SANTA BARBARA STATH COLLEGE LIBRAE. X
 
 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 BY 
 
 LIDA B. EARHART, Ph.D. 
 
 Author of tl Systematic Study in the Elementary Schools" 
 
 and " Teaching Children to Study" 
 
 Formerly Professor of Elementary Education in the 
 
 University of Nebraska 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION 
 
 By HENRY SUZZALLO, Ph.D. 
 President of the University of Washington 
 
 HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO DALLAS 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 <E$e fctbersibf $re Cambridge
 
 COPYRIGHT, IQIS, BY LIDA B. EARHART 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 CAMBRIDGE MASSACHUSETTS 
 PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.
 
 7025 
 
 3, 
 
 T6 
 
 PROFESSOR AND MBS. FRANK M. 
 
 FA BARBARA STATE COLLEGE LIBRAR
 
 PREFACE 
 
 SOME experiments conducted by the writer a fe\n 
 years ago gave evidence that teachers were not clear in 
 their own minds as to what they desired their pupils to 
 do when they studied their lessons. There were strong 
 indications that they wanted the contents of textbooks 
 memorized. Aside from memorizing, there was little 
 suggested that was definite. This lack of knowledge of 
 the true nature of study indicates a lack of knowledge 
 of the nature of subject-matter, of the purposes it 
 serves, and also of the various forms of teaching 
 through which the ends of education are accomplished. 
 Experience both with teachers in training and with 
 teachers in their own classrooms confirms the idea that 
 many are limited in their understanding of subject- 
 matter and in their use of method. 
 
 From the writer's close relation with the school- 
 room has grown the attempt to remedy the situation 
 just described. Both exposition and illustration have 
 been employed. The many examples cited have been 
 taken from actual lessons, hence they show what can 
 be done. They are not free from error and weakness, 
 and this fact should encourage those who seek to im- 
 prove their own procedure. Perfection in the model 
 studied arouses suspicion that it is not true to life and 
 cannot be realized in actual practice.
 
 vi PREFACE 
 
 It is perhaps not too strong a statement to say that 
 the prevailing fault with teachers is that they go before 
 their classes, day after day, without having definite 
 aims in mind, and without having determined how 
 they will teach the lessons. They have not decided 
 whether they are to increase knowledge, to form hab- 
 its, to influence feelings, or to establish some new rela- 
 tions among ideas already known. The chapters here 
 presented are intended to remedy this situation, and to 
 help teachers decide definitely what the nature of each 
 lesson is to be. 
 
 The subject of lesson plans has been treated from 
 two viewpoints. There is the complete plan for those 
 who are in training, or for the teacher who wishes to 
 work out an entire unit of subject-matter. There is 
 also the condensed plan for those who must cover 
 several lessons every day, and who cannot possibly 
 amplify the plan for each recitation period. Teachers 
 must learn to do in planning what they expect their 
 pupils to do in studying, see the main points and 
 keep them in mind. 
 
 The author's indebtedness to Professor John Dewey 
 for his conception of education will be apparent to the 
 reader. It is freely acknowledged. The services of the 
 many who have contributed lesson plans, or who have 
 taught the lessons which have been reported, are recog- 
 nized with gratitude. To Professor F. M. McMurry 
 thanks are due for suggestive criticism. Grateful appre- 
 ciation is hereby rendered to Professor Henry Suzzallo,
 
 PREFACE vii 
 
 whose counsel helped to determine the character of the 
 book. He must share largely the responsibility for the 
 fact that it was written at all. 
 
 LIDA B. EARHART. 
 
 NEW YORK, 
 October 20. 1914. 
 
 PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION 
 
 THE philosophy of education has been moving forward 
 along certain clearly defined lines in recent years, and 
 teachers and writers are seeking to embody this phi- 
 losophy in practice and in literature. Several theories, 
 while receiving wide attention, are still in so incom- 
 plete a stage as to require much criticism and careful 
 experimentation to establish on a firm and working 
 basis the elements of truth and helpfulness which they 
 undoubtedly possess. 
 
 Among these theories may be included those relat- 
 ing to supervised study, the project method, the so- 
 cialized recitation, socialization of the curriculum, and 
 silent reading. These movements are outgrowths of 
 ideas which were receiving some attention at the time 
 this book was written, and which were discussed in the 
 various chapters. In order to make the book more use- 
 ful to students at the present time, the bibliography 
 has been revised so as to include the more recent litera- 
 ture, not only on the theories mentioned, but also 
 along other lines. Additional exercises which experi-
 
 viii PREFACE 
 
 ence has shown to be helpful have been prepared for a 
 number of the chapters. 
 
 It is believed that these new aids will not only ex- 
 tend the field of educational thought for those who 
 study the book, but that they will also indicate larger 
 possibilities for the application of this thought to 
 practice. 
 
 LIDA B. EARHART. 
 UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA* 
 
 September 7, 1921,
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION. BY HENRY SUZZALLO ri 
 
 I. SUBJECT-MATTER: ITS NATURE, DEVELOPMENT, 
 
 AND PURPOSES 1 
 
 II. WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN .... 16 
 HI. WHAT SCHOOL EDUCATION SHOULD ACCOMPLISH 22 
 IV. MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION ... 28 
 
 V. EXERCISES WHICH AIM AT THE DISCOVERY OF 
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. THE INDUCTIVE 
 LESSON 38 
 
 VI. LESSONS IN WHICH GENERAL KNOWLEDGE is 
 
 EMPLOYED. THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON . . 55 
 
 - VIE. THE STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES . . 70 
 
 VUL THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS .... 80 
 
 IX. THE RECITATION EXERCISE 93 
 
 X. THE AROUSAL AND GUIDANCE OF APPRECIATION 109 
 
 XI. SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 130 
 
 XII. THE FORMATION OF HABITS AND THE INCREASE 
 
 OF SKILL 150 
 
 XTO. SCHOOL EXERCISES WHICH INVOLVE REVIEW . 178 
 
 XIV. TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 192 
 
 XV. MAKING LESSON PLANS 220 
 
 APPENDIX: SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSON PLANS . . 237 
 
 OUTLINE 265 
 
 INDEX 271
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 A NEW volume on the art of teaching is here pre- 
 sented. It is offered to the professional public in the 
 belief that its discussion of the theory of proper class- 
 room procedure will be more helpful to the average 
 practitioner than the works hitherto available. Large 
 as have been the contributions of the pedagogical texts 
 published within the last decade, the perpetual need 
 of a simpler and more practical statement remains. 
 There is, too, the necessity for incorporating in book 
 form such new facts as have been revealed by the 
 numerous inquiries and experiments of the last few 
 years. The present volume is, therefore, a reinterpre- 
 tation of teaching procedure, stated, as far as possible, 
 in the current and familiar phraseology of ordinary 
 teachers, yet taking into account the recent investiga- 
 tions of our ablest educational thinkers. It offers a 
 combination of scholarship and practicality rarely 
 found in teachers' texts. 
 
 The teachers of the primary school will be quick to 
 appreciate the worth of the pedagogical principles here 
 elucidated. Their experience with progressive practice 
 is now ample enough to make them sense fully the 
 importance of generalizations which take modern 
 experimentation into account. They will welcome a
 
 rii INTRODUCTION 
 
 systematic summary which clarifies many obscure 
 points, resolves long-debated issues, and shows the 
 practical bearing of abstract laws. 
 
 Teachers in secondary schools will find in this trea- 
 tise much that is novel. They have so recently turned 
 from traditional practice to scientific theory that they 
 will find more that is suggestive in this volume than 
 their colleagues from the lower schools. In spite of 
 the fact that teaching difficulties have been multiply- 
 ing with such great rapidity as to make help welcome 
 from any direction, the high-school instructor has 
 been repelled by current texts because these have been 
 written almost exclusively from the point of view of 
 elementary school practice. He will be glad to read a 
 book which meets him halfway. 
 
 There was a time, not long since, when the institu- 
 tion of teaching method was scantily accepted even 
 among elementary school teachers. Now that recogni- 
 tion is won there, the battleground shifts to the teach- 
 ers of our secondary schools. It may be said that we 
 are just at the beginning of the movement to prove the 
 worth of modern pedagogical procedure to the higher 
 schools. An inquiry into the misconceptions which 
 must be fought will do much to indicate the difficulties 
 of that campaign. 
 
 An initial misconception which will be encountered 
 is the belief of many teachers that "there is nothing in 
 teaching method; that one has only to know his subject 
 thoroughly to teach it well." This is a view widely
 
 INTRODUCTION riii 
 
 Iield by instructors in high schools, more particularly 
 those trained in the universities. It is very largely the 
 reflection of the attitude of their college teachers. 
 
 To give the origin of such a prejudice is to offer the 
 best criticism of it. The university instructor does not 
 appreciate the importance of teaching methods merely 
 because his greatest difficulties do not lie in this par- 
 ticular direction. The students that he teaches are 
 not far removed from the maturity of his own mind. 
 The gap to be bridged is slight. His own scientific 
 organization of thought almost suffices to reach them- 
 At least his partial failure with a traditional college 
 clientele is not dramatic enough to attract his atten- 
 tion. But he is very much concerned with advancing 
 the margins of knowledge and with acquiring the latest 
 known truth. Here he finds his major problem. His 
 chief difficulty is to equip himself with content. Hence 
 with him, scholarship is everything and teaching pro- 
 cess nothing at all. His prejudice against any large 
 emphasis upon modes of presenting knowledge is 
 merely an expression of his accidental state of mind. 
 It is a naive generalization from his personal situa- 
 tion. 
 
 The case is quite the contrary among primary 
 teachers. They were the first to recognize and develop 
 a theory of teaching method. The facts and skills with 
 which a teacher of little children is concerned are 
 so elementary as to be a common possession among 
 adults. Scholarship is not a problem, but its presenta-
 
 xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 tion is. The distance between the teacher's sober and 
 abstract mind and the playful, active, and concrete 
 interests of boys and girls is great. The chief problem 
 is to bridge the gap. Thus artfulness in teaching 
 becomes the major task. Hence the readiness of prim- 
 ary teachers to believe in the magical properties of 
 method and device. They, too, are merely expressing 
 their own accidental attitude of mind, judging naively 
 from a special case. 
 
 The secondary teacher's midway position between 
 the college and the primary school creates his dilemma. 
 By situation, scholarship is to him more than to the 
 elementary teacher, and teaching methods more than 
 to the college professor. Tradition and training have 
 allied him with university men; and in the past he has 
 shared their points of view. But the increasing horde 
 of unselected youth that comes to him from the ele- 
 mentary school now creates difficulties which make 
 him more and more sympathetic with the elementary 
 school's methods of adjustment. Relaxing his tradi- 
 tional over-confidence in mere scholarly attainment 
 and developing a new tolerance for the mental life of 
 youth, he turns hopefully toward the promises of peda- 
 gogical theory. Perhaps when a decade or more has 
 passed and his mind has assimilated the new technique 
 of modern teaching, he will reveal, better than the 
 teachers above or below him, that true synthesis of 
 scholarship and teaching method which every teacher 
 should bear in mind.
 
 INTRODUCTION rv 
 
 But teachers, whatever their location in the educa- 
 tional system, have been prone to rely on too narrow 
 a range of teaching methods. If they but saw that 
 each teaching method has only a relative worth, they 
 would be more versatile. A method of teaching is only 
 a means to an end. Modify the purpose or the condi- 
 tion of operation, and the procedure should change. 
 Yet teachers have shown little capacity for remember- 
 ing this fact. Traditional methods; born of the need to 
 teach a dead language, have been transferred bodily 
 to the teaching of a live mode of speech. What has 
 been used in spelling has been copied hi geography. 
 Drill, with a proper sanction in one place, is indis- 
 criminately applied. Objectification, of supreme value 
 with beginners in any domain, is prolonged to the 
 point where it interferes with effective thought. We 
 need to know that every method is a specialized in- 
 strument, and just because it has one great strength 
 carries many incompetencies. It must be used in place, 
 for its own particular condition and end. In the whole 
 range of school activities it must be supplemented by 
 many other special means. There is no one best method 
 for school teachers. Each procedure is best for a specific 
 purpose or condition, and many are required to meet 
 all the variations in school life. I Hence the ad vent of a 
 better teaching technique will be hastened if we admit, 
 at the outset, that all special means of teaching have 
 only a particular worth; that the teacher must be ver- 
 satile in the use of methods; and that the best that
 
 xvi INTRODUCTION 
 
 theory can do is to suggest the spirit and the law of the 
 teaching adjustment and to describe those types of 
 teaching which in real practice are found only in 
 infinite variation. 
 
 HENRY SUZZALLO. 
 
 TEACHERS COLLEGE, 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITT, 
 December,
 
 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER: ITS NATURE, DEVELOPMENT, 
 AND PURPOSES 
 
 Need of understanding what subject-matter is 
 
 THE expression "subject-matter" is frequently as- 
 sociated with that body of knowledge which is to be 
 taught from books only. The method of teaching it 
 often consists of having the contents of books read or 
 memorized with but little consideration given to their 
 meaning or worth. Since an understanding of what 
 subject-matter is, and a clear view of the purposes it 
 serves, have a strong influence upon the methods 
 employed in teaching it, it may be worth while to be- 
 gin our discussion of methods with a review of that 
 to which the method is to be applied. 
 
