' 51,000 3 l 8,400 33>ooo t 15 8,000 5 »7 per cent. See also diagram, page 335. BAYS. — Length in miles (approximate) : Hudson's, about 1,200; Baffin's, about 600 ; Chesapeake, about 250. BEER. — See Alcoholic Liquors. See also diagram, Beer Production. BEES — The largest bee-owner in the world is said to be Mr. Harbison, of California, who had 6,000 hives, producing 200,000 lbs. honey yearly, worth $40,000. There are in the United States 70,000 bee-growers, but the average which they get from their hives is only 22 lbs., whereas the average in England is 50 lbs., and some hives have given as high as 120 lbs. A hive consists of about 5,000 bees, and will multiply ten-fold in five years. Bees cat 20 lbs. of honey in making a pound of wax. BELLS. — The largest bells are the following, and their weight is given in tons: Moscow, 202; Burmah, 1 17; Pekin, 53; Novgorod, 31 ; Notre Dame, 18; Rouen, 18; Olmutz, 18; Vienna, 18; St. Paul's, 16; Westminster, 14; Montreal, 12; Cologne, II; Oxford, 8; St. Peter's, 8. Bell-metal should have 77 parts copper, and 23 tin. BIBLE. — No fewer than 1,326 editions of the Bible were published in the sixteenth century. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was translated and published in many languages by the polyglot press of Propaganda Fide at Rome. In the nineteenih century the English and American societies have printed, in the Protestant verMon, 124,000,000 copies of the Bible or of the New Testament, viz. : British, 74,000,000; American, 32,000,000; other societies, 15,000,000 copies. The King James version of the Bible contains 3,566,480 letters, 773,746 words, 31,173 verses, 1,189 chapters, and 66 books. The word and occurs 46,277 times. The word Lord occurs 1,855 times. The word Reverend occurs but once, which is in the 9th verse of the mth Psalm. The middle verse is the 8th verse of the 118th Psalm. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra contains all the letters of the alphabet except the letter J. The 19th chapter of II Kings and the 37th chapter of Isaiah are alike. The longest verse is the 9th verse of the 8th chapter of Esther. The shortest verse is the 35th verse of the nth chapter of St. John. There are no words or ' names of more than six syllables. BICYCLE.— The bicycle stands fifth as regards the time taken to cover a mile. The following table gives the various ways of going a mile, and the least time required : Min. Sec. locomotive 39 4-5 Running horse l 35 l-a Trotting horae a 081-4 Bicycle a 15 Skating 3 la Tricycle 1 a 31 a-3 BIROS. — A hawk tlies 150 miles per hour; an eider duck, 90 miles ; a pigeon, 40 miles. See Carrier- Pigeons. BLIND.— The numlx-r of blind in the United States in 1880 was 48,930, or at the rale of 97 per 100,000 population. The ratio of sexes was 55 male to 45 female. BLOOD.— The human heart beats 74 times a minute, sending each time 10 lbs. of blood through the veins and arteries. The system of an adult averages 28 lbs. of blood. The elements of human blood are as follows : Min. Sec. Running man 4 123-4 Rowing 5 01 Snow-shoes 5 39 3-4 Walking * a3 Swimming " 4a 1-4 k= DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 549 Man. Woman. Water 77-8 7?-« Albumen °- 2 6 -4 Color "4 ' "-| Saline, etc "-9 *■* The amount of iron in human blood and that of some animals is as follows : Man, 0.91 oz. per cwt. ; ox, I oz. j pig, 1.06 oz. ; frog, 0.75 oz. BOOKS.— The terms folio, quarto, octavo, etc., indicate the number of leaves into which a sheet of paper is folded in mak- ing a book, and the number of pages in each sheet is termed a signature; and for convenience in use the signatures in books are numbered by figures placed at the bottom of the first page of the signature. A folio book or paper is made of sheets folded in 2 leaves ; a quarto (or 4to) of sheets folded into 4 leaves ; an octavo, 8 leaves; duodecimo (l2mo), 12 leaves; i8mo, in 18 leaves; a 24mo, in 24 leaves; a.j2mo, in 32 leaves, etc. About 100 new works are published daily, or 30,000 per annum, without taking into account new editions of old books. The annual average of new books from 1878 to 1880 was as follows: Great Britain, 5,771; France, 7,000; Germany, 14,- 560 ; United States, nearly 3,000. The number for the United States in 1883 had risen to 3,481, and in 1890 over 4,500 new works were issued. In the year 690 the Duke of Northumberland gave 800 acres of land for one volume of history. Later on a pious farmer sold two loads of hay on Cornhill for a copy of the Epistle of Jude, an epistle containing only twenty-five verses. A devout countess of this same age gave 200 sheep and a large parcel of rich furs for a volume of sermons. In the year 1420, when London Bridge was building, a Latin Bible cost $120, which was more than it cost to build two arches of London Bridge. A laboring man only earned three cents a day in that time, and it would have taken the earnings of fifteen years for him to have bought a Bible. This will explain, in part, how it was that Bibles were chained up in churches. A good, steady reader will not be able to read more than thirty pages of an average i2mo book in an hour. Now let us suppose the case of such a reader ; let him read eight hours a day, six days a week, all the year round. He will read 240 pages a day, 1 ,440 pages a week, making an average of three good-sized volumes of 480 pages a week, or 150 volumes per annum. But there are over 30,000 volumes published per annum, so that the publishers get ahead of this reader at the rate of over 30,000 books every year. In the course of a quarter of a century, this diligent reader, if he never fails a day, is never sick, never takes a vacation, will have read only 3,750 volumes. Of course this illustration is exaggerated. No man could read at this rate without becoming raving mad before the end of the first year. These figures serve to show that a wise man must be content to leave a great deal unread. When we hear men de- scribed as bookworms, and others boasting of being well read, we may well smile as we think how little the worm has been able to accomplish, and how much the well-read man has left unread. The difficulty which this great wealth of literature pre- sents can only be wisely met in one way. We must be content to read only a little, but if our reading is not to degenerate into the merest idleness, we must be careful that the little we read is worth the time we give it. A man who will read and master a dozen good books a year, will, in a few years, be a well informed, educated man ; but the man who rushes through a great number of books for mere pastime will add about as much to his mental wealth as if he had been pouring water through a sieve. BRAIN. — The latest classification of races, according to Bastian and other experts, shows weight of brain, in ounces, as follows: Scotch, 50.0; Germans, 49.6 ; English, 49.5 ; French, 47.9; Zulus, 47.5; Chinese, 47.2; Pawnees, 47.1; Italians, 46.9; Hindoo, 45.1; Gypsy, 44.8; Bushmen, 44.6; Esqui- maux, 43.9. Compared with size of body, the brain of the Esquimaux is as heavy as the Scotchman's The measurement of that part of the skull which holds the brain is stated in cubic inches thus : Anglo-Saxon, 105 ; Ger- man, 105 ; Negro, 96 ; Ancient Egyptian, 93 ; Hottentot, 58 ; Australian native, 58. In all races the male brain is about 10 per cent heavier than the female. The highest class of apes has only 16 oz. of brain. A man's brain, it is estimated, consists of 300,000,000 nerve cells, of which over 3,000 are disintegrated and destroyed every minute. Every one, therefore, has a new brain once in sixty days. But excessive labor, or the lack of sleep, prevents the re- pair of the tissues, and the brain gradually wastes away. Diver- sity of occupation, by calling upon different portions of the mind or body, successively affords, in some measure, the requisite re- pose to each. But in this age of overwork there is no safety ex- cept in that perfect rest which is the only natural restorative of exhausted power. It has been noticed by observant physicians in their European travels that the German people, who, as a rule, have no ambition and no hope to rise above their inherited station, are peculiarly free from nervous diseases ; but in Amer- ica, where the struggle for advancement is sharp and incessant, and there is nothing that will stop an American but death, the period of life is usually shortened five, ten, or twenty years by the effects of nervous exhaustion. After the age of 50 the brain loses an ounce every ten years. Cuvier's weighed 64, Byron's 79, and Cromwell's 90 ounces, but the last was diseased. Post-mortem examinations in France give an average of 55 to 60 ounces for the brains of the worst class of criminals. BRIDGES. — The great bridges of the world are as follows: Total Longest Location. Material. Character. Length. (Feet.) Span. (Feet.) Brooklyn, N.Y Steel .... 5,989 •.595 Poughkeepsie, N.Y... Iron .... Iron 4,595 250 Iron 2,220 ",057 Steel Segmental arch . 530 Iron .... 1,245 800 Leavenworth, Kas.... Iron .... 1,000 34° New Niagara, N. Y. . . Iron .... 1,229 Britannia, Menai Strait. Iron .... 1.378 459 Victoria, Montreal, Can Iron .... 6,538 889 Fribourg, Switzerland. Iron .... Waterloo, London, Eng Stone . . . Elliptical arch . . 120 K" UNITED STATES COMMERCE WITH LATIN AMERICA. Value of One Tears Trade In Dollars. Exports. Porto Rico, Hayti, San Domingo Paraguay) $2,005,G10 Imports. 21,0S3,OOO Guatamala, Salvador. Honduras, Nicaragua, | Costa Rica Bolivia, Colombia, Guiana Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru $G3,SSO,000 The red eok>r shows the trade with the United State* In Ml 35,495,000 -^ _•. ^=? — >~$THE CENTRE OF POPULAT10N.*"<>— The centre of population is defined as "the point at which equilibrium would be reached were the country taken as a plane surface itself, without weight, but capable of .sustaining weight, and loaded with its inhabitants in number and position as they are found at the period under consideration, each individual being assumed to be of the same gravity as every other, and consequently to exert pressure on the pivotal point directly proportioned to his distance therefrom." In brief, it is the centre of gravity of the popula- tion of the country. It is located twenty miles east of Columbus, Indiana. The change of centre of population each ten years in the United States is shown in the following table. The very rapid settlement of the Northwest of late would indicate that the line will move considerably northward in the next ten years. Centre of Population. Move westward, Miles. miles e. of Baltimore miles w. of Baltimore 41J miles n.-w. by w. of Washington.... 3! miles n. of Woodstock, Va 50 miles s.-w. of Moorefield.W.Va.... 39 miles s. of Clarksburg, W. Va 55 miles s. of Parkersburg, W. Va.... 65 miles s. of Chillicothe, O 81 miles e.-by-n. of Cincinnati, 42 miles w.-by-s. of Cincinnati, 58 miles e. of Columbus, Ind 48 ■F 552 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. "f The Brooklyn Bridge cost $ 1 5,000,000, having taken 13 years in construction, during which 20 lives were lost. Width 85 feet, height above water 135 feet. Weight 34,000 tons. There are 3,200 tons wire, section 580 square inches, strength 75 tons per square inch. Each of the four cables has 5,000 wires of }£ inch. There are two towers, 274 feet high, and 1,600 feet apart. The central way is 15 feet wide, for pedestrians; each of the railway lines has 16 feet width, and each of the ways for wagons, horses, etc., 19 feet ; in all 85 feet. The Forth Bridge, completed 1890, cost $12,750,000. Main girder, 5,330 feet ; total length, 2,700 yards. BUILDINGS. — Capacity of the largest public buildings in the world: Coliseum, Rome, 87,000; St. Peter's, Rome, 54,000; Theater of Pompey, Rome, 40,000; Cathedral, Milan, 37,000; St. Paul's, Rome, 32,000; St. Paul's, London, 31,000; St. Petronia, Bologna, 26,000; Cathedral, Florence, 24,300; Cathe- dral, Antwerp, 24,000; St. John Lateran, Rome, 23,000; St. Sophia's, Constantinople, 23,000; Notre Dame, Paris, 21,500; Theater of Marcellus, Rome, 20,000; Cathedral, Pisa, 13,000; St. Stephen's, Vienna, 12,400; St. Dominic's, Bologna, 12,000; St. Peter's, Bologna, 11,400; Cathedral, Vienna, 11,000; Madison Sq. Garden, New York, 10,000; Mormon Tem- ple, Salt Lake City, 8,000; St. Mark's, Venice, 7,500; Spurgeon's Tabernacle, London, 6,000; Bolshoi Theater, St. Petersburg, 5,000; Tabernacle (Talmage's), 6,000; Music Hall, Cincinnati. 4,824; La Scala, Milan, 3,600. CALENDAR.— 1. Jewish, 383 days; the Jewish year 5645 began on September 20, 1884. 2. Julius Caesar's, 365 days, B.C. 46, commenced in March. 3. Mahometan, 355 days, A.D. 622;. the Mahometan year 1301 began February 19, 1884. 4. Charles IX., A.D. 1564, commenced January 1. 5. Pope Gregory XIII., A.D. 1582; now used except in Russia. 6. The Russian year begins on January 13 of our calendar. The Gregorian calendar was adopted in England in 1752, before which date the year began on March 25, vth'u'h would now be April 5. The festival of Easter, commemorating the resurrection of Christ, used to be observed on the 14th day of the moon, 1. e., near the full moon — the same as the Jewish Passover. But the Council of Nice, A.D. 325, ordered Easter lo be celebrated on the Sunday next succeeding the full moon, that comes on or next after the vernal equinox — March 21, thus making Factor and the related feast and fast days movable holidays. CAMELS. — A camel has twice the carrying power of an ox; with an ordinary load of 400 lbs. he can travel 12 or 14 days without water, going 40 miles a day. Camels are fit to work at 5 years old, but their strength begins to decline at 25, although they live usually till 40. CANALS. — The great canals of the United States and other countries are given below, with length in miles and cost of con- struction : Miles. Suez Egypt Burgundy ... France North Sea Holland 9 1 158 M Cost. $85,000,000 11,000,000 10,150,000 Bengal India 900 Chesapeake & Ohio Maryland 191 Delaware & Hudson N. Y. & Pa 08 ^Michigan Illinois 103 Erie New York 363 Wetland Canada 41 Caledonian Scotland 60 Central Division Pennsylvania 173 James R. & Kanawha Virginia 147 Ohio & Eric Ohio 307 Miami Ohio 178 Morris & Essex New Jersey 101 Wabash & Erie Indiana 469 11,'' *~<,*r¥i I j. .... ,.j '/. " , IOB B,6aj,ooo 9,000,000 7.-"v-»-*J U "■'-"' 5, OO/JOO 4,'>jO,'-.>> 3,700/100 _-. "-. '" 3,000,000 Age. Ox. Exhaled. Girl Boy Woman . . . ....10 12 The Nicaragua Canal Co. was organized in 1889, with a capital of $100,000,000. Excavations were begun at Grevtown October 8, 1891. The total length of the pro- posed waterway is 169-j miles, of which 28?, mil< be canal in excavation. The minimum depth is 30 feet. Lakes Nicaragua and Managua will furnish the high- level water supply. The outlet on the Pacific Coast will be at Brito. The estimated cost of the Panama Canal is $130,000,000. The length will be 46 miles, including a tunnel 4 miles in length, 100 feet wide and 160 feet high. When completed this canal will save about 10.000 miles of voyage between Europe and the Pacific. CARBONIC ACID.— The quantity exhaled in 24 hours: Age. Or. Exhaled. 16 16 38 17 The quantity varies according to exertion, namely : Sleeping, 0.6 oz. per hour; walking 2 miles per hour, 2.1 ; walking 3 miles per hour, 3.0 ; riding, 4.0 ; swimming, 4.4; treadmill, 5-5- CATTLE. — See diagram. CARRIER-PIGEONS. — In 1877 the newspaper Nationale of Paris had ten pigeons which carried dispatches daily between Versailles and Paris in fifteen to twenty minutes. In Au- gust, 1S89, five pigeons rlew from Saint Thomas, Ont., to Kosllndale, Mass., 525 miles, in 11 hours and 25 minutes, ing 1,350 yards a minute. CHARCOAL. — To make a ton will require wood as follows: Oak, 4.4 tons; chestnut, 4.5 ; beech, 5. 1; elm, 5.2; birch, 5.9; pine, 6.0. For heating power 12 lbs. charcoal are equal to 10 lbs. coal or 13 lbs. coke. CHECKS. — The checks paid in New York and London in one month aggregate $6,350,000,000, which is great!) in excess of the value of all the gold and silver coin in existence. CHEMISTRY. — Below are given the common names of vari- ous chemical substances : Aqua Fortis Nitric Acid. Regis Nitro-Muriatic Acid. ■ '• "■ 'I Sulphate of Copper. Cream «f Tartar Kitartrale Potassium. Calomel Chloride of Mercury. Chalk Carbonate Calcium. Carbonate of Potassa. Caustic Potassa Hydrate Potassium. Chloride of Gorm> le. Chloride of Sodium. cen Yitriol Sulphate ol Iron. a Sublimate Bi Chloride oi Mercury. nd Pure Carbon. Dry Alum Sulphate Alluminum and Potassium. Sain Suiphate of Magnesia. Ethiops Mineral Mack Sulphide of Mercury. Galena Sulphide of Lead. C.laubcr's-Sall Sulphate of Sodium. Gluco*e Grape Sugar. I r 11 Pyrites Hi -Sulphide Iron. Jeweler's Putty Oxide of Tin. / _. -» S) ,545,o4i,974 «,475, 181,831 1,547,020,316 X,408,2II,302 1.314,060,066 1 ,408,502,979 1.419,911.621 I. )•• 7-533.027 1,647.1 i.7-'"-3y7,° 00 CONSUMPTION.— Of the total number of deaths the percent- age traceable to consumption in the several States and Territories is as follows: Alabama, 9.6; Arizona, 6.1 ; Arkansas, 6.4 ; Cali- fornia, 15.6; Colorado, 8.2 ; Connecticut, 15. J ; Dakota, 8.8; Delaware, 16.1 ; District of Columbia, 18.9; Florida, 8.3; Georgia, 7.9; Idaho, 6.8; Illinois, 10.3; Indiana, 12.6; Iowa, 9.9; Kansas, 7.3; Kentucky, 15.7 ; Louisiana, 10.4; Maine, 19.2; Maryland, 14.0; Massachusetts, 15.7 ; Michigan, 13.2; Minnesota, 9.3 ; Mississippi, 8.8; Missouri, 9.8; Montana, 5.6; Nebraska, 8.8; Nevada, 6.3; New Hampshire, 5.6; New Jersey, 8.9; New Mexico, 2.4; New York, 8. 1; North Caro- lina, 9.5: Ohio, 13.8; Oregon, 12.1 ; Pennsylvania, 12.6; Rhode Island, 14.6; South Carolina, 9.8; Tennessee, 14.5; Texas, 6.5; Utah, 2.8; Vermont, 16.1; Virginia, 12.2; Wash- ington, 13.2; West Virginia, 13.0; Wisconsin, 10.4; Wyoming, 2.6. Average, 12.0. COPYING. — Seventy-two words make I folio, or sheet of common law; 9 words, I folio, in chancery. COTTON. — The area under cotton in the United States is in- creasing very rapidly : Year. Bales. Year. Bales. 1S86 6,550,215 1889 6,935,082 1S87 6,513,624 1890 7.3'3.726 1888 7,017.707 1891 8,655,51s See diagram World's Yearly Production of Cotton and To- bacco. K- =^L, 4s OF ^0,*^ ^^^ ad " — Protestants. christians'^ **^ 3d " — Greek Christians. FRANCE ^. >^. Centre — Throughout the / 29,202,000 /4Hk. - » „ u • •• / IpW Eastern Christians. World. / \?\\ A \ You .^ \ /wfew % \o\\ X \ \°\i \ \ / xf / - / ej Vr», /UNITED / / ia /e e ^ / STATES / VP*" *"C GREAT \ \ /^ \,BRITAIN'\ \ RUS \ 89,398.000 \ \ IA - \ \ AUSTRIA \ s \ HUNGARY \ nfe^^^ ' ? / 50,890,000 / ,7t\ « \ \ 27,904,308 \ A 1 A \ \ 1 1 > 65,549,000 . 1 / ^ h^^°° ,,111^ ■ ^0- : .-I t- SWEDEN- 1 ■ << i*. TUBKEY. | NORWAY SOUTH z ' roumaniaJ bulgaria,! 6,367,500 1 AMERICA \ \ 2 SERVIA, T~»ii 1-' I 26,784,000 \^-^W>\ 1 ^^CA \° f ll,628,O0OT a *^||^o K f ITALY / H^X * / / — / I S^^^^\ W>Nk / / 29637,000 / ^f^^^HP^ W / 1 f^*-**^ >v / W^ J0K&-/ *"j # GERMANY a. Africa. \ j^S^ ,4r'3y ma ^^^^ d. India, Rom . Cath . yr 40P?"/ 29,370,000 J Ceylon. i, 106,200. >^r >^ c? j Prot., 710,000. / \ / e - Switzerland. 1 *>rL \V 'O > :\ / *N Ivl '\\ , iC\ \ / Rom. Cath. ,1,190,000. and Polynesia. N. Rom. Cath., 434,000. x^ M"'. S ^ Prot., 1,000,000. >«JEi '■<3'4o c. Archipelago, Arabia ^w OQo I OH \V. ^>,> \ / Prot., 1,724,000. 1 01 n 1 w Man ^^ *• China and Japan. and Persia. ^>s_ I O > v| ' }jjjr Rom. Cath., 800,000. Rom. Cath., 1,000,000. Prot., 89,000. ^' v "~—», i, -si^* 5 *^^^^ S 1- Luxemburg Rom. Cath., 204,000. " k / 9 4 -^i — ~a 556 ^7 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES CREMATION. — A body weighing 140 lbs. produces 1 lbs. ashes; time for burning, 55 minuuv-. CRISES. — The most remarkable since the beginning of the present century have been as follows : Bnglatut 1 240 banks luspen Manchester, failures 2 million pounds. Calcutta, failures 15 million pounds. United States, " Wild Cut M crisis; all banks closed. Bunk of England saved by Bank of France, Severe also in France, where 93 companies failed for 6 million pounds. 1844. England. State loans to merchants. Bank of England re- formed. England, failures 20 millions; discount 13 per cent. United Mates, 7,200 houses failed for $555,000,000. London, Overend-Gurney crisis; failures exceeded 100 million pounds. Black Friday in New York (Wall street), September 24. 1814. i8h. 1831. >837- 1899. 1847. IlS: itto, CURRENCY — In the following table, the difference be- tween the amount of money in the country and the amount in circulation represents the amount in the Treasury : Year. i860... 1S61... 1862... 1863... 1864... 1865... 1866.. 1867 . . . 1868... 1869 .. 1870... 1871... 1872... 1873-. • 1874... 1875... 1876... 1877... 1878... .879... 1880... 1881... 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1890. 1891. Amount of money in United States. S442, 45*. 358, 674, 705, 77». 754. 728, 716, 7'5. 722, 74i, 762, 774. 806, 798, 790, 763, 79'. 1,051, 1,205, 1,406, 1,480, 1.643, 1,705, 1.817, i,s 6, 1,900, 3,062, 2.075. 2.144. a. '95. 102,477 005,767 453.079 867.283 588,067 129.755 1*7.254 200,612 553.578 351,180 868,461 812,174 721,565 445.6io 024,781 273.509 683,284 053.847 253.576 521.541 929,197 541.823 53L7>9 489,816 454.189 658,336 559. 6 94 442.672 955.949 350,711 226,159 224.075 Amount in circu- lation. *435 448. 334, 595 669 7M 673 66i, 68o, 664. 675, 7"5. 738. 75'. 776, 754, 727, 722, 729, 818 973, 1,114, 1,174, 1.230 1.243, 1,392, 1,252, '.317, 1.372, 1,380 1.429, 1.497, 407.252 405.767 697.744 394.038 641,478 702.995 ,488,244 992,069 103,661 452,891 212,794 889,005 309.549 881,809 083.031 ioi,947 609,388 314.683 132.634 631.793 382.228 238,119 290,419 ,305,696 1 ■•,. ,',.j 568.615 700.525 539. '43 170,870 361,649 251,270 440.707 Money per capita » 14.06 14.09 10.96 20.23 20 7a 22.16 21.27 20.11 1938 1895 1873 18.75 18.70 18.58 18.83 18 16 17 52 1646 16.62 21.52 2404 27 41 28 20 30.60 31.06 32 37 31.50 32 39 34-39 33.86 34 24 34 31 Circulat'n per capita. »i3-85 1398 »3 84 '7 57 S3 »7 Aggregate Issues of Paper Money In War Times. The following table exhibits the amount per capita [glued of the Continental money, the French asstgnetts, tin Confederate currency, and the legal-tender green- backs and national bank notes of the United States : Amount issued. Inental money $359,546,825 Igtiats 9,1 15,(100,000 Confederate currency f\vt. t"5.i/>3 Highest amount in circulation, Jan., '66. Greenback! and national bank notes. 750,820,228 CUSTOMS. — See diagram, Receipts and Expenditures I '. s. GcvtrnmeMt. DEBT. — See diagram, Public /),■!>/.«. DEAF MUTES —The returns for the United States from the census of 1890 show the number of deaf-mutes to lu- 41,850, or 675 per million of population. The ratio rj males to 45 females. DEATH. — A man will die from want of air in five min- utes ; lor want ol sleep in ti-11 (tan - : lor want of water in a week; for want ot food, at varying intervals, dependent on various circumstances. <<*£• 4— According to Prof. Conrad, the proportion of deaths to classes is as given below . Stillborn.... 0- 1 year . . 1- 5 years . 5-15 " • 15-30 " 20-30 ** 30-60 u Affluent. 38 . 118 : 3 : 23 247 Middle. (Ted* S3 340 30J 193 *X> 49 5» 34 ai «3 64 »»4 232 '75 156 Over 60 years 343 Total i.coo 1,000 1,000 DIAMONDS. — The six largest weigh, respectively, as follows : Kohinoor, 103 carats; Star of Brazil, 125 carats; Regent of France, 136 carats; Austrian Kaiser, 139 carats; Russian Czar, 193 carats; Rajah of Borneo, 367 carats. The value of the above is not regulated by size, nor easy to estimate, but none of them is worth less than $500,000. DIGESTION. — The time required for digesting various kinds of food is : Hours. Mutton, boiled 3 Hours. Rice 1 Eggs, raw 1 Apples s Trout, boiled s Venison, broiled 1 Sago, boiled i Milk " 3 Bread, stale 2 Milk, raw 3 Turkey, boiled s Goose, roast 3 Lamb, broiled a Potatoes, baked 3 Beans, boiled 3 Parsnips, boiled a Oysters, raw 3 Eggs, boiled 3 DISEASEB. The following table shows the number of deaths in the United States from the returns of 1S90. While it is don true iliat many deaths escape the notice of enumerators, still the data reached are very close to the actual facts. Min. o 30 3P 3*> 35 45 «5 '$ 30 3° 30 30 30 55 Beef, roast Bread , fresh . . . Carrots, boiled Turnips, " Potatoes, " Butter Cheese Oysters, stewed 3 Eggs, hard 3 Pork, boiled 3 Fowl, roast 4 Beef.fried 4 Cabbage 4 Wildfowl 4 Pork, roast 5 Veal, roast 5 Min. '5 ■5 30 SO 30 3P 3» 30 30 3' 3«> • 5 3P Cause of Death. Whooping-cough Scarlet fever Typhoid fever Digestive diseases ..... Diphtheria Diarrhcca Nervous diseases OiiiMimption Respiratory affections. Various Total . Number. 14835 «9.94> 37.830 4».435 «7.oi9 78.916 107.735 1 11,216 137.560 .,63...,. 