 Where subject-matter first exists 
 
 In the first place, subject-matter always exists in 
 some form outside of books before it is committed to 
 book form. This has been true of the past, and it holds 
 true of the present time. Through accident or design, 
 through the exigencies of life or by reflective thought, 
 new ideas, new ways of acting and of doing things, have
 
 * TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 come into existence. The books on primitive life 
 which have been published within recent years have 
 put before us in greatly condensed periods the progress 
 of man from stage to stage of his material and intel- 
 lectual development. Tormented by hunger, he learned 
 how to capture and kill the wild animals, how to till 
 the soil and care for his crops. The presence of foes 
 compelled him to devise means of protection for him- 
 self and of destruction for them. New forms of dan- 
 ger necessitated the invention of new modes of self- 
 protection. A recent magazine article by a well-known 
 writer 1 shows us this thought clearly. In the Place of 
 Departed Spirits, one who had preyed upon his fellows 
 with teeth and hands cried aloud for judgment upon 
 the man who had killed him by throwing stones. The 
 thrower of stones pleaded the necessity of devising 
 this means of self-defense, and in turn denounced the 
 man who, by means of bow and arrow, had rendered 
 stone-throwing futile. The archer, in turn, urged his 
 need of protecting himself from the stone-thrower, 
 and denounced the use of armor and battle-axes which 
 had made his mode of warfare of no avail. The man 
 in armor complained of the invention of gunpowder; 
 and so the story proceeds, showing how stern neces- 
 sity had compelled people to think and to act and to 
 advance in proficiency. 
 
 One tries vainly to imagine how the discovery was 
 
 1 Kipling, "The Benefactors," in The American Magazine, vol. 
 74. p. 258.
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 3 
 
 made that vegetable and animal fibers can be twisted 
 into threads, nor do we know how or by whom the first 
 spindle was invented. From twisting with the fingers 
 to twisting with a cleft stick weighted with clay was a 
 long step. From the cleft stick to the metal spindle 
 was another stage of progress. From the spindle to 
 the spinning wheel was a tremendous advance; and 
 the invention of the spinning jenny is so great an ac- 
 complishment that the simple spindle seems utterly 
 insignificant; yet both are responses to a fundamental 
 need of man, the need of clothing. 
 
 Many forms of thought and action 
 
 As man's needs were many, his activities leading to 
 their satisfaction were many. He constantly devised 
 and invented processes, tools, weapons, means of con> 
 munication, of transportation, of recreation, of amuse- 
 ment, of religious worship, and the like. His reflec- 
 tions as to his own origin and the source of all that he 
 saw about him, his relation to the Supreme Being, his 
 duty to his fellow men, led him to a simple philosophy. 
 Barter led to a means of computing. With increasing 
 population came specialization of labor and the growth 
 of manufacturing, as well as a host of other activities 
 suited to the new conditions. 
 
 Need of transmitting modes of activity 
 
 But once having been attained, these thought prod- 
 ucts and these various modes of activity had to be
 
 4 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 communicated to others, especially to the young of 
 the race, in order that these might profit by them and 
 might in turn participate helpfully in the affairs of the 
 family, tribe, or nation. 
 
 What subject-matter was originally 
 
 These various ways of doing things and of thinking 
 about things which were passed on from the older 
 members of society to the younger constituted the 
 subject-matter of instruction. Thus the shaping of 
 arrowheads, the manner of snaring wild game, of catch- 
 ing fish, of making clothing, of building shelters, of 
 tracking enemies, these and many other processes, 
 in addition to a certain fund of knowledge, traditions, 
 and superstitions, which had accumulated from re- 
 motest times, made up the body of subject-matter im- 
 parted to the rising generation. By means of it, the 
 young of the tribe were taught how to preserve life, 
 how to destroy the foe; were taught what feelings they 
 should have toward the tribal enemies, what their 
 duties to their own social unit were, what the ex- 
 planations of natural phenomena were, how they 
 should regard the Great Power which manifested 
 itself in the world about them, and how they should 
 worship it. 
 
 It was life with its processes, its arts, and its indus- 
 tries; life with its freight of cultivated beliefs, feelings, 
 and ideas, which was handed down as a precious her- 
 itage from one generation to another.
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 6 
 
 The integral nature of subject-matter 
 
 This heritage, thus transmitted, was a closely inter- 
 woven whole, not a mass of distinct, disconnected 
 parts. Subject-matter was a unit and was not divided 
 into separate subjects such as are to-day listed in all 
 courses of study. This was doubtless due to the fact 
 that the teaching was done hi connection with the 
 everyday life of the young people and was not con- 
 ducted in a separate place, at a special time, and by 
 people who devoted themselves exclusively to the art 
 of teaching. It was taught while in the very process of 
 serving its intrinsic or direct function, 1 which is the 
 function which it serves in the world of life aside from 
 the scholastic world of classes, books, and schoolrooms. 
 
 Effect of books upon subject-matter 
 
 Nor was the matter to be taught cooped up in books 
 as is now so generally the case. It is conceivable that the 
 introduction of books tended to set apart that which 
 was taught from its direct association with life and 
 its processes, to render it fixed and less susceptible to 
 change, and ultimately to result in a body of knowledge 
 more or less isolated from the world of active life and re- 
 garded by some as being more valuable on that account. 
 
 Subject-matter modifiable 
 
 Subject-matter in its original place, hi the world 
 outside of schools and books, is subject to modifica- 
 1 W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, chap. ra.
 
 6 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 tion. The conditions which called it into existence 
 may pass; hence the need of employing certain knowl- 
 edge or processes may pass ; and, as far as social usage 
 is concerned, certain units of subject-matter have 
 thus ceased to exist. A textbook in arithmetic, pub- 
 lished in the early days of our national life, required 
 the pupils to find the value in Maryland money of a 
 certain sum of Massachusetts money. With uniform 
 coinage, such problems are useless. With modern 
 banking conditions, sight drafts of a kind once em- 
 ployed are no longer necessary; and with business 
 Uansacted through stock companies, partnership with 
 the time element becomes obsolete. A military acad- 
 emy which spent much of its time teaching the modes 
 of warfare employed even a few hundred years ago 
 would be considered a poor agency to prepare men for 
 the national defense. A consideration of other forms 
 of activity will reveal similar changes due to altered 
 conditions. 
 
 Not only is it true that some forms of subject-mat- 
 ter fall into disuse because they are no longer necessi- 
 tated by conditions ; it is also true that they are changed 
 and improved by the genius of man. Chemistry is 
 very different from the alchemy which preceded it, 
 and astronomy is a great advance upon astrology. 
 Long division and the use of the decimal system are 
 not such ancient history but that we may see how supe- 
 rior they are to the methods which antedated them. 
 Even a little reflection upon the arts and industries of
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 7 
 
 modern life will convince one that they have been greatly 
 altered from their original form by man's intellectual 
 activity; and while some may question whether all 
 have been unproved, there can be no doubt that in 
 most cases, at least, the change has been for the better. 
 
 The development of new subject-matter 
 
 We have seen that certain modes of activity and 
 certain beliefs have been quite outgrown, and that 
 others have been modified, improved, and made to 
 suit changing conditions. In addition to these varia- 
 tions, new ideas and new forms of activity have come 
 into being, or are at the present time in the process of 
 becoming. The whole science of aeronautics is still 
 in the formative stage. Chemistry extends its bounds 
 from year to year. Electrical engineers present new 
 accomplishments constantly. Philosophy takes now 
 this turn and now that, and refuses to remain fixed. 
 The fields of sociology and economics are just fairly 
 opening up, and the next few years will doubtless see 
 great development in them. The use of the turbine 
 engine has already greatly affected transportation, 
 and the possibilities of the monorail car with its gyro- 
 scope are not fully developed. The wireless tele- 
 phone and telegraph are still so recent as to be ranked 
 with the marvelous. In short, it is difficult to think 
 of any field of human thought or action which is not 
 changing in one or more of the three ways above 
 described. Either some part becomes obsolete and is
 
 8 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 discontinued, or some part is adapted to altered needs 
 and conditions, or entirely new elements are added 
 from time to time as human thought faces and over- 
 comes new situations, or sees the possibility of meeting 
 old ones in new ways. 
 
 The subject-matter of the schools and changing social 
 conditions 
 
 Are the modifications which society works out re- 
 flected in the material taught in the schools? Is the 
 intrinsic, or direct, function of subject-matter the 
 dominant one? In the first place, have all the obsolete 
 processes been discontinued? An examination of the 
 books used by pupils would reveal the presence of 
 some material and some processes which are either 
 quite behind the times, or which are employed by so 
 few people that it can hardly be considered the func- 
 tion of schools meant for all the people to impart 
 them. We still persist with the extraction of cube and 
 square roots; with cases hi bank discount which in- 
 volve finding the time or the rate of discount; and 
 with tables of denominate numbers which are em- 
 ployed by a limited class who, after their public school 
 course is ended, must make special preparation for 
 their careers. The schools continue to insist upon cer- 
 tain uses of the marks of punctuation which business 
 people no longer follow. 1 
 
 1 See The Teachers College Record, vol. iv, No. 2, for further 
 suggestions in regard to subject-matter which no longer has in- 
 trinsic value.
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 9 
 
 Frequently the schools are slow in introducing the 
 changes which are an established part of social usage. 
 We might expect some lagging behind until the new 
 processes have been found adequate and worthy, but 
 even after proof of worth and usefulness has been es- 
 tablished, the schools still fail to introduce the newer 
 forms. Business employs interest tables, typewriters, 
 counting-machines, and other devices for saving time 
 and securing accuracy. How many schools teach their 
 use, or see to it that their pupils know that such de- 
 vices exist? How many plasterers, paperhangers, and 
 carpenters make their calculations as do the pupils 
 in our schools? What age of literary production is 
 represented by the readers and supplementary mate- 
 rial furnished to the pupils, in our elementary schools 
 especially? People outside of school are much inter- 
 ested at present in getting acquainted with the world's 
 best music through the mechanical devices which 
 make this possible. How many schools are still con- 
 tent to do nothing in music except to teach note-read- 
 ing and such songs as the pupils themselves can render? 
 How many are affected either in material or method 
 by the present great musical movement? There was 
 a time when young people went to work at some 
 business or trade in which they secured their technical 
 training during a period of apprenticeship. Society 
 demands a different plan, in these later days, and the 
 educational world is attempting to respond. The 
 schools must prepare for the occupations at the pres-
 
 10 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 ent time, and they are much engrossed in trying to 
 catch up with the social requirement. 
 
 One result of this technical teaching in the schools 
 will be to bring the schools back again into that close 
 contact with life which has for some time been lacking. 
 The highly technical schools have kept this contact, 
 and instead of falling behind in subject-matter, they 
 have forged ahead of social usage and have given the 
 world most valuable assistance. It is only necessary 
 to refer to the magnificent work of our schools of agri- 
 culture to justify this statement. 
 
 Why the intrinsic function of subject-matter is not 
 made more prominent in the schools. 
 
 (a) One reason why the schools are somewhat behind 
 the times in the processes and ideas which they teach 
 has already been stated. It is because the schools lead 
 an existence isolated to a certain extent from partici- 
 pation in the affairs of everyday life. The teacher's 
 calling demands much time and energy, and compara- 
 tively few people combat the inertia which tends to 
 keep things constantly in the same state. A teacher 
 needs extended and varied experience, keen insight, 
 and almost endless patience in order to keep pace 
 with social advance and to keep her classes in touch 
 with it, to say nothing of bringing them into intimate 
 relation with existing conditions. 
 
 (6) Another reason for the slowness with which 
 changes in subject-matter are made, or for the lack
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 11 
 
 of change, is the idea which prevails with many people 
 that the subject-matter in itself is not of great mo- 
 ment. Its value lies in the effect produced upon the 
 mind of the learners in the process of mastering it. 
 They believe in the doctrine of discipline; consequently, 
 subject-matter which at one time had a vital relation 
 with the world's affairs is retained because of the value 
 it possesses as a means of mental training. Many 
 people urge the retention of obsolete processes in 
 arithmetic because they afford excellent training in 
 reasoning. The study of higher mathematics and of 
 the classical languages has been strongly advocated 
 for similar reasons. These subjects are represented 
 as being peculiarly valuable for the mental training 
 which they provide. In the elementary school, the 
 finer intricacies of grammar have been insisted upon 
 for the same reason. History and geography have 
 been presented by many teachers, not so much that 
 they might throw light upon the life of man, but in 
 order that the imagination and the reasoning processes 
 might be trained through them. 
 
 There is no need of presenting obsolete material or 
 processes, or situations and problems quite contrary 
 to fact, or such as rarely occur, in order to cultivate 
 the powers of reasoning, imagination, attention, per- 
 severance, and other qualities of the mind. All these 
 can be more effectively cultivated, and the learner at 
 the same time can be brought into close touch with 
 the life of to-day, by using material which is related
 
 12 TYPES OP TEACHING 
 
 to the environment of the school, to the lives and 
 interests of the pupils and their families, and to the 
 social interests and problems of the present time. 
 
 It is well to remember, moreover, that a quality of 
 the mind should be given exercise in as many different 
 directions as possible and upon many occasions, if we 
 wish it to become general in its activity. Reasoning, 
 memory, politeness, truthfulness, and other desirable 
 traits should be cultivated under many kinds of cir- 
 cumstances, and exercised frequently, in order to ex- 
 tend their range, and to increase the certainty of their 
 use when needed. 1 
 
 (c) Another reason for the static courses of study 
 in the elementary and high schools is that they are 
 dominated to some extent by the idea that the ele 
 mentary school must prepare for courses to be given 
 in the high school, and that the high school must pre- 
 pare for college. In consequence, much of the subject- 
 matter is taught, not because it has intrinsic or direct 
 value, but because it is preparatory in function. The 
 Germans sometimes describe the study of Latin in 
 their Gymnasia by pupils during the period between 
 nine and fourteen years of age as resembling a trip 
 through a tunnel. It leads somewhere, but the learner 
 cannot see where. This description is true of other 
 subjects than beginning Latin. They seem to the 
 pupils to contain little value in themselves, the argu- 
 
 1 William James, Talks to Teachers, chap, xn; E. L. Thorndiki 
 Principles of Teaching, chap. xv. ,
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 13 
 
 ment urged being that they are necessary to the mas- 
 tery of subjects to be presented later. Their value is 
 thus preparatory rather than intrinsic. 
 
 At the present time there is much discontent and 
 agitation over the situation which requires so many 
 pupils to spend time upon studies whose chief claim 
 is that they prepare for higher schools, when so few 
 of these pupils attend these higher schools. The 
 effect of this movement will probably cause a radical 
 change in the curricula of the lower schools. The 
 preparatory subjects which are retained will no doubt 
 be made to yield whatever value they possess that is 
 intrinsic in nature. 
 
 The pleasure element in subject-matter 
 
 Several forms of subject-matter, possessing one or 
 more of the functions already described, may, upon 
 occasion, take onjstill another purpose. They may 
 be regarded as accomplishments, and may be imparted 
 to pupils not because they are in themselves useful, 
 or disciplinary, or preparatory to other courses, but 
 because they are ornamental in nature. Deportment, 
 music, dancing, art, modern languages, and similar 
 subjects, presented in so-called finishing schools, pos- 
 sess this function. It is proper for people of certain 
 rank or station in life to possess some knowledge of 
 them. They adorn life; they add to social enjoyment; 
 hence they are taught. They are not to be esteemed 
 lightly "because of the function they serve, since
 
 14 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 pleasure is an end of education. On the contrary, it 
 might be advisable to make more provision in our 
 schools for those subjects which further the higher 
 enjoyments of society, because it is natural for people 
 to seek pleasure of some kind, and tastes in this direc- 
 tion can be influenced and largely determined by 
 training. The schools have here a duty which they 
 possibly have not realized, and which they certainly 
 have not fully performed. 
 
 Summary. (1) Subject-matter represents ways of think- 
 ing, feeling, or doing evolved by the race in the course of its 
 development. (2) Subject-matter is modifiable. It may be- 
 come obsolete because the necessity for its use has ceased to 
 exist, or because a more adequate way of thinking, feeling, 
 or acting has been evolved. Part of a certain form of 
 subject-matter may be changed to suit changing conditions. 
 New forms or units of subject-matter may come into exist- 
 ence. (3) Subject-matter is more likely to experience these 
 changes in actual social experience than in the schools be- 
 cause the life of the schools is to a certain extent set apart 
 from the conditions which modify or produce subject-matter. 
 (4) Subject-matter serves various purposes or functions. Its 
 function may be (a) intrinsic; (6) disciplinary; (c) prepara- 
 tory; (d) decorative. 
 
 REFERENCES: John Dewey, School and Society. The Child and 
 the Curriculum; W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, chapters 
 H-vi; Bobbitt, What the Schools Teach and Might Teach; King, So- 
 cial Aspects of Education, chap. i. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give examples of subject-matter in five different subjects of the 
 school curriculum which existed before it was put into a text- 
 book.
 
 SUBJECT-MATTER 15 
 
 2. Make a list of ten situations or needs which compelled the mak- 
 ing of subject-matter. 
 
 8. Name several ways by which subject-matter is passed on from 
 one generation to another. 
 
 4. What are some of the needs of the present time for which sub- 
 ject-matter has not yet been provided? 
 
 5. What objection have you to offer to the definition of subject- 
 matter as a way of doing something or thinking about some- 
 thing? 
 
 6. Give at least one good argument for, and one against, the use of 
 books as a means of imparting subject-matter. 
 
 7. What changing social conditions can you mention for which the 
 schools do not as yet provide? 
 
 8. What can the schools do in practical ways to teach the intrinsic 
 function of subject-matter? 
 
 9. Mention three subjects which are taught because they prepare 
 the way for later subjects. Have these subjects any intrinsic 
 value? 
 
 10. What subject-matter did you ever study or teach because it was 
 supposed to result in mental discipline? Should you say that it 
 accomplished this result? If you think it did, do you regard 
 it as more effective for the purpose than subject-matter which 
 has a place in actual practice outside of school? 
 
 11. Do you object to teaching subjects because they give pleasure 
 or are classed as accomplishments? Mention several subjects 
 of this nature. What argument can be urged in favor of provid- 
 ing for them in the course of study? 
 
 12. Select five subjects commonly taught in the schools and show 
 what the intrinsic function of each is. 
 
 18. Show that the schools either do or do not so teach the subjects 
 named in 12 as to emphasize their intrinsic function. 
 
 14. What ideas gained in the study of grammar have aided you in 
 speaking and writing correctly? 
 
 15. What ideas gained in the study of grammar have not been of 
 practical use to you? 
 
 16. If the course of study in arithmetic were based upon the actual 
 needs of people in ordinary life, what are some of the elimina- 
 tions and additions which would have to be made?
 
 n 
 
 WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 
 
 Ideas more or less complete and more or less organ- 
 ized 
 
 WHEN children enter school, they are not only 
 young in years, but they are also young in thought, in 
 activity, in life in general. It is true that they have 
 acquired a large store of ideas, but many of these are 
 incorrect or incomplete. Very little organization, com- 
 paratively speaking, has as yet taken place among the 
 different mental states, and even that little is often 
 found to be faulty. Of actual experience, accumu- 
 lated by themselves, there is only a small store. They 
 have had glimpses of only a few pages of the world's 
 great volume, and have not fully comprehended those 
 few. 
 
 We never arrive at a stage where our ideas are com- 
 plete and free from error and where we have established 
 all the necessary, to say nothing of all the possible, 
 relations among them. We always lack some knowl- 
 edge; we always know some things incorrectly; we 
 constantly fail to see the traditional four that comes 
 from putting two and two together; that is, we do not 
 always see the significance of things because we fail 
 to relate them to ideas which would explain them.
 
 WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 17 
 
 The younger we are and the less trained we are, the 
 greater the extent to which these statements are true. 
 In very young school children, we should expect to 
 find them especially applicable. 
 
 Attitudes and feelings 
 
 After very early infancy, we have, at any stage of 
 life, a varied assortment of feelings about people and 
 things. Certain experiences please us and we seek to 
 repeat them. Others annoy us or cause actual dis- 
 comfort, consequently we try to avoid them. We like 
 some people and dislike others. We like certain colors, 
 fabrics, kinds of music, more than others. We prefer 
 reading to outdoor games, or the reverse. We are sel- 
 fish or generous, kind or cruel. We are either broad- 
 minded or harsh in our judgments of others. Some- 
 times we older people overlook the fact that children, 
 even at an early age, have these traits developed to a 
 considerable degree, and that they are factors to be 
 taken into consideration in teaching and training 
 pupils of any age. 
 
 Probably many of our mental states are accompa- 
 nied by so little feeling of any kind as to be almost 
 colorless. But many of them are so strongly tinctured 
 with feeling that subsequent thought and actions are 
 decidedly influenced. Sometimes a certain kind of 
 feeling becomes so firmly associated with an idea as 
 to be recalled to the mind whenever the latter reap- 
 pears. In such a case we have an attitude of mind, a
 
 18 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 prejudice, a sentiment, fixed likes or dislikes, and con- 
 duct is governed accordingly. 
 
 Surely these habitual states of feeling, whether mild 
 or extreme, which have become associated with ideas, 
 should receive attention from the teacher. It has been 
 the disregard of them which has led, at times, to diffi- 
 culty in dealing with undeveloped or backward races, 
 or with nations having ideas and sentiments peculiar 
 to themselves. The emotions, the prejudices, the men- 
 tal attitudes of these people have often been over- 
 looked hi the attempt to govern and educate them, and 
 serious difficulties have resulted. Thus the Sepoys 
 of India, who eat no animal food, resented using 
 tallow-coated cartridges; and the Chinese, who wor- 
 ship their ancestors, felt outraged when foreigners 
 constructed railroads through their cemeteries. Doubt- 
 less we work at cross-purposes in dealing with young 
 people, and waste both time and energy, because we 
 disregard the likes and dislikes, the enthusiasms and 
 prejudices which they have accumulated. 
 
 Native endowment of instincts and capacities 
 
 In addition to the store of knowledge and the some- 
 what settled feelings which young people possess, we 
 have to take into consideration the social experience 
 which persists in them in the form of instincts and 
 capacities. By an instinct we mean an inherited or un- 
 learned tendency to behavior or action. It is instinctive 
 for us to be active, both physically and mentally; tc
 
 WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 19 
 
 imitate other people; to feel jealous, to become angry; 
 to feel curiosity; to wish to do as well, if not better, 
 than others have done. 
 
 According to the purposes which they serve, in- 
 stincts have been classified as (a) individual, such as 
 fear and fighting; (6) social, such as emulation, rivalry, 
 gregariousness, shame, sympathy, mothering; (c) 
 adaptive, such as imitation, play, curiosity, atten- 
 tion, interest. Other instincts are the collecting in- 
 stinct, the instinct to manipulate, whether to construct 
 or to destroy; the instinct to express one's ideas in 
 some way; and the cesthetic instincts, which show 
 themselves in personal adornment, in a liking for col- 
 ors, for harmonious sounds and rhythm, and in the 
 tendency to apply decoration to objects. Both mental 
 and physical activity are instinctive. 
 
 Not all of the instincts are present at birth. Many of 
 them develop in childhood, while others appear during 
 adolescence or even in a later period of life. Some of these 
 delayed tendencies are the instincts to emulate others, 
 to master people or things, to make collections of vari- 
 ous kinds, to show off, to exercise intellectual curiosity. 
 
 Since it is upon the instinctive tendencies to action 
 that education must build, it is important that teachers 
 know at least those instincts which are most helpful in 
 education at the stage of development at which their 
 pupils stand; otherwise they njay attempt to employ 
 
 x . 
 
 instincts not yet active, or which have served their 
 purpose and have ebbed away.
 
 20 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Acquired modes of acting; habits fixed or in the 
 process of formation 
 
 In addition to the native or unlearned tendencies 
 to action, the pupils who present themselves in our 
 classes for instruction possess a large store of acquired 
 ways of acting or of responding to situations which 
 confront them from day to day. These acquired modes 
 of behavior are called habits. Rowe has defined a habit 
 as being an acquired aptitude for some particular mode 
 of automatic action. Under the term he includes 
 habits of decision, of feeling, or of thought. In a later 
 chapter we shall consider the teaching exercises which 
 bear directly upon the influencing of habits. At this 
 point we simply recognize that habits of acting, ways 
 of thinking about things, and feelings which have be- 
 come fixed or customary are a large part of the equip- 
 ment of the learners in any class. They either help or 
 hinder the teacher in carrying out the general aims of 
 education and are of much more importance than is 
 generally recognized. 
 
 The teacher who undertakes to conduct a lesson in 
 expressive reading, in penmanship, in cooking, sewing, 
 manual training, or in almost any subject, must take 
 thought in regard to the habits of speech or action or 
 skill of his pupils in order to accomplish the best re- 
 sults in the lesson exercise. He may either have to 
 overcome bad habits previously formed or to carry 
 new habits forward toward the stage of automatism.
 
 WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 21 
 
 Summary. The equipment of any class which forms the 
 basis upon which education must build consists of (1) a 
 body of ideas only partially complete and knit together into 
 an organization; (2) an accompaniment of feelings, attitudes, 
 likes, and prejudices which color knowledge and influence 
 action; (8) a native endowment of tendencies known as 
 instincts; and (4) of a large body of acquired modes of act- 
 ing, whether these actions be mental or physical, which we 
 call habits. These habits have had their origin in the instinc- 
 tive tendencies or instincts. 
 
 REFERENCES: E. A. Kirkpatrick, Fundamental* of Child Study, 
 chap, iv; Stuart H. Howe, Habit Formation and the Science of Teach- 
 ing, chap, iv; E. L. Thorndike, Elements of Psychology, chap, xii; 
 Strayer and Norsworthy, How to Teach, chap, n; G. Stanley Hall, 
 Content* of Children'* Mind* upon Entering School. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a list of ten incorrect ideas which school children have 
 been found to possess. Of ten incomplete ideas. Of five incorrect 
 classifications or associations. 
 
 2. Give examples of mistakes you have discovered in your own 
 ideas within the past year. Was the mistake due to an incorrect 
 idea, an incomplete idea, or to a wrong classification? 
 
 3. Show how lessons in nature study and art may have to take into 
 consideration the likes or the dislikes of pupils. 
 
 4. What are some of the attitudes of mind of pupils which should 
 be utilized in teaching history and geography? 
 
 5. What subjects are sometimes hard to teach because of the un- 
 favorable frame of mind of the learners? What can be done to 
 help the situation? 
 