949>37> Per Million Inhabitants. ■37 317 443 675 1.256 1.715 1.770 3.190 5.766 15.H8 Rauo. 1.56 »°9 «»3 4 47 495 «-3« 11 34 11.70 144' 38.17 100.00 DRUNKENNESS.— Mulhall estimates the number of years of intemperance required to produce death as follows : Liquor. Beer n Spirits CI.Ks Women 14 Gentlemen 1; Working class. Mixed. This shows that the working class can stand drink longest, and that beer is the least deadly form of intemperance. The value of life, drunk and sober, as to expectancy of years, is given thus : Aga Drunk. Sober. so 15 44 30 >4 3* « " •» The number of cases of insanity traceable to drink is shown by the proportion of dipsomaniacs to all insane, as follows: Italy, 12 per cent; France, 21 per cent; United States, 26 per cent ; Scotland, 2S per cent. s «~ DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 557 A Date of Place of Birth. Birth. '739 Warsaw. 1837 New York. 1842 " 1838 China. 1S63 Mexico. 1864 New York. DWARFS. — The more notable human mites are named be- low : Height. Name. (Inches.) Count Borowlaski 39 Tom Thumb (Chas. S. Stratum) 31 Mrs. Tom Thumb 32 Che-Mah 25 Lucia Zarate 20 General Mite 21 EDUCATION. — See diagram Educational Statistics. The progress of education since 1850 is shown in the following table, showing the ratio of adults able to write : 1850. United States 84 England ( .; Scotland 83 Ireland 55 France 57 Germany 86 Russia 2 Austria 34 Italy 28 Spain and Portugal 18 Switzerland 80 Belgium and Holland 62 Scandinavia 82 See also diagram Educational Statistics. ELEVATION OF CONTINENTS.— The average above sea level is: Europe, 670 feet; Asia, 1,140 feet; North America, 1,150 feet; South America, 1,100 feet. EVICTIONS. — The total number of families evicted in Ire- land for 33 years is 482,000, as below : Years. Evicted. 1849-51 263,000 1 852-60 1 10,000 1861-70 47,000' 1871-80 41,000 1881—82 *.... 21,000 881. 1889 90 92 84 9' 88 94 f-7 77 78 85 94 96 11 ■5 49 55 4t 47 34 28 88 11 86 87 97 -admitted. Net Evictions. 73,000 28,000 190.000 82,000 8,000 39,000 6,000 35,000 4,000 17,000 Total 482,000 119,000 363,000 The number of persons actually evicted was over two millions (say 70,000 per annum), about 35 per cent of the population. EXHIBITIONS.— Where Held. London Pans London Paris Vienna Philadelphia Paris Sydney Melbourne Fisheries, London.. Health, London.... Inventions, London. Colonial, London..., Glasgow Parts , Year. Area, Acres. 1851 21 1855 nH 1862 '3'A 1867 37 ■873 40 1876 60 1878 60 ■ 879 26 1880 1883 9 1S84. 1885 1886 13 1888 1889 7S'A Visitors. 6,039,195 5,162,330 6,211,103 8,805.969 6,740,500 10,164,489 16,032,725 1,117.536 1,330,279 2,703,051 4,i53'39° 3,760,581 5,55o.745 5.748,379 28,149,353 Days Open. Mi 200 171 217 186 '59 194 210 210 M7 151 163 164 161 185 Receipts. $1,780,000 644,100 1,614,260 2,103,675 1,032,385 3.813.724 2,531,650 200,000 585,000 892,545 750,000 1,025,000 566,330 8.300,000 EXPENDITURES U. S. Government.— See diagram. FAIRS.— That of Nijni-Novgorod is the greatest in the world, the value of goods sold being as follows: 1841, $35,000,000; 1857, #60,000,000; 1876, $140,000,000; the attendance in the last named year including 150,000 merchants from all parts of the world. In that of Leipsic the annual average of sales is $20,000,000, comprising 20,000 tons of merchandise, of which two-fifths is books. FAMILIES. — Number of families in the United States (census of 1890), 12,896,825 ; average number to a square mile, 3.39. Number of dwellings, 11,607,143; average to the square mile, 305. Number of acres to a family, 188.74. Number of persons to a family, 5.08. Number of persons to a dwelling, 5.67. FAMINES. — Walford mentions 160 since the nth cen- tury, namely: England, 57; Ireland, 34; Scotland, 12; France, 10; Germany, n ; Italy, etc., 36. The worst in modern times have been : Country. Date. No. of Victims. France 1870 48.000 Ireland 1847 1,029,000 India 1866 1,450,000 China 1878 9,500,000 Deaths from hunger and want were recorded as fol- lows in 1879, according to Mulhall : Ireland, 3,789 ; Eng- land, 312; London, 101 ; France, 260. The proportion per 1,000 deaths was, respectively, 37.6, 0.6, 1.2, 0.3. \ FASTING. — In 1684, four rrfen were taken alive out of a mine in England, after 24 days without food. In 1880, Dr. Tanner, in New York, lived on water for 40 davs, losing 36 lbs. in weight. FARMS. — Number of farms in the United States in 1 8S0, 4,008,907 ; in 1S70, 2,659,985 ; in 1 860, 2,044.077 ; in 1850, 1,449,073. Acreage in farms in 1891, 68S,ooo,ooo. FLAX. — The average annual production is as follows : Russia, 330,000 tons; Austria, 53,000 ; Germany, 48,000; Belgium and Holland, 38,000; France, 37,000; United Kingdom, 25,000 ; Italy, 23,000; United States, 42,000; Scandinavia, 4,000 — total, 600,000 tons. FOOD. — The yearly consumption of necessaries, in pounds, per inhabitant: United States United Kingdom France Germany Russia . Austria Italy Spain Belgium and Holland. Denmark Sweden and Norway. Average Grain. Meat. Butter. 392 120 16 330 105 '3 505 74 4 585 69 8 49° 48 3 410 64 5 420 23 1 39° 49 445 69 6 475 70 »5 34° 65 9 445 7° 7 Sugar. 3 7 >4 7 5 16 3* 17 Luxuries are consumed as follows, per inhabitant : United States United Kingdom France Germany Russia Austria Italy-. Spain Belgium and Holland Denmark Sweden and Norway. Average Ounces. Coffee. "5 C2 83 3 35 18 4 '75 Tobacco. 59 23 29 11 80 84 61 29 41 Gallons. Wine. 0.60 0.44 20.12 2.70 0.3S 7.50 17.60 i3-5o 0.80 0.30 0.20 5.50 Beer. 7.20 28.60 5.10 19.40 0.80 6.50 0.70 0.10 22.20 12.60 5.40 8.60 Spirits: 1.50 1.05 0.90 '■33 2.20 0.80 0.30 0.20 2.60 4.30 4.20 1.10 ■*? ^L lothodiat Union Coll 8.500 Methodist Primitive 3.837 BGcn. Synod Reformed Presbyterian 4.(102 Ind. Methodists 5.000 B H Swedenborglans 7.095 Reformed Ass. Presb. 7.515 Reformed Episcopal 8.455 7th Day Baptists 9.817 ROMAN CATHOLIC 6JSQ.046 Salvation Army 8.663 Kifornicd l'resb. 10.5741 j .VdviMltistS 11.100 M Moravians 11. 7M |_ i CaWinlat 12.TH 1 Free Methodists - Cold. Cumb. Presb. i M 1 Con*. Meth. 13.750 •7" ■V V ~7\ \£~. -# Educational Statistics of the Suited Stated and other Ooun;trie&.#- ~w^_ Percentage of school population in daily attendance. j Percentage of school population enrolled in public schools. Average monthly pay of female teachers. Average monthly pay of male teachjaa,. Percentage of school popu- 4 $46.00 25.00 7y.oo 39*°o 45.00 21.00 30.00 63.00 38.00 65.00 33-00 32.00 30.00 34.oo 17.00 34-00 43.00 35-00 28.00 43-00 64.00 42.00 31.00 26.00 31.00 56.00 36.00 2S.00 33-oo 62.00 28.00 40.00 22.00 37-00 24.00 36.00 17.00 27.00 40.00 29.00 33-00 73.00 $ log .00 43.00 86.00 74-00 87.00 37-00 39.00 9S00 48.00 78.00 40.00 46.00 3S.00 37.00 35-00 41.00 53-0O 42.00 52.00 43.00 95.00 67.00 41.00 30.00 4S.00 69.00 43-00 33-oo 36.00 103.00 2S.00 40.00 25.00 46.00 27.00 35-0° 17.00 31.00 4S.00 32.00 45.00 72.00 States and Terri- tories. Massachusetts. N. Hampshire. Arizona Connecticut.... Rhode Island. . Vermont Pennsylvania.. Nevada Texas California Delaware Michigan Iowa Indiana Maine Ohio Illinois Idaho Kansas Missouri Utah... New York Colorado New Jersey. . .. Minnesota West Virginia. Wisconsin Montana Nebraska Mississippi Dakotas Dist. Columbia Tennessee Maryland , North Carolina Florida Oregon , South Carolina Georgia Kentucky Alabama Virginia Washington .. Louisiana New Mexico.. Arkansas Wyoming — to K 5-15 5-2* 6-1S 4-16 5-i5 5-20 6-21 6-18 8-16 5-17 0-21 5-20 5-21 6-21 4-21 6-21 6-21 5-21 5-21 5-20 6-18 5-21 6-21 5-18 5-21 6-21 4-20 4-21 S-w 5- 2 ' 7-30 6-17 6-21 6-21 6-21 6-21 4-20 6-18 6-1S 6-20 7-21 5-2" 5-21 6-18 5-20 6-21 6-21 tries, attending elementary schools. From Reports of the United States Bureau of Education. School age under each country. 20 40 6b 80 "100 1 I I I I I Japan, 6-14 Greece, 5-12 Portugal, 6-13 Argent. Rep., 6-i 4 Roumania, 6-13 Russia, 6-14 !«T \£~ 560 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. These food statistics are by Mulhall. There are many valu- able items of food besides these. Grain is largely supplemented by potatoes in Ireland and Germany, and by chestnuts in Italy; moreover, this column does not include rice, the consumption of which is rapidly increasing. Meat includes fowl, but neither game nor fish, nor lard, all of which enter largely into European food. Cheese is another important item not included above. The same may be said of fruit and vegetables. Relative Value of Food (Beef par). Oysters, 22; milk, 24; lobsters, 50; cream, 56; codfish, 68; e g£ s i 7 2 » turbot, 84; mutton, 87; venison, 89; veal, 92; fowl, 94; herring, 100; beef, 100; duck, 104; salmon, 108; pork, 116; butter, 124; cheese, 155. Percentage of Carbon in Food. Cabbage, 3; beer, 4; carrots, 5; milk, 7; parsnips, 8; fish, 9; potatoes, 12; eggs, 16; beef, 27; bread, 27; cheese, 36; peas, 36; rice, 38; corn, 38; biscuit, 42; oatmeal, 42; sugar, 42; flour, 46; bacon, 54; cocoa, 69; butter, 79. Foot-tons of Energy per Ounce of Food. Cabbage, 16; carrots, 20; milk, 24; ale, 30; potatoes, 38; porter, 42; beef, 55; egg, 57; ham, 65 ; bread, 83; egg (yolk), 127; sugar, 130; rice, 145; flour, 148; arrowroot, 151 ; oat- meal, 152; cheese, 168; butter, 281. Loss of Meat in Cooking. *■ 80 roast — 87 boiled — ^94 boiled FOREIGN POPULATION.— See diagram, Curiosities of the Census. FORESTS. — The forests of the world cover 1,501 mil- lions of acres, distributed as follows: Russia, 4S5 millions; United States, 476; Canada, 174; Brazil, 135; Scandinavia, 63; Austria, 46; Gran Chaco, 37; Germany, 33; France, 23; Italy, it; Spain and Portugal, S; Algeria, 6; United Kingdom, 2 ; Belgium and Holland, iV£. These figures are from an estimate made in 1883. Since 1848 the French have converted 9 million acres of waste land into forests, producing nearly $2 an acre. Paris burns the timher of 50,000 acres yearly. Woodcutters in the United States fell 30,000 acres daily, or 9 million acres per annum. In 1892, the forest area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska and Indian reservations, was 481,764,- 599 acres. 100 B>s. raw beef = 67 lbs. roast 100 lbs. raw fowl 100 " " =1 74 " boiled 100 " *' 100 " raw mutton = 75 " roast 100 " raw fish FREIGHT. — Capacity of a ten-ton freight car : Lumber, green 6,000 feet. Lumber, dry 10,000 feet. Whisky 60 barrels Salt 70 " Lime 70 " Flour 00 " Eggs 13010160 " Flour 200 sacks. Cattle 18 to 20 head. Hogs I sotofjo " Sheep 80 to 100 " Barley 3 oobushels. Wheat 340 «• Apples 37 o •• Corn „ 400 " Potatoes 430 " Oats 680 " Bran 1,000 " FRUIT. — The degrees of sugar in various fruits are : Peach, 1.6; raspberry, 4.0; strawberry, 5.7 ; currant, 6.1; gooseberry, 7.2; apple, 7.9; mulberry, 9.2 ; pear, 9.4; cherry, 10.8; grape, 14.9. FUEL.— Pounds of water evaporated by 1 lb. of fuel as fol- lows: Straw, 1.9; wood, 3.1 ; peat, 3.8; coke or charcoal, 6.4; coal, 7.9 j petroleum, 14.6. GIANTS. — The most noted of ancient and modern times axe as follows : Height, Name. Place. Feet. Goliath Palestine 11.0 Gaibara Rome 9.9 John Middleton England 9.3 Frederick's Swede Sweden 8.4 Cujanus Finland 7.', Gilly Tyrol 8.1 Patrick Cotter Cork 8.7 Chang Gow Pckin 7.8 Period. B.C. 1063. Claudius Cxsar. A.D. 1578. 1806. 1880. Many of the great men of history have been rather small in stature. Napoleon was only about 5 ft. 4 in., Washington was 5 ft. y}4 in. One of the greatest of American statesmen, Alex- ander H. Stephens, never exceeded 115 pounds weight, and in his old age his weight was less than 100 lbs. GOLD. — See diagram, Tie World's Yearly Production of the Precious Metals. GRAVITY, SPECIFIC— A gallon of water or wine weighs 10 lbs., and this i> taken as the basis of the following table : LIQUIDS. Water 100 Sea water 103 Dead Sea 124 Alcohol 84 Olive oil 92 Turpentine 99 Wine 100 Urine 101 Cider 102 Beer 102 Woman's milk 102 Cow's " 103 Goat's " 104 Porter 104 TINIER. Cork 24 Poplar 38 Fir 55 Cedar 61 Pear 66 Walnut 67 Cherry 72 Maple 75 a^ 1 !::::::::::::: I? Beech 85 Mahogany 106 Oak 117 Ebony 133 PRECIOUS STONES. METALS. Zinc 719 Cast iron 721 Ti". 7»» Bar tron 779 Steel 783 Copper 869 Brass 840 Silver 1,051 Lead 1,135 M "fury 1,357 Gold 1,9*6 Platina 1,950 Emerald 377.5 I Diamond. Crystal 265.3 j Topaz ••• 353-o 401. 1 Garnet Ruby.. 4»8-3 Indigo 77 Gunpowder 93 Butter 94 Ice 117 Clay x2o Coal 130 '33 ■34 ■ 83 Peat . . . Opium . Honey.. I vory ... Brick . . . Sulphur 203 Weight in Cubic Feet Lbs. per Cub. Ft. 30 5> it Cork Cedar „ Beech Batter... Water Mahogany 66 Ice 70 (kik 70 Clay 7S Coal 80 GUANO.— The Peruvian Porcelain 226 Stone 25a Marble 270 Granite 278 Chalk . 179 Glass 289 Lb., r-" Cat Ft. Brick Stone 1 to Granite 166 Glass 17s Iron 470 Copper Sao Silver 630 Lead 680 Gold 1,155 Government exported from the Chincha Islands between 1850 and 1880 more than twelve million tons, worth #550,000,000. HAIR.— That which is lightest in color is also lightest in weight. Light or blonde hair is generally the most luxuriant, and it has been calculated that the average number of hairs of this color on an average person's head is 140,000; while the number of brown hairs is 1 10,000, and black only 103.00a HEAT.— Ice melts at 32° ; temperature 01" globe, 50 ; blood heat, 98 ; alcohol boils, 174°; water boils, 2 1 a ; lead I 594° j heat of common fire, 1,140°; brass melts, 2,233°; iron melts, 3479°- -M I? DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 56l HEIGHT of noted cathedrals, monuments, buildings etc.: Feet. Eiffel Tower, Paris 990 Washington Monument.... 555 Pyramid, Cheops, Egypt. .. . 543 Cathedral, Cologne 511 " Antwerp 476 ** Strasburg 474 Tower, Utrecht 464 Steeple, St. Stephens, Vienna 460 Pyramid, Khafras, Egypt... 456 St. Martin'sChurch, Bavaria 456 Chimney, Port Dundas, Glasgow 454 St. Peter's, Rome 44S Notre Dame, Amiens 422 Salisbury Spire England 406 Cathedral, Florence. 380 M Cremona 372 " Freiburg 367 St. Paul's, London 365 Cathedral, Seville 360 Pyramid, sakkarah, Egypt. . 356 Cathedral. Milan 35c Notre Dame, Munich 34S Invalides, Paris 347 Parliament House, London. 340 Cathedral, Magdeburg 337 St. Patrick's, New Vork 328 St. Mark's. Venice 328 Cathedral, Bologna 321 M Norwich, England 309 Feet. "World" Bldg., New York 309 Statue of Liberty, N. Y 305 Cathedral, Chichester, Eng. 306 " Lincoln, England 300 Capitol, Washington 300 St. James 1 Cathedral, To- ronto 316 Trinity Church, New York. 2S3 Cathedral, Mexico 280 " Montreal 280 Brooklyn Bridge 278 Campanile Tower, Florence 276 Masonic Temple, Chicago. . 205 Column, Delhi 260 Cathedral, Dantzic 250 Porcelain Tower, Nankin. . 24S Custom-House, St. Louis... 240 Canterbury Tower, England 235 Notre Dame, Paris 232 Chicago Board of Trade. . . . 230 St. Patrick's, Dublin 226 Cathedral, Glasgow 225 Bunker Hill Monument 220 Norte Dame, Montreal 220 Cathedral, Lima 220 " Rheims 220 " Garden City, L.I. 219 Sts. Peter and Paul, Pnila. . 210 Washington, Mon., Balto. . 210 Vendome, Mon., Paris 153 HOLIDAYS.— The legal holidays in the United States are as follows : New Year's Day— Jan. 1.— In all States and Territories, except Arkan- sas, Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hamp- shire, North Carolina, South Carolina and Rhode Island. Anniversary of the Battle of Nexv Orleans— Jan. 8. — In Louisiana. Lincoln's Birthday — Feb. 12. — In Louisiana. Washington' s Birthday— Feb. 22— In all States and Territories except Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Kansas, Maine, Mis- souri, North Carolina, Ohio, Texas, Oregon and Tennessee. Shrove Tuesday — March 1— In Louisiana, and cities of Mobile, Montgom- ery and Selma, Ala. Anniversary of Texan Independence — March 2 — In Texas. Firemen's Anniversary — March 4 — In Louisiana. Good Friday— April 15 — In Florida, Louisiana, Minnesota and Pennsyl- vania. Memorial Day — April 26— In Georgia. Battle of San Jacinto — April 21 — In Texas. Decoration Z>ay— May 30 — In Colorado, Maine, Vermont, Connecticut, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, New York, Penn- sylvania and District of Columbia. Fourth of July-~~\n all States and Territories. General Flee ion Day— Generally on Tuesday after first Monday in November— In California, Maine, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ore- gon, South Carolina and Wisconsin. Thanksgiving Day— Usually last Thursday in November — and Fast days whenever appointed by the President— are legal holidays in all States and Territories. Christmas Day — In all the States and Territories. HOPS. — Average annual crop, in tons: England, 26,000; Germany 19,000; United States, 19,000; France, 4.500. HORSE-POWER. — One horse-power will raise 10 tons per minute a height of 12 inches, working 8 hours a day. This is about 5,000 foot-tons daily, or 12' times a man's work. The horse-power of Niagara is 3^ million nominal, equal to 10 million horses effective. ICE. — Good clear ice two inches thick will bear men to walk on; four inches thick will bear horses and riders; six inches thick will bear horses and teams with moderate loads. ILLEGITIMACY. — The percentage of illegitimate births for various countries, as stated by Mulhall, is as follows ; Austria, 12.9; Denmark, 11.2; Sweden, 10.2; Scotland, 8.9; Norway, 8.05; Germany, 8.04; France, 7.02; Belgium, 7.0; United States, 7.0; Italy, 6.8; Spain and Portugal, 5.5; Canada, 5.0; Switzerland, 4.6; Holland, 3.5; Russia, 3.1; Ireland, 2.3; Greece, 1.6. ILLITERACY.— See Education. IMMIGRATION.— The arrivals in the United States since 1820 are as follows in even thousands : iS6i ° 2,403<°oo i-do 2,731,000 1-9° 5,247,000 1820-30 H3i°o°: 1831-40 609,000 1841-50 1,706,000 1851-60 2,598,000 The grand total for seventy years is 15,527,000. Of the arrivals in 1S91 there were: Germans, 113,554; E n g* lish, 53,600; Scotch, 12,557; Irish, 55,706; Scandinavians, 59,107; Italians, 76,055 ; Various, 188,740 — Total, 560,319. INDIANS. — In 1880 the number of Indians in the United States was as follows : The greater part were gathered in the Indian Territory upon reservations assigned them by the Government: Choctaws, 16,000; Cherokees, 17,000; flfrusk- ogees, 13,000; Seminoles, 2,500 ; Chickasaws, 6,000; Osages, 4,000; Peoria, 170; Ottawas, 175; Sacs and Foxes, 700 ; Qua- paws, 236. Of the Apaches in Arizona and New Mexico there are 14,349, and of a collection of tribes in Oregon, about 837. There is also a small remnant of the Oneida tribe in Wisconsin. The annual report of the U. S. Indian Commissioner for 1890 shows a total Indian population in the United States, exclusive of Alaska, of 249,273, all of whom, except about 18,000, are under control of the Government. Indians in Canada. Population. 16,000 11,000 75,4«> Average Property. per Head. ,£1,968,000 £123 363,000 33 Locality. Ontario Quebec Manitoba, etc INDIA RUBBER. — This is mostly obtained from the Serin- gueros of the Amazon, who sell it for about 12 cents a pound to the merchants of Para, but its value on reaching England or the United States is over 50 cents a pound. The number of tons imported into Great Britain and the United States has been as follows : i860. 1870. 1880. 1887. United States 1,610 4,316 T^ 3 ? 12,900 Great Britain 2,150 7»6o6 8,479 ",oOQ The best rubber forests in Brazil will ultimately be exhausted, owing to the reckless mode followed by the Seringueros or tap- pers. The ordinary product of a tapper's work is from 10 to 16 lbs. daily. There are 120 india-rubber manufacturers in the United States, employing 15,000 operatives, who produce 280,- 000 tons of goods, valued at #260,000,000, per annum. INDUSTRIES.— See diagram, The World's Industries. INSANITY.— It is estimated that the number of insane per- sons in the United States is 168,900; in Germany, 108,100; in France, 93,900; in England, 81,600; in Russia, 8o,ooo; Italy, 44,100; Austria, 35,000; Ireland, 19,500; Scandinavia, 18,100; Spain and Portugal, 13,000; Scotland, 11,600; Bel- gium and Holland, 10,400; Canada, 7,300 ; Australia, 4,000; Switzerland, 3,100. Causes of Insanity. — Hereditary, 24 percent; drink, 14 per cent; business, 12 per cent; loss of friends, II percent; sick- ness, 10 per cent; Various, 29 per cent. The above result is the medium average arrived at on com- paring the returns for the United States, England, France and Denmark. / 37 ^ -#JF§E WSRUS'S l%8UmRlM CSMEJIRSE*- Aggregate Annual Industries of the World, in Millions of Dollars. THE WORLD EUROPE 51,910 UNITED STATES Total 54,355 38,220 UNITED KINGDOM Cculti •> l ' i > >: • %» - ,3,85 ° B>20O In the following diagrams are shown the annual imports and exports per inhabitant of the principal nations. The figures indicate quarter dollars. The quarter dollar lias been adopted as the unit so as to bring the comparison within the com- pass of a circle of 360 degrees. Example. — The figures representing the United States in the diagram of imports will be found on the line representing the 54th degree, and indicate that the United States import yearly merchandise to the value of 54 quarter dollars, or $13.50, for every inhabitant. The exports, on the other hand, amount to $1425 per inhabitant IMPORTS EXPORTS • :£ _^£ Shipping, Steam Power, Agriculture, fettle, and War Expenditure. Ik^ SHIPPING. Showing carrying power in millions of tons. /■/. / Ll n ill 2.7 J f/f,,,-. £■»__£ German French Nuruegian Spanish Italian Russian Swedish Dutch STEAM POWER. In millions horsepower. (Including stationary and locomotive engines.) 14.4 0.8 0.8 0.7 Germany France Russia Austria Belgium Ttaly Spam AGRICULTURE. Annual value of agricultural and pastoral products in millions of dollars. / " 2 - 2 1 2,120 \^K~)<~) © 5 s TJ. States Russia France Germany Austria U. Kingdom Jtaly Spain Australia Canada CATTLE. Showing the number in millions. Germany 16_, Australia ft* Spain Austria France United Kingdom ARMY AND NAVY EXPENDITURE. Showing the cost per inhabitant per annum. ! 1,25 $4.00 $3.25 "} § $2.50 > • , n^~> Germany $2,00 ~) |7$^Q0~) I $1,75~> | $1.79 > | $1.76 > ft $1.60 > 1.00 Belgium "Portugal -H ^, 5 6 4 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. . INTERNAL REVENUE.-See diagram, page 546. IRON. — Sec diagram Pig Iron, page 570. LABOR. — Dr. Farr estimates the value of an agricultural laborer to the commonwealth as follows : Age. 5- Value. $280 10 585 15 960 20 1,170 25 1,330 Age. 30.. 35-- 40.. 45- 50.. Value. • »i,2os * l> 1 40 . 1,060 . 065 . 840 Age. 55" 60.. 65" 70.. Valu 4»5 330 At the age of 75 he is a loss of $125, and the loss rise* to $205 at 80. This is only true of agricultural laborers, since in- tellectual workers are often of much value after 70 years of age, which balances the account. LAKES. — The length and width of the principal lakes of the world, in miles, is as follows : Length. Width. Superior 380. Baikal 3°°. Michigan 330. Great Slave 300. Huron 250. Winnipeg 340. Erie 370. Athabasca 300. Ontario 180. Maracaybo 150. Length. Width. Great Bear 150 40 Ladoga....- 135 75 Champlain 133 12 Nicaragua 120 40 Lake of the Woods.. . 70 25 Geneva 50 10 Constance 45 10 Cayuga 36 4 George 36 3 LAND GRANTS.— From the year 1787 till 1888, the United States Government ceded 192,000,000 acres of public lands to railways, 77,000,000 to schools, 62,000,000 to military, and 30,000,000 for other purposes, besides 248,000 acres in sales to settlers, this last item including 125,000,000 granted in homestead lots. LANGUAGES. — The English language is spoken by 100,- 000,000 people; French, 48,000,000; German, 69,000,000; Italian, 30,000,000; Spanish, 41,000,000; Portuguese, 13,000,- 000 ; Russian, 67,000,000. LEPROSY. — There are 131,600 lepers in India, 10,000 in Canton, 3,300 in Mauritius, 3,000 in Portugal, 1,800 in Hawaii, 1,770 in Norway, 900 in Crete, 600 in Reunion, 350 in Greece, 120 in Rio Janeiro, 100 in Sweden, and 13 in Iceland. A recent estimate in Russia places the number at about 6,000. LIFE. — American life-average for professions (Boston) : Store- keepers, 41.8 years ; teamsters, 43.6 years.; laborers, 44.6 years; seamen, 46.1 years; mechanics, 47.3 years; merchants, 48.4 years; lawyers, 52.6 years; farmers, 64.2 years. See Expect- ancy Table. LONGEVITY. — The average of human life is 33 years. One child out of every four dies before the age of 7 years, and only one-half of the world's population reach the age of 17. One out of 10,000 reaches too years. The average number of births per day is about 120,000, exceeding the deaths by about 1^ per minute. There have been many alleged cases of longevity in all ages, but only a few are authentic. MARRIAGE. — A woman's dances of marriage at various ages. — This curiously constructed exhibit by Mr. Finlayson, a European statistician, is drawn up from the registered cases of 1,000 married women, taken without selection. Of the 1,000 tabulated there were married : / Years of Age. Marriages. 141015 16 " 17 4i 18 18 " 19 1 ao " 21 99 " 34 4 34" 25 26 " 27 2 Years of Age. 28 to 29 30" 31 y " 33 36" 37 3«" 39 Marriages. V 101 219 % ::::. 