 6. What distinction do you make between instincts and capacities? 
 Give two examples of each. 
 
 7. Show how teaching must consider the native endowment of 
 pupils in order to be successful. 
 
 8. Give two illustrations of the use of an individual instinct, of a 
 social instinct, and of an adaptive instinct in education. 
 
 9. Explain what is meant by delayed instincts. What significance 
 for teaching exists in the fact that some instincts are delayed? 
 
 10. What was wrong with the ideas of the child who defined a frog 
 as "a four-legged, bow-legged bird that walks before and siU 
 behind aad has no tail almost"?
 
 m 
 
 WHAT SCHOOL EDUCATION SHOULD ACCOMPLISH 
 
 Education should remake and extend experience 
 
 EDUCATION at any stage of its progress must be 
 based upon the experience of the person educated, 
 that is, of the learner. Indeed, the aim of education, 
 as stated by one of our best-known educators, is the 
 remaking of experience. What experience is we have 
 considered in the previous chapter. Stated broadly, 
 at any stage of one's development, one's experience 
 consists of his store of ideas with the meanings he has 
 attached to them and the associations he has formed 
 among them; of his ways of feeling about things or 
 of looking at them, that is, of his emotional states, 
 his interests, his prejudices which have become more 
 or less fixed; of his instincts; and finally, of his habits 
 of conduct, skill, and activity in general. Experience 
 is a complex thing, made up of various elements, con- 
 stantly changing, constantly undergoing revision, cor- 
 rection, extension, constantly influenced by its past, 
 and ever forming the basis for the next step in ad- 
 vance. It is only through extending it in some direc- 
 tion, or through correcting errors which have crept into 
 it, or through making new associations among its 
 elements, that education takes place. This process of
 
 SCHOOL EDUCATION 23 
 
 extending or correcting, and of forming new associa- 
 tions, constitutes the remaking of experience which is 
 education. One has only to apply this thought to any 
 school subject to see its significance. 
 
 In beginning geography the few ideas which chil- 
 dren have about land and water, climate and soil, peo- 
 ple and their activities, are employed as the starting- 
 point in the remaking process. Errors are corrected, 
 ideas are enlarged, new knowledge is added to old 
 from grade to grade, until the children finally complete 
 the course outlined in the subject. They may continue 
 in high school in special courses in commercial or 
 physical geography, but in these subjects advancement 
 is possible only by means of remaking the geographical 
 experience previously acquired. 
 
 In teaching mathematics the knowledge, however 
 slight, which children have of number has to be used 
 as the beginning of education hi that direction. Their 
 mistakes are corrected, new combinations are learned, 
 new applications are employed, and experience is wid- 
 ened and deepened as the pupil advances in his course. 
 Whenever the instructor attempts to take up ideas 
 for which the pupils' past has not prepared them, 
 there is a break in the process of education. There 
 can be no remaking of experience, since the basis is 
 lacking. In teaching any subject a basis in experience 
 is indispensable. Education consists in remaking or 
 readjusting it.
 
 24 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Education should "'"i toward social content or value 
 of experience 
 
 It may well be asked here what the guiding principle 
 is which controls the remaking of experience, that is, 
 along what lines, or in what direction, shall experience 
 be re-formed or remade? For those of us who teach 
 children, the answer is that experience has to be remade 
 in the direction of more socialized content. This reply 
 may seem so ambiguous as to have but little value. 
 The objection may also be made that frequently edu- 
 cation has for its ami the imparting of knowledge which 
 has little or no social content. Illustration may per- 
 haps throw light upon both points. It is quite possible 
 to teach pupils about the Columbia River without 
 socializing the knowledge thus imparted. There is no 
 special social value in knowing that the Columbia 
 River rises in southwestern Canada, follows a crooked 
 course to the southwest, and flows into the Pacific 
 Ocean. But when we learn what an obstacle this 
 river was to early explorers; that it is not navigable 
 for the greater part of its course; that, because of 
 the salmon which swarm its waters, it is an important 
 source of food supply, we are adding social content 
 to our knowledge. While both sets of facts about the 
 river may be called knowledge, the latter is the more 
 valuable for pupils because it is made up of ideas which 
 have social relation and significance. Doubtless with 
 many of us there comes a time when we value knowl- 
 edge of facts in their scientific relation without con-
 
 SCHOOL EDUCATION 25 
 
 sidering their social aspects. Advanced students in 
 mathematics and the pure sciences disregard the so- 
 cial possibilities of their subjects, being moved by a 
 highly intellectual curiosity in their researches. Pupils 
 in the elementary schools, however, are not often 
 stirred by this kind of curiosity, and, furthermore, for 
 them the social aspect, or the socialized content, is 
 of more value than the scientific; hence to deluge them 
 with an accumulation of facts which have little or no 
 social meaning is to fail to accomplish the purpose for 
 which the schools were established. 
 
 Education should increase the control of the learner 
 over the values which make up experience 
 
 Experience cannot be remade nor can content be 
 socialized through the teacher's efforts alone. The 
 pupils themselves must participate largely in the proc- 
 ess. Unless the activities of the latter be enlisted, 
 whether these activities be physical or mental, educa- 
 tion remains at a low stage. The manual training 
 teacher who contents himself with telling his pupils 
 how to do things is considered a failure. In this sub- 
 ject education is at once seen to consist hi the gaining 
 of individual control over the tools and then- manipu- 
 lation. In other forms of education involving physical 
 activity, the same thought or idea is present, that 
 is, that advance in control by the individual consti- 
 tutes education. But there are other things besides 
 physical processes and tools to control. There are
 
 26 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 ways of thinking or feeling about things, and ideals of 
 conduct and of art which one must also learn to con- 
 trol in order to be educated. Education is not a thing 
 that can be poured in upon one. Our appreciation is 
 not an accretion; it is a matter of growth, of mastery. 
 Ideals and attitudes are not external; they are a re- 
 sult of internal conquest; they are things mastered 
 or attained through effort. By means of education we 
 establish control over values, or things which we con- 
 sider worth while, and this control must be established 
 or attained by each individual for himself. For this 
 reason the teacher insists upon each child working 
 his own arithmetic lesson. She plainly sees that it is 
 the control of the individual over the process involved 
 which is valuable. She insists upon his performing his 
 own drawing exercise, because there is no educative 
 value to the individual in having some one else per- 
 form his task. The same is true of the other school 
 exercises. It is the gaining of mastery by the pupil over 
 knowledge or process or some other form of worth 
 which constitutes education; hence experience must 
 be remade through increased individual control if 
 the teacher's work is to be complete. 
 
 Summary. (1) Starting from the equipment of experi. 
 ence in the form of knowledge, habits, attitudes, and feel- 
 ings which the learner possesses, education seeks to correct, 
 to extend, to amplify that experience. (2) While some 
 phases of education have scientific knowledge in view, 
 that is, knowledge for its own sake, the education for 
 pupils in at least the elementary and high schools should aim
 
 SCHOOL EDUCATION 27 
 
 for social significance in connection with experience. (3) 
 True education has as one of its ends the increase of the 
 learner's control over experience in its various aspects. It 
 furthers his activity rather than compels a passive or merely 
 receptive attitude. 
 
 REFERENCES: W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, chap, i; John 
 Dewey, Schools of Tomorrow, chaps, i, 11. iv; G. D. Strayer, Brief 
 Course in the Teaching Process, chap. L 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. How is experience altered in teaching pupils the explanation of 
 the process of condensation? In teaching why smoke goes up 
 the chimney? 
 
 2. Show how at least two aspects of experience should be affected 
 in teaching a class about the people of India. 
 
 3. What could you teach about coal that does not have social value? 
 t What socialized content could you give to the subject? For a 
 
 class of the sixth school year, which kind of content has greater 
 worth? Justify your answer. 
 
 4. How can algebra, history, or Latin be given socialized content 
 in the high school? 
 
 5. Make a list of five items which you would regard as socialized 
 content in the study of Siberia. 
 
 6. What are the dangers of too much telling and helping in teach- 
 ing? Where should the line be drawn between enough and too 
 much? 
 
 7. What form of experiences is particularly affected in teaching 
 manual training? < 
 
 8. What form of it is affected when people are led to enjoy art, 
 music, and good literature? 
 
 9. What form is affected when pupils are led to substitute respect, 
 obedience, and cooperation for disrespect, defiance, and sel- 
 fishness? 
 
 10. Young people generally possess instinctive tendencies which are 
 selfish in character. How should the remaking process affect 
 such tendencies?
 
 IV 
 
 MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 
 
 Types of class procedure 
 
 THERE are several ways at the teacher's disposal by 
 which he may lead his pupils to the results desired 
 through education. Since education includes the ac- 
 complishing of many and varied ends, it is to be ex- 
 pected that the stimuli or agencies used by the teacher 
 will vary, that form of exercise being employed at a 
 given time which is best adapted to secure the object 
 desired at that particular time. A general view of these 
 agencies or forms of teaching exercises should precede 
 the treatment of them individually. 
 
 a. The telling exercise or the lecture method. As long 
 as knowledge was the main object striven for, the use 
 of books and of the telling, or lecture, method pre- 
 dominated, and at times was employed to the exclusion 
 of all other means. We still value these modes of im- 
 parting knowledge because communication in some 
 form is indispensable in passing on to the rising gen- 
 eration the accumulated wisdom of the society in which 
 it finds itself; but since no one is really learned who 
 can merely recite verbatim what he has heard or read, 
 the use of books and of the lecture method has been 
 modified. It will probably never be discarded or en-
 
 MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 29 
 
 tirely superseded by other modes of teaching, because 
 from books and teachers pupils sometimes learn what 
 they can acquire by no other means. Even if it were 
 possible to obtain the ideas by other means, it is at 
 times more economical and more satisfactory to gain 
 them from reading, or by the so-called lecture method. 
 The objection to this method is that it is frequently 
 employed when it is not the best means of instruction. 
 People attempt to tell what can be learned better by 
 other methods, such as observation or reflection. 
 
 b. The object lesson. As the school comes into closer 
 contact with the world in which it is placed, with the 
 life of which it should ever be a part, the study of 
 objects and activities at first hand through observa- 
 tion and participation, or through experiment, is 
 necessary; consequently there must be provision for 
 object lessons, for excursions, for demonstrations, for 
 observation in general. 
 
 c. The study of ideas in relation; inductive and de- 
 ductive lessons. We must make provision in our teach- 
 ing procedure not only for the study of facts and for 
 the consideration of individual ideas, but we must 
 provide also for the study of things in relation. This 
 relation may be that of structure and function, as in 
 plants and animals; of cause and effect, as in the sci- 
 ences or history; of similarity of parts, structure, or 
 function, as in the case of minerals, animals, words, 
 geometric forms, geographic phenomena, or the like; 
 or of the individual to the class or family to which it
 
 30 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 belongs, as when we determine the part of speech under 
 which a word should be classified, the family which 
 includes a given animal, or the rule which determines 
 the spelling of a word or the solution of a problem. 
 
 When a lesson seeks to find a common element or 
 process in several ideas which groups them together 
 or explains them, it is called an inductive lesson. When, 
 however, the lesson seeks to apply the explanation 
 or principle already known to processes or ideas so 
 a-? to make them clear, it is called a deductive exer- 
 cise. 
 
 d. The exercise to arouse appreciation. We have been 
 slow in reaching the stage where we realize that the 
 emotions, the sentiments, and appreciations of chil- 
 dren are worth taking note of for any other purpose 
 than mere suppression of that which is evil. Our efforts 
 even now are sporadic when we attempt to deal with 
 these aspects of child life. The comic valentine, the 
 ugly picture book, the unspeakable newspaper comic 
 picture, the uncompromisingly plain schoolhouse, the 
 neglected school grounds, the dull matter of the books 
 used, the failure to utilize pupils' sentiments or feel- 
 ings in our teaching, these are some of the evidences 
 of our activity in debasing ideals on the one hand and 
 of neglecting them on the other. We are beginning to 
 see that there is a duty here, not only in surroundings 
 and in materials for instruction, but also in the method 
 of teaching. We shall, therefore, deal with that type of 
 teaching which has to do with the cultivation of feel-
 
 MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 81 
 
 ings, and of appreciation of that which is fitting, beau- 
 tiful, and noble. We shall include here not only that 
 which is worthy in language, thought, and environ- 
 ment, but in conduct and morals as well. 
 
 e. The formation of habits and the increase of skill. 
 Not all of life consists hi thinking and hi experiencing 
 sentiments. A large share of it is made up of activity, 
 of doing things. 
 
 Many of our forms of activity must be reduced to 
 the stage of the automatic; therefore, the teacher who 
 would really train must provide for that phase of edu- 
 cation which gives training in applying knowledge, in 
 forming habits, and in acquiring skill. Such instruc- 
 tion is usually called drill. Through drill we strive 
 not only to fix facts and processes, but also to increase 
 skill so as to improve the product of our activity, as in 
 a penmanship lesson. 
 
 /. Training pupils to study. It is only within the 
 last decade that much attention has been given to the 
 way by which people arrive at results in their school 
 work. The results alone were emphasized, though prob- 
 ably all teachers felt that there was more or less diffi- 
 culty experienced by the pupils in getting them, and 
 doubtless many felt their helplessness to aid learners 
 to better ways of working. Some progress has been 
 made in investigating the question of what proper study 
 really is, and enough experimenting has been done with 
 pupils to show that they are capable of employing right 
 methods. We shall, therefore, consider the study lesson
 
 82 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 as one type of teaching. It is the lesson in which 
 the teacher shows the pupils how they may best help 
 themselves. 
 
 g. The assignment lesson. We must not overlook 
 in this connection the exercise which prepares pupils 
 for individual study. It frequently consists of a mere 
 statement of the number of pages or paragraphs or 
 problems to be studied. We shall see that it can be 
 made much more helpful than this; that it can not 
 only show what ground is to be covered, but that it 
 can also indicate the sources from which material can 
 be obtained, and that it can put the pupils into such 
 a frame of mind that they will work with interest and 
 energy. 
 
 h. The recitation lesson. There comes a time in 
 school procedure when the pupils must present to the 
 class the results of their study, not only to show their 
 mastery of their work, but to give the rest of the class 
 the benefit of their results, to have their ideas corrected 
 if need be, and to give opportunity for discussion and 
 amplification of the material presented. Such exer- 
 cises are called recitations. There are teachers who 
 make a recitation lesson consist of a verbatim repro- 
 duction of thought which has been read or heard by 
 the pupils, without discussion, without supplementary 
 ideas being presented, and with little or no explana- 
 tion. The recitation may and should be much more 
 than this. It should be a period when pupils may pre- 
 sent their results before the whole class for considera-
 
 MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 33 
 
 tion by the class. Through the recitation one of the 
 best opportunities is offered for the remaking of expe- 
 rience; that is, for correcting and extending the ideas 
 of pupils and for influencing their interests and their 
 feelings about things. It is a great waste of a splendid 
 opportunity to limit the recitation hour to the mere 
 repetition of words, and to neglect the thoughts and 
 the emotions which the words represent. 
 
 i. The review lesson. The review lesson is that exercise 
 in which the pupil takes stock, so to speak, of what he 
 has been studying, organizes it, so as to bring out the 
 relationships clearly, or possibly establishes new rela 
 tionships. It may be that in using knowledge already 
 in his possession as a basis for a new lesson, the pupil 
 obtains an entirely new view of this old knowledge, 
 he re-views it. He sees it from a different angle and its 
 value is thereby increased. The more the pupil is able 
 to use what he has learned by making it the basis for 
 new acquisitions, the more full of meaning his experi- 
 ence becomes. For example, hi explaining the move- 
 ment toward independence in the Balkan States by 
 reference to the movement toward independence in 
 our own country at the time of the Revolutionary War, 
 the pupil is compelled to review his ideas in regard to 
 that period of our history; and since he is going to em- 
 ploy this knowledge as a basis for comparison and 
 explanation, the exercise is much more valuable than 
 if the facts were repeated with no definite purpose in 
 view.
 
 84 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 j. The socializing phases of school work. Those forms 
 of school exercises which attempt to communize the 
 pupils' life and efforts, and to attach social meaning and 
 value to the matter presented, will be considered as 
 socializing lessons. Sometimes these lessons are inter- 
 preted as meaning cooperative effort on the part of 
 the pupils. A wider meaning is attached to the term 
 here. Not only may the activities of the pupils be 
 made to assume a social form, but the content, the 
 subject-matter, of the lessons may to a high degree 
 be given social significance, and made to effect social 
 ends. 
 
 These exercises not mutually exclusive 
 
 It is not to be understood that these types of teach- 
 ing occur hi isolation and that they cannot be com- 
 bined during a class exercise. A teacher will probably 
 never go very far in a day's program without employ- 
 ing several of them. The hope encouraged here is that 
 making the teacher conscious of these forms and the 
 purposes served by each will cause him to employ 
 them more intelligently and more effectively, to the 
 great advantage of the pupils in his class. 
 
 Types of teaching not to be regarded as special 
 methods 
 
 The exercises here outlined are not to be regarded 
 as special methods in the sense that one is employed 
 in teaching one subject and that the rest are individu-
 
 MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 35 
 
 ally employed in the teaching of other subjects. The 
 use of any one of the types is determined by the end 
 to be accomplished, by the response desired, whether 
 it be some form of manual or physical activity, increase 
 of knowledge, or a change in one's moral, aesthetic, or 
 emotional life. Thus, if a habit is to be formed, whether 
 in language, arithmetic, or drawing, drill will be nec- 
 essary. If objects or processes are to be observed, 
 whether it be in nature study, physics, or sewing, an 
 object lesson will be employed. 
 
 The various types of teaching are applicable to sev- 
 eral subjects of instruction, not only because similar 
 results are sought in all, but also because the same 
 psychological processes must be employed in the teach- 
 ing of all of them. We analyze situations or ideas; we 
 associate mental states or activities; we apperceive; 
 we employ analogy as a basis for thinking or acting; 
 we experience various feelings and are influenced by 
 them; we form judgments whether we study geog- 
 raphy, history, literature, or art. Those types of teach- 
 ing which have to do with the gaining of knowledge 
 through observation or experiment may be employed 
 in connection with any subject, whether botany, geog- 
 raphy, or chemistry, in which knowledge may be sub- 
 jected to such processes. The types of teaching which 
 have to do with fixing knowledge so that it will be 
 retained, or with the forming of habits either mental 
 or physical, may be employed in any subject or in any 
 form of activity in which knowledge is to be made
 
 36 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 permanent or habits fixed. In a given lesson several 
 kinds of teaching may be involved, because the pro- 
 cedure may vary with the several aspects of the 
 recitation. One may first endeavor to impart knowl- 
 edge, then to arouse appreciation based upon the 
 knowledge imparted, and then he may try to put the 
 knowledge into permanent form for reproduction. To 
 accomplish these various ends, different types of teach- 
 ing are employed. The types are not, therefore, mu- 
 tually exclusive, since several may occur in the same 
 lesson period. 
 
 Summary. The various forms of teaching procedure 
 may be classified as (1) the telling or lecture lesson; (2) the 
 object lesson; (3) the inductive and deductive lessons; (4) 
 the exercises to arouse appreciation; (5) the habit-forming 
 lesson; (6) the study lesson; (7) the assignment lesson; (8) 
 the recitation lesson; (9) the review exercise; (10) the social- 
 izing exercise. 
 
 These exercises are not mutually exclusive, but may repre- 
 sent various phases of one period of work with a class. They 
 are not to be regarded as special methods, since they apply 
 to any school subject in which they assist pupils to reach the 
 desired ends of education. 
 
 REFERENCES: E. L. Thorndike, Education, chaps, ix and x; 
 Strayer and Norsworthy, How to Teach, chap. xm. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give an example of the use of the lecture or telling method in 
 which you think that procedure was justified. Explain. Give 
 an example of its use which you consider a wrong application of 
 the method. 
 
 2. In which of the elementary or high-school subjects can objects 
 or processes be studied directly? Explain briefly in each case.
 
 MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 37 
 
 3. What advantage is there in direct study of objects and processes 
 compared with hearing or reading about them? 
 
 4. Show by an example taken from nature study how the relation 
 of cause and effect may be studied. 
 
 5. From an illustration taken from grammar, show how logical 
 relations may be studied inductively. 
 
 6. With an example taken from physics or mathematics, show how 
 relationships are studied deductively. 
 
 7. Show how relationships of tune and place must be considered 
 in the study of history. 
 
 8. What forms of appreciation have you deflnitely tried to arouse 
 and direct in your class within the last year? 
 
 9. Name at least five directions hi which arousal or guidance are 
 highly desirable. 
 
 10. Why not make drill simply incidental to other teaching? 
 
 11. Since the mind works according to certain laws, why not take 
 it for granted that pupils will naturally study in the right way? 
 
 12. What are the disadvantages of an indefinite, incomplete, or hur- 
 ried lesson assignment? 
 
 IS. What relation should exist between the assignment of a lesson 
 and the recitation on the lesson? 
 
 14. What faults should you say are common in recitation lessons? 
 Suggest remedies. 
 
 15. How would you use review in teaching the outbreak of the war 
 in Europe in 1914? 
 
 16. Show how at least four kinds of teaching exercises can be pres- 
 ent in one lesson period. 
 
 17. What arguments for home study are suggested by the drill exer- 
 cise and by the study of objects and processes? 
 
 18. It has been shown that the work of the class period may assume 
 several forms, depending upon the object to be accom- 
 plished. What bearing does this fact have upon the teacn- 
 er's preparation for the class period ? '
 
 EXERCISES WHICH AIM AT THE DISCOVERY OP 
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE : THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 
 
 The purpose of the inductive lesson 
 
 IT is a natural process for people even in early child- 
 hood to associate in groups, classes, or families things 
 which are alike in structure, appearance, or use. A 
 child is not very old when he shows that he recognizes 
 certain objects as chairs, whether they be high chairs, 
 low chairs, plain chairs, or rocking-chairs, and whether 
 they be made of wicker, grass, wood, or other material. 
 Certain likenesses of form and use lead him to treat 
 them all as chairs and to apply the same name to all. 
 At an early age he groups things about him into fairly 
 correct classes according to their looks, the way they 
 act, or the uses to which they are put. It is his way of 
 explaining and mastering the world. A thing unre- 
 lated is a thing unexplained, and so long as it remains 
 unexplained it is useless. 
 
 This process of establishing relationships may simply 
 lead one to group together things which are alike in 
 some external way, as in the case of the chairs just 
 cited. However, it may go deeper into the relation- 
 ships and produce explanations, principles, rules, 
 ideals, or other general conclusions. When a general
 
 THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 39 
 
 idea or principle, which applies to several concrete or 
 individual instances so as to explain them or give them 
 meaning, is obtained through the study of concrete or 
 individual instances, the process of thought is induc- 
 tive. And when a teacher guides his pupils through 
 the study of individual objects or examples to some 
 form of general knowledge, he is employing the induc- 
 tive development lesson or exercise. Thus the defini- 
 tion of a noun may be discovered by noting the nature 
 of several words of this class, and the rule for multi- 
 plying a fraction by an integer may be formulated by 
 pupils after repeated observations of the process in 
 different examples. 
 
 Much of the material provided by the course of 
 study should be mastered by this process of induction. 
 The individual ideas or facts have little meaning when 
 simply observed or memorized and then passed by. 
 It is the meanings, the explanations, the relationships 
 which are of value, since by their aid other facts are 
 to be understood, and by them one's activities are to 
 be determined. Then, too, it is important that pupils 
 master the process of inductive study, since through 
 it they can carry on investigations independently of 
 any teacher. It is one of the most valuable means of 
 establishing control over ideas. 
 
 Teachers sometimes say that very little of the sub- 
 ject-matter affords opportunity for inductive treat- 
 ment, but this statement reveals the teacher's igno- 
 rance of the pupils, and also of the necessities of the
 
 40 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 course of study. Even the subject of spelling, in which 
 the work is about as disconnected as possible, involves 
 several rules of pronunciation, rules for forming plu- 
 rals, and rules for spelling, all of which can be learned 
 by observing a number of words and discovering the 
 rule from its use in these words. Grammar contains 
 many rules and definitions, and these are in most cases, 
 if not in all, best learned inductively. The same state- 
 ment holds true in regard to the many rules involved 
 in the study of arithmetic. Nature study, while not in- 
 tended to be a scientific study of natural phenomena, 
 calls frequently for the "why" and the "how" of 
 things, and sometimes involves comparisons which 
 lead to classification; as when the rat, mouse, squirrel, 
 and rabbit are discovered to have several features iix 
 common, or the hollyhock and the common mallow 
 are discovered to be surprisingly alike. A certain kind 
 of foot is soon discovered to be characteristic of birds 
 that are swimmers, while the wading birds are easily 
 recognized from the structure of legs and feet. 
 
 In language the manner of writing headings, the 
 idea of a margin, the indentation of a paragraph, the 
 use of capital letters, and similar concepts can be 
 learned effectively by the inductive process, as can 
 also the ideas of introduction, of thought sequence, 
 and numerous other features which are properly a 
 part of the subject called English. The general struc- 
 ture of a drama can be determined by the study of 
 several classics representing this form of literature.
 
 THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 41 
 
 What is meant by narration, description, and the like 
 can be made very plain through direct study of writ 
 ings of these types. 
 
 Geography and history, so frequently merely mem- 
 orized, can be filled with meaning and worth if in- 
 ductive reasoning be employed in their study. The? 
 contain underlying principles and fairly bristle with 
 questions, the solution of which involves inductive 
 reasoning. Why was there so much delay in settling 
 and developing the land west of the Mississippi River? 
 Why did the people of France overthrow the govern- 
 ment and put Louis XVI to death? Why did the peo- 
 ple of the Northern States oppose the extension of 
 slavery? Why were not all of the Americans in favor 
 of separation from Great Britain in 1776? Why do not 
 all places equally distant from the Equator have the 
 same climate? What effect do mountains have upon 
 temperature and rainfall? These are a few of the many 
 questions whose answers may be obtained through 
 inductive reasoning on the part of the pupils; that is, 
 reasoning which seeks to formulate rules, principles, 
 definitions, or other general explanations and does not 
 seek to apply general principles already known. 
 