102 60 METALS. — Few people have any idea of the value of pre- cious metals other than gold, silver and copper, which are com- monly supposed to be the most precious of all. There are many metals more valuable and infinitely rarer. The following table gives the names and prices of all the known metals of pecuniary worth : Price per Av. pound. Vanadium $10,000 00 Rubidium 9.070 00 Zirconium 7,200 00 Lithium 7,000 00 Giucium 5,40090 Calcium 4.500 00 Strontium 4.200 05 Terbium 4,080 00 Vitrium 4,080 00 Erbium 3,400 00 Cerium 3,400 00 Didymium 3,200 00 Indium 3,200 00 Ruthenium 2,400 00 Rhodium 3,300 00 Niobium 2,300 00 Barium 1,800 00 Palladium 1,400 00 Osmium ',300 00 Iridium 1,090 00 Uranium 900 00 Titanium 689 00 Chromium 500 00 Price per Av. pound. Gold 3 jo 00 Molybdenum 33500 Thallium 225 00 Platinum Manganese . Tungstein . , Magnesium . Potassium. . Aluminum*. Silver Cobalt .. ., Sodium ... Nickel ... Cadmium. . Bismuth . . Mercury ... Arsenic .... Tin Copper...., Antimony . , Zinc . ... Lead • Keoent proc*ns*« are reducing c**t of production indefinite! v. As Conductor!. 150 00 130 00 115 00 64 00 64 00 33 00 30 00 16 00 8 00 5 00 4 00 3 JO 95 So 25 16 11 08 Heat. Electricity. Gold 100 94 Platinum 98 to Silver 97 74 Copper 90 100 Iron ... Zinc ... Tin.... Lead . Heat. Electricity. 37 >* 36 39 30 15 18 8 Tenacity. A wire, 0.84 of a line in diameter, will sustain weights as follows : Lead 28 lbs. Tin 35 " Zinc no " Gold 150 " Silver 1S7IU. Platinum.. 274 " Copper 30a " Iron- 549 •* Fluid Density. Zinc . Iron . Tin.. „„....- .. 6 48 I Copper S.ss 6.88 Silver 9.51 .. 7.03 1 Lead '0.37 MILITARY AND NAVAL STRENGTH.— See diagram, page 33°- MILK. — The component parts of milk are as follows : Water. Fat. ••S 40 1.1 3-3 4-> Caseine. 3-4 ;■' >9 4° 4-5 Sug g .r. 2.8 6.1 5 9 57 Total. ::::.:: $1 ::::.*:.'.' 10O.O MONEY. — The amounfof money in circulation in the princi- pal nations of the world is as follows, paper money being in- eluded as well as gold and silver: France, 12,005,000,000; United States, $1,056,000,000; India, 1960,000,000; United Kingdom, $925,000,000; Russia, $760,000,000; Germany, $750,000,000; Italy, $525,000,000 ; South America, $465,000,- 000; Austria, $410,000,000; Spain, $265,000,000; Japan, $255,000,000; Belgium, $210,000,000; Holland, $165,000,- 000 ; Australia, $95,000,000. The amount of coin in circula- V DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 565 V tion, exclusive of copper, is as follows : France, 81,505,000,000 ; India, 8900,000,000; United States, $1,689,000,000; United Kingdom, $715,000,000; Germany, $540,000,000; Italy, $225,000,000; Spain, $205,000,000; Russia, $170,000,000; Belgium, $145,000,000; South America, $140,000,000; Japan, $125,000,000; Austria, $100,000,000; Holland, $85,000,000; Australia, $70,000,000. MOUNTAINS. — Highest and most.noted mountains on the globe. — North America. — Northern Coast Mts. : Mt. St. Elias, 18,283 ft- Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range: Mt. Whitney, 14,887; Mt. Rainier, 14,444; Mt. Shasta, 14,440; Mt. Tyndall, 14,386; Mt. Dana, 13,277; Mt. Hood, 11,225. Rocky Mountains : Uncompahgre Peak, 14,540 ; Mt. Har- vard, 14,384; Gray's Peak, 14,341; Mt. Lincoln, 14,297; Long's Peak, 14,271 ; Pike's Peak, 14,149. Mexican Plateau; Orizaba, 17,897; Popocatepetl, 17,784; Iztaccihuatl, 15,700. Central America. — Agua, 14,494; Fuego, 12,790. South America. — Andes : Illampu, 24,812; Illimani, 24,155; Acon- cagua, 23,421; Tupaugati, 22,015; Chimborazo, 21,424; Nevada de Sorata, 21,290; Nevada de Cayambe, 19,535; Anlisana, 19*137; Cotopaxi, 18,870; Tunguaragua, 16,424, Pichincha, 15,924. Europe.— Elburz (Asiatic boundary), 18,572; Blanc (Alps), 15,784; Rosa (Alps), 15,223; Matter- horn (Alps), 14,039; Finster-Aarhorn (Alps), 14,039 ; Jungfrau (Alps), 13,718; Iseran, 13,270/ Mulhacen (Spain), 11,654; Maladetta (Spain), 11,426; Mt. Etna (Sicily), 10,874; Mt. Olympus (Greece), 9,754; St. Bernard (Switzerland), 8,000; Parnassus (the home of the muses, Greece), 6,000 ; Vesuvius (volcano, near Naples), 3,900. Asia. — Everest (Himalayas, highest in the world), 29,002; Dapsang (Karakorum Mts.), 28,278; Kintchinjunga (Himalayas), 28,156; Dhawalagari (Himalayas), 26,826 ; Nanda Devi (Himalayas), 25,661 ; highest peak of the Hindoo Koosh Mts., 20,000; Ararat (Ar- menia), 17,200; Fusiyama (Japan) 14,177 ; Mt. Sinai (Arabia), 8,200. Africa.— Killimanjaro (Central Africa), 20,000; Kenia (do.), 18,000; Teneriffe (Canary Islands), 12,182; highest peak of the Atlas Mts., 11,400; highest peak of the Mts. of Abyssinia; 10,000. Islands. — Mauna Loa (Sandwich Islands), 14,000; Ophir (Sumatra), 13,842; Owen Stanley (Papua), 13,205; Semero (Java), 12,000; Egmont (New Zea- land), 8,840; highest peak of the Australian Alps, 7,500; Kilanea (Sandwich Islands), 6,000"; Stromboli (volcano in the Mediterranean), 3,000. The greatest height attained by Humboldt was 19,510 feet, in the Andes, but Mr. Whymper, in 1880, ascended Cotopaxi to 19,620 feet, and Chimborazo to 20,545 feet. NAVIES. — See diagram, page 336; also Navy Department. NAILS. — The size and weight of nails are as follows : Name. Length. 10 penny 2^ inch Name. Length, 2 penny 1 inch 4 " *% " 5 " -K" No. in lb. 5S7 353 232 167 M» ...... 101 Spikes . .4 •4« • 4 . No. in lb. 63 ■ 54 34 i 16 6 " . I " : NAVAL ARMAMENT.— The progress of " iron-clad science " in 30 years has been : 1861. Richard Catling patented his gun, firing 200 shots a min-' ute. It now tires 400. No. of pub- Per lications. head. '9.557 24.38 14,802 36.66 775 o.ot 699 3.92 661 30.63 182 0.01 1862. The Merrimac and Monitor in American civil war ; first battle of iron-cUds. 1873. English rifle cannon send 200 lbs. shots, 9-ton guns, through 8-inch plate. 1874. Plates of 10 inches pierced in like manner. 1876. Armstrong 100-ton guns broke 22-inch Crcusot steel plates. 1879. Shot from 9-inch gun, 75 lbs. powder, unable to pierce a 12-inch plate of iron and steel alternate layers. i860. Result of Krupp's experiments : — Penetra- Foot Goo, Inch. Shot. Lbs. tion. Tons. Krupp 9>*i 348 18. 1 8,630 British nJ4 812 17.9 12,260 1889. Krupp's 130-ton 12-mile gun fires two 2,6colb. shots a min- ute thwjugh 19-inch armor. NICOTINE. — According to Orfila, the proportion of nicotine in Havana tobacco is 2 per cent ; in French, 6 per cent, and in Virginia tobacco, 7 per cent. That in Brazilian is still higher. NEWSPAPERS.— The population of the world, the number of newspapers in each continent in 1885, and the number of copies per annum in proportion to each inhabitant, are shown below : Population. Europe 301,356,369 North America 76,033,776 Asia 1,007,128,657 South America 29,988,509 Australasia 3,070,850 Africa 205,000,000 The number of newspapers published in the United States in 1885 was 14,111, of which 1,273 were daily. NICKNAMES of Natives of States and Territories.— Ala- bama, Lizards; Arkansas, Toothpicks; California, Gold-hunt ers; Colorado, Rovers; Connecticut, Wooden Nutmegs; Da kota, Squatters; Delaware, Muskrats; Florida, Fly-up-the creeks ; Georgia, Buzzards ; Idaho, Fortune-seekers ; Illinois, Suckers; Indiana, Hoosiers; Iowa, Hawkeyes; Kansas, Jay hawkers; Kentucky, Corn Crackers; Louisiana, Creoles Maine, Foxes; Maryland, Clam-Humpers ; Massachusetts, Van kees; Michigan, Wolverines ; Minnesota, Gophers ; Mississippi Tadpoles; Missouri, Pukes; Nebraska, Bug- Eaters; Nevada Sage Hens; New Hampshire, Granite Boys; New Jersey, Blues, or Clam-Catchers ; New Mexico, Spanish Indians; New York, Knickerbockers; North Carolina, Tarheels ; Ohio, Buck- eyes; Oregon, Hard Cases; Pennsylvania, Pennamites, or Leather- Heads; Rhode Island, Gunflints; South Carolina, Weazles; Tennessee, Whelps ; Texas, Beefheads; Utah, Polyg- amists; Vermont, Green Mountain Boys; Virginia, Beagles; Wisconsin, Badgers. OCEANS. — The Pacific Ocean covers a surface of about 80,- 000,000 square miles; Atlantic, 40,000,000 ; Indian, 20,000,000; Southern, 10,000,000; Arctic, 5,000,000. The seas, bays, gulfs, etc., connected with each ocean, are included. Most geogra- phers concede, however, that the exact superficial extent of the several oceans is not known with certainty, nor the exact pro- portion of land and water. OPIUM. — The shipments from India for twenty years were about as follows : 1861-65, 4,305 tons ; 1866-70, 4,870; 1871-75 5.250; 1876-80 6,005 — value nearly $250,000,000. Theshipment from Bombay in 1890 amounted to 5,976 tons. A paper read before the New York Medical Society at Al- bany in 1885, by Dr. F. N. Hammond, presented some signifi- cant and important facts. In 1840 about 20,000 pounds of opium =^ . THE GRAIN CROPS OF THE WORLD. There is more Indian Com vroAuceo. than any other grain, most ot it in the \Jniteo^j States. Wh.eafbei.ivg more geneTalVy aiatriToutea, the proportionate -yield Va 6.\M62 ■rent countries is giuen. The Soa\e \Jnit tor tne Wheat exni'oit i.e Z43.7.00 Xrasnj ele.That lor the grain ciries is 1.399 ,'SOO. Switzerland Denmark Portugal 8,252,1 Egypt 8.252,160 2,475,648 5,776,512 • t X a ■Estimate d^viaYae ol the Gold ana. SiYuer produced in. the \3ti\- ted States duTing 42 years. From 1849 to 1855 S385.350.000l 1856 to I860 $256,850.0001 1861 to 1865 $258,775.0001 1866 to 1870 $316,225.0001 1871 to 1875 $339,010,912 1376 to 1880 $415,962,880 1881 to 1890 $861,675,000 THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF THE PRECIOUS METALS IN ONE YEAR. G61d - ' •' ' (Dollirs) Silver Alaska Oregon New Mexico Dakota South Dakota Arizona 652,500 762,500 1,100,000 '850,000 560,870 9,697 96,969 129,292 1.110.000 Idaho , 1,850,000 Utah 680,000 / Washington Mm viand Texas North Carolina Georgia South Carolina Alabama Tennessee Virginia Vermont Michigan Wyoming Nevada 1,163,636 Germany \ 1,230,000 Austria *• V 5 68 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. ~A were consumed in the United States ; in 1880, 533,450 pounds. In 1868 there were about 90,000 habitual opium-eaters in the country ; now they number over 500,000. More women than men are addicted to the use of the drug. The vice is one so easily contracted, so easily practiced in private, and so difficult of detection that it presents peculiar temptations and is very in- sidious. The relief from pain that it gives, and the peculiar ex- altation of spirits, easily lead the victim to believe that the use of it is beneficial. Opium and chloral are to-day the most deadly foes of women. Dr. Hammond is the better qualified to speak on this subject from having once been a consumer of opium himself. To break off from the habit, he says, the opium-eater must reduce the quantity of his daily dose, using at the same time other stimulants, and gradually eliminate the deadly drug entirely. OYSTERS. — Annual production, in millions : United States, 11,200; Portugal, 600; France, 380; United Kingdom, 300. Baltimore packs seven million bushels yearly. PARTIES. — See diagram, page 333. PHYSICANS. — The number of physicians and surgeons in various countries is as follows, according to Mulhall : United States, 65,000; England, 15,920; Scotland, 3,455; Ireland, 3,560; France, 10,743; Germany, 32,000; Russia, 13,475; Austria, 10,000; Italy, 9,400; Spain, 5,200 ; Belgium, 2,893 ; Scandinavia, 1,120. > PLAGUES. — Remarkable plagues of modern times : The Great Powers of Europe. Place. Date. 1656 Naples 380,000 1665 London 68,800 1720 Marseilles 39, 100 1771 Moscow 87,800 1778 Constantinople 170,000 1 798 Cairo 88,000 1812 Constantinople 144,000 '834 Cairo 57,ooo 1835 Alexandria 14,000 1871 Buenos Ayres 26,300 Deaths. Weeks. 28 u 3» 18 »5 Deaths per Week. 10,400 2, 100 1,100 2,700 9,500 3.5oo 11,100 3,200 900 2,400 POLITICAL PARTIES.— See diagram, page 333. POPES. — The various nations of Europe are represented in the list of Popes as follows : English, 1 ; Dutch, 1 ; Swiss, 1 ; Portuguese, I; African, 2; Austrian, 2; Spanish, 5; German, 6; Syrian, 8; Greek, 14; French, 15; Italian, 197. Eleven Popes reigned over 20 years; 69, from 10 to 20; 57, from 5 to 10 ; and the reign of 1 16 was less than 5 years. POPULATION.— See diagrams. Comparative Density of Population and Curiosities of the Census ; also full-page tables under head "Statistics of Population," pages 581-584. Increaie of Population in United States. Natural. 1831-40 28.02 1841-5° 26.19 1851-60 o 4 .jo 1861-70 ,5.38 1871-80 al , 7 g The increase of population since 1830 (see page 581) has averaged 32 per cent every 10 years. At this rate there will bt 88 millions in 1900. Total ngration per Cent 9^63 32.67 35 87 35.58 11.38 7-25 22.63 7.29 30.07 Eogboid. France . . Prussia. . Russia . . Austria.. Italy.... Spain . . . Totnl Thousands Omitted. 1380. 2,360 11,240 600 1,200 2,300 8,400 7,500 33.«> 1480, 3.7« ZSjOOO 800 2,100 9,500 •y,2'>J U e 4<>.7" 1580. 4,600 l4,3<>o 1,000 4,3<>o •6,500 10,400 8,150 5/. '5 ■ rfk. ■avion 1,400 12,600 14,000 11,5*/ 9,200 73.032 1780. 9.56' 25,100 5.460 20,200 12,800 9-9*° ■Ms, H • • « 37,400 4 ..--. ■faflS 285.134 In the above, England now stands for the United Kingdom, and Prussia for the German Empire. POULTRY.— The following table contains, in a small space, much valuable information for those engaged in the poultry business : ■nsii Brahmas, light Brahmas, dark Cochins, black Cochins, buff Cochins, white Cochins, partridge Common Dorkings Dominique*. American Games, black-breasted red . Hamburgs Houdans Leghorns, black Leghorns, brown Leghorns, dominique , , Leghorns, white Plymouth Rocks Polish Spanish, black Ducks, common Ducks, Aylesbury Ducks, Cayuga Ducks, Pekin Duks, Rouen Geese, common Geese, African Geese, Egyptian Geese, Embden Geese, Toulouse Turkeys, common Turkeys, black Turkeys, bronze Turkeys, buff Turkeys, Narragansctts . . . . 1 0. ■1« II in 5 Hi 7* a s. 7 3 I 6 •C 2 * o 7 w 3 5 4 5 3 w IN .< j 3 i! -5 eg "T 3 f 6 8 V $' 50 1 50 I 50 I 50 I 50 1 so I 00 1 25 1 25 1 00 80 1 25 75 75 75 75 1 50 1 00 x 00 75 1 00 90 1 10 1 10 1 25 1 75 x 00 ■ 75 a 00 z 20 1 75 a 00 1 75 ■ n I ■ » 90 90 90 90 90 90 75 90 90 75 75 1 00 75 75 75 75 90 £ 1 00 1 00 1 00 s 00 1 00 1 50 a 00 t 50 a oo • 00 1 50 " 75 a 00 1 50 n H 50 I 50 I 70 I 20 I 40 lit 1 ao 1 70 .E I 70 a 00 a 00 a oo a 00 1 75 J 70 x 70 e 1 00 i\ so 30 40 so 40 50 jo 50 SO A Comparison. The annual supply of eggs in the United States is es- timated at over 600,000,000 dozen, and at the low price of sixteen cents per dozen, represents a value of over $96,- 000,000 — about the value, of the product of our gold and silver mines. PRECIOUS METALS.— See diagram, page 567. PULSE. — The number of pulsations per minute is 120 in infancy, 80 in manhood, 60 in old age, and rather more in women than in men. DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. 5 6 9 PYRAMIDS. — The largest, that of Cheops, is composed of four million tons of stone, and occupied 100.000 men during 20 years, equal to an outlay of $200,000,000. It would now cost $20,000,000 at a contract price of 36 cents per cubic foot. QUININE. — Annual production : Peru, 8,900,000 lbs. ; India, 2,200,000 lbs.; Java, 110,000 lbs.; Jamaica, 21,000 lbs, Total 11,231,000 lbs.of bark, yielding 236,000 lbs. of quinine. RABBITS. — One pair of rabbits can become multiplied in four years into 1,250,000. They were introduced into Australia a few years ago, and now that colony ships 25,000,000 rabbit-skins yearly to England. RAILWAYS.— [See diagram.] There are constant addi- tions to the railroads of the United States, and the num- ber of miles, on Jan. 1, 1891, had increased to 167,741, owned by 1,797 campanies having a gross income of $1,051,877,632 and employing 749,301 men. The rest of America has 36,187 miles; Europe 136,859; Asia 19,277; Africa 5,365; Australia 11,136; total for the world 376,- 56S- Railway Signal Code. One whistle signifies " down brakes." Two whistles signify " off brakes." Three whistles signify "backup." Continued whistles signify "danger." Rapid short whistles "a cattle alarm." A sweeping parting of the hands on the level with the eyes, signifies "go ahead." Downward motion of the hands with extended arms, signifies " stop." Beckoning motion of one hand, signifies "back." Red flag waved up the track, signifies " danger." Red flag stuck up by the roadside, signifies " danger ahead." Red flag carried on a locomotive, signifies "an engine following." Red flag hoisted at a station, is a signal to " stop." Lanterns at night raised and lowered vertically, is a signal " to start." Lanterns swung at right angles across the track, means " stop." Lanterns swung in a circle, signifies " back the train." RECEIPTS and expenditures U. S. Government. — See dia- gram, page 546. RAINFALL. — The average annual rainfall, as ascertained by observations at different points throughout the Union, is as fol- lows: Inches. Baltimore 41 Baton Rouge, La 60 Boston 44 Buffalo, N. Y 33 Burlington, Vt 34 Brunswick, Me •■ 44 Charleston, S.C 43 Cleveland, Ohio '. . . . . 37 Cincinnati 44 Dalles, Or ai Detroit, Mich 30 Fort Bliss, Tex 9 Fort Bridger, Utah 6 Fort Brown, Tex 33 Fort Colville, Wash 9 Fort Craig, N. Mex x 1 Fort Defiance, Ariz 14 Fort Garland, Col 6 Fort Gibson, Indian Ter 36 Fort Hoskins, Or 66 Fort Kearney, Neb 25 Inches. Huntsville, Ala e 4 KeyWest.Fla 36 Macinac, Mich . 23 Marietta, Ohio 42 Meadow Valley, Cal 57 Memphis, Tenn 45 Milwaukee, Wis 30 Muscatine, Iowa 42 Mt. Vernon Arsenal, Ala 66 Natchez, Miss c, Neah Bay, Wash 123 Newark, N. J 44 New Bedford, Mass 41 New Haven, Conn 44 New Orleans, La 5X New York 43 PennYan.N.Y 28 Peoria, 111 35 Philadelphia 44 Pittsburgh, Pa 37 Providence, R. I 41 Fort Laramie, Wy 15 Fort Leavenworth, Kan 31 Fort Marcy, N. Mex 16 Fort Massachusetts, Col 17 Fort Myers, Fla 56 Fort Randall, Dak 16 Fort Smith, Ark 40 Fort Snetling, Minn 25 Fort Towson, Indian Ter 57 Fort Vancouver, Wash. Ter 38 Fortress Monroe 47 Gaston, N. C 43 Hanover, N. H 40 Richmond, Ind 43 Sacramento, Cal 15 Salt Lake, Utah 23 San Francisco, Cal 21 San Diego, Cal 9 Savannah, Ga 48 Sitka, Alaska 83 Springdalc, Ky -48 St. Louis, Mo 42 Washington, Ark 54 Washington, D. C 37 White Sulphur Springs, Va 37 RELIGION. — [See diagrams.] The estimated number of religious denominations among English-speaking communities throughout the world is as follows: Episcopalians, 21,100,000; Methodists of all descriptions, 15,800,000; Roman Catholics, 14,340,000; Presbyterians of all descriptions, 10,500,000; Bap- tists of all descriptions, 8,160,000 ; Congregationalists, 6,000,000; Unitarians, 1,000,000; Free Thought, 1,100,000; minor relig- ious sects, 2,000,000; of no particular religion, 20,000,000. Total English-speaking population, 100,000,000. RICE. — Production : India, 16,800,000 tons ; Japan, 3,450,000; Java, 2,740,000; Manilla, 1,800,000; Italy, 710,000; Ceylon, 480,000; United States, 90,000; Spain, 80,000. RIVERS. — Length of principal rivers: North America. — Missouri to the sea (longest in the world), 4,200; Missouri to the Mississippi, 2,800; Mississippi proper, 2,800; Mackenzie, 2,300; St. Lawrence, 2,200 ; Nelson and Saskatchewan, f,ooo; Rio Grande, 1,800; Yukon, 1,600; Arkansas, 1,514; Ohio (in- cluding the Alleghany), 1,275; Columbia, 1,200; Red River, 1,200; Colorado, 1,100; Platte, 800; Brazos (Colorado of Texas), 650. South America. — Amazon, 3,600 ; Rio de la Plata (Parana included), 2,250; Orinoco, 1,500; St. Francisco, 1 ,500 ; Tocantius and Uraguay, 1,250; Magdalena, 900. Europe. — Volga, 2,000; Danube, 1,800; Don, Dneiper, 1,000; Rhine, 880; Petchora, Elbe, 737; Dwina, 700; Vistula, 691 ; Loire, 599 ; Tagus, 550 ; Dneister, Guadiana, 500 ; Oder, Douro, Rhone, Po, Seine, 450. Asia. — Yenisei, 3,400 ; Yang-tse- Kiang, 3,320; Lena, Obi, Hoang-Ho, 2,700; Amoor, 2,650; Indus, 1,850; Mekong, 1,800; Euphrates, 1,750; Ganges, Brahmapootra, 1,600; Irrawaddy, 1,200; Tigris, 1,150 Ural, 1,000. Africa. — Nile, 3,895; Niger, 3.000 ; Zambesi, 1 ,800 ; Congo (or Livingstone), estimated, 1,600; Senegal, Orange, 1,000. Australia. — Murray, 1,700. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.— Pope Leo XIII is the 258th Pontiff. The full number of the Sacred College is 63, namely: Cardinal Bishops, 5; Cardinal Priests, 47; Cardi- nal Deacons, 11. At present there are 63 Cardinals. The Roman Catholic Hierarchy, according to official returns published at Rome recently consisted of 11 Patriarchs, and 1,153 Archbishops and Bishops. Including 12 coadjutor or auxiliary bishops, the number of Roman Catholic archbishops and bishops now holding office in the British Empire is 134. The numbers of the clergy are approximate only. RYE.— The annual rye crop of the world is worth over {1,100,000,000, and feeds 180,000,000 of people. Russia pro- duces annually 680,000,000 bushels; Germany, 240,000,000; Austria, 130,000,000; France, 80,000,000; Italy and Spain, 68,000,000; Scandinavia, 40,000,000, and the United States, A *> 9 > PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON IN THE UNITED STATES. From Statistics of American Iron and Steel Association. IN TONS OF 2.000 LBS. 189I. SCALE UNIT 500. The condition of the Iron industry is looked upon by many as a more certain indication of the Country's prosperity, than may be gathered from any other source. In the smaller diagram, the figures for the United States are for 1891 ; those for other coun- tries are from returns varying from 1888 to 1891— in all cases the latest data obtainable. ■ ■ 3 Colorado 20,a»0 Massachusetts 10,069 I California 1,760 Maryland West Virginia 188306 Tennessee 838,747 OHIO 9218 Oregon 10.111 Ulisonrl PRODUCTION OF COAL IN THE UNITED STATES IN TONS. Sc.-a.le unit, 16,600. ] Oregon Texas Arkansas Montana New Mexico 64,359 128,216 279,584 363,301 486,983 "52,832 Virginia 868,603 Alabama 3,::78,484 OHIO 9.976.787 ILLINOIS 12.104,272 30.007 1 67,431 I PENNSYLVANIA 81,719,059 Iowa 4,061,704 ONE YEAR'S PRODUCTION OF COAL IN THE WORLD. 1891. Scale unit, 63,000. GERMANY 84,900,000 UNITED STATES 140,730,288 short tons, OR 125.652,056 tons of 2,240 pounds. -St 7 K" 572 DICTIONARY OK FACTS AND FIGURES. -/ 31,000,000, while the products of other countries swells the grand total to 1 ,408,000,000 bushels. SEAS. — Length in miles (approximate) : Mediterranean, 2,000; Caribbean, 1,800; China, 1,700; Red, 1,400; Japan, 1,000; Black, 932; Caspian, 640; Baltic, 600; Okhotsk, 600; White, 450 ; Aral, 250. SERFS. — Russia: There were 47,932,000 serfs in Russia in 1 861, as follows : Crown serfs, 22,851,000 ; appanage, 3,326,000 ; held by nobles, 21,755,000. The cost of redemption was as follows, in round numbers : Mortgages remitted $1 52, 000,000 Government scrip 101,000,000 Paid by serfs 52,000,000 Balance due 20,000,000 Total $325,000,000 The indemnity to the nobles was $15 per serf. The lands are mortgaged to the State till 191 2. The lands ceded to Crown serfs are mortgaged only till 1901. The item of " mortgages remitted " is the amount due by nobles to the Imperial Bank and canceled. Austrian Servitude (1840). Value. Labor (two days per week) $175,000,000 Tithe of crops, etc 60,000,000 Male tribute, timber 7,000,000 Female tribute, spun wool 9,000,000 Fowl, eggs, butter , ,, 5,000,000 Total $256,000,000 There v\.re 7,000,000 serfs, whose tribute averaged more than S35 per head, which was, in fact, the rent of their farms. Some Bohemian nobles had as many as 10,000 serfs. The redemption was effected by giving the nobles 5 per cent Government scrip, and land then rose 50 per cent in value. German Serfs. In 1848 the State took 60,000,000 acres from the nobles, leaving them still 25,000,000 acres, and gave the former among the serfs. Indemnity as follows : 1. Government scrip, $900 for each serf family, to nobleman, a. Land tax, $15 per annum, transferred to peasant. 3. Interest, $35 per annum for 47 years, to be paid by peasant to the State being 4 per cent on cost of redemption. SHEEP. — The number of sheep in various countries is as follows (in round millions) : River Plate, 76 , Australia, 66 ; United States, 49; Russia, 48; United Kingdom, 28; Spain and Portugal, 25; Germany, 25; France, 23; Austria, 21; Cape Colony, 11; Algeria, 9; Italy, 7 ; Roumania, etc., 6; Scandi- navia, 5 ; Canada, 3^ ; Belgium and Holland, I % ; the total number being about 395,000,000. SHIPPING. — [See diagram, page 563]. Tonnage of entries at principal ports : Thousands Omit ltd. London 8,210 New York 7,506 Liverpool 7,320 Marseilles 3,260 Antwerp a, 720 Hamburg 2,315 Havre 9,260 Glasgow 2,170 Dublin 2,120 Belfast 2,030 Hull a,oio Genoa 1,640 Boston 1,560 Baltimore 1,365 Philadelphia 1,260 SHOEMAKERS' MEASURE.— Small sitss. — No. 1. 4 l-8th in. No. a. 4 1 -8th In. + x-3d — 4 it-24th in. No. 3. 4 :-8th in. + i- 3 d + i- 3 d - 4 to-» 4 th in. Etc., etc., etc. Largs sivs. — No. 1. 8 1 1 -24th in. No. 2. 8 n-24lh in. -r l-3d «- 8 xo-34th in. No. 3. 8 11-241I1 in. 4. i-3d -r l-3d ™ 9 l-*th in. No. 4. 8 11-24U1 in. -r i-3d -f 1-3CI + x-3d ■■ 8 u-24th in. Etc., etc., etc. SICKNESS.