 The formal steps involved in inductive teaching 
 
 Certain steps have been found helpful in employing 
 the inductive form of reasoning hi teaching. These 
 steps have been formulated and advocated by the 
 Herbartian school of educators. They are known as
 
 42 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 the formal steps of instruction, and consist of (l) the 
 preparation; (2) the presentation; (3) the comparison; 
 (4) the generalization. There is a fifth step, called the 
 application, in which the results of the inductive proc- 
 ess are put into operation, or are applied. As the step 
 of application is essentially deductive, its considera- 
 tion will be deferred to a later chapter. 
 
 a. The preparation. (1) In the step of preparation 
 the teacher prepares the class for the study of the new 
 material. This step does not mean the teacher's prepa- 
 ration of himself for the lesson, but rather his prepara- 
 tion of the class. It does not include the teaching of 
 the new subject-matter. It merely paves the way 
 for its consideration. Briefly stated, the preparation 
 should bring the class to realize the need of certain 
 knowledge; to face a problem which must be solved; to 
 ask " how " or " why " ; to seek an explanation or a mode 
 of procedure. Pupils are led to discover their own 
 ignorance or inability in regard to some particular 
 knowledge or process. Frequently they can frame the 
 question which should form the starting-point for the 
 lesson which is intended to satisfy the need that has 
 been brought to consciousness. It may be necessary 
 for the teacher to state it, but if the problem or diffi- 
 culty or lack is keenly felt by the class, some pupil or 
 pupils will usually ask the question. The teacher will 
 grow in skill in leading the class to feel their need, and 
 to frame the questions which lead to its satisfaction. 
 
 Since the question, or statement of the problem,
 
 THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 43 
 
 which constitutes the aim for the new lesson is to be 
 based upon the conscious need of the pupils, it is clear 
 that the statement of the aim will occur either at the 
 end of the step of preparation or during its course; and 
 that it will be rather unusual to have it occur at the 
 beginning of this step, where many people have tried 
 to place it. 
 
 * (2) In addition to bringing the class face to face with 
 a problem, the preparation should include the recall 
 of knowledge which is related to the new lesson and 
 which will aid in its mastery. This knowledge recalled, 
 made clear, and organized ready for use, gives the 
 background for the advanced work. It is the apperceiv- 
 ing basis for the understanding of the new knowledge 
 which is to be gained. The pupils who were going to 
 find out in the new lesson why Louis XVI of France 
 was put to death by his people recalled, as a part of the 
 step of preparation, what they knew of the overthrow 
 of Charles I, of the reasons for the separation of the 
 American colonies from the English Crown, and of the 
 causes for the Cuban struggle for independence. 
 
 The step of preparation may occupy a longer or 
 shorter time, depending upon the number of ideas to 
 be reproduced, and the amount of work which must be 
 done to reproduce them and make them clear so that 
 they may serve as a basis for the comprehension of the 
 new lesson. It may not take more than the statement 
 of the aim or problem to bring the old knowledge to 
 oiiud hi the desired state. On the other hand, the
 
 44 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 preparation may occupy an entire lesson period, or 
 even several periods. One cannot say safely or wisely 
 that he will devote a quarter or a fifth of the whole les- 
 son period to this one step. Just that amount of time 
 may be required, but more or less may be needed. 
 The work should move along promptly, occupying 
 only as much time as is needed to bring out the prob- 
 lem and to review the knowledge necessary for the ad- 
 van^ed work. Digressions and side issues should be 
 avoided, and attention should be held closely to the 
 work in hand. Whether the time be long or short, the 
 step has been accomplished when the pupils are clearly 
 conscious of an aim, and have in mind ready for use the 
 ideas that are to serve as the background for the new 
 facts which are to be taught. 
 
 b. The presentation. (1) Teaching the new facts or 
 ideas to the class constitutes the step of presentation. 
 In order to learn these facts the pupils may study indi- 
 vidual examples or objects, as in nature lessons or 
 spelling; they may perform experiments, as in physics 
 or chemistry; they may work out processes, as hi arith- 
 metic or cooking; they may take excursions and have 
 observation lessons, as in geography, botany, or geol- 
 ogy; they may study concrete ideas previously learned 
 and later reproduced in order to furnish material for the 
 lesson, as in studying the ways by which heat is pro- 
 duced. The teacher may resort to telling in order to 
 bring the facts before the class, although this mode of 
 teaching should be used sparingly as observation and
 
 THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 45 
 
 experimentation by the pupils produce much better 
 results. The teacher frequently resorts to telling be- 
 cause it seems to him a short and certain way of mak- 
 ing the children acquainted with the new knowledge. 
 However, the results show that it is often the least cer- 
 tain of all the possible modes of presentation, as mere 
 telling does not insure understanding. 
 
 (2) The step of presentation must include enough 
 examples, processes, or concrete cases to make the 
 traits possessed in common very clear. Any one who 
 has tried to teach long division knows the futility of 
 expecting a class to master the process by working one 
 example. On the other hand, the observation of the 
 kind of teeth found in the mouth of one cow, with the 
 consideration both of the uses which they serve and the 
 cow's method of grazing, might justify the conclusion 
 that all cows must have the same kind of teeth. There 
 must be enough facts to teach clearly and surely the lesson 
 desired. This rule must be the teacher's guide. 
 
 (3) Another principle to guide the teacher is that 
 the material must be varied enough to make the con- 
 clusion correct and representative. It is a common 
 occurrence for teachers to try to develop the idea of 
 pronouns by giving examples of personal pronouns 
 only, and frequently limiting these to the third person, 
 disregarding the fact that pronouns may be of the 
 masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, or of the first, 
 second, or third persons, and of either the singular or 
 plural number. If one is teaching rivers, it would be
 
 46 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 better to study one river that flows into the ocean, one 
 that flows into an arm of an ocean, one that flows into 
 another river or lake, and one that is lost in a plain, 
 rather than to have all of the same kind. 
 
 (4) Sometimes teachers have difficulty in the step of 
 presentation because they do not select the material 
 in which the traits upon which the rule, principle, or 
 definition must be based, stand out prominently; or 
 they are so obscure and indefinite in their treatment of 
 the material that they becloud rather than illuminate 
 the points which should be made clear. The irrelevant 
 and the unimportant should be avoided and attention 
 should be centered upon the significant and relevant 
 facts. Anything which diverts attention, or stands 
 between the mind and the ideas it is to master, is a 
 hindrance. Showy experiments, complicated appara- 
 tus, involved sentences, difficult examples, lack of clear 
 and concise meaning, are common faults found in 
 inductive teaching. In presenting new facts about sen- 
 tences, the examples should be simple in thought and 
 should not contain strange words. In teaching a new 
 process in arithmetic, the numbers and the thought 
 involved should be simple so as not to interfere with 
 the concentration of attention upon the process. Re- 
 ducing the number of questions asked, and making the 
 rest very clear and to the point, help to direct rather 
 than divert the minds of the learners. The teacher 
 should, therefore, give thought to his questions before 
 the lesson period, and decide definitely upon the form
 
 THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 47 
 
 of those which are most essential in bringing out the 
 ideas to be gained. 
 
 At the close of the step of presentation, the pupils 
 should have gained a clear knowledge of the elements 
 hi the examples studied which are necessary to the 
 formation of the general idea. Should the inductive 
 process go no further than the step of presentation, the 
 children will have gained at least an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with a large and varied body of individual ideas 
 and objects. 
 
 c. The comparison. (1) In the step of comparison 
 the pupils are made clearly aware of the elements or 
 processes of the examples studied in the preceding step 
 which are common to a class or group. Thus, the pu- 
 pils in history who were studying the French Revolu- 
 tion, found during the step of presentation that the 
 French people had objected to long-continued tyranny, 
 and had set up a new government in which the rights 
 of the people were to have more recognition than under 
 the old form. In the step of comparison, they found 
 that the English under Charles I had done the same; 
 that the Americans under George III, and the Cubans 
 under Spanish control, had worked for and attained 
 similar results. They discovered tyranny on the part 
 of all the governments, various attempts to overcome 
 it on the part of the people in each nation; and, as it 
 happened hi each of these cases, they found that the 
 oppressive power was finally overthrown after pro- 
 tracted struggle. In learning long division the pupils,
 
 48 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 through comparison, discover that they divide, then 
 multiply, then subtract in each example, and then 
 write down the new figure in the partial dividend, and 
 that they then repeat the four steps hi order until the 
 division is completed. 
 
 (2) This process of discovering the essential com- 
 mon elements is frequently aided by placing the ex- 
 amples or objects studied in a position favorable to 
 this purpose. Thus, writing the words receive, deceive, 
 perceive, conceive in a column serves to show the simi- 
 larity in spelling. The observation of likeness is ef- 
 fected at tunes by introducing a striking contrast. 
 Thus, the introduction of a scratching bird into a 
 group of swimmers may serve to call attention to the 
 similarity of foot structure in the latter group, a fact 
 which the pupils may have overlooked. Writing the 
 answers in a definite position in division of decimals 
 helps to master the process of determining the number 
 of decimal places in the quotient. Sometimes con- 
 trast is an aid, as when the word fife is inserted in 
 the list when teaching the formation of the plurals 
 of nouns ending in / and fe, such as wife, wolf, loaf, 
 leaf, half. 
 
 (3) It sometimes happens that teachers carry an 
 inductive lesson through the steps of preparation and 
 presentation, and then perform the step of comparison 
 themselves, thus depriving the pupils of needed exer- 
 cise and weakening the effect of the work. In conse- 
 quence the pupils often do not see the resemblance at
 
 THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 49 
 
 all, or else receive so feeble an impression that they do 
 not retain it, and consequently the process fails of its 
 purpose. If material is worth an explanation, or leads 
 to general ideas which are valuable, then the pupils 
 should discover the characteristics or processes upon 
 which the explanation or generalization is based. The 
 teacher should so arrange the material, and so direct 
 his questions, that the pupils will be aided in seeing 
 the important facts; but he should not state them 
 himself in the vain hope of saving time. 
 
 d. The generalization. (1) Following the step of com- 
 parison comes the step of generalization in which are 
 summed up the results of the previous steps. If the 
 pupils have been trying to find out why, hi multiplica- 
 tion of decimals, as many places are pointed off in the 
 product as the sum of the decimal places in the multi- 
 plier and multiplicand, it is in the step of generaliza- 
 tion that the explanation is definitely stated. If they 
 have been learning to multiply a fraction by a fraction, 
 it is in this step that they express the rule for such mul- 
 tiplication. It is in this part of the inductive process 
 that the pupils should formulate the statements for 
 the agreement of verbs with their subjects, the agree- 
 ment of pronouns with their antecedents, the rule for 
 the formation of plurals, the effect produced when an 
 acid and a base are united, the nature of heat, the law 
 of falling bodies, the conditions necessary to plant 
 growth, the influence of altitude upon climate, the 
 relation between products and industries, and the
 
 50 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 maxims and moral truths which result from the study 
 of human actions, such as "Taxation without repre- 
 sentation is tyranny," "All government derives its 
 just powers from the consent of the governed," or "It 
 is wrong to steal." 
 
 (2) At times, even though the comparison has 
 shown clearly the points which are essential to a gen- 
 eral conclusion, the pupils stumble over the wording of 
 the rule or principle. When the class which was study- 
 ing the story of the French Revolution reached the 
 place where some conclusion should be stated, one 
 pupil worded it thus: "Any fellow that tries to be a 
 boss is going to get it." When it is clear that the pupils 
 have the idea, they should, if necessary, be helped to a 
 proper wording of it. Then the rule, or law, or explana- 
 tion, as given in some textbook, may be compared 
 with the statement made by the class, or the suitable 
 maxim or adage may be committed to memory. 
 
 (3) The suggestion has just been made that the 
 pupils may compare their own conclusions with the 
 conclusions reached by other people. Such a reference 
 serves as a verification of the results obtained by the 
 pupils and is valuable on that account. This verifying 
 of conclusions is the test of the whole process of induc- 
 tive thinking, as it sets the seal of comparative cer- 
 tainty upon it. Experiment and observation are excel- 
 lent forms of verification. When they are not possible 
 or advisable, the conclusions of others, as found in 
 reference books, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, maps,
 
 THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 51 
 
 charts, tables, and the like, may be utilized. It is 
 frequently the case that the pupils verify their results 
 by conferring with one another, or with people hi the 
 home or community. 
 
 Advantages of this type of lesson 
 
 The inductive process may seem long and arduous 
 to teachers, and it may seem much more economical 
 for them to give the explanation to the class, or to 
 state the rule. In reality the time consumed for cov- 
 ering the four formal steps involved in the inductive 
 process may be short, requiring only a few minutes. 
 In actual practice is demonstrated, also, the futility of 
 the teacher's telling and explaining. Probably most 
 teachers tell their pupils to observe the margin when 
 writing, to begin each sentence and every proper name 
 with a capital letter, and to use an interrogation point 
 after a sentence which expresses a question. Does this 
 telling suffice, or do pupils fail to grasp the ideas and 
 keep on year after year violating all these rules? 
 Pupils in the grammar grades and in the high schools 
 often show by their practice that they have not learned 
 these simple laws of composition in such a way as to 
 secure their application. How long would it take to 
 have them observe margins in their textbooks and then 
 state the rule for the use of the margin; to have them 
 discover for themselves by definite searching that 
 proper names are begun with capital letters? After 
 such training, if a pupil forgets, he can be taken back
 
 52 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 to the same source to refresh his memory. The telling 
 method has not sufficed even in cases so simple as 
 those just cited, and consequently time has been lost 
 year after year. 
 
 The knowledge resulting from induction is literally 
 the pupils' own because they have created it by their 
 study. It usually possesses more meaning and per- 
 manency than it otherwise would. The results fur- 
 nish the principles necessary to explain concrete in- 
 stances and problems which are met later. Then, too, 
 through use, pupils learn the technique of the process 
 of induction, and have a method by which they may 
 independently study their environment. 
 
 Limitations of the method 
 
 Teachers may occasionally resort to induction when 
 the material is not valuable enough to justify it; that 
 is, they are not content at times to bring the children 
 into contact with individual ideas that are interesting 
 and worth while in themselves, but try to force con- 
 clusions which either are not valuable or which the 
 material never was meant to yield. Thus to try to 
 derive a lesson on table manners or morals from the 
 story of Alice in Wonderland is absurd. When the 
 inductive process was introduced into this country 
 in the form of the Five Formal Steps, many teachers 
 carried its use to the extreme and attempted to ap- 
 ply it to all material, thus making the work exceed- 
 ingly formal and difficult. At the present time the
 
 THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 53 
 
 pendulum has swung too far in the opposite direction, 
 and teachers attempt to acquaint their pupils with 
 general conclusions and ideas without providing an 
 adequate basis of concrete ideas. 
 
 There is certain material which should be carried 
 no further than the step of presentation. The pupils 
 should know it just because it is interesting of itself, 
 or is interesting for the time being; but, as has already 
 been pointed out in this chapter, there is much subject- 
 matter to which the complete inductive process should 
 be applied. Teachers may occasionally resort to induc- 
 tion when the material is not valuable enough to justify 
 it ; but experience shows that the error lies rather in not 
 using it enough, and in attempting to tell, instead of 
 leading pupils to think, and to discover explanations 
 and conclusions for themselves. 
 
 Summary. (1) The purpose of the inductive lesson is to 
 aid pupils to master values, to reorganize experience by dis- 
 covering logical groupings, and by working out the principles, 
 rules, definitions, or other forms of generalization which ex- 
 plain classes of ideas or processes. (2) The steps in an induc- 
 tive lesson are (a) the preparation, (6) the presentation, (c) 
 the comparison, (d) the generalization. (3) The advantages 
 of this type of teaching are that the pupils know thoroughly 
 what they know, that they are provided through it with the 
 means of solving concrete problems later, and that they 
 learn through its exercise a logical method of working. (4) 
 It is useless and unwise to try to employ inductive teaching 
 with all material, since not all subject-matter possesses logi- 
 cal value. Some subject-matter has value which is tempo- 
 rary, or which is aesthetic rather than logical.
 
 54 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 REFERENCES : C. A. and F. M. McMurry, The Method of the 
 Recitation, chapters ii-vni; W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, 
 chap, xix; John Dewey, How We Think, chap, vn; E. L. Thorn- 
 dike, Principle* of Teaching, chap. x. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Examine textbooks in grammar and arithmetic and name any 
 which employ the inductive method to develop the rules and 
 definitions. 
 
 2. Give arguments for and against placing the statement of the 
 pupils' aim at the beginning of the step of preparation. 
 
 8. Give illustrations of at least four ways by which the students 
 may learn the facts about the individual cases studied in the 
 step of presentation. 
 
 4. What advantage, if any, exists in having variety in the objects 
 studied preparatory to forming a general conclusion? 
 
 5. Write a list of sentences which you would use to teach the idea 
 of adverb. 
 
 6. Examine the sentences to determine (1) whether you have illus- 
 trated all the uses of the adverb; (2) whether you have given 
 sentences enough to make the different uses clear; and (3) 
 whether you have varied the forms of the sentences sufficiently 
 to help the pupils gain the desired ideas, or whether you have 
 used practically the same type of sentence with the adverbs 
 located in the same place throughout. 
 
 7. How can you help pupils gain the knowledge of likenesses and 
 differences without telling them? 
 
 8. When pupils have, through induction, gained the idea desired, 
 how are they to obtain the name which applies to the idea; that 
 is, when they discover that a certain class of words can be used 
 in place of nouns, how will they get the name pronoun? 
 
 0. How many forms of general knowledge such as rules, laws, do 
 you know? Make a list. Compare with others. 
 
 10. Would you ever accept from pupils a generalization made by 
 them which is correct but which is crudely worded? Why, or 
 why not? 
 
 11. How can pupils be aided in good wording of conclusions? 
 
 12. What generalizations have you ever had pupils verify? Have 
 you been in the habit of verifying your own? 
 
 13. What advantages are there in learning to verify conclusions? 
 
 14. Name some specific piece of subject-matter which you would 
 teach by means of the first two formal steps only. Why not 
 employ the complete inductive process?
 
 VI 
 
 LESSONS IN WHICH GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IS 
 EMPLOYED: THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 
 
 What is meant by deduction 
 
 ONLY a part of the process of education consists in 
 the formation of explanations, principles, theories, and 
 other methods of controlling experience. A very im- 
 portant function of training is to teach students to 
 master difficulties by employing those forms of control 
 established either by the students themselves or by 
 others. This process of solving a problem, of overcom- 
 ing a difficulty whatever its form, by bringing to bear 
 upon the problem or difficulty some conclusion already 
 formed, is known as the deductive process. The 
 teacher resorts to it whenever he causes his pupils to 
 answer questions, solve problems, or master the puz- 
 zling situations which confront them by referring to 
 rules, principles, laws, axioms, or other general conclu- 
 sions already hi their possession. A relation is estab- 
 lished between some more or less concrete idea and the 
 fundamental truth upon which it rests. The applica- 
 tion of the truth is thus extended and the concrete idea 
 acquires the meaning which it did not before possess; 
 that is, the meaning of the class to which it is assigned. 
 A teacher asked a class, which was studying Homer's
 
 58 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Odyssey, whether Ulysses, whose men had gone to the 
 palace of Circe the enchantress and had not returned, 
 would not sail away in fear lest some misfortune might 
 occur to him also. "No," was the answer. " He would 
 not go away because he was a good leader and a good 
 leader does not desert his men." Here the fundamen- 
 tal idea is that a good leader will not desert his men. 
 By relating the idea of Ulysses to this truth, the pupil 
 found his answer. The process is clearly deductive. 
 By use of it, new light is thrown upon the character of 
 Ulysses, since he, having been put into the class of good 
 leaders, has ascribed to him thereby the traits of the 
 class. Also, when the child's judgment that Ulysses 
 would not desert his men was confirmed by referring to 
 the narrative, the fundamental idea about good leaders 
 was strengthened, so that the pupil might well have 
 exclaimed, "Did I not say a good leader would not 
 desert his men? " 
 
 Deduction in its relation to the inductive process 
 
 This process of deduction is related very closely to 
 that of induction, so closely, in fact, that the inductive 
 lesson is not considered complete until the step of 
 application has been taken, and that is essentially de- 
 ductive. When all of the five formal steps namely, 
 preparation, presentation, comparison, generalization, 
 and application have been employed in a lesson, the 
 whole process is usually called the inductive-deductive 
 lesson. During the steps of presentation, comparison,
 
 THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 57 
 
 and generalization, the abstract idea or general princi- 
 ple is formed. In the application, this idea is employed 
 to explain individual situations or examples, to give 
 the right clue to action. When pupils have learned 
 what a pronoun is, they apply their knowledge by 
 identifying pronouns occurring in lists of words, in 
 books, or in their own oral speech. When they have 
 learned how to reduce fractions to their lowest terms, 
 the application consists in the actual reduction of 
 fractions to their lowest terms. Words should be rec- 
 ognized by pupils as pronouns because they are used in 
 place of nouns; and the reduction of a fraction, as -3^, 
 to its lowest terms should be based upon the law 
 that a fraction is reduced to its lowest terms by divid- 
 ing both numerator and denominator by the largest 
 number that will exactly divide both. When pupils 
 make such use of their knowledge, they are reasoning 
 deductively. 
 
 It is sometimes the case that the deductive phase of 
 teaching occurs hi very direct relation with the induc- 
 tive lesson in the form of the application of the truth 
 just formulated. Thus, after the statement of a rule 
 or definition in grammar or rhetoric, or a rule in arith- 
 metic or algebra, there is often a list of examples involv- 
 ing the use of the definition or rule. But deduction is 
 frequently involved in situations which are not so 
 neatly collected and labeled, and in which the principle 
 which must solve the problem is not furnished ready 
 for use and printed in italics. It must be searched out
 
 58 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 of past experience and fitted to the case in hand. If a 
 person should be asked to explain how a pump works, 
 or why water boils at a lower temperature in Denver 
 than hi New York City, he would probably have to 
 reflect for a time before finding the right explanations 
 even when he has them safely memorized. It takes 
 searching to find the reason that applies. This is the 
 constant experience of the doctor, the lawyer, the engi- 
 neer, of people in every walk of life. Problems arise 
 in miscellaneous fashion, and the guiding principles 
 must sometimes be sought long and earnestly before 
 they are found. 
 
 Steps or stages in a deductive exercise 
 
 a. The problem. First of all, there is a problem to be 
 solved, a situation to be met. This must be clearly felt 
 by the pupils, as they are to engage in the deductive 
 process of reasoning, and that requires the conscious- 
 ness of a problem that must be satisfied in the mind of 
 the person who is to employ the deductive process. 
 This problem may not be more complicated than the 
 necessity of finding the cost of one orange when six 
 oranges cost thirty cents; of determining whether / or 
 me should be used after and in the sentence, "The pic- 
 ture was given to you and "; of deciding what 
 colors to mix in order to produce green. 
 
 6. The study of details and principles. Many mis- 
 takes in life are made because of the attempt to apply 
 remedies, to make explanations, or to rush into action
 
 THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 59 
 
 before the thing which is to be done or explained or 
 remedied is clearly understood. We need to know the 
 facts in the case before we can choose the right course 
 or the proper basis for the solution of our difficulty. 
 We must collect data bearing upon the problem. The 
 physician observes his patient with care, seeking many 
 details and frequently resorting to the use of specially 
 adapted instruments in order to secure these details 
 before he goes further with his diagnosis. Before the 
 engineer can safely decide upon the kind of bridge to 
 build, he must ascertain many facts about the place, 
 the height of the banks, the nature of the bed of the 
 stream, the amount of water at different seasons, the 
 pressure to be expected from ice, the kind and amount 
 of traffic for which the bridge is intended, and many 
 other points. So the pupil who must classify words 
 must find out the facts necessary for that purpose. 
 Does the word modify? If so, what kind of a word does 
 it modify? It is useless to look for the class until the 
 essential details are known. Until the significant facts 
 about New York and Denver are known, there is no 
 clue to the physical principle which explains why water 
 boils at a lower temperature in one city than in the 
 other. 
 
 c. The hypothesis or inference. While examining 
 data, another phase of deduction keeps coming into 
 activity. It is the attempt to apply to the solution of 
 the problem at hand some principle or explanation 
 connected with the data discovered. This step is
 
 60 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 known as inference, or the forming of an hypothesis. 
 Every teacher's experience bears testimony to the 
 statement that pupils need training in the process of 
 associating the given facts with the right principles. 
 Young people guess wide of the mark, are irrelevant 
 altogether, or find theories which are not adequate. 
 To the question, "What conditions make it possible 
 to grow rice in Texas?" the answer is suggested, 
 "Texas is the largest State in the Union." This reply 
 is no more irrelevant than thousands of explanations 
 suggested by pupils not only in elementary schools but 
 in higher schools as well. The explanations do not 
 explain; they do not apply. Instead of rejecting such 
 replies at once, the pupils should be helped to realize 
 that, starting from the data given, they must seek for 
 an explanation which bears upon the problem. Thus 
 the word to be classified is found to be a word which 
 modules. The pupil may conclude at once that it is an 
 adjective because adjectives are modifiers. Further 
 search for facts reveals that the word in question modi- 
 fies a verb. The adjective hypothesis must then be 
 discarded in favor of the idea that the word must be 
 an adverb, because words which modify the meaning 
 of verbs are adverbs. The more or less scientific guess 
 or explanation offered can be regarded merely as an 
 hypothesis, or inference, that is, a tentative theory 
 which must be examined to see if it meets the situa- 
 tion. The pupil who gives size as the reason for rice- 
 growing hi Texas should be required to explain how
 
 THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 61 
 
 that factor applies to the situation. He then discovers 
 his own error. 
 
 The fraction^ is to be reduced to lower terms. The 
 class stumbles over the process. "How is a fraction 
 reduced to lower terms? " asks the teacher. "By multi- 
 plying both terms by the same number," answers a 
 pupil. "When the fraction is reduced to lower terms 
 will the numbers be larger or smaller than they now 
 are? " "They will be smaller." "If you multiply both 
 terms will the resulting numbers be larger or smaller 
 than in our fraction f ? " "They will be larger." "Will 
 multiplying reduce the fraction to lower terms?" 
 "No." "How can numbers be reduced? " "Either by 
 subtraction or division." "Which of these processes 
 should be employed in the reduction of fractions to 
 lower terms?" "Division." "How is a fraction re- 
 duced to lower terms?" 
 