— The ratio of sickness rises and falls regularly with death-rate in all countries, as shown by Dr. Farr and Mr. Edmonds at the London Congress of 1 860, when the following rule was established: Of 1 ,000 persons, aged 30, it is probable 10 will die in the year, in which case there will be 20 of that age sick throughout the year, and 10 invalids. Of 1,000 persons, aged 75, it is probable that 100 will die in the year, in which case the sick and invalids of that age will be 300 throughout the year. For every 100 deaths let there be hospital beds for 200 sick, and infirmaries for IOO invalids. SILK. — Production of raw silk: lbs. Silk. China ai,ooo«3 Japan 4,400,000 taly 6,600,000 India and Persia 2,000/100 France 1 .200,000 Turkey, Spain, etc 2,800,000 Total 38,000/100 SILVER. — Production in 500 years : Tons. Mexico 78,600 Peru, etc 72,000 United States 11,600 Germany 8,470 Austria 7,930 Russia 3,200 Various 11 ,200 20.500,000 33,000,000 7.500,000 6,000,000 12,500,000 $152,000/100 Millions Dollars. 3.040 ».77o 44S 325 JOS 120 430 7. 435 Ratio. 40.7 6.0 4-4 4-» Total 193,000 See also diagram, page 567. SLAVERY. — The number of slaves emancipated in thr liril- isk Colonies in 1834 was 780,993, the indemnity agprcgatirg, in round figures, $100,000,000. In Brazil, in 1F70, their, were 1,510,800 slaves, 15 per cent of the entire population. These were held by 41,000 owners, averaging 57 to each owner. In 1882 the number of slaves was 1.300,000, and in 1S89 slavery was abolished. Slavery la the United States. Year. A'umber. Year. Number. ijroo. 697,900 1830 2,009,030 1800 893,040 1840 2,487,500 1810 1,191,400 1850 3,204,300 1820 1,338,100 i860 3.979.700 Slaves of Antiquity. Some of the wealthy Romans had as many as 10,000 slaves. The minimum price fixed by law was $80, but after great vic- tories they could sometimes be bought for a few shillings on the field of battle. The day's wages of a Roman gardener were about 16 cents, and his value about $300, while a blacksmith was valued at about $700, a cook at $2,000, an actress at £4,000, and a physician at $5,500. SMALL-POX.— In the epidemic of 18S1 in England the re- turns showed 4,47s dcatlis per million inhabitants — 9S ■ iuli 1 to 4,380 unraccinated, or in the proportion of 44 to I. In ilemic at Leipsic in iS7l,the death-rate was 12,700 per million, 70 per cent of whom were unvaccinated. These figures V - DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. rr 573 are by Dr. Mulhall. In Boston the proportion was 15 to 50, and in Philadelphia, 1 7 to 64. During the Franco-German -war the Germans lost only 263 men from this disease, the French 23,499, the former having been re-vaccinated in barracks. In the war in Paraguay, the Brazilians lost 43,000 men from malignant or black small-pox, that is, 35 per cent of their army, nine cases in ten proving fatal. STARCH. — The percentage of starch in common grains is as follows, according to Prof. Yeomans : Rice flour, 84 to 85 ; In- dian meal, 77 to 80; oatmeal, 70 to 80; wheat flour, 39 to 77; barley flour, 67 to 70; rye flour, 50 to 61; buckwheat, 52; peas and beans, 42 to 43; potatoes (75 per cent water), l3tolS- STEAM POWER.— See diagram, page 563. STEEL. — The number of tons made for the years named is as follows: United States (1890), 4,277,071 ; Great Britain (1889), 3,669,960; Germany (1889), 2,046,147; France (18S9), 529,021; Belgium (1889), 248,641; Austria-Hun- gary (1889), 398,156; Russia (1887), 222,025; Sweden (iSSS), 114,537; Spain (1888), 28,645; Italy (1887), 73,262; other countries (1889), 30,000. Total, 11,637,465. Extension, Inches. 1.40 2.00 Tensile Test of Steel. BAR 8 INCHES LONG. Sq. Inch Strain, Tons Extension, Section, per Sq. Inch. Inches. 1. coco J 3-93 .01 .9799 16.96 .10 .9331 23.43 -40 .8741 2 7- 2 3 1. 00 Elastic Limit.... 17.40 tons. Maximum Strain 28.35 " Breaking Load 25 .05 " Sq. Inch Strain, Tons Section. .8325 .7088 ■5541 per Sq. Inch. 28.35 27.32 25-05 I Cohesion 45.21 tons. Extension 27^ per cent. Contraction 4454 " Taking the strength of Swedish iron at 100, the tensile strength of steel compares thus : Swedish iron 100 I Cannon steel 173 Boiler steel 118 | Spring steel 202 STRENGTH.— Comparative scale : Ordinary man ico I Famese Hercules 362 Byron's Gladiator 173 | Horse 750 Tensile and Transverse Strength. A crushing force of 1,000 per square inch on a bar I inch square, and 12 inches long, gives the following ratios of strength : Transverse. Tensile. Transverse. Stone 100 10 Glass 123 10 Tensile. Cast iron 158 Timber 1,900 S5 SUGAR.T-Prociuction, thousands of tons. ♦Russia 240 Java 190 Manilla 180 Brazil 150 •Holland, etc 115 ♦Germany 606 Cuba 520 ♦Austria 460 ♦France 390 British colonies.. 340 * Beet sugar. French colonies. 105 United States ... 90 Egypt, etc 285 All beet 1,811 All cane 1,860 The above detailed statement is for 1SS0. In 1890 the world produced about 5,360,000 tons ; of which the United States produced 136,503 tons of cane sugar, 25,000 tons of maple sugar, and 2,800 tons of beet sugar. SUICIDES.— According to religion : United Kingdom. Prussia. Bavaria Austro- Hungary . Switzerland PER MILLION PERSONS. Protestant. Catholic. 63 17 170 52 19S 69 140 90 262 81 General Ratio. 104, 202 Legoyt says the Jews have even a lower ratio of suicide than Catholics. TARIFF. — Import duties, general average: Ratio to Imports. per Cent. United Kingdom 5^ France 6# Germany 6 Russia j8 Austria , 5 Italy 11 Spain 24 Portugal 26 Holland 1 Ratio to Imports. per Cent. Belgium 1 54 Denmark 9 Sweden and Norway 12 Europe 7^ United States 33^ Canada 15 Australia 13 Brazil 44 Argentine Republic 37 See also diagram, page 546. TEA. — Production in millions of pounds: China, 290; Japan, 35; India, 90; Java, 7 ; Paraguay, 10. Total, 432. Con- sumption: Great Britain, 167; United States, 81 ; Australia, 14; Russia, 37; Various, 114. Total, 403. TELEGRAPH.— The United States have 715,591 miles oi telegraph lines; Russia, 69,000; France, 59,000; Germany, 58,500; Austria-Hungary, 31,000; the United Kingdom, 27,000. TELEPHONES.— See diagram, Railroads, page 578. TEMPERATURE. — The temperature of the sea varies as fol- lows: Fathoms. o 100 200 300 500 Height, Feet. 3.724 6,740 9,029 Equator. 77-9 55-6 46.6 42.2 38.9 Fathoms. 800 1,000 1,200 1,500 2,700 Mountains (Humboldt). 38 N. 70.0 63-5 60.6 60.0 46.7 Equator. 37- 1 36.9 36.7 36.1 34-7 38 N. 38.t 37-9 36.7 35-* Depression of Thermometer. 14.07 2 3-3' 30.07 Height, Feet. 10,790 '5,744 19,286 Depression of Thermometer. 34-7* 49.62 57-38 1234, 1420. 1468. 1658. 1766, Frost. traffic with carts. Mediterranean frozen : Bosphoms frozen. Wine at Antwerp sold in blocks. Swedish artillery crossed the Sound. Snow knee-deep at Naples. 1789. Fahrenheit thermometer marked 23 below zero at Frankfort, and 36 at Basle. 1809. Moscow, 48 below zero, greatest cold recorded there : mercury frozen. 1829. Jakoutsk, Siberia, 73 below zero on 25th January : greatest cold on any record. 1846. December marked 25 below zero at Pontarlier : lowest ever marked in France. 1855. Fires on Serpentine, Hyde Park. 1864. January, Fahrenheit stood at zero in Turin : greatest cold recorded in Italy. Captain Parry, in his Arctic explorations, suffered for some time 51 degrees below zero. Frost is diminishing in Canada with the increase of population, as shown by the fact that Hud- son's Bay was closed, from l828-'37, 184 days per annum, and from l87l-'8o only 179 days per annum. Summer Heat in Various Countries. The following figures show the extreme summer heat in the various coun- tries of the world : Bengal and the African desert, 150 Fahrenheit ; Senegal and Guada- loupe, 130 ; Persia, 125 : Calcutta and Central America, 120; Afghanistan ana the Arabian desert, no° : Cape of Good Hope and Utah, 105 ; Greece, 104 ; Arabia, 103 ; Montreal, 103 ; New York,ioa°; Spain, India, China, VL 9 «^ 'K 5* The World's Yearly Production of Gotton and Tobacco. (From Latest Governmental Reports.) TOBACCO. States not named. Washington. - Oregon, Florida, - - , - South Carolina, - Louisiana, Nebraska, Minnesota, California, Michigan Vermont, New Hampshire, - New Jersey, Kansas, - Texas, ... Georgia, - Mississippi. - Iowa, • Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, West Virginia, - Massachusetts, New York, - Wisconsin, Missouri, Connecticut, J Indiana, - NO. OV ACRES. £ ° — -~ -*•§•- HEIEIK. F > l s iOIDI!JG / riON.-l^- Number of barrels brewed hi U. S., year ending May i, 1891, 30,021,079 31 gallons to the barrel. 1891. Number of Barrels in Various Countries, 1889. Great Britain, 33,870,967 United States 25.119.853 Austria, 9.354.839 u. ° e 1 r— J RussiaJ 2,967, Germany, 2g.032.258 742 Holland, [ 1 1,064,516 J ( Denmark, fT""Tj 967.741 U J I Sweden, 645,161 Switzerland,! 7 < i " ~ - IV . 576 DICTIONARY OF FACTS AND FIGURES. and Jamaica, ioo° ; Siena Leone, 94"; France, Denmark, St. Petersburg, Shanghai, the Burman Empire Buenos Ayres, and the Sandwich Islands, 90 ; Great Briuin, Siam, and Peru, 85 ; Portugal, Pckin, and Natal, 8o°; Siberia, 77°; Australia and Scotland, 75°; Italy, Venezuela, and Madeira, 73 ; Prussia and New Zealand, 70 ; Switzerland and Hungary, 66°; Bava- ria, Sweden, Tasmania, and Moscow, 65°; Patagonia and the Falkland Isles, 55°; Iceland, 45°; Nova Zcmbla, 34°. THERMOMETER.— Reaumur. Centigrade. Fahrenheit . Freezing point o o 3a Vine cultivation 8 10 50 Cotton cultivation 16 20 Temperature of Brazil 24 3° 8 7 Hatching eggs 33 40 104 40 50 132 48 60 I40 56 TO I58 64 SO I76 72 CO 194 Waterboils 80 xoo aia TOBACCO.— See diagram, page 574. TUG-BOATS. — One tug on the Mississippi can take, in six days, from St. Louis to New Orleans, barges carrying 10,000 tons of grain, which would require 70 railway trains of fifteen cars each. Tugs in the Suez Canal tow a vessel from sea to sea in 44 hours. VELOCITY. — The average velocity of various bodies is here given : Per hour. Per sec. A man walks 3 miles, or 4 feet. A horse trots 7 '* or 10 " A horse runs 20 " or 29 " Steamboats move ■ 18 " or ao " Sailing vessels move • 10 " or 24 *' Slow rivers flow - 3 " or 4 ** Rapid rivers flow 7 " or 10 '* A moderate wind blows 7 " or xo " A storm moves 36 ' or 53 " A hurricane moves 80 " or 117 " A rifle ball moves 963 " or 1,466 " Sound moves 743 " or 1,142 " Light moves 192,000 miles per second. Electricity moves 288,000 " " " Velocity of a Bullet. Grains, Velocity, Powder. Feet per second. Smooth-bores no 1 ,500 Rifle 60 963 WAGES AND COST OF LIVING— From the report of the Secretary of State on the state of labor in Europe, derived from facts reported by the United States Consuls cor- rected to 1S92. the following tables are gleaned : Comparative Rates of Weekly Wages Paid in Europe and in the United States. France. Ger- many. Italy. Great Britain. Unitbd States. New Yorlc. Chicago. i 5-55 5-45 4.85 4.00 6.00 5Ma ,3'«5 4.90 t 3.50 3 '1 S 3.82 3.60 3-97 4.00 2.87 2.92 3 3 1o 3.60 ♦••a 3" 3.58 3.65 t 3.90 3-94 3.90 3-45 3-95 4.18 3.50 a. 60 4.60 4-35 3.90 3.90 4-3' 3.60 6.50- 6.60 7.04- 8.1a 6.50- 7.83 7.58- 0.03 7.70-8.48 7 33" 8. »5 3.40- 4>as 4.50- 5.00 7.1;- 8.16 7.(18-1.!. 1 t 7.13- 8.46 7-5»- 7-75 7-35 5.00- 7.30 6.00- 7.30 IO-I4 I2-|8 12-15 9-I3 9-I2 •.*„ 9- la 9- ao 9- ">H 7" '5 7%-" Cabinet-makers .... Carpenters and Join- Laborers , Porters , etc ^2 IO-iO 10-15 12-18 8-1 3 12-18 10-18 10-14 sK-9 9" »5 5.50 4.70 4-75 5.10 4-4" Printers la- 18 9- 18 6- 18 9- la Comparative Retail Pricea of the Necessaries of Life. Beef, Roast.... lb. Corned.. .lb. Beans qt Bread lb butter lb Coal ton. Codfish lb. Coffee lb. Eggs doz Flour lb Lard lb Milk qt Mutton lb Oatmeal lb Pork, fresh ... lb " salted lb. " Bacon. . .lb. " Sausage. lb. Potatoes.. ..bushel Rice . Soap . . Sugar. Tea... .lb. ..lb. ..lb. ..lb. it Cents aa '3 so 3-7 73 I4-25 21 4 uH 8 '7 '7 ao ■9 5° 9 75 Cents at $11.00 9 3' • i (1. 15 6 4 in SI Cents. 22 18-20 *9-3» fa.65-f4.10 6- 8 28-50 14-30 JK-4X 12-18 t* 16-17 372-474" 10-16 10-16 12-16 18 68-fa.co la- 9 5X-l° 4 88 Umttbu States. New York. Chicago. Cents. ia-16 8-12 7-10 4-4H »3-»S-25 6- 7 30-30 25-30 3- 4 10-1 a 8-10 0-10 8-10 8-10 8-10 8-10 fl-40-ff .60 8-10 6-7 8-10 50-60 Cents. 8-iaX 4- 7 5-9 , £' H 10 m ? » 7 16-40 10-94 "H-47. 6-IO 3-« S->«« 4" 5 4- 5 6-ia 7-" 6-10 60-80 5-10 3-8 7-.0 25-fi.oo WAR. — The cost of recent wars, according to figures furnished by the London Peace Society, is as follows : Crimean war £340,000,000 Itiili.-tn war of 1859 60,000,000 American civil war — North 940,000,000 " " " — South 460,000,000 Schleswig-Holstein war 7,000,000 Austrian and Prussian war, 1&66 66,000,000 Expeditions to Mexico, Morocco, Paraguay, etc., (say only) 40,000,000 Franco-Prussian war 500,000,000 Russian and Turkish war, 1877 a 10,000,000 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 30,000,000 ,£2,653,000,000 This would allow £10 for every man, woman and child on the habitable globe. It would make two railways all round the world at $250,000 per mile each. Summary of Loaaea from War in Twenty-Five Yeara (iSjs-*).) Killed in battle, or died of wounds and disease. Crimean war Italian war, 1859 Waiwf.Schleswig-Holstein American civil war — the North " M " —the South War between Prussia, Austria and Italy, in :866. ... Expeditions to Mexico, Cochin China, Morocco, Paraguay, etc Franco-German war of 1870-71 — France " *' " " " — Germany •Russian and Turkish war of 1877 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 Total. .■.1;-, ■•»■ Length and Coat of American Wara. Wars. Length. War of the revolution 7 years— 1775-1782 Indian war in Ohio territory 179° Warwith the Barbary States 1803-1804 1811 Cost. ■i.r>i Tecumseh Indian war.. War with Great Briuin Algcrine war First Seminole war Black Hawk war Second Seminole war 1 war a Mormon war Civil war 4 3 years— 1811-181$ 1815 1817 183a 5 j6-iM ■856 J ing the the States Civil War. and Territories Dur- WAR EXPENDITURE.— See diagrams, pages 546, 563. States and Territories. Troops furnished. Si gJi in Number of men drafied. 225 Slfl'5 « o3 »- O Q. £-2 WATER. — One cubic foot == 62^ lbs., or 6^ gallons. One cubic foot sea water = 64 lbs., or 6^ gallons. One gallon of water =10 lbs., or 277 cubic inches. One inch of rainfall equals 14,500,000 gallons per square mile. Eight cubic feet of snow will produce one cubic foot of water. Current requires a mini- 375.131 914,164 1,098,088 19,079 301 ,062 54,137 3>53 IJ 93-441 7,916 13,922 12,711 103,807 362,686 203 ,924 I2.0 12.2 .3.6 4-3 B.3 .6 mum fall of one-tenth inch per mile. WATER-POWER.— Niagara = ten million cubic feet per 45.184 63.57^ 106,412 minute, say three million horse-power nominal, or nine million In the United Slates there are 51,000 water-wheels, with iyi million horse-power aggregate. fa .859,1 32 143,304 733 5,083 7.1=2 776,829 9.1 WEALTH OF NATIONS.— The wealth of the principal nations of the world is thus given by Mulhall. The figures 156,240 represent millions sterling : United States United Kingdom... France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain Holland Belgium Sweden Canada Mexico Australia Portugal Denmark Argentine Republic. Switzerland Norway Greece Total Land and Forest. 1,150 1,880 1,930 -,4 2 ° 1,940 [,590 905 740 220 270 444 230 125 192 170 216 122 HO 173 16,939 378 2 35 212 231 345 205 5" 57 33 3° 42 35 32 66 11 3" 54 Rail- ways. 1,190 770 494 467 3°9 255 108 79 27 61 26 7 3 33 6 Public Works. 527 547 59° 442 224 i88 131 60 125 41 32 30 12 28 15 II 6 30 13 7 2,780 2,280 1,470 880 770 656 140 62 240 108 80 44 72 70 24 44 Furni- ture. ",385 1,140 945 735 44o 385 328 170 58 7° 31 70 120 54 40 22 36 35 6,098 Merchan- dise. "55 165 155 60 64 48 22 61 58 14 i3 20 52 7 Bullion. '57 M3 301 108 34 20 45 41 17 29 4 Shipping. 2S3 7'3 1,255 518 280 104 132 65 77 326 105 35 41 67 '4 21 16 Total. 9,495 8,720 8,c6o 6,323 4.343 3.613 2,35t ",59S 987 806 &95 650 63b 590 371 366 332 324 282 211 WEIGHT AND STATURE OF MAN.— Age. '3 ■5 ■7 10 50 60 70 80 Mean weight 103.66 Feet. ..64 2.60 3.04 3-44 4.00 4.36 4.72 5.07 5.36 5-44 5.49 5-52 5 5 5 5 5 5 Lbs. 7.06 25.01 3'-38 38.80 49-95 59-77 75.8i 110.56 127.59 132.46 140.38 140.42 139.96 136.07 131.27 127-54 127.54 Feet. 1.62 2.56 3.00 3.38 3-92 4.26 4.60 4.92 5.10 5-13. 5.16 5.18 5.18 5-04 4-97 4-97 4-94 4-94 Lbs. 6.42 23-53 28.67 35-29 47.10 56-57 72.65 89.04 104.34 112.. 55 "5-3° 119.82 121. 81 123.86 119.76 113.60 108.80 108.81 93-73 The average weight of a male infant at birth, it will be seen, is a little over 7 lbs. ; of a female infant, a little less than 6j£ •This gives colored troops enlisted in the States in rebellion ; besides this, there were 92,576 colored troops, included (with the white soldiers) in the quotas of the several states ; the second column gives the aggregate of colored, but many enlisted South were credited to the Northern states. lbs. Children lose weight during the first three days after birth ; at the age of a week they sensibly increase, and at the end of one year they triple their weight. WHEAT. — See diagram, Yearly Wheat Crop, page 566. WIND. — Velocity and pressure: Feet per Miles Pressure — lbs. Feet per Miles Pressure — lbs Second. per hour. per sq. fool. Second. per hour. per >q. foot. .6 lbs. 5 3» 1 oz. 80 54 JO 7 4 oz. 90 61 20'X " 20 14 1 lb. 100 63 25 " 30 20 2^ lbs. no 11 3°tf " 40 27 4 " 120 36 " 50 34 iM. " 130 88 42J*" 60 4J 9 140 95 40 ". 70 48 121/ " »5° 102 56 " lj£= WINE. — See Alcoholic Liquors. WOMEN WORKERS.— In the U nited States there are said to be women workers as follows : Artists, 2,061 ; authors, 320; barbers, 2,902 ; commercial travelers, 272 ; dressmakers, millin- ers, etc., 281,928; journalists, 288; lawyers, 75; musicians, 13,- l8l ; physicians, 2,432 ; preachers, 1 65 ; printers, 3,456 ; tailors 52,098; teachers, 154,375; telegraphers, 1,131. fThis is the aggregate of troops furnished for all periods of servic< from three months to three years' time. Reduced to a uniform three years' standard, the whole number of troops enlisted amounted to 2,320,272, Ul 38 i 1 is s - ^ _J E ^v 2 ■ ill • < o Q a £ JS 00 M (ft . E gl *• *5 C r- O N V □ •■% CO 'J l/> / v° -.' / \ */ 4> /* tJK< O c 3 > < Chi \o \\Vv \ *\x 3 a -3 .-si 5 = 7 CQ Q. CC in -a c CO _l -o a> D 2 < •— > °1 •til w e V I 1 / « Hmm an in Alal 5,782,515 acres; mi Strip Is embrac 1 Imiil in Nevada. O 3 O o <0 io 2^ 2i || o o ilil c *S & \ ^X • 2 g Z. — : o I* » - => "5 • - 1 s a • « en CO UJ o < >- _1 < LLl >■ LJJ CD < DC LLl > < co LU co CO < _J o Z < co H < e s s s 8 s ss s » s 2 s s s s gffisijsa.tu = S S S S 2 2 g g 8 8 8 S Q * 5 ! II f« m r* f! ^ c* c» -. *■« m y4 r* *■* ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 11I1; 1 1 £ CE M 1 1 i 1 ! ! ! ' ■ -M i i ; 1 .i 1 1 I £5 > o a i i i ! 1 1 i 1 1 r ■ |a ■ i >» i i ■thm pa _ r— 4 — bhi M»— 88 ^ 7 ~. X z r- i -M- r#" ~M~ ~|~ t" e^^ « ■■ ■■ Be — /. i c 3 * I sS g CO >i | 1 ■ P*!3 LU «s e ■ fe "■ £ |» f.ls &M* S«~ QMr-. &-■?, ? ■ r: ?:■ § ?■ fe P Q E H °- ■x H c-. © ■ ~- oH ci ~M ci -f ^H -r !>■ ■- H - 1*- - V CO c ■ ■ ■ "W "■I" -fr "■" "P ■ " "■- " "' 4, wi < cc CO 111 H < H 0) 3 o CO ■ ■ O ■C a "3d '— o QJ C9 « s .5 E > i Mississippi Maryland Florida Louisiana Delaware Kentucky Arkansas est Virginia Texas Missouri . annsylvania | Indiana [ Vermont New Yjrk I Kansas "o E | Ohio Maine fcew Hampshire I Michigan Iowa "Wisconsin Minnesota Rhode Island [Connecticut Massachusetts Oregon ! Colorado California if ■ '- 1 8 10 % 1 R ■- «* ^1 icl v?^H i 1 1 !- 9 < Ll_ c o a re > c n ** « - H oc 03 V, ■ S> c» 2S !>i a 3 — n* J in a s < ■n • >> CO o r- -) M en s — £ '- 30 4> 4) ■ !■ o JC ! i 1 1 i 1 = T 3 - E ■ i i 1 l 1 ! i iii' 1 ' g4 ■ Wagei during Harves S 8 2 S 8 & « e* c* © o -j * o o o m ffl in ci © ~ c. m b* *r> ** ^. S3 ^ c? c? M It p co h l{ {: 4} 5 8 £ S EJSfiSt? 8 €6 8S| ■ * £ " ■* "* T* H ]4 H *-i »-i .»-i *-i r-* «-• *-• ^ rt « n M ^ ri h m n e| « M T-i ri. r~ f-f ol c» K §3 ct So < I g S ?, E f 8 3 18 H|; H fi U « ei rf >r. E I I ■1 0) 00 00 Q < O DC < DC •a I a 9 4.^ e5 3 — HO tc 5 £=3 < h= fc £ II 16 II a » I El 5 HI 1 5^ a § « | £ 8 - _ § -I „ 1 ™ ^ "3 .5 **3 !>. = .?-* - E s 3 i 3 I I « j 3 o LU -* * *l *3. !gHHmt&M|Mllll§g*l <30 I- t» 00 00 Ol- igli « 2 >■ 5 J 1 ► 2 s 3, ' -a- K" r- HE ®L.OCKS OF THE ©ORLD. V 579 Jd j• en * Mr 8 8 ? 8 s g E 8 S 5 8 T 8 8 ? 8 8 " § © 8 s 5 8 5 }lj z o < • Q 2 LI u >- CD cr 4 E 10 f-t ; r ; ; : : ■S : - » : O m 3 co UJ 0C (- CO o z o p 1 - - * ; » : ; : • : : : < 3 O p v£ *\ X ^p * m z ec C- o cr cr. o B 8, S ~ H s si i- o Z < 2 3 o tx 5 o LV o DC 0. 1 | u. Z o »- Iff 1 ■ UJ LU fil " I ~ - ■ ■ J m J p *F X * -X 5 *\ -\ O K " 1C lO ao o i-t CO o C! o CI o 8 s? g C5 © © to JL o o s © w r- 8 «fl o 3 > tr k. ho m bo c /^ cu o ut 1 3 ■ E SL ■♦-» © 5- bo c a. CO 5 10 3 D z E re CL CO CO o. re a. s c n o o c •w' c/5 CO re IE o u o re JO o m E re M 9 © o 1_ CO c re © o CD -D re _i E E re 3 _o m c o c3 "re re C V -o o CO cu bo .2 re C_> s re CO 3 X C i— CO •o re o "re O W cog CC re O. re o CO -Q s c/S c re re o -5 • ■4-* N c N — u B^. • u i— * c JS |^ CD 10 o _ ^^L Q_ CD | ? Q 2 01 \ #1 LU 13 tq . 0> \ CO \ %z H 1 c d» o t ° \ 3 O -2 <1 / w \ rt ^^^^^ lIj "si * g ►3 / • a o. o ^ 1 3 O o 'uo/icviodsuBJX P"« op*Ji DC S.S S j < CO ll^_ / CD o. °L ■f "«* £ B^^~ / 2 ? P5 1 o " co" CN / o ° / ** w l ° o. iW D o M- n of / -° s / C CO j iJ / rt CN / c "5 4 h / rt o o 0) W 1 — o •S CO ^r 9 O 00 a q / c 10 ■^ z g H O D Q O DC Q. < < H O J- -D C 3 u. ' en < c LJ Q. O to Q. (0 o s s" — o E °- Sf J < 9 2 € I I '•» •a ivd : o = a s : . „ - tL ■*- • E £ « »a 11 S e>§ -? 2 = - falls' II ill II s r-s. a J a g o § s *-.S £ g "»•§ £§ g fi C i S|l w .§5 tn »3 II 1 •So tc *f j us) .5 II I j«0« §3 2.3 LU 0C LLl > o a H CO O O Q> •a -SF§E FlRVl SYSTEM 9B E>WJ{¥IBElRB spifflR-* 7? £ Difference between Old and New Standards at Points which have been Established Standards under the Old System. (/. faster. S. slower.) Compared with Eastern Time: Albany, N. Y., 5 minutes f.; Baltimore, Md., 6 m. ».; Bath, Me., 90 m. f.; Boston, Mass., 16 m. f.; Charlea- SJ'i j ' *? m ' s ' : Detroit, Mich., 33 m. s.; Hamilton, Ont., ig m. s.; Montreal, Que., 6 m. f.: New London, Conn., 13 m. f.: New York City, 4 m. t: Philadelphia, Pa., 1 m. «.; Port Hope, Can., 14 m. s.; Port Huron. Mich., 30 m. s.: Portland. Me., 10 m. f ; Providence R. I., 14 m. f.; Richmond, Va., 10 m. s.. Savannah, Ga., 94 m. ».! Toronto, Can., 17 m. s.; Washington, D. C, 8 m. s. Camparrd trith Central Time: Atchison, Kan., 94 "V'i •*i lanla . G »-. " m - f-: Chicago, 111., 9 m. f.; Cincinnati O., 99 m. f ■ Columhits.O., 98m.f.: Detroit. Mich.. 98 m. f.; Dubuque, U.jm.i.; Han- nibal, Mo., 1 m. s.; Houston, Tex., 34 m. s.; Indianapolis, Ind., 16 m. f: Jefferson City, Mo., 9 m. a.; Kansas City, Mo., 19 m. s.: Loui*\illr, K.\.. hi F' sit M acon ' &*■• ?9 nt. f.: Minneapolis, Minn., 13 m. s.; Mobile, Ala., 8 m. f.; Nashville, Tenn., 13 m. f.: New Orleans, La., exactly the same. Oma- ha, Neb., as m. s.; Port Huron, Mich., 30 m. f.; St. Louia, Mo., 1 m. s : St. Paul. Minn , ia m. s.; Savannah, Ga., 16 m. (.: Selma, Ala., u m. f City, la., 36 m. s.; Terre Haute, Ind., 10 m. C; Vicksburg. Miss., 3 m. s.: Winona, Minn . 7 ni < Vomparrd trith Mountain Time: Denver, Col,, exactly the same: I-aramie, W. T„ 6 m. s ; Sail Lake City, U.T.. 98 m. s. Compared land, Or., 10 in. s.; San Francisco, Cal., to at', s , 98 m. s. Cotnparrd trith IWific Time: Kalama, Wash. T., to m. s.; Intereohtnial Time, touching 1 niy HihUx. St. JoM lad OMaWa, al onutird. Port- 580 K GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 581 .& HSTATIST1GS OF POPULATIONS A TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES. SHOWING THEIR RANK ACCORDING TO POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS FROM 1790 TO 1890. States and Territories. 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1860 1860 1870 1880 1890 3,929,214 5^08,483 7,°3°,SS' 9,633,822 I 2,866,020 "7,069,453 23,191,876 3' ,443,321 38,558.37' 5o,'5S,7S3 62,622,250 19 127,901 '5 309,527 12 59°,7S6 12 77 ',623 >3 964,201 16 4" 26 -t 1' 25 35 34 13 12 44 I 11 ■■•) s 2 1 »3 20 7 •3 2h 18 5 43 3* 40 3' '7 37 '4 45 3 996,992 9,658 484,471 560,247 39,S64 537-454 125,015 131-700 187,74s 1,184,109 < 4,999 2,539,89' 1,680,637 1,104,020 264,399 1,321,011 726,915 626.915 780,894 1,457,351 1,184,059 439,706 827,922 1,721,295 20,595 122,993 42.491 318,300 906,096 91,874 4,382,759 1,071,361 7,091 2,665,260 '7 11 25 -'1 8 5 2S 3* 36 34 13 4" t IO 20 8 22 27 23 7 9 2<: 18 5 43 30 43 3i >9 41 1 '5 40 3 1,262,505 40,440 802,525 864,694 194,327 622,700 146,608 1(7,624 2°9,493 1,542,180 32,610 3,077»87' 1,978,301 1,624,615 996,096 1,648,690 939,946 648,936 934,943 1,783,085 1,636,937 780.773 1,131,597 2,168,380 39,159 452,402 62,266 346,991 1,131,116 119,565 5,082,871 i,399,75o 68,084 3,198,062 8 24 22 3" 29 42 39 32 12 45 3 8 IO '9 11 2= 30 27 6 9 20 21 5 44 16 49 •M 43 1 16 41 4? 38 2 35 28 87 >3 7 36 ■5 2I '4 17 1,513.017 DOySao 1.128,179 1,208.130 412,198 746,258 168,493 230,392 391,422 1,837,353 84,385 3,826,351 2,192,404 1,911,896 1,427,096 1,758,635 1,118,587 26 ■4,255 2* 30,3SS -.- 97,574 21, »9 209,897 92,597 25 21, 38 -4 3- 35 3' 1 1 435,450 379,994 34,277 460,147 112,216 75,oSo 140,424 1 ,057,286 S it) 237.946 59,096 8 '7 19 251,002 64,273 '4,093 9 ■9 22 261,042 72,047 24,023 2 5 275. "4? 72,749 33,039 16 -4 2^ .•n IO 207675, 76,748 39,S34 34.730 516,823 20 26 28 27 9 309,978 78,085 43,7'2 54,477 69 ',392 21 jo 33 3' 9 370,792 9' .532 5',°S7 87,445 906,1% <3 82,54s 12 i62,6So 1 [ 252,433 11 340,985 -'1 21 I2,2S2 24,520 24 55,l°2 147,'78 2n '3 157,445 343,03' '4 10 29 476,183 685,866 43,"2 1 1 7 1 851,470 988,416 192,214 4 6 2D 33 9 '7 22 '9 7 16 30 M 8 ',7",95' 1.350,428 674-9'3 107,206 1,155,684 708,002 628,279 687,049 1,231,066 749,"3 172,023 791,305 1,182,012 31 5,64' M 73^77 9 220,955 7 18 14 8 5 '5 406,511 76,556 228,705 380,546 472,040 4.762 t 17 12 10 7 27 564,135 152,923 298.269 407,350 523,159 8,765 t 19 12 11 B 27 687,917 -— ?39 399,455 447,040 610,408 31,639 6 '9 13 15 8 -3 779,828 552,4" 501,793 470,019 737,699 212,267 S 18 16 '7 6 so 36 IJ 13 982,405 517,762 583,169 583,034 994,5M 97,654 6,077 606,526 682,044 11 6 4 96,540 319.728 378,787 '4 7 5 i5i,7'9 341,548 422,845 1,042,390 2.238,943 2,093.889 1,301,821 1,289,660 2,579,184 132,159 1,058,910 45,761 376.530 1,444-933 153,593 6,997,853 i,6i7,947 182.719 3,672,316 61,834 313,717 5,258,014 345,5o6 1,151,149 328,808 1,767,518 2,235.523 207,905 332,422 1,645,990 349,39° 762,794 1,686,880 60,705 Massachusetts .... 2<> 8,850 so »3 40,352 20,845 21 »3 75,448 66,557 22 21 136,621 I4 ,455 '7 16 375,651 383,702 » 41 -7 21 34 1 12 42 3 28,841 6,857 326,073 672,035 93,5i6 3,880,735 992,622 2,419 2,339,5" New Hampshire.. 1 a 9 141,885 184,139 11 10 183,858 211,149 1 •-■ K9 214,460 245,562 15 '3 244,022 277,426 iS '4 269,328 320,823 22 IS 284.574 • 373,3o6 2 2 19 3-' to 317.976 489,555 6i,547 3,097,394 869,039 North Carolina 5 3 340,120 393,751 3 4 589,051 478,103 2 4 959 -°49 555-50O 1 4 1,372,111 638,829 I 5 1,918,608 737,987 1 7 2,428,921 753,419 Ohio 18 45,365 ■3 230,760 5 581,295 4 937,903 3 1,519,467 3 1 ,980, 329 Pennsylvania South Carolina 2 7 434.373 68,825 249i°73 2 6 602,365 69,122 345,591 3 ■7 8 810,091 76.931 4'5,H5 3 20 S 1,047,507 83.015 502,741 2 23 9 1,348,233 97,199 581,185 2 ■■'4 II 1,724.033 108,830 594,398 34 2 28 M 13.294 2,311,786 147,545 668,507 3« a 3 42 10 '3 37 2 3 5 40 '5 52,465 2,906,215 174,620 703,708 2.418 1.109,801 604,2:5 40.273 315.098 1,596,318 11,594 775,881 3« 2 32 22 45 9 '9 39 3° 10 42 27 15 47 90,923 3,521,951 217,353 705,606 7,091 1,258,520 818,579 86,786 33o,55i 1,225,163 23,955 442,014 1,054,670 9,118 37 2 33 21 40 19 II 39 52 '4 42 47 174,768 4,282,891 276,531 995,577 68,083 1,542,359 1,591,749 143,963 332,286 1,512,565 75,"6 618,457 1,315,497 20,789 17 35,691 15 105,602 10 261,727 9 422,771 7 681,904 5 829,210 5 2? 35 »3 4 1,002,717 212,592 11,380 314,120 1,421,661 Utah Vermont 12 1 85.425 747,610 13 1 ■54.465 880,200 '5 1 217,895 974,6oo ,6 2 235,966 1,065,116 '7 3 280,652 1,211,405 21 4 291,948 1,239,797 West Virginia.... 30 30,945 24 305,391 Note.— The figures in the first column under each year show the rank of the respective States and Territories according to population. 5^t a> J £ J . < m ■ C) 2 § V 5 < <« 4 oc a fc 1 Q o c 7, S < £ o £ U •o U) < c 5 i S u in 9 , i 4-» a T> a c u IP u h rt C fc. z D > £ 1 t ?5 I §S8S3sa»sRafc8Sj I'M ll SSSScSSfe ii§§§l§il*&§s=ls§§ ■f n t- « < *SS§£§il§§^£66§i=! L • . . j - • ' ] % ■- ~ ^ 582 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. r r 1 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1890, COMPARED WITH 1880 AND 1870, BY STATES AND TERRITORIES, SHOWING THE INCREASE BY NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES FROM 1880 TO 1890, FROM 1870 TO 1880, AND FROM 1860 TO 1870. STATES AND TERRITORIES. POPILATION. INCREASE PROM 1880 TO 1»90. INCREASE FROM 1870 TO 18W. increase from 1860 to : 1390. 1880. 1870. Number. Percent- age. Number. Percent- age. Number. Percent- age. The United States North Atlautic divis'n 62,622,250 50,155,783 38,558,371 12,466,467 24.86 11,597,412 30.08 7,115,050 i 22.63 17*01*45 14*07*97 12.L> 618,467 1*99,750 1,543480 17*84411 135*16 131,700 1,896408 mfiu iflnjm 70.3.006 i.iM.iuy 18738 18*81411 21,885 11)7.117 11.1.11'. 144*87 818497 11 88 11.49 29 71 8.48 13 11 48 84 38 78 164*48 178*48 888*88 81,748 4*83.000 17 27 34 87 I 80.88 41.10 43 54 83.76 12.799 88*45 88*88 ( 70359 1*81 198*88 8*84496 11 41 i:; 88 4 44 798 0.37 13 00 88 7o (J 7.1 District of Columbia South Carolina Northern Central div'u 8*79*10 8,198,404 06*51 li < 1 1401,886 1*11*98 8*79481 183,713 890*08 1,0.".- 1*81 848 1*78*01 8.077.S71 1*86*87 1*16,497 1*94*16 2.11.8,380 98*30 898*90 k*S0 1 jua 1*91 1.1- . . im 1494*90 1,781 1 H.1M 314408 1 145 4:11.000 11 88 10 83 24 33 17 88 88 68 211 SO 889*87 1*0*88 4I7.iis.> ' 1211996 88**88 19.99 17 71 21.18 88 ■ 77 .:.7 88 (V. 35 97 8*0*8* 887*88 884*48 878,788 8*7*88 519.107 68**88 9344 94.153 89748* 1398 M II is 8* ..-, 9i 165 61 76 91 181 II 886 46 188 '.'1 Illinois Michigan Iowa Uiisouri 1 Nebraska i ...*» K C — • •5 e" 1 rr POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 583 STATES AND POPULATION. INCREASE FROM 1886 TO 1890. INCREASE FROM 1870 TO 1880. increase from 1860 to 1870. XKBBXTOB1SS. 1890. 1880. 1870. Number. Percent- age. Number. Percent- age. Number. Percent- age. Southern Central div. lo.972,M'3 8. 1,202,506 1431,897 939,946 1,591,749 1,321,011 1,258,520 990,992 827,922 726,915 818.579 209,945 225458 280,612 158,003 178,041 648,774 01.8S4 325,654 1,259,916 E -■: 14.00 19 M 18.96 19.81 40.44 827,679 288,889 265,513 S08,fi78 213,031 773. 170 24.81 22.55 26.03 30.08 29.31 94.43 165 ,3W US. 719 32,791 36,617 18,913 214,364 13 40 803,526 1. 767,697 481,471 990,510 40.58 71.27 318,054 777,187 65.65 78.46 49,021 371.534 11 26 Western division.. . . 60.02 183,159 CO .705 418,198 158,598 59,620 207,905 45,761 84,385 319,390 313,767 1,208,130 89,189 20.789 194,327 119,565 • 40,440 148,968 62,266 32,610 75,116 174,768 864,694 20,595 9,118 39,804 91,874 9,658 86,786 42.491 14.999 I 23.955 90.923 560,247 • 93,000 39,916 217,871 34.028 19,180 63.942 018,866 51,775 271,274 138,999 343,436 237.49 192.01 112.12 j 28.40 47.43 44.42 o20 51 158.77 885.18 79 53 39.72 18,664 11,071 164,468 27,691 30,782 57,177 19,775 17,611 51.161 83345 304,447 90.14 128 00 387.47 30.14 318.72 65.88 46.54 117 41 213.57 92.22 54.34 20595 9,118 5,587 nl,642 9,658 46^13 35,634 14,999 12,361 38,458 180,253 Utah 106 62 73 SO 47 44 a Decrease. RECAPITULATION BY GROUPS. POPULATION. INCREASE FROM 1880 TO 1890. INCREASE FROM 1870 TO 1880. INCREASE FROM 1860 TO 1870. GEOORAP1IICAL i DIVISIONS. 1890. 1880. 1870, Number. Percent-* age. j Number. Percent- age. Number. Percent- age. The United States 62,622,250 80455,788 38,5.58.371 12,466,467 24.86 11,597,412 80.08 7,115,050 22.63 North Atlantic division 17,401 ,5 1.5 14,507,407 12,298,730 2394,138 19.95 2.20S ,077 17.96 1,704,462 16.09 South Atlantic division 8,857,920 7,597.197 5.S.53.610 1,260.723 16.59 1,743587 29.79 488^07 9.11 Northern Central div. . 22.302 279 17,301.111 12.981.111 4,998,168 28.78 l.:;\3,000 33.76. 3384395 42 70 Southern Central div. . 10,972,893 8.919371 6,434,410 2,053522 23.02 2,484,961 38.62 665,752 11.54 Western division 3.027,013 1,767,697 990,510 1,259,916 71.27 777487 78.46 371,534 60.02 The above figures are exclusive of Indians, of the population of Alaska, and of Whites on Indian reservations. k- _VJ J? CO txl < co Q LLl LU I H u_ O I H _J < LLl < CL < o ce Q. D < O H I- < Z> . O § oc | — C3 O 2 LLl u. O H (/) () U ■r: UJ ~> I j- F >- s 3 5 Q o C) > li 1 o y- < CO Z3 -> Q. 2 1- u> n n O z z; lit < jj u ■ _i > in UJ < co UJ o UJ z: UJ X A ■ ^ m • 1 1 I 584 " THE GREAT CITIES OF THE WORLD. i GREAT CITIES OF THE WORLD HAVING 120,000 INHABITANTS. Population According to the Latest Official Censuses. Cities. Census Year. Population. Cities. Census Year. Population. im 1886 UN est. 1S90 1890 INK) 18M 1890 1890 1888 18*0 18»1 MM 1885 1891 1891 18M 18B1 18M 180] est. 1891 1890 1887 1889 1890 1891 1890 1890 1890 1891 1890 1890 1899 1890 un 1891 1884 1882 1891 1885 est. 1890 1890 1890 1890 1891 1890 1890 1890 1889 1890 1 -hi 1890 1890 18(0 1891 1887 1887 1890 1890 1891 1891 1891 1890 4.231,431 (344 1,710.715 1,600,000 1 ..'.79,244 l.:a; l.:* '4,548 1,096,576 1,044,894 .V..296 873365 853,945 840,130 804,470 75.'i.li,'.i 565.714 546.986 580,872 517,951 506.884 505348 500,000 488.999 476.271 472.22* 469.317 460357 449,950 446,507 443,426 435,151 4*9.171 498,917 417.539 tujsu 401.930 392,730 386,400 978448 889409 887,808 857399 355:000 ■ mm 848317 885,174 IJUB 824.21:; 323.' MS (11387 304.000 997,990 296.809 281 378 979,791 976365 (79390 272,481 2711.143 267,416 961346 261 .2fil 255396 254.709 254,457 est. UN 1890 1888 18(0 ISM 1861 1891 1871 1891 1891 1891 1891 1881 1891 est. 18(0 I860 wo UN UN est. 1891 1891 1891 1890 un 1SK6 1891 1885 UN 1891 1890 UN 1891 1890 1887 UN 1890 1890 1890 1890 1890 UN 1890 1890 1891 UN UN 1890 1890 UN 1890 250300 246.154 242397 241396 940369 2*8.473 236412 299,796 MM 293.420 221,805 221366 221,141 216.650 216361 215.779 211364 210300 209.186 206.485 205369 204.106 202325 200300 199391 198361 198.186 193380 191458 190397 11-7310 510 166345 - 110 1*1378 1-1320 181310 179- 175381 171.416 ' 170.216 165.499 164.788 163367 161328 161305 160331 160300 160300 . 158.019 155 ,M0 147317 143. MUN Ml 139399 169316 - !27 121365 Paris Berlin Bristol . England Detroit Madrid Delta! :.... Lille Milan Rochester, D. 8 ■ •Municipal census of 1890. The statistics of population of largest cities of the earth have been taken mainly from the Almnniu'h de GotDt f«»r 1899, , , NOT*.— The population Ol Chinese cities other than Canton, Peking and Shanghai Is omitted, because repori g it are utterlv untrustworthy. There nre forty or more Chinese cities WDOee inhabitants are numbered by runmr at from 20". ■ each, but no official censuses have ever been taken, and setting aside coi 1 of the Oriental tendency to exaggvrat Is reason in believe that the estimates of population in many Instances DOT - rictt of country bearing the sane names a* thoBeof the cities, Instead of definite municipalities. / _ ...... . . \ I •5 1 - > K~ ~A POPULATION OK THE CITIES AND STATE* OF THE UNITED STATES. POPULHTION OF THE CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES OF 8,000 HND OiZER. Together -with Population of all tlie States and Territories^ According to iSgo Census. Alabama. Birmingham 26,241 Mobile 81*28 Montgomery 21,790 Total for 1880 1,262.505 Total for 1890 1,808473 Arizona. Total for 1880 I'M Hi Total for 1890 59,091 Arkansas. Fort Smith 11,391 Hot Springs 8,073 Little Rock 83486 Pine Bluff 9*62 Total for 1880 802*25 Total for 1890 1025.885 California. Um Angeles 60*84 Sacramento 96*79 Sun Diego 16.153 San Francisao 387*90 San Jose ■ 18*37 Santa Rosa 14*79 Total for 1880 864*94 Total for 1890 1.204.002 Colorado. Denver 1*8*70 Leadville 11,158 Pueblo 88,128 Total for 1880 184*37 Total for 1880 410,975 Connecticut. Bridgeport 48*86 Danburv 19*85 Greenwich 10.120 Hartfl rd 88,182 Manchester 8,217 Meriden 31*89 Middletown 9,012 New Britain 19.010 New Haven 81,451 New London 18,760 Norwalk 17,789 Norwich 18,183 Stamford '. 15*85 Vernon 8.807 Waterbury 38*81 Windham 10.025 Total for 1860 633,700 Total for 1890 745.861 Delaware. Wilmington Cl.t::" Total for 1880 146*08 Total for 1S90 167,871 District of Columbia. Washington 229,796 Florida. Jacksonville 17.100 Key West 18*68 PensacOla 11,761 Total for 1880 269483 Total for 1890 880481! Georgia. Athens v 8.627 Atlanta 65,515 Augusta 33,150 Brunswick 8,403 Columbus 1 8*60 Macon 38*98 Savan nah 41,762 Total for 1880 1 ,542 ,186 Total for 1890 1*34*66 Idaho. Total for 1880 32.610 Total for 1890 84,229 Illinois. Alton 10,184 Aurora 19*84 Belleville 16*06 Bloomington 22,242 Cairo 10.044 Chicago 1*98,576 Danville 11.528 Decatur 16,841 East St. Louis 15.156 Elgin 17439 Freeport 10.159 Galesburg 15.212 Jacksonville 13*57 Joliet 27,407 Moline 11*96 Ottawa 9,971 Peoria 40,758 Quincv 31.478 Rockford... 28-589 Roek Island 13,596 Springfield 24.852 Streator 11.111 Total for 1880 3*77*71 Total for 1890 3,818,536 Indiana. Ander»on 10,799 Elkhart 11*70 Evansville 50,674 Fort Wayne 86*49 Indianapolis 107,445 Jeffersonville 11,271 Kokomo 8,224 Lafayette 16,407 Logansport 13,798 Madison 8*98 M arion 8,734 Michigan City 10.704 Muncie 11*88 New Albany 31,000 North Township 9,574 Richmond 16*49 South Bend Terre Haute 80*87 Vincennes 8*18 Total for 1880 1,978*01 Total for 1880 3J Iowa. Burlington 32*88 Cedar Rapids 17*87 Clinton 13*38 Council Bluffs ; . .31*88 Davenport Des Moines 50.067 Dubuque 30,358 Keokuk 14,075 Marshalltown 9*08 Muscatine 11.432 Ottum wa 13,996 Sioux City 37,862 Total for 1880 U Total for 1890 1,906,729 Kansas. Arkansas 8*54 Atchison 14*39 Fort Scott 11.887 Hutchinson 8*78 Kansas City 88470 Lawrence 9,975 Leavenworth 21.018 Topeka 81*09 Wichita 88486 Total for 1880 886*86 Total for 1890 1,423,485 Kentucky. Covington 37*75 Henderson 8*30 Lexington 31*66 Louisville ...161*06 Newport 94*88 Owensborough 9.818 Padncah 13.024 Total for 1880 1*48*80 Total for 1890 1*55,436 Louisiana. Baton Rouge 10*97 New Orleans 241.995 Shreveport 11.482 Total for 1880 ! Total for 1890 1,116*28 Maine. Auburn 11.228 Augusta t 10*91 Bangor 19.090 Bath 8.718 Biddaford 14.418 I.cwiston 21,668 Port land 36.608 Rockland 8487 Total for 1880 648,336 Total for 1890 600,201 Massachusetts. Adams 9.213 Amesbury 9,798 Beverly 10*91 Boston. 4-ls.i 17 Brocton 97*84 Brooklinc 12.1118 Cambridge 70*98 ( helsea 37*08 Chicopee 14*60 Clinton 10,424 Everett 11*68 Fall River 74*88 Fitchlmrg 39*37 Fram ingham 9,239 Gardner 8.424 Gloucester Haverhill 27.412 Holvoke 85*87 Hyde Park 10.193 Law rence 44*64 Lowell 77*86 Lvnn 55.727 Maiden 28*81 Marblehead 8*09 Marlborough 18*86 Medford 11.079 Melrose 8319 Milford 8,780 Natick 9.11s New Bedford 40,733 Newburyport 13*47 Ncwlon 94*78 North Adams W*74 Northampton 14*81 1 Peabody 10,168 Pittsfield 17*81 Quincy 16,738 Salem 30.801 Somerville 40,152 Spencer 8.747 Springfield 44.179 Taunton 25.448 Waltham 18,707 Westfleld 9*05 Weymouth 10,866 Woburn 18489 Worcester 84*66 Total for 1880 1,788*86 Total for 1890 2*33,407 Maryland. Baltimore 434.151 Cumberland 10,030 Hagerstown . . 11,698 Frederick 9.621 Total for 1880 9?4,943 Total for 1890 1*40,431 Michigan. Adrian 8*88 Alpena 11*98 Ann Arbor Battle Creek 13,090 Bay City 97*38 Detroit 205,669 h ^J t 39 -«.t. y POPULATION OK THE CITIES AND STATES OF THE UNITED STATES. r Flint la 64447 U.1W 30,778 K ularaaxoo ig 12380 Manistee 12,799 Marquette 8JB96 tli nominee 10306 Muskegon 22368 Fort Huron Saginaw 16,109 tt'usl Bay City 12310 Total for 1880 i Total tor 1890 3,088,7«1 Minnesota. Dulutb 83,798 Minneapolis 164,738 Mankato BVBOS 41 Paul 188056 Stillwater 11388 u Inona 18308 Total for 1880 780,778 Total tor 1890 L800317 Mississippi. Meridian 16,889 burg 18388 Total for 1880 1481387 Total for 1890 1,284,887 Missouri. Hannibal I33M .loplln 9,909 is City 182416 Moberly 8*8 a 12,894 Springfield 91349 8) Joseph 62311 St. Louie Total for 1880 2468380 Total for 1890 2,677 ,0S0 Montana. Butte City 10,701 .i 18,884 Total for 1889 89,159 Total for 1890 181,768 Nebraska. Beatrice '... 18,931 Hastlnga 18,798 I. D 55,491 iskaCity 11.472 Omaha 189336 Plattsmoutb 8,408 8. "malm 8,071 Total lor 1X80 452,402 Total for 1890 1,056,793 Nevada. Total for 1880 62,266 Total for 1890 44327 New Hampshire. >rd 17,004 Dover 12.7911 Manchester 44426 Nashua 19,311 Portsmouth 9,897 Total for 1880 846,991 Total for 1890 875327 New Jersey. Atlantic City 1.1.0S8 Bayonne 18,896 BrMgcton II. IT! ngton B488 Camden 88374 Elizabeth 87370 Harrison Hoboken Jersey City Mlllvllle... Newark 181, >18 New Brunswick 18,458 are 18374 Passaic 18387 Paterson 7WM Perth Amboy 8,476 Philllpeburg 1L9S0 Trenton ! for 1880 1,181418 Total tor 1890 1.441.(117 New York. Albany 9LMS A msterdam 17364 Auburn Blnghainton 86398 Brookhaven 13379 Brooklyn 804377 Buffalo 254467 Coboea 23481 i lornlng 8J568 Dunkirk '.Mir.' Blmlra 2*,l7u Flushing 18488 GloversviHe 18,788 Hempstead. Hornellsvllle 10348 Hudson 10/127 Huntington 8,217 [slip 8,747 Itliaca 11367 Jamaica I488B Jamestown 15,991 Kingston 21481 Lausiugburg 10388 Lockport 10,003 Long Island City 30,3% Mlddletowu UJM8 org 23,263 New Brighton 16400 Newton New York 1,513,501 North Hempstead 8,126 Ogdensburg 11367 Oswego SljBM Oyster Bay 13,788 l'ccksklll 10,026 I'oughkecpste 32,888 Rochester 138,327 Home 14,980 Saratoga Springs 18434 Schenectady 19357 South Hamilton 8488 Syracuse 88387 Troy 60,605 Dtlca 44,001 Watertown 14,788 Weal Troy 13341 Yonkers 8L847 Total for 1880 8,082371 Total for 1890 5,981,934 New Mexico. Total for 1880 Total for 1890 144302 North Carolina. Asheville 10488 Charlotte 11,568 Raleigh 12,798 Wilmington 20,008 tfU for 1880 1388,760 Total for 1890 1317340 Ohio. Akron.. 27,702 Ashtabula B£M re 8301 Canton Chlllloothe 11369 Cincinnati 380308 Cleveland I 'oluuihus 90,398 Dayton 58308 Delaware *302 Fast Liverpool 103*7 Flndlay llanilltou [ronton 10331 Lancaster 639? Mansfield Marietta Marlon 6308 Massillon 10361 Newark 14389 Pto.ua 9309 Portsmouth kv 183W Sprluglield Btoubenvllle Tillin Toledo Xenia 8448 Youngstown 88488 [He 21,117 Total for 1880 8488302 Total for 1890 B30SJ1I Oregon. East Portland 10481 Portland Total for 1880 174,788 Total for 1890 Pennsylvania. Allegheny City 104307 Allentown Altooua Beaver Palls 8,781 Bradford 10478 ltraddock 8338 Butler 8,718 adale 10336 le 8331 Chambersburgb 8306 Chester 20,167 Columbia 10.599 Danville 9373 Dunmore 8342 1 14488 Erie...: S9399 Harrisburg 40,164 Haselton 1L8M Johnstown U438 Lancaster Lebanon 14,784 McKeesport 20,711 Mahanov City U3M Meadville 8302 Mt. Carmel 8343 Nimticoke 10337 N.w Castle 11, ">M Norristown 12,768 Oil City 10343 Philadelphia 1344380 Phoenirvllle 8308 mth 9341 Pittsburgh Plttaton 10395 Pottatown 13301 Pottsvillo M.1.4 Ilea, Hug 68386 Seranton 83.450 Shamokln 14339 Shenandoah 13,961 .■south Ur'hlehem 10386 on 9330 Tttusvllle 8310 Wllkesbarre 87351 Willlamsport 27,107 York 30348 Total for 1880 4388381 Total forlSKO 5348374 Rhode Island. Newport 19.499 Pawtucket 27302 Providence 182348 Woonsookel 20,758 Total for 1880 276381 Total for 1880 345348 South Carolina. Charleston 64389 ville 8388 Columbia 886377 Total for 1898 1447481 North Dakota. 80309 Total tor 1890 I South Dakota. 1 ■ : 88368 Total for 1890 Tenneaaee. Chattanooga 28409 Jackson Knoxville Memphis Nash vl] le 76309 C larksville 8361 Total for lvo 1.. Total for 1890 1.763.723 Texa*. Austin 15324 Dallas 88440 Denniaoa Fort Worth •on Houston 27.411 Laredo Paris Waco San Antonio 8*3»I Total for 1880 1. Total for 1890. 2339330 Utah. Ogden 14319 salt Lake City 45326 Total tor 1880 143363 Total tor 1880 306498 Vermont. Burl I ngton II 369 Rutland 11,787 Total for 1880 889386 Total tor 1890 332305 Virginia. Danville 10385 Alexandria 14.318 I.vnchburg Manchester 9339 Norfolk 86484 Petersburg 88317 Portsmouth Richmond 80388 Roanoke 16.120 Total for 1880 1. Total tor 1880 1348311 Washington. Seattle 43314 Spokane Falls 18367 Tacoma 88368 Total for 1880 75416 Total for 1880 849316 West Virginia. Huntington 10383 I'arkersburg 8389 Wheeling 85389 Total for 1880 Total tor 1880. 700,448 Wisconsin. Appleton 1L89& Ashland •■ Chippewa Fall* 8390 Eau Claire Fonddu Lac GreenBay 8379 Janesvllle 19S tee *'JM Madison **■?! Marinette Milwaukee Oshkosh 9338; 21322 Sheboygan 1*341 Superior 1* 399 Watertown HR Wanaan —MS Total tor 1880 1315497 Total for L969 138*78*7 Wyoming. 11399 total for is* 20.7*8 Total tor 1890 «9Jte» a! \ Till'. COPYRIGHT LAW. 585 • j* ^^rsfTHE COPYRIGHT LAW. ** ^tff • .:!.i • * ".. « nH | i" 4 3)i tactions fot Sccutittgi Qopijzicffits under t/lc tcoiscd £lct> of Qongtcso. 1592. 1. A printed copy of the title (besides the two copies to be deposited after publication) of the book, map, chart, dra- matic or musical composition, engraving, cut, print, or photograph, or a description of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent by mail or otherwise, prepaid, addressed "Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C." This must be done before publication of the book or other article. The printed title required may be a copy of the title page of such publications as have title pages. In other cases, the title must be printed expressly for copyright entry, with name of claimant of copyright. The style of type is im- material, and the print of a type-writer will be accepted. But a separate title is required for each entry, and each title must be printed on paper as large as commercial note. The title of a. periodical must include the date and number. 2. The legal fee for recording each copyright claim is 50 cents, and for a copy of this record (or certificate of copy- right) an additional fee of 50 cents is required. The record fee from aliens and non-residents is $1. 3. On or before the day of publication of each book or other article, two complete copies of the best edition issued must be sent, to perfect the copyright, with the address "Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C." The postage must be prepaid, or else the publication in- closed in parcels covered by printed Penalty Labels, fur- nished by the Librarian. In the case of a book, photo- graph, chromo or lithograph, the two copies deposited shall be printed from type set in the U. S., or from plates made therefrom, or from negatives or drawings on stone made in the U. S., or from transfers made therefrom. 4. No copyright is valid unless notice is given by inserting in every copy published, on the title page or the page fol- lowing, if it be a book ; or, if a map, chart, musical com- position, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, draw- ing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, by inscribing upon some portion thereof, or on the substance on which the same is mounted, the following words, viz: " Entered ac- cording to act of Congress, in the year , by , in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington," or, at the option of the person entering the copyright, the words : " Copyright^ 18 — , by ." The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has not obtained copyright who shall insert the notice " Entered according to act of Congress,'' or " Copyright," etc., or words of the same import, in or upon any book or other article. 5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or dra- matize his own work. In this case, notice should be given by printing the words "%A'igh/ of translation reserved," or "All rights reserved," below the notice of copyright entry, and notifying the Librarian of Congress of such reservation, to be entered upon the record. Since the phrase all rights reserved refers exclusively to the author's right to dramatize or to translate, it has no VL bearing upon any publications except original works, and will not be entered upon the record in other cases. 6. The original term of copyright runs for twenty-eight years. Within six months before the end of that time, the author or designer, or his widow or children, may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen years, making forty-two years in all. Applications for renewal must be accompanied by explicit statement of ownership, in the case of the author, or of relationship, in the case of his heirs, and must state definitely the date and place of entry of the original copyright. Advertisement of renewal is to be made within two months of date of renewal certificate, in some newspaper, for four weeks. 7. The time within which any work entered for copyright may be issued from the press is not limited by law, but the courts hold that it should take place within a reason- able time. A copyright mav be secured for a projected as well as for a finished work. The law provides for no«;r«/, or notice of interference — only for actual entry of title. 8. A copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing, but such assignment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within sixty days from its date. The fee for this record and certificate is one dollar, and for a certified copy of any record of assignment one dollar. 1). A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry will be furnished, under seal, at the rate of fifty cents each. 10. In the case of books published in more than one volume, or of periodicals published in numbers, or of en- gravings, photographs, or other articles published with variations, a copyright is to be entered for each volume or part of a book, or number of a periodical, or variety, as to style, title, or inscription, of any other article. But a book published serially in a periodical, under the same general title, requires only one entry. To complete the copyright on such a work, two copies of each serial part, as well as of the complete work (if published separately), must be deposited. 11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as to prevent infringement by copying, engraving, or vending such design, a definite description must accompany the application for copyright, and a photograph of the same, at least as large as "cabinet size.'' should be mailed to the Librarian of Congress not later than the day of publica- tion of the work or design. 12. Copyrights cannot be granted upon trade-marks, nor upon mere names of companies or articles, nor upon prints or labels intended to be used with any article of manufact- ure. If protection for such names or labels is desired, application must be made to the Patent Office, where they are registered at a fee of $6 for labels and $25 for trade-marks. 13. These provisions apply to citizens of the United States, British Empire, France, Belgium, Switzerland. 14. Every applicant for a copyright should state distinctly the full name and residence of the claimant, and whether the right is claimed as author, designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal application is required. 71 K 5 86 DURATION AND EXPECTATION OF LIFE. -V TABLES OF DURATION AND EXPECTATION OF LIFE. Constructed by Dr. Fakk, F. It. S. 13 '4 ■S 16 • ') 22 ■3 2; JO 3' 3* 33 34 U 36 PERSONS ALIVE AT BEGIN- NING OF YEAR. I ,!■ 0,000 Sso,507 796,8*7 708.SS9 75o.>33 736318 726,919 7'».'5' 713,591 707.'34 702,509 '-.MM 694344 001,413 688,031 684,563 680,894 676,037 672,620 667,900 662,750 657.'67 65 ',499 645.75' 639.93" 634.045 628,005 033,050 616,021 609,900 5».74| 428,026 400,505 3S6.290 377.077 370 J5S 365,3*5 361 ,37* 358,062 355.32S 353.03> 35 ".04s 340.27* 347.6o6 345.969 344.290 342.509 340,581 338,469 336,149 333.608 .W.S44 32S.043 325.207 322,339 3'9^)22 316,516 313.562 310,581 307.572 603,724 597,493 578459 57' .90S 565,460 30I.534 301 ,,(/-, 298,366 29S.232 292/161 2SS.S50 2S5,5<> 4S«.255 4<2,48l 396.322 3S2.299 373,056 366,460 361.594 357.770 354.530 35'. 806 319478 347.433 345,572 343,807 342,062 340,273 338,385 336,356 334,'5' 331,75' 329,142 326,323 323.456 320,544 3'7,592 314,603 3".579 3oS,52 4 305,440 302J2S 2S3.14.I 279,864 ill in 'S.456 '3,3'5 9.S99 7,7<« 6,559 5.458 4,625 4,02s 3,637 3.43' 3.3S2 3.46S 3,669 3,957 4,317 4,720 5, '50 S.748 5,820 5.SS6 .5.950 6/09 6,065 6,121 6,176 6,231 6,287 6,343 6404 6,466 $8 1-LRyONS ALIVE AT BEGIN- NING OF YEAR. 545.425 S3S.S84 531,653 524,626 517499 5'0,263 50*,915 480,134 472,277 464,280 45'M39 447.725 439.1.15 430,374 421,115 4". 53* 401,623 391,378 3So,7S5 36y,S2 7 35S489 346,752 334,'<>3 322,031 309 fi!t) 255,590 281,753 267,509 252,00* 237,077 2*2,703 207424 2S2,2o6 278,944 275,5.38 mm 304.S4S 261,280 257,534 253,708 140,706 245*795 241,700 237.508 233,216 2283*1 224,195 219437 2'4-55* -■■.,, =.io 20I.39S 199,1,. '93, 102 ■9.3.6S 188,10 182,350 1764*1 170,303 163.980 '57474 '50,754 1*0.4*' '2i. «4'4 8,590 S,76i 9.259 0.583 •0.245 '",5'H 10,95s 187.477, 182,06s 176449 170,614 '64.557 11,33s ",737 12,149 '2.572 13.002 151.766 '45X>35 ■ 38.088 130*330 3$ ioS,505 '3430 ■3.846 '4,244 14,607 '4,9*5 '5.'84 IS.369 '546$ PERSONS ALIVE AT BEGIN- NING OF YEAR. MALE. 1 FEMALE. 7i 7» 79 So tl 82 h so ft) 9> 91 o* 93 M 9 ■00 101 102 103 104 .2 M2IM6 ■7-. 07 O'-Mo -i.l.O 161,124 MM** '3'. '99 ■03.'S4 61, (,.•<, 83? 90,133 77.010 4«!SS9 41.115 35.2SJ 20,922 25,060 20,711 38,56s M*«j 142267 19,621 15,162 11,500 \57" 6,266 m8S 3.'42 '1*49 10,709 ",3"' *.'53 '440 940 598 370 "3 '3' 74 4' 4,770 3.5'0 2.531 M34 ft 3$2 no ■14 100,807 93.07' &JJ47 77J&M 70, '73 62,844 55.773 49,01s 41/ 3".'77 31.1^1 26,178 11,681 17,716 '4.258 11,2 >. S302 6.7.39 5.006 3.735 ijyoS - _ - i '54'"* '5J63 ■5.'J6 '4.789 MJ'9 '3.7*6 11,214 11 J*e 10.-.J8 7J00 5J4* 4459 3.65.? 2.933 2,310 '■7S1 7'3 500 tiS '47 9" 57 33 "9 VL Note. — The annual rate of mortality of mains of alt ages is 1 in 30.91, and of females, 1 in 41. $$. EXPECTATIOIST. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. AGE. MALE. FEMALE. I 30-0' 46.65 41-85 47-3' 20 21 lit 40.29 8:8 40 4> 26.06 25-39 33 60 6l '3-53 13.96 '4-34 '3-75 So 81 J:S 5 -f 4.9S 2 4S.S3 40-40 22 3S..3 37-46 36 79 4» 24-73 26.03 15-38 62 12.41 II. $7 '3'7 ft) 4-4' 4-7' 3 49.61 50.20 23 Sfl 43 14.07 6.1 12.60 !^ 4'7 4-45 4 49.SI 50-43 *4 44 23-4' 24.72 64 "•34 ■ 2.05 84 3-95 4.21 6 49-7' 50 -.33 Lo 36. 1« 37-04 46 12.76 24.06 3 10.S2 1 1. 51 8 3-73 3-9S 49-39 48.02 4S.37 50.00 35-44 36.39 12.11 13-40 10.32 9-83 0.36 8.90 10. .A 3-53 3-76 I z% 3 34.77 34- '0 35-75 35-'o Js 21.46 20.S2 21.74 22.08 8 •0.47 9-97 o.»S 8 r.a J -5 i3 S 9 47-74 4S.35 29 33-43 34-46 49 20.17 21.42 09 89 3.00 3-'S 10 47-05 47-67 30 3*-76 33-8' 50 '9-54 iS.no 20.75 70 S-45 0.02 S.57 90 «.S4 •5 ■? 11 46.3' 46.95 31 32-09 33-17 5' 10.09 7' S.03 01 1.85 M 45-54 44-70 46.20 32 3' -4* £8 51 ■S.28 10.41 in 7* 7.62 S.ij 9» 2-55 1.70 '3 *s 33 30-74 53 T-"7 17.06 73 7-7' 93 *-4' 1-55 '4 43-07 14 30.07 3*-*3 54 74 7-3' 94 2.29 2.42 :ij 43 IS 42.40 41.64 40.10 43-90 43-14 3 25.40 27-39 30. S9 29.94 £ ZJ& ■7-43 16.79 g 6.i S 6 a Si £3 2.29 :. 42.40 41.67 3 2.,.;.i 15.16 14.6S ia.ij 15.55 i 5.S2 5 5' 5-SS 9 1:^ '0 40.17 4»-"7 39 16.71 *7-99 59 14.10 '4-94 79 5.11 55* • .70 1 •00 1 .(.> T. The mean lifetime of malec u 39.91 years, *nd of females, 41. S5. \ DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC BUSINESS. 587 ~A >& A Complete Digest of Parliamentary Law and Rules. ' HE origin of Parliament- ary Law is to be found in the customs and rules of the British Parliament, the first deliberative body of the modern world. When the Jutes and Saxons left their over-crowded homes in the Low Dutch Lands and sailed to England, they carried with them the Witena Gemote, the root from which has sprung ev- ery Congress and Parliament, every Town Meeting and Con- vention, every Caucus and De- bating Society which the Anglo- Saxon race in the Old World, or the New, has held. Set rules governing the proceedings of Par- liament began first to be established about A. D. 1 1 80, so that now Parliamentary Science is about seven hundred years old. In the course of time these rules became more extended and exact, the conduct of public meetings was re- duced to a science, until at the present day the man who is not familiar with them is apt to ex- pose himself as one of imperfect education, and to make blunders which bring himself into ridi- cule, and the cause which he is supporting into danger. In America, where every matter, grave or light, affecting the public, or any part of it, is promptly made the subject of a meeting, the man who has not Parliamentary Law and Prac- tice at his fingers' ends is compelled either always to take a back seat and let less able men come forward, or else be in constant danger of an absurd display of ignorance unworthy of an American citizen. Fortunately, however, the whole subject is easi- ly mastered, and easily retained in the memory. It is based upon certain clearly laid down prin- ciples, and if we were asked to give in one sentence a comprehensive definition of Parlia- mentary Law, we should promptly answer that it was common sense divided into rules. Those things that appear strange are really founded upon reason, and the more the student attacks the subject the more evident do its harmonies appear. Anyone who will carefully study the following digest will thoroughly master the subject. CALLING A MEETING. It would be much easier to make a list of the suDJects for which meetings should not be called than of those for which they should. Generally, all those matters which affect a considera- ble part of the community, of the church, or of the business to which one belongs, are proper matters for counsel and discus- sion among friends, and for meetings among citizens. The forms used in calling meetings should be very brief and pointed, 5 88 PARLIAMENTARY LAW AM) RULES. . intimating plainly what the gathering is for, where and when it is to meet. For instance, forms to be printed in the newspapers should take this shape : Notice. — The members of the Second Presbyterian Church are requested to meet At Mr, James Kyle's residence, 241 Walker street, on Tuesday evening 1 , January 151b, at eight o'clock, to consider ways and means of rebuilding the parsonage. Or thus : DEMOCRATS OF THE THIRD WARD, ATTENTION » A mass meeting of the Democrats of the Third Ward will he held at Lafayette Hall, on Locust and Main streets, on Friday evening, Oct. 3<1, at 7 '30, p. m., in accordance with the order of the) Central Com- mittee, to select three delegates for the City Convention on Saturday, Oct. 4th. The Hon. C. K. Pease, Judge Bradley Adams, Sheriff Pur- son, and others, will address the meeting. Sometimes it is necessary that meetings should be called without publicity, when a form like this might be used : [ CONFIDENTIAL.] St. Louis, Jan. 12th, 1893. Jamks Asiiton, Esq., Ashton & Co., Grocers. Dear Sir: Your attention is called to the fact that the retail dealers in coffee are cutting prices until there \s little or no profit l"ft in the trade. Quite a number of us have agreed to meet at the Magnolia Club next Saturday evening, to discuss the situation, and see if some measures can not be taken which will enable all of the firms to do a more satisfactory business than at present. Please cither be present yourself, or send a representative empowered to act for you, and oblige You^ very respectfully, Spotts & Tremaine. J. R. Oscjood & Co. II. A. Miller & Son. These forms might be greatly increased in number, but the reader will see the shape upon which it is best to found them. Be cure that written notices are sent to all interested, and that printed ones are inserted several times before the event which they advertise is to occur. ORGANIZING A MEETING. As soon as a sufficient number have gathered together at the place of meeting, some gentleman — and it is well that the per- sons calling the meeting should select this person with care ; it is best to choose some well-known and representative citizen — will mount the speakers' stand and rap with the gavel on the table until the assembly is brought to order. He will then nom- inate some person present for chairman, using the simple form, "I move that Mr. John Gilkeson act as chairman of this meet- ing." When the motion is seconded he will at once put it to the house, saying, " It is moved and seconded that John Gilke- son act as chairman of this meeting. Those in favor will say ' aye'." Those in favor of Gilkeson will vote " aye " in a clear tone of voice. The temporary chairman will continue, "Those opposed say 'no'." If Mr. Gilkeson is defeated other names MIC proposed until a chairman is elected, when the one chosen will be escorted to the chair, and the gavel handed to him by the temporary chairman, who at once leaves the stand and takes a se.it among the members. The chairman raps for order and after B word or two of thanks for the honor conferred upon him should proceed to lay clearly before the meeting the purpose for which it has been called. This is not the time for eloquence or for attempt! at fine speaking. The chairman should endeavor to frame his remarks so that every person in the hall will under- stand clearly and definitely just what the matter for rilinntfrffi is. It is in good taste for the chair to call upon any other mem- ber of the meeting to express the purpose for which it has been called if the chairman docs not feel himself thoroughly able to explain it. But if the chair means to call upon some other member to speak, he should first proceed to the election of a secretary, who, when elected, will read the call, and the chair will then call on the person whom he wishes to address the house; otherwise the secretary is not usually chosen until after the president has spoken. GETTING TO WORK. When the secretary has been elected and the purpose of the meeting stated, the next duty of the chairman is to get the assembly to work with as little delay as possible. Suppose, fcr example, it is proposed to rebuild the church parsonage lately destroyed by fire. The chairman will say, "Gentlemen, you have heard the reasons why this meeting has been called. What is the pleasure of the house ? " A member will rise to his feet and say, " Mr. Chairman." The chairman will look towards the speaker and say, "Mr. Mclntyre," or, if he does not know the gentleman's name, he will say, " The gentleman to my right," indicating the speaker with a wave of his hand. The purpose of this is to draw the attention of the meeting to the person about to speak. Mr. Mclntyre then says, " I move that a committee of three be appointed by the chair to report ways and means of raising $5,000 for the rebuilding of the parsonage." This motion being seconded, the chair announces, " It is moved and seconded that a committee of three to report ways and means of raising $5,000 to rebuild the parsonage be appointed by the chair." The matter now becomes debatable, and any member may rise and address the chair as to the pro- priety or impropriety of appointing such committee. When the discussion seems to be concluded, the chair will a>k. "Are you ready for the question? " To which the members v. .1! respond by calling, "Question !" "Question !" The chair will then very distinctly, repeat the motion so that all can hear it clearly : "It is moved and seconded that a committee of three be appointed by the chair to report ways and means of raising $5,000 to rebuild the parsonage. Those in favor of the motion will say 'aye.'" The ayes vote. " Those opposed will say' no."' The noes vote. If the chairman thinks the ayes are in a major- ity he will say, "The ayes seem to have it," and then, after a pause, if no one calls for a division, "The ayes have it." If a division is called for, however, the chairman will call upon those in fevor of the motion to take one side of the hall and those opposed to go to the other, when he may appoint teK count the votes, or count them himself. Or he may make a division by causing each party to raise their hands in turn, or to rise up from their seats and remain standing while being counted. The motion having carried, the chair will proceed to appoint the committee, remembering that Parliamentary Fti- quette demands that the person who moved the appointment shall be be made chairman of the committee. The chair will ■lag decide, as it wis not incorporated in the motion, when the report shall be made. If it is probable that the work can be done in a half hour or an hour, he will order the committee to report in that time; if longer, it is wi-cr to adjourn over to an- other evening. The committee having gone out to work, and there being no business before the assembly, the chair may announce a recess, or call upon some one present for a speech, a ^7" : V PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. 589 recitation or a song ; in this way, or in conversation, the inter- val may be passed. 'When the committee is ready to report they come back to the hall and announce their presence to the chair- man. He raps with the gavel for order and announces, " The committee is ready to report. Mr. Mclntyre, please read your report." The report is read by the Chairman of the Committee, and at its conclusion some member moves its adoption. This being seconded, the Chair announces: "It is moved and seconded that the report of the committee which you have just heard read be adopted." This opens discussion, after which the motion is voted on as before. The business of the evening being con- cluded, some one moves to adjourn. It is seconded, and this motion is voted just as any other. If the matter must be taken up again later, the date to which the body is to adjourn should always be incorporated in the motion. When the motion is car- ried, the Chairman announces the fact and the meeting ends. ~ yX^- *? How to Manage a Convention. JpONVENTIONS differ from ordinary meet- \/jy ings both in their composition and in the f customs which are observed. The fre- % quency of their occurrence and the '$' strict manner in which members are held to Parliamentary Rules make it necessary for every delegate to thoroughly master the niceties of their organization and government, and, al- though in the pages that follow the broad prin- ciples of Parliamentary Law are laid down so that those who run may read, it is necessary here to call attention to the peculiarities which make Conventions differ from other deliberative bod- ies. Conventions are made of delegates chosen either by sections of a political party or by di- visions, councils, encampments, or lodges of a society. In all cases the delegate must be pro- perly accredited to the general body, and one of the first things to see to is that these creden- tials are in proper shape. TEMPORARY ORGANIZATION. A Convention organizes temporarily before it can get to work. A Chairman, a Secretary, with several assistants, and several Sergeants-at- Arms are chosen after the usual manner. They are the result of nomination and election just as in any other deliberative body, but it is under- stood that their functions will cease as soon as the Permanent Organization is perfected. It is generally understood beforehand who is to be selected Temporary Chairman, however, and although the tenure of office is brief it is quite an important post. Delegates will always do well to act slowly during the temporary organi- zation, as it has frequently happened that it alone has decided the whole work which the body had assembled to do. The custom is to choose the temporary organization by a viva -voce vote, and usually the delegates and the rest of the world help along in the voting with all their lungs. THE COMMITTEES. The temporary organization has for its sole purpose the selection of the Committees whose work must be done before the Convention can go to business. These are the Committees: On Credentials. On Permanent Organization. On Order of Business. On Rules. On Resolutions. Although it is common to join these last two committees into one. Every Convention consists of delegations, and each delegation consists of delegates. When the Chairman calls for the Committee on Cre- dentials the delegations each name one of their number to be a member of that Committee. So with Permanent Organization, Order of Business and Rules and Resolutions. Each delegation should have one representative on each Com- mittee. As soon as the names are given in the Committees retire and a recess is taken. THE COMMITTEES AT WORK. The duties of each Committee are plainly indicated by their names. The credentials of each delegate should be turned in as rapidly as possible; generally they are put in the hands of the / -apV ft ~7\ 59° PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. members of the Credential Committee from the delegation, but sometimes contests occur, and thil is the time for the contest to begin properly. In political conventions some of the most im- portant work is done by the Order of Business Committee. It is very vital in what order candidates shall be nominated. All of this has to be settled at once, and the friends of a candidate, if they are afraid that other candidates have sold them out, should always try to get their nomination fixed at the beginning of the schedule, because they can thus make the doubtful ones show their hands at once. The Committee on Permanent Or- ganization must supply a full list of names for chairman, secre- taries, sergeants-at-arms, pages, etc., for the convention. The Committee on Rules always report the rules governing Congress, and the Resolutions Committee put the platform, as it is called, in shape. THE CONVENTION AT WORK. When the recess ends, the committees should all be ready to report, which they do m this order: Credentials. Permanent Organization. Order of Business. Rules and Regulations. The Credentials Committee gives a full list of delegates entitled to sit, the Permanent Organization names the officers, the Order of Business reports in what succession the convention shall ad- dress itself to the business before it, the Rules and Resolutions give shape and purpose to the whole. Each committee report is acted upon as soon as it is read, usually by a viva voce vote, and, all being accepted, the convention gets to work. The first sup is for each delegation to select a chairman, who acts as spokesman for it. This can be done in the intervals betw< I n the reports. The permanent officials are installed, generally with short speeches, and the order of business is taken up. The chairman orders the secretary to call the roll of delegations fur nominations, for Governor, tor instance. Two or three coun- ties may be called without any nominations (for it is always understood beforehand who is to make the nominating speeches) until Butler County is reached. Then the gentleman who has been selected arises, and, calling attention to the eminent serv- ices and peculiar fitness of the Honorable Allen Blaisdell, nomi- nates him for Governor. Another county is leached, and Mr. Pierson is nominated; perhaps four or five more and Blaisdell is seconded, and so on until all the candidates for (. >\ i nor are fairly in the field. The voting in conventions is peculiar. As soon as the nominations close, each delegate should hand to the chairman of his delegation a piece of paper with the name of the person he votes for upon it. When An hews County is called the chairman rises and announces "Andrews County gives three for Blaisdell, two for Pierson and one for Holmes. When the vote is all in, the totals are hand- ed to the president, who announces: "Total vote cast, 242; nec- essary to a choice, 122. Pierson, 98; Blaisdell, 84 ; Holmes, 53; Dawet, 7. There being no election, the convention will proceed to vote again." Which is continued until by a clear majority a candidate has been chosen. When a candidate has been select- ed he should thank the convention for its preference, and the defeated candidates should also come forward and express their submission to the will of the party. TRADING. Trading is the name given to the transaction whereby a dele- gati n, anxious to secure the nomination of their friend to office, agree to vote for other candidates who are running for other offices, in return for support of their nominee. This is assum- ing greater proportions every year, and the only note to be made upon the practice is that usually, from bad faith and treachery, it is a very uncertain one. Pledges are easily secured, but kept with difficulty. In this age of combinations the men who do not combine are sure to be defeated, but it is to be re- gretted that American politics should give such a premium to deceit as the "trading'* done in conventions offers. -x^mm Things to be Remembered. ->-*- Seven Things a Chairman Should Remember. 1st. Take the chair promptly at the time for the meeting to open. 2nd. Always rise to your feet when putting a question. All your remarks io the house should be made standing. 3rd. Order is best maintained by a rigid enforcement of par- liamentary law. 4th. Except in vote by ballot, the chairman can only vote when the meeting is equally divided, or when his vote given to the minority would make the division equal. 5th. The chairman should familiarize himself thoroughly with the purposes of the meeting. 6th. Common sense, decision and firmness are absolutely necessary to a successful president 7th. The president's three duties are: to preserve order, to put questions, and to keep the house strictly to the business in hand. Six Things a Secretary Should Remember. 1st. Provide the necessary stationery for the performance of the duties of the secretary. 2nd. In reading minutes and papers pitch the voice to reach the furthest persons in the room. 3rd. Do not attempt to w rite up minutes during a meeting — take full notes of everything that happens. 4th. Preserve all papers carefully. Do not allow members to remove them after they are read. 5th. See to it that all committees are properly warned of their appointment, and of the business they are to do. 6th. In writing minutes make them as short as possible, but include every important matter. Four Things a Member Should Remember. 1st. Unless the chair is assisted by every member in the maintenance of order, business will be retarded. 2nd. Always rise when about to speak, and address the chair- man alone. Be silent until he makes the necessary recognition. 3rd. Be careful to keep to the ixu'nt in your remarks, and never speak twice on a matter while there are other members waning to be heard. 4th. That speaker is listened to with attention who only speaks when he has something pertinent to say. — oC&§<^^^§G&e>.- ^J PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. 591 THREE HUNDRED POINTS OF ORDER. DECIDED AT ONE CLANCE, ON A SINCLE PACE. BLANKS IN COLUMNS AFFIRM STATEMENTS AT THE HEAD--THE NEGATIVE DENIES THEM. * Not debatable when another question is before the House. f An affirmative vote on this question cannot be reconsidered. a Limited debate only on the propriety of postponement allowed. b May be moved and entered on the record when another has the floor, but may not stop the business then in progress; maybe called up by the mover as soon as such business is disposed of, and it then takes precedence of all other questions exept "to adjourn," or " to fix time to which to adjourn." cNot debatable when decision is in a matter of breach of decorum. dCan be made before debate has commenced only. e «d I l Si ^ 6 "ei 1 « •3 in 1 a E rt •6 i I Si 5 lie ~£ u ~ c JJ — S c 8 s t s £ §• E 3 <2 c . - 8 VI > N V a V u , — it u •si c 1 no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no 8th no no * no no 2d 1st no no no no no no no no no no 7th no no no no no no no no no ::::} 4th no 3rd no no no ....b ....b no 9th 6th no no no no no no 5th no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no Leave to continue speaking after breach of decorum no no no no no FORMS IN WHICH QUESTIONS MAY BE PUT. On motion for previous question, the form observed is: "Shall the main question be put?" This if carried ends debate. On motion for order of the day: "Will the House now proceed to the order of the day?" Thisif carried supersedes interven- ing motions. When objection is raised to considering question: "Shall the question be considered?" On motion to strike out words: "Shall the words stand part of the motion?" If this be not carried, the words are struck out. On an appeal from decision of Chair : " Shall the decision be sustained as the ruling of the House? " When yeas and nays are ordered by the House : "As many as are in favor of will answer aye; those opposed will answer no, when their names are called." When a member has been counted on the side against which he intended to vote, the presiding officer can order the amend- ment of the vote, having first asked the member: "On which side he intended to give his voice?" This correction can be made only on the member's own representation. ^ 592 PETITIONS AND MEMORIALS. T u WWW M EMORIflLS: AND p ETITIONS. The right of Petition: is an expression frequently met with in English history. The earnestness with which the people of that country strove for the maintenance of the right is a proof of its great importance. The right of Petition necessarily im- plies the right of being heard and heeded. The bodies to whom petitions are addressed are first of all Congress, the President and the executive departments of the Government, State Governors and Assemblies, Mayors, City Councils, and lastly public and private corporations of every kind. Certain set forms are used in addressing these assemblies and persons, and although the matter may vary infinitely it must always be put in a respectful and decorous manner. The me- morial to Congress presented by the Mississippi River Conven- tion.which assembled in St. Louis October, 1881, is one of the best exemples of this kind extant. It will be found first among the forms which follow, necessarily abbreviated to fit the space at our disposal. MEMORIAL TO CONGRESS. To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, in General Assembly convened: The Executive Committee of the Mississippi River Improvement Convention, held in the city of St. Louis, Missouri, in October last, under one of tlie resolutions unanimously Adopted, were charged with the duty of preparing and presenting to the Congress of the United States a memorial embodying the action of the Convention, accom- panied with Mich statistics and information as the Committee might deem expedient. The Convention which committed this grave duty to your memor- ialists was one representing, in an unusual degree, the commercial and industrial power of the country. The highest Order of talent, judgment matured by careful thought and large experience of the great iguestlon so Intimately connected with flu- progress and Opment of the imperial domain comprehended, met in council, and the important question was Considered by men representing twenty States and three Territories, and half the' population of the Union. I remarkable was the variety of interests gathered and given utterance to there. Thefarmers and merchants, the bankers, the man* ufacturers, the professions, and the heads of great transportation lines by river and by rail, with earnest zeal discussed, and with strik- ing unanimity reached the conclusion embodied in the resolutions adopted by the Convention, and which it now becomes the duty of your memorialists to urge upon the National Legislature. *** + **»** * • The aid now asked, and the benefits sought to be received through the liberal action of the Government, is not alone for the presei for the near succeeding years, but stretches to the distant future— that eventful and busy future" for which it is the dutv and DUSil mnship to prepare, Thi \ dley States and those in tin ; : (I Sou t Invest, bound together by the ch on I ion in- terest, arc fast gaining the political power which will make them the ?,i antoi . Instead of the solicitors of favors through the Instrumental!* y of the Government A compliance now with their reasonable *\*-- nised, and will hereafter And ret response, A refusal will breed an antagonism of sections whicli may lead to sectional issues. And now we ask, can there be a more propitiou* time for the National Legislature to recognize the value and importance of the work ? The products of the Mississippi Valley, carried cheaply by the river route (and through its influence less expensively by rail) to "the outer markets, have thrown the balance of the world's trade grandly in our favor. Since this power and influence has been recognized, for the first time in our history we now have among kindred commercial na* tlons the rank of creditor. The long-sought position has been ob- tained through the agency of cheap transportation from the interior to tlie sea ; a policy ere can only maintain by carrying the thought to the utmost conclusion. Tlie report of the Secretary of the Treasury, and favorably present- ed by President Arthur in his message, shows a surplus revenue of over $100,000,000 for the last fiscal rear, and the question suggests itself, how can this accruing surplus he properly and mo: i expended ? Those for whom we speak do not complain of the bur- dens of taxation. They do not ask for the present reduction orspeedy extinguishment of the national debt, but they do ask that this surplus shall in part be applied to their great and cheap thoroughfares, feel- ing that when this is done they can bear the burden! by the Government In the form of taxes much easier than th< from detective and crippled transportation. Now in the days of our prosperity, they a~sk those to whom they have entrusted their I to lav aside local antagonisms and sectional jealousies, to c< the height of the argument and conclusions presented, and meet the action of the Convention by the exercise of a statesmanship as broad and comprehensive as that "which marked its deliberations. Secretary, PETITION TO THE PRESIDENT. To Chester A. Arthur, President of the United States. The Petitioners undersigned respectfully solicit of you the appoint- ment of \V, K. Huntir as cadet at large to West Point, man is the son of Major Wilson Hunter who dis and was severely Wounded at the battle of Lookout Mountain* Hi - twenty yean of age, of perfect form and robust hi Uate of "Madison University. He carried off the highest I institution in mathematics and drawing, and is now engaged in the office of Penny A: Rubold, Civil Engineers. We ask our Representative In Congn m has tires dr. without know- of Hunt . made hit n I faneri ith the greatest i ng ot II VVc re fer to accoiapain iujr papers, A, R, C and D. James T. Miumk. Old. L. Vk.NNOK. Galena, Ill»., Oct. i ( . V Letter of Hunter to Yt nnor. H. " Personal I-'riciid of President, i Printed slip. D. Letter of Dean of Madison University. Mr Dtar Mr. Vtnnor: You have so frcepientlv shown your kind feelings towards me that I am sure yog Will not think tue too presumptive in taking TOUT assis- tance in" a purpose tli.it I have resolved upon. It is that 1 should _M • Si go to West Point. You know how well fitted I may be for a cadet- ship. Should my purpose meet with your approval, I throw all my hopes of int ure success in life on you, and I know no one in this wide world so willing and so well able to help me. With the most sincere regard, Kver yours, Galena, Oct. 6th, 1SS2. W. E. Hunter. B. SEALED LETTER. My Old Friend; Should the application for the appointment of Hunter be favorably received by you, you will not only confer a favor on a most worthy object, but settle another matter which will be a good stroke of policy for our district. , A man named Trevors is looking with hungry eyes at the position of U. S. Collector for this district, in which we want our friend May- ville retained. Trevor's main dependence would be on Morgan and Vennor. Now Morgan is secretary of the Illinois State Republican Committee and was "a power in the last convention. Vennor is a quiet capitalist whose subscriptions have been very heavy in any Republi- can necessity. You would find it hard to refuse either. Appoint Hunter and you save Mayville. They could not expect you to make a second move on their application. Pardon the length of this. As ever your most devoted, Galena, Oct. 13th. Morris Henley. C. PRINTED slip. From the Galena Times, Aug. 18I/1, 1882. ********* ** This happy escape from what would have been a most frightful dis- aster is all owing to the presence of mind of a young surveyor in the employ of Penny & Kubold. We predict for Mr. Hunter, the hero whose coolness and courage were the means of saving so many lives, a most brilliant future. Messrs. Penny & Rubold. Gentlemen: — In recommending my young friend W. E. Hunter to you, I can say with truth he was as a pupil all that could be desired, apt and studious. His proficiency in mathematics is almost phenom- enal. Respectfully, Miron Seymour, Feb. 12th, 1SS2. Dean of Madison University. PETITION TO THE GOVERNOR. 71? T/ios. T. Crittenden, Governor of the State of Missouri. Your Petitioner respectfully represent that the office of Clerk of the County Court of Dayton County in this state is now vacant by reason of the decease of James Allison, the regularly elected incumbent. Your petitioner would further represent that until the next general state and county election the law requires that the vacancy be filled by appointment of the Governor. Now feeling myself capable of fil- ling the position, and being thoroughly acquainted with the duties of the office, I respectfully make application and solicit you to appoint me Clerk of the Dayton County Court. Robert Ames. With our most cordial recommendation. Henry Warren, J Justices of the Thomas Harrison, \ County Court. William Henderson. S. K. Atchison. Richard Lord, Sheriff. Jesse R. Dunlap, Minister. PETITION TO A CORPORATION. To the Board of Directors of the Dubuque Gaslight Co. Gentlemen: — As the vacant lot adjoining your works and owned by you would suit my purpose, I respectfully solicit the use of it for the storage of cement and salt. Should it not be your intention to improve the lot for some time, the collection of a small rent front me would be better than allowing such a property to lie idle. Respectfully, Alex. Goldman. PETITION TO A STATE LEGISLATURE. 75? the Honorable, the Senate and House oj Representatives of the State of ,in Legislature assembled : The undersigned petitioners, residents and tax payers of the city of , respectfully represent that they and that they your petitioners fully believe that such action on your part would be in favor of the best interest of the city of , and would be in complete accord with the will of the majority of its citi- zens, and your petitioners as in duty bound will ever pray, Arc, &€• Signed, PETITION TO CITY AUTHORITIES. To the Mayor and Common Council of the City of : Gentlemen : Your petitioners, citizens and tax-payers of the second, fifth and sixth wards of this city, respectfully sohcity your honorable body to extend the system of sewerage, already working in such ad- mirable order in the third and fourth wards, through our wards. The expense may be heavy but our need is still greater ; for all the territory contiguous to the low grade streets, Adams, Pine and Lincoln, is in extreme danger, should the pestilence now raging in the Southern cities come this far north. We respectfully represent that the largest portion of the city revenue is collected in our wards and that the pro- eosed extension will be paid for wholly by the property-owners most enefited by the sewers. Signed, (City, Stale, Dale.) PETITION TO A COUNTY COURT. County Court : Township, who are 75? the Hon. Justices of the The undersigned* residents of obliged to use the Baldwin road to market with their produce, re- spectfully inform your honor that the bridge crossing Pear Creek is so badly injured by the last flood that it is now dangerous and cannot be trusted. Hoping you will give the matter immediate attention they earnestly petition your honorable court to order the necessary repairs. Signed, (County, State, Date) A REMONSTRANCE. 75? the Mayor and Common Council oj ; Gentlemen : The petition of the undersigned citizens and tax pav- ers of the sixth an seventh wards of this city respectfully represents that they have learned that a petition is now before you praying for the privilege of constructing a railroad along Jackson Street. That if this privilege were granted and a track laiuon that street the result would ne most injurious to the property fronting thereon and would obstruct the great traffic now continuous on that thoroughfare. They also suggest that there is no necessity for such railroad, as the one on Henry street two blocks south is sufficient for the needs of the public. They therefore respectfully and earnestly remonstrate against the granting of said privilege by your body. Signed, (City, State, Date.) ±L Q st. |8HE benefits derived socially ami intellectually from attendance at Lyceums or debating societies arc M generally conceded that there U no need of argument JjJSjjffrgS. *° ur G e *^ e ' r formation. I/wi^ The following form of a constitution and by-laws will give a clear insight into their workings : Constitution and By-Laws of the Ben Franklin Lyceum. PREAMBLE. For our mutual improvement, for the entertainment of our friends and for the cultivation of the amenities of social life, the undersigned agree to form themselves into a debating society. TITLE. ARTICLE I. The name of this society shall be the Ben Franklin Lyceum. OFFICERS. ARTICLE II. The officers of the Lyceum shall consist of a President, Vice-Prcsl« dent, Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian and Marsh. il. They shall be elected annually at the first regular meeting after the 15th of January in each year, and shall continue to perforin the duties of their offices until the installation of their successors, which shall take place at the next meeting after their election. DUTIES OF OFFICERS. ARTICLE III. The President shall preside at all meetings, and shall be ex-officio member of all standing committees, but not of special commit) The Vice President in the absence of the President shall take nr, but will not assume his duties in committees unless the President shall so request. The SxCRSTAKY'a duties shall be threefold— Recording, Corres- ponding and Financial. 1; -■ 'or dim;.— lie shall keep an accurate record of the proceedings of each meeting, be prepared to read them at the ensuing 1 and bv indexing or other method be prepared to read on call the record of any business that may have taken place at any former 'ing. Corresponding, — He shall attend to all the correspondence of the Lyceum. FINANCIAL, — Me shall keep the nccounts of the Lvccum with the members, with ell parties having dealings with thrfLvccum, and with the Treasurer. He shall collect and pay over to the Treasurer all d fines and other income. He shall WTite warrants on the Treasu-er to he signed by the President for all monies to be paid out. The TaSASI kkk shall receive from the Secretary all monies of the Lyceum and shall pay out the same only on the production of the Secretary's warrant signed bv the President. He shall make a quar- terly statement of the funds in his hands, which shall be verified by the nooks of the Secretary, The Librarian shall have charge of all books, periodicals, maps, pictures, globes, curiosities and like articles either owned or borrow- ed by the Lyceum. The Marshal shall have charge of the hall, furniture, light, fuel, and comfort of the members, lie shall act as doorkeeper, usher to visitors, and messenger. COMMITTEES. ARTICLE IV. Immediately after his installation the President shall appoint five standing committees : The Executive and Financial Committee, The Liukarv Committee, COMMIT"! U ) I. hi 1 . Committee o\'i in Sli.ii tion or Subjects for Debate, Committee on Criticism. These committees shall consist of four members each, i. t., three appointed and the President himself. Special Committees for all other purposes shall be elected by the Lyceum. MEMBERSHIP. ARTICLE V. Active Membership. — An. p< rson of good repute in the commu- nity, of either se\, over the age < irs ir.av become a member of the L ' majority vote ol the members present at the neat m eeting after their p he membership beginning only after signing I tution and paying the initiation I Like Membership.— Any person of good repute, on the introduc- tion of a member and the vote of the societv, may become a life member and have the benefit of the library and mav attend ai! lngs and debates on the payment of $10.00. Honorary Membership may be conferred bv vote of the Lyceum on any person. Honorary members shall pay no fees or dues. ORDER. article VI. The proceedings and deliberations of the meetings of the Lyceum shall be governed bv the 1 raa shown in the arttcleoh Par- liamentary Law in Peale's Manual, unless such rules conflict with this Constitution, its Amendments or the By-Law.. EXPULSION OF MEMBERS. ARTICLE VII. itncient reason anv member mav be expelled by s two. thirds . the members present at anv meeting, provided t: Committee has prei matter and informed flae r of the proposed action, and that he be gtvea opportunity to defend hlmsetf, V- f t& LYCEUMS AND DEBATING CLUBS. 595 TIME OF MEETINGS. ARTICLE VIII. The regular meetings of the Lyceum shall he held in the Ben. Franklin Jlali at eight o'clock on every Wednesday evening Special meetings may be called by the President on the request ot five mem- bers. AMENDMENTS. ARTICLE IX. This Constitution may be altered or amended at any regular meet- ing by a. vote of two-thirds of the members present I Provided that written notice shall have been given of the proposed amendment at a previous meeting. BY-LAWS. LIBRARY. RULE I. No member shall be allowed to take more than two books from the Library at one time. A fine of one cent per day for each volume shall be collected from each member keeping books more than one week. The Library shall be opened one hour oefore the regular meet- ings of the Lyceum. QUORUM. RULE II. Two more than one-half the active members shall constitute a Quorum. MONTHLY DUES. Each member shall pay a monthly due of fifty cents. Any meipber having failed to pay his dues for three months shall be notified by the Secretary; if he dues not pay by the end of fourth month his member- ship shall be forfeited. DEBATES, RECITATIONS AND SPEECHES. RULE IV, The President shall appoint in turn members to take part in the exercises. A week's notice shall be given, and a member failing to fi.l the appointment without good excuse shall be fined fifty cents. ORDER OF BUSINESS. RULE V. Call to Order. Roll Call. Reading of Minutes of Last Meeting. Correspondence. Reports of Officers. Reports of Committees. Good of the Lyceum. Election of Members. New Business. Debate. Recitation. Oration. Criticism. Adjournment. QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE. 1. Ought the largest city of a State to be the capital of that State? 2. Will the coal supply of the United States hold out? 3. Must the Chinese go? 4. Has the abolition of slavery improved the condition of the blr»cks? 5. Is universal suffrage a success? f>. Has the attendance at churches changed the character? 7. Was the Tichborne claimant the true heir? 8. Is the drama immoral? 9. Will the planting of forests increase the rainfall? 10. Should woman have the right of suffrage? 11. Is cremation preferable to burial? 12. Ought Governments to own railroads and telegraphs? 13. Should the President of the United States be elected directly by the people? 14. Does Prohibition prohibit? 15. Should public museums and parks be opened on Sunday? 16. Should foreign languages be taught in the Public Schools? 17. Should the right to vote depend on a property qualification? 1S. Are early marriages advisable economically? 19. Have we an aristocracy? 20. Could the Government of the United States do as well without the Senate? 21. Will th« colored race become amalgamated with the whites? 22. Are competitive examinations a fair test for the fitness of appli- cants for office? 23. Should gold be the standard of value? 24. Should there bv more Arctic expeditions sent out? 25. Was Washington a military gonius? 26. Is the assessment of office-holders for political purposes immoral ? 27. Is communism a mistake? 28. Has the visit of Edwin Arnold had any effect on the public taste? 29. Is the co-education of the sexes advisable? 30. Has the Government been too liberal in land grants to railroads ? 31. Are inventors sufficiently protected by the patent laws? 32. Should married women be retained as teachers in the Public Schools? 33. Should convict labor be allowed to compete with honest labor? 34. Is the present system of trial by jury the best? 35. Should voting by ballot be introduced into all elective and legislative proceedings? A\ 4 ,v\\iillllf»/L/// 1 596 — MAGNA CHAKTA. h |?fr j 3fr>tgrai*'3^^ MAGNA CHARTA. The Steps in the Growth of American Liberty. i N the year 121 3, on Aug- ust 25th, in England, was organized a movement of which we now, after so many centuries, feel the effects in our nicely bal- anced constitutions and 'equitable codes of laws. The liber- ties for which our American fore- fathers battled had been defined and foreshadowed by their ancestors, and the political condition of our thriving country may well be shown' as the ripened and mellow fruit from the seed sown nearly seven hundred years ago. On that memorable 25th of August the Prelates and Barons tiring of the tyranny and vacillations of King John, founded a Council and passed measures to secure their rights. Af- ter two years of contest, with many vicissitudes, the Barons entered London and the King fled into Hampshire, whence he sent word that he would comply with their demands. By agree- ment both parties met at Runnymede on the 9th of June. The conference lasted till the 19th, on which day the royal seal was affixed and Magna Charta, the glory of England, was born. It was a comprehensive bill of rights, and though crude in form and with many clauses of merely local value, its spirit lives and will live. Clear and prominent we find the motto we ourselves have followed: " No tax without representation." It contained sixty-olie articles, the thirty-ninth and fortieth of which have had the most lasting effect, and their sentiments are the very marrow of all our State Constitutions. The original document is in Latin, but a trans- lation of articles 39 and 40 from English Statutes may give an idea of its whole character. " 39. No freeman shall be tajcen or be im- prisoned or be disseised of his freehold, or liber- ties or free customs, or be outlawed or exiled, or any otherwise destroped ; nor will we pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by lawful judg- ment of his peers, or by the law of the land. "40. We will sell to no man; we will not deny or defer to any man, either right or jus- tice." The Mecklenburg Declaration. Some thirteen months previous to the signing of the great Declaration of Independence there was drawn up a document in Mecklenburg County, N. C, that was almost a model in wording and sentiment of the great charter of American liberty. There are different accounts of the matter, but the most reliable is this: At a public meeting of the residents of Mecklenburg County, in the State of North Carolina, held at Charlotte on the 20th day ol May, 1775, it was "Resolved, That whenever directly or indirectly abetted, or in any way, form or manner countenanced, the unchartered and dangerous invasion of our rights, ns claimed by Great Britain, is an enemy of our country — to America — and to the inherent and inalienable rights of man. '•Rc/vlvcd, That we. the citizens of Mecklenburg County.do hereby dissolve the political bonds which have connected us to the mother-country, anil hereby absolve ourselves from all allegiance to the British crown, and abjure all political connec- tion, contract or association with that nation, which has wan- tonly trampled on our rights and liberties and inhumanly shed the blood of American patriot! at Lexington. "Kesohei/, That we do hereby declare ourselves a free and independent people: are and of right ought to be a sovereign and self-governing association, under the control of no | other than that of our God and the general government of the Congress. To the maintenance of which independence we solemnly pledge to each other our mutual co-operation, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." other resolutions in the same document, regarding ad- ministiation of the law and regulating the militia, having no present value, are omitted. -M K" THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 597 In Congress, July 4th, 1776. > HEN, in the course of human events, it becomes neces- sary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to as- sume, among- the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and nature's God entitle them a decent respect to the opin- ions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal: that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever a form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter »r to abolish it, ar.d to institute a new govern- ment, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that govern- ments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes j and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer where evils are sufferable, than to right them- selves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. Hut when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despot- ism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonics ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. lie has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pres- sing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large, for their exercise, the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. / He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; for that purpose obstructing; the laws for naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising conditions of new appropriation of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation, — For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment from any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states : For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our consent: For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: For transporting us beyond the seas to be tried for pretended offenses : For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring pro- vince, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our governments : For suspending our own legislatures and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- tection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He lias excited domestic insurrections among us, and has endeavor- ed to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruc- tion of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. ^J ~3 V I' Nor have we been wanting In attention to our British brethren. We have warned than, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity ; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of sanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man* kind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That those united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor. The foregoing Declaration was, by the order of Congress, eaffi and signed by the following members : NEW HAMPSHIRE. Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthrw Thornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY Samuel Adams, John Adams. Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. RHODE ISLAND. Stephen Hopkins, WiHiam Kllery. CONNECTICUT, Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK. William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. JOHN HANCOCK. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, Jafcn Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Motion, George Clyraer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. Ca?sar Rodney, Gnorge Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Paco, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll, of Car- roll ton. VIRGINIA. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lcc, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, J r., Francis Lightfoot Lee Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph 11 ewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA. Edward R titled gc, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hajl, George Walton. Resolved^ That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, conventions and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several commanding officers of the Continental troops ; that it be proclaimed in each oVthe United States, and at the head of the army. / \ THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. *L 599 V ^[^[^[^isiig^^ETiai ^tsnaisuats^ El a 5 a s a a 5 a si x ^ c OF THE III!" ii Si *) ^ V M '-" i>, ".i. ■ ifillMIligniiiii^ IS] a ^ a s a a a a a 5 PREAMBLE. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per- fect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. SECTION I. i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con- gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SECTION II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States ; and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that Stftte :n which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Dela- ware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five; South- Carolina, five, and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION III. i. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two sena- V tors from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expira- tion of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make tempor- ary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall exercise the office of president of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall all be on oath or affirmation. When the president of the United States is tried, the chief-justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concur- rence of two-thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SECTION IV. i. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legisla- ture thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the place of choosing Senators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year; and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION V. I. Each House shall be the judge of the election, returns and qual- ifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 40 \~ members, In such manner and under such penalties as each House may provide. 2. Each house may determine the rule of iu proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. 3. Kach House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treas- ury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the sessions of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No Senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house- during his continuance in office. SECTION VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Rep- resentatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not he returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after It shall have been presented to him,the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House ot Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION VIII. The Congress shall have power— 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common define and general welfare q4 iN- United States; but >U duihs, imposts, and excises shall be uniform [hoot the United Si 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States. 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian b 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States. 5. To coin mom -. , ... (horuof, and of foreign eoin, and fix the standard of weights and measures. 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the set and current coin of the United States. 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads. S. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries. 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court. 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations. 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rales concerning captures on land and water. 12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years. 13. To provide and maintain a navy. 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the laad and naval forces. 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrection, and repel invasion. 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the ser- vice of the United States; reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the scat of government of the United States ; and to exercise like authority o%-er all places purchased, by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings ; and iS. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- ing into execution the foregoing powers vested by this constitution in the govcrr.ient of the United States, or in any department or office thereof. SECTION IX. i. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohib- ited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, In cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder, or ex fast facto law, shall be passed. 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in propor- tion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on any articles exported from any St;ite. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, dear or pay duties in another. 6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but In consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be pub- lished from time to time. 7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without eiit of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. SECTION X. I. No State shall enter Into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the ion of contracts; or grant any title of nobility. a. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any • 01 duties on Imports or exports, except what may be abso- lutely necessary for executing Its Inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and Imposts laid by any State on imports or exports. «* EFAKTMBNTS OF STATE, ARMY AN Secretary, - - $8,000 4 clerks, each 3 ass't secretaries, each 3,500 2 clerks, each I chief clerk, - 2,500 10 clerks, each I translator, - - 2,100 2 clerks, each 6 chiefs of Bureaus, each 2,100 10 clerks, each I I clerks, each - - 1,800 1 engineer, $1,600 1,400 1,200 1,000 900 1,200 I assistant engineer, - $1,000 With watchmen, firemen, laborers, etc, the total amount is about $100,000 a year. The Examiner of Claims, an officer appointed by the Attor- ney-General, has charge of the legal business of the Department of State. There are a number of Bureaus in the Department, the most important of which is the Consular. Quite a number of interpreters are continually needed in the offices. / 33.°°o 50 paymaster's clerks 1,200 60,000 390 clerks, each 1,200 468,000 90 Nat. Ccm. keepers 800 72,000 191 clerks, each I,0CO 191,000 450 weather observers 720 324,000 33 clerks, each COO 28,800 1,000 employes at ar- 1 draughtsman, 1 anatomist, • • i,Soo 1,600 8,800 mories and other business of Dep't. 800 800,000 8 printers, • * 593 .S9° + With rations, quarters and fuel in many cases, the expense of the Department borders on $3,000,000 annually. The Bureaus of the War Department. Tub Adjutant-General's Office. From this office are issued all orders with regard to the movements of the army. All records of individuals in the army from the privates to the officer of the highest rank may be found in this office. All com- missions, promotions, charges and discharges, come through this Bureau. In one word, the Adjutant-General is the insii by which the Executive communicates with the army. The Quartermaster-General's Office. This Bureau has charge of the purchasing anil distributing of all supplies (except subsistence) needed by the army, to furnish transportation for soldiers, military stores and supplies, and to pay all expenses of the military service not provided for in other Bureaus. The Commissary-General's Office. The business of this office consists in the purchase and distribution of subsistence and supplies for the army. The Paymaster-General's Office. Payments to the army are made through this office. Arrears of pay shall never exceed two months. The Surgeon-General's Office. This Bureau has charge of the surgical and medical department of the army, the pur- chase and distribution of hospital and medical supplies. It has authority in sani'ary matters, such as supervising the cooking done in the army, and the preparation of rations for the enlisted men. The Office of the Chief of Engineers. This Bureau has charge of the various fortifications, and provides for the surveys of rivers and harbors. All matters connected with skilled labor, such as building, bridging, excavation, mining, etc., in the mili- tary service, belong to this Bureau. Office of the Chief of Ordnance. This office has charge of all skilled labor necessary in the preparation and care of the ordnance and ordnance supplies. It purchases, inspects and controls the construction, movement and storing of all the heavy armament in the service. The Office of Military Justice. This office is under the charge of the Judge Advocatt-Generpil. The proceedings of all Courts-Martial, Courts of Inquiry and Military Commissions are received, revised and recorded in this office. All matters con- nected with the administration of justice in the army are the peculiar province of this Bureau. The Signal Office. The Signal Service, which has proved itself of incalculable benefit to the country, is an adjunct of the War Department and is managed by the officers of the Army detailed by the Secretary of \Y:ir. The iNsrr.cTOR-CJENitMAL's Dkpartmfnt is specially estab- lished to promote economy, efficiency sad compliance with the laws Sad 'V commands and stations, at the Military V.ul. n\ , .1 < .it all institution-: or departments thereof under charge of oftCSfS of the Arinv. The Military Academy at West Point The corps of cadets consist of one from each Congressional District of the United States, one from each State, one from the ; of Columbia, and ten from the United States at large, who are appointed by the President. The cadets must be between seventeen and twenty-two years old when admitted; they must b 1 in reading, writing, arithmetic, gram- mar, geography and history, particularly of the United States. The course at the Academy lasus four years, and on graduation the cadets are commissioned as second lieutenants in the army. Ml THE AMERICAN AKMY. 609 * ^EsT TaETTaETT^IsnSBTTaEn^IsTT^ETTaETraCsT^ S s a 5 m 15] a s a afais nai^i^isfiai^isnaEita^isu ^ i|VERY citizen of this Republic may well be proud of jSJi the history of the American Army. Organized by KJ George Washington and commanded ever since by eminent chieftains, it has carried the Star-spangled Banner over hundreds of stricken fields of battle, and never without honor* It has fought through four great wars and innumerable Indian revolts. Again and again has its valor been proved, until to-day, one of the smallest, the American Army is considered to be one of the most effective in the world. In time of peace its work does not cease. All along the Western frontier the scattered forces have all that they can do holding the savage Indian tribes to good behavior, Always fighting at tremendous odds, the service performed by the soldiers in the far West can only be described by the word "remarkable." The regular army is the skeleton upon which in time of war the forces of the Republic form. It consists of about 25,000. On a war footing our army could, no doubt, be pushed up to over three millions of men under arms. Towards the end of the civil war the total of the Federal and Confederate service was much larger than that figure. On the resignation of Gen- eral U. S. Grant, who became President in 1868, General Wil- liam Tecumseh Sherman, a soldier who fought his way to the front in the time that tried men's souls, was assigned to the highest rank. General Sherman retired from active service, however, in 1883, and General Phil. Sheridan was placed in command. Major-General John M. Schofield is the present commander of the United States Army. Pay-Roll of the United States Army. GENERALS. 3 major-generals, each 7,500— S aides-de-camp, $200 addition to line pay. 6 brigadier-generals, each 5,500 — 13 aides-de-camp, $150 addition to line pay. CAVALRY. :o colonels, each • $3»5oo 10 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000 30 majors, each • 2,500 120 captains, each 2,000 10 adjutants, each - i,Soo 10 reg't quartermasters, ea. $i,Soo 120 1st lieutenants, each 1,600 120 2d lieutenants, oach i»Jjoo 2 chaplains, ea. r • 1,500 ARTILLERY. 5 colonels, each • $3»50o 5 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000 15 majors, each • 2,500 60 captains, each • ■ 2,000 5 adjutants, each • ? 1,800 5 reg't quarter-masters, ea. i,Soo 120 1st lieutenants, each 1,000 65 2d lieutenants, each, T .5°° J majors, each 250 captains, each 25 adjutants, each ,000 25 colonels, each 25 lieutenant- colonels, each 3, 35 majors, each • 2,500 i,Soo i,Soo INFANTRY. 25 reg't quartermasters, e. 250 1st lieutenants, each 250 2d lieutenants, each 2 chaplains. DEPARTMENTAL SERVICE. 8 brigadier-generals, each $5,500 12 colonels, each - 3,300 33 lieutenant -colonels, each 3,000 150 majors, each 127 captains, each 76 1st lieutenants, each ENGINEER CORPS. 1 brigadier-general, • $5,500 | 24 majors, each 6 colonels, each - - 3,500 I 30 captains, each 12 lieutenant- colonels, each 3,000 I 1 brigadier-general, 4 major-generals, 33 brigadier-generals 59 colonels, - 34 lieutenant -colonels, 50 majors, - • SIGNAL OFFICE. $5>5°° I 32 lieutenants, each RETIRED LIST. 131 captains, 72 1st lieutenants, • 15 2d lieutenants, 8 chaplains, $1,800 1,500 Moo i,5oo $2,500 2,000 1,600 $2,500 1.S00 $1,500 Enlisted Men. NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS, The following enlisted men are paid these sums monthly dur- ing their first terms of enlistment, with some modifications pre- scribed by law : Sergeant-majors of cavalry, artillery and infan- try, $23 each ; quartermaster-sergeants of cavalry, artillery and infantry, $23 each ; chief trumpeters of cavalry, $22 ; principal musicians of artillery and infantry, $22; chief musicians of regi- ments, $60, and the allowances of a quartermaster-sergeant; saddler sergeants of cavalry, $22 ; first sergeants of cavalry, artillery and infantry, $22 ; sergeants of cavalry, artillery and infantry, $17; corporals of cavalry and light artillery, $15; corporals of artillery and infantry, $15; saddlers of cavalry, $15; blacksmiths and farriers of cavalry, $15; trumpeters of cavalry, $13; musicians of artillery and infantry, $13; privates of cavalry, artillery and infantry, $13; sergeant-majors of engi- neers, $36; quartermaster-sergeants of engineers, $36; ser- geants of engineers and ordnance, $34 ; corporals of engineers and ordnance, $20; musicians of engineers, $13; privates (first class) of engineers and ordnance, $17; privates (second class) of engineers and ordnance, $13. To these rates of pay $1 a month is added for the third year of enlistment, $1 for the fourth year, and one more for the fifth year, making $3 a month increase for the last year of enlistment ; but this increase is " re- tained pay," and is not given to the soldier until his term is ended, and it is forfeited if he misbehaves himself before he receives his discharge. Occasional extra services by soldiers and non-commissioned officers also entitle them to additional pay. / _M 610 THE WAR DEPARTMENT. "7 ££«. The Army During the Civil War. The following table shows the dates of the President's proc- lamations for men, the number of men called for and the num- ber secured. JL DATK OF PRESIDENT'S PROCLAMA- TION. April 15, 1S61 May 3, 1861 inly 99 and 25, 1861 lay and June, 1862 July 2, 186a August 4, 1 862 June 15, 1863 October 17, 1863.... February 1, 1S64.... March 14, 1864 April 23, 1864 July 18.1864 December 19, 1864.. Total.. NO. CALLED FOR. 75,000 82,748 j 500,000 j 300,000 300,000 100,000 300,000 J 200,000 j 200,000 85,000 500,000 300,000 -VJl-,7-0 PERIOD OF SERVICE. 3 months. 3 years. 3 months* 3 years. 9 months. 6 months, 2 years. 3 years. 100 days. 1,2,3 years 1 » v 3 y ears Nt'MBER OBTAINED 93.3*6 7*4^31 16,361 374.807 284,031 83,65a 2,690,401 The Strength of the Federal Army. DATE January ist, 1S61 uly 1st, 136: anuary ist, 1862 anuary ist, 1863 anuary 1st, 1S64 January 1st, 1S65 May 1st, 1865 ■4.66} ■S.1,588 527.204 698,802 611,250 620,924 797J8Q7 ".704 J.'°3 48,7'4 219,3*9 249,487 338.S36 202,709 16.367 1S6751 575.9-7 qiS,.8i 86o.737 gSMfio t*oo»Si6 Volunteers in the War. The following the Federal army New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, • Indiana, Massachusetts, Missouri, • Wisconsin, • Michigan, • Iowa, * New Jersey, Kentucky, • Maine, Connecticut, • Maryland, New Hampshire, Vermont, • West Virginia Tennessee, • Minnesota, table shows the number of men furnished to by each State in the Union. Rhode Island, Kansas, - .- District of Columbia, California, Delaware, • . Arkansas, . New Mexico . Louisiana, • Colorado, - • Indian Nation, Nebraska, « • North Carolina, Alabama, • • Texas, Oregon, • • Nevada, • Wuhtngton Territory, Mississippi, ■ Dakota Territory, 445.959 33V5S 3'0.654 258,162 "94.363 146,467 108,162 91,021 S8,m 75.793 75.3'S 75.275 69.73S 55.755 46,053 33,9'3 33,27' 32,003 31.092 24,002 23.248 20,095 '6,534 •5.725 12,26s 8.2S9 6,561 5.2*4 4.903 3.530 3.'57 3.'5o a.576 '.965 I,Sio i.oSo 964 545 306 The Bivouac of the Dead. There were killed in action, or died of wounds in the Civil war, commissioned officers, 5,221 ; enlisted men, 90,868. Died from disease or accident, commissioned officers, 2,321 ; enlisted men, 182,329; mak- ing a total loss of 289,739. Deaths which occurred after the men left the army arc not included in these figures. The Strength of the World's Armies. COUNTRIES. Argentine Republic Austria-Hungary. . Belgium Bolivia Brazil Canada ........ ... chili Chin.i Colombia Denmark Egypt r ranee Germany Great Britain. Greece India, British. Italy Japan Luxemburg... Mexico , Netherlands .. Norway Persia Peru Portugal Roumania...., Russia Scrvia Spain Sweden Switzerland... Turkey United States. Uruguay Venezuela. . . . 1,400/100 J7.73M01 5.47G.&S 2fibOjOOO 11,108,201 4,352,060 2,400,3*/' Wfa atpaa 3.774.COO i.0*4£4 17,419,980 36,005,788 45,i94,'7 2 35,246.S&3 252,541^10 ■SiSomoo 209,673 t«B ijBo6#oo 7,0002300 3^>5cscoo 4.348.55' 5,376,000 72,520,000 1 jSoyDJO 16,333.293 «3>«3 »Si.7S7 62.622. acn 447^00 ».7S.'97 8^27 46.3S3 32M '5J»4 22200 3.573 JOOtOOO 3/3O0 35.727 '5*oo 502,764 tes 12,118 •8oj» 214,667 36,777 *4A5o 65,113 •8.750 57^oo 4.670 34^74 19,812 974.77" 50,000 00,000 4i,aSo H7.500 350,000 2709° 2,357 2,240 304,000 '."5,833 ■6S^77 32*00 70°.'S2 50J2CO l,u«V«»l 3O.740 49*54 43*oo ". 753."64 ■,492,10. 577 .906 _35*oo y- ,"■' 736,502 5'.72' •63,19s 241 JJCO 4CV000 78,024 200,000 2.7UJ05 265,000 ■10*95 610,200 3,165,000 22,357 ■3-s ill < "S * 3k574.5'S 0,776,429 1,126,916 777*99 982,432 2,539,027 2,l./\2l6 114,279,761 9».3.V>^29 74*01,500 2,2**4,71/. 84,481,195 4- i ."47,-"'.? {Mil 9.7**64 BJOMOO I /-•'.. 75.1 4.373.833 5.222,227 137,^1.-. --02 1,7' >."-' 24 .So, ,.,30 ■9May 40,466, • ,"-70,1 o e *.—• - r „• *i-46 •35 1. 19 .12 3-09 3.17 2.12 '•34 •33 ••52 •23 •43 1.04 3.10 3 •91 ••* .1 •5 : .02 •*» LSI .So .iS S3 '5-73 25.04 '4-54 3-" 12.63 21.' 1 2»37 15.82 23- >3 20-32 34-'9 15.52 40-S3 Secretaries of War. Henry Knox, Mass. Timothy Pickering, Penn. James McIIcnry, Md. Samuel Dexter, Mass. ■ >!d, Conn. Henry Dearborn, Mass. William Eustis, Mass. John Armstrong, N. Y. James Monroe, Va. William II. Crawford, Ga. John C. Calhoun, S. C. James Barbour, Va. Pctrr n. Porter, N. Y. John H. Eaton, Tenn. Lewis Cass, Ohio. J.., 1 U. Poinsett, S. C. John MI, Tenn. John C Spencer, N. Y. James M. Porter. Penn. Negatived by Senate. Secretaries of the Navy. Benjamin Stoddard, Md. Kobert Smith, Md. iacob Crowninshicld, Mass '.