 In this instance the pupil has been compelled to 
 examine his rashly stated inference, to see what it 
 means, and to decide whether it is the right one for the 
 situation. One of the things he should learn to do fre- 
 quently in life is to make his inferences with care. The 
 teacher who cuts short the process by saying, " No, 
 you do not multiply, you divide in order to reduce 
 fractions to lower terms," deprives pupils of needed 
 training, though he may have helped to a quick answer. 
 
 d. Verification of hypothesis finally selected. The next 
 step in deduction follows closely and quickly upon the 
 discovery of the right principle. What is known to be
 
 62 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 true of the class to which the problem belongs is in- 
 ferred to be true of the problem, and the latter is solved 
 by applying the principle. In the example of reduction 
 just given, the questioning stopped with the statement 
 of the rule for the reduction of a fraction to lower 
 terms. In verifying his inference, the pupil divides 
 both terms of the fraction by the same number, and 
 examines the resulting fraction to see if it is really 
 expressed in lower terms than the original. The solu- 
 tion of the problem or difficulty constitutes a verifica- 
 tion of the reasoning process employed. If the pupil, 
 after dividing both terms of his fraction by the same 
 number, finds the new numerator and the new denomi- 
 nator to consist of smaller numbers, he knows he has 
 reduced his fraction to lower terms. The man who 
 invents a new process for the manufacture of steel 
 verifies his theory by the actual making of steel. The 
 man who derives a cure for tuberculosis accepts or 
 rejects it by its effects upon tubercular patients. 
 
 But not all verification works out so visibly. In 
 moral and aesthetic problems, one's self-approval or 
 feeling of satisfaction is often the test of the theory 
 selected and applied. Combinations of colors or tones 
 for certain purposes are due to custom, or to individ- 
 ual taste. They cannot be verified by appeal to logic; 
 but they may be approved if they are found to con- 
 form to accepted standards. 
 
 A negative form of verification is the absence of any 
 ideas or elements in conflict with the theory adopted.
 
 THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 6S 
 
 This fact suggests that it is advisable to look for data 
 which oppose the hypothesis formed. A simple experi- 
 ence in physics illustrates this point. Some water in a 
 tightly corked bottle was heated until it boiled. It was 
 removed from the fire and held under a stream of 
 water. The water in the bottle boiled furiously. The 
 children inferred that the stream of water must be hot 
 because it is always the application of heat which 
 makes water boil. Investigation proved to them that 
 the stream of water was cold. To find that heat causes 
 water to boil is one theory. To find that nothing else 
 does so is quite another. Children may be justified in 
 accepting a given explanation upon the basis that they 
 can find nothing to contradict it. Scientists have a 
 long list of hypotheses which they justify because there 
 is nothing to oppose them; so, while they cannot prove 
 that they are true, they nevertheless employ them. 
 
 In order to confirm his own solution of a difficulty, 
 or to discover contradiction, a pupil submits his results 
 to others. He talks his solution over with his fellows 
 and compares results. He seeks the teacher's opinion 
 or the opinions of people outside of school. He refers to 
 books. In brief, he looks to the experience and judg- 
 ment of others for confirmation or correction of his 
 solution. It is right that he should do so, though he 
 should not do it to the extent that he forms the habit 
 of giving up his own conclusions as soon as he discovers 
 opposition. Giving up conclusions should be as ra- 
 tional a process as forming them.
 
 64 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Use of textbooks in deduction 
 
 To reason deductively, to meet situations by em- 
 ploying general principles, implies that pupils have 
 these principles at their disposal. Through the process 
 of inductive thinking, whether outside of school or 
 with the teacher's assistance, they acquire a large 
 number of general notions. However, there is not time 
 enough to develop all that they need, and furthermore, 
 they can employ theories which they are not mature 
 enough or experienced enough to evolve. These they 
 must obtain from some available source, and then use. 
 They must rely on some authority at this point, 
 whether it be the teacher, the textbook, or some other 
 help. The problem once presented itself in the writer's 
 experience of finding the contents of a car of oil, the 
 car being in the form of a recumbent cylinder, of 
 given length and diameter and lacking several inches 
 of being full. Had the cylinder stood on one end, the 
 solution would have been easy; but it rested on the 
 side, and no rule was known to the writer that would 
 get the answer, and the answer was imperative. A 
 textbook on engineering was consulted and the for- 
 mula which applied to such problems was found and 
 applied. It is quite conceivable that pupils hi school 
 might need just such a formula, and that they might 
 not have the knowledge of mathematics necessary to 
 help them derive it inductively. They need to learn 
 where to look for such helps, and they need to recog- 
 nize their suitability when found.
 
 THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 65 
 
 Suggestions in regard to the use of the deductive 
 process 
 
 What should the teacher do to aid pupils in their 
 efforts to think deductively? In the first place, he 
 should discover before class what places in the les- 
 sons afford really good opportunities for using the pro- 
 cess. Grammar and mathematics thrust opportunities 
 upon the class, but geography, history, and the other 
 subjects are not so openly deductive. When the 
 teacher has decided upon the situations that are neces- 
 sarily deductive, or that can be made so to the gain of 
 the class, he must so shape the work with the class that 
 the pupils will come upon the problem or situation 
 which requires solution or explanation or decision. 
 
 The pupils will probably need some help in the 
 Carious steps: first, hi seeing just what the situation 
 is; second, in choosing the right principle; third, in 
 making the inference and in solving the difficulty; 
 and, lastly, in the verification. While the steps ought 
 not to be made too easy, and while there ought not 
 to be too many suggestive questions which ignore the 
 ability of the pupils, still some assistance is often 
 necessary. The pupils sometimes grope blindly for the 
 general idea which gives the solution. They do not 
 know which way to turn or to look. The teacher needs 
 to guide their search and sometimes to suggest possibil- 
 ities for consideration. As the class grows in skill, the 
 teacher should withdraw more and more from this 
 helping and guiding process in the selection of princi-
 
 66 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 pies. He should insist upon the application of the 
 theory selected to the case in hand, not only for the 
 sake of the solution of the problems to be solved, but to 
 further the habit on the part of the pupils of testing 
 their choice of theory in actual use. He can help them 
 verify their results, not merely by passing judgment 
 himself, but by suggesting means of verification and 
 by holding pupils to verification when verification is 
 necessary and feasible. 
 
 It is possible that most teachers use the deductive 
 process more frequently than they are aware. It may 
 be that induction has been emphasized so much that 
 the deductive lesson has not received due considera- 
 tion, and that its importance has been overlooked. It 
 is a necessary means of working out puzzling situa- 
 tions, of solving difficulties, of reasoning out new 
 knowledge, and our pupils need all the training possi- 
 ble along just such lines. By their own acquired wis- 
 dom and by the wisdom of the race, they may meet and 
 solve life's knotty problems if they know how to utilize 
 this wisdom. 
 
 Professor Dewey gives us this very helpful suggestion 
 in regard to the use of deduction : 
 
 In other subjects and topics, the deductive phase is iso- 
 lated, and is treated as if it were complete in itself. This false 
 isolation may show itself in either (and both) of two points; 
 namely, at the beginning or at the end of the resort to gen- 
 eral intellectual procedure. 
 
 Beginning with definitions, rules, general principles, class-
 
 THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 67 
 
 ifications, and the like, is a form of the first error. This 
 method has been such a uniform object of attack on the part 
 of all educational reformers that it is not necessary to dwell 
 upon it further than to note that the mistake is, logically, 
 due to the attempt to introduce deductive considerations 
 without first making acquaintance with the particular factu 
 that create a need for the generalizing rational devices. Un- 
 fortunately, the reformer sometimes carries his objection 
 too far, or rather locates it in the wrong place. He is led into 
 a tirade against all definition, all systematization, all use of 
 general principles, instead of confining himself to pointing 
 out their futility and their deadness when not properly moti- 
 vated by familiarity with concrete experiences. 
 
 The isolation of deduction is seen, at the other end, wher- 
 ever there is failure to clinch and test the results of the gen- 
 eral reasoning processes by application to new concrete cases. 
 The final point of the deductive devices lies in their use in 
 assimilating and comprehending individual cases. No one 
 understands a general principle fully no matter how ade- 
 quately he can demonstrate it, to say nothing of repeating 
 it till he can employ it in the mastery of new situations, 
 which, if they are new, differ in manifestation from the cases 
 used in reaching the generalization. Too often the textbook 
 or teacher is contented with a series of somewhat perfunctory 
 examples and illustrations, and the student is not forced to 
 carry the principle that he has formulated over into further 
 cases of his experience. In so far, the principle is inert and 
 dead.' 
 
 Summary. (1) By deduction is meant the establishment 
 of control over individual ideas or situations through the 
 application of principles, rules, definitions, laws, axioms, or 
 other forms of general knowledge possessed by the individual 
 who makes the application of them to the concrete case. As 
 
 1 John Dewey, How We Think, pp. 98-99.
 
 68 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 the result of the process, the individual case takes on larger 
 meaning, and the principle or law is broadened in applica- 
 tion. (2) Deduction is ultimately related to induction. This 
 relationship should be maintained in the teaching process. 
 The inductive process is not complete until it terminates in 
 general knowledge. This knowledge should be employed in 
 the interpretation of individual problems such as gave rise 
 to the inductive process. (3) The steps in the deductive proc- 
 ess are (a) the realization of a problem; (6) the study of de- 
 tails and the search for principles, rules, laws, or definitions 
 which will explain them; (c) the formation of an hypothesis 
 or inference; (d) the verification of the hypothesis or infer- 
 ence. (4) Textbooks afford frequent opportunities for the 
 ^xercise of the deductive process. They frequently give re- 
 sults of inductive reasoning which pupils usually accept 
 without question. Such books should afford many problems 
 requiring deductive effort. Furthermore, textbooks contain 
 statements of rules, laws, principles, and definitions to which 
 students should refer for verification of their own efforts, and 
 for aid in solving their difficulties. (5) The teacher is cau- 
 tioned not to attempt the omission of the deductive process 
 in order to hurry the pupils forward to correct answers. Pu- 
 pils need training in reasoning quite as much, or even more, 
 than they need some of the answers. They need assistance 
 and patient treatment while exercising the different steps of 
 the process. The suggestion is made that the teacher guard 
 against excessive employment of deduction in his own teach- 
 ing procedure, that is, against trying to force into use general 
 forms of knowledge for which the pupils are not prepared. 
 It is also suggested that pupils be led to use freely the under- 
 lying ideas they already possess in the mastery of new situa- 
 tions. We must guard against two evils in connection with 
 the employment of deduction; namely, trying to use gen- 
 eral principles before the pupils possess them, and, secondly, 
 omitting to use them when pupils do possess them.
 
 THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 69 
 
 REFERENCES: C. A. and F. M. McMurry, The Method of the Re- 
 citation, chap, ix ; John Dewey, How We Think, chap, vn; W. C. 
 Bagley, The Educative Process, chap, xx; Colvin and Bagley, Hu- 
 man Behavior, chap, xvni; L. B. Earhart, Teaching Children to 
 Study, chap, in; W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, chap, xiv; 
 E. L. Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, chap, x; G. D. Strayer, 
 A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, chap. vi. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Cite an instance when a teacher should have required pupils to 
 explain a situation by means of general knowledge already in 
 their possession and failed to do so. 
 
 2. Cite an instance when a teacher attempted to have pupils ex- 
 plain a situation through a principle or rule which they did not 
 possess or clearly understand. 
 
 8. Does failure to classify a word as a verb always mean that pupils 
 do not know the definition of verb? What else may it mean? 
 
 4. What objection is there to telling a class that if equals be added 
 to equals the results will be equal, and then giving two or three 
 illustrations to show what is meant? 
 
 5. A certain writer maintains that when general truths may be 
 grasped as readily as the one stated in the preceding exercise, 
 it is advisable to state them simply and clearly and then illus- 
 trate what is meant. Do you agree with him? What advan- 
 tage is there in this plan, providing it works successfully? 
 
 6. Give instances of the use of deduction following induction in 
 five school subjects. 
 
 7. Why should there be a careful study of the individual instance 
 or example in deduction? 
 
 8. What mistake or mistakes are likely to be made in connection 
 with forming the hypothesis or making the inference? 
 
 9. How can you help pupils guard against the mistakes mentioned 
 in exercise 8 ? 
 
 10. Why should inferences be verified? 
 
 11. Suggest several ways in which the conclusion may be verified. 
 
 12. In teaching, which type of exercise should predominate, the 
 inductive or the deductive? 
 
 13. What difficulties do you foresee in the application of general 
 truths learned by the inductive process? 
 
 14. Through which process of learning, the inductive or deductive, 
 have you profited most? Suffered most in expenditure of time 
 and energy?
 
 vn 
 
 THE STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 
 
 The nature of the object lesson 
 
 THE object lesson is a teaching exercise which aims to 
 increase knowledge by the direct study of material, 
 processes, or conditions. Such a lesson might be given 
 in botany with the plants present to observe; in phy- 
 sics, with the apparatus before the class and the experi- 
 ment performed; in chemistry, with the action of one 
 substance upon another demonstrated; in geography, 
 through the observation lesson in which the pupils see 
 for themselves the forms of land and water, or the 
 action of water upon soil and rocks. A visit to a mill, a 
 shop, a store, or a ship, to see what is done and how 
 the work is performed, is an object lesson. Trips to the 
 aquarium, the museum, the zoological garden, the bo- 
 tanical garden, and the lessons in the school garden 
 all belong in this category, as do also many of the les- 
 sons in cooking, sewing, and manual training. 
 
 Through these lessons pupils should gain intimate 
 acquaintance with a wealth of concrete material in 
 their environment. The resulting knowledge should be 
 all the more clear because several senses have been 
 active in acquiring it. Sight and hearing, and fre- 
 quently taste, smell, and touch, add their quota to the
 
 STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 71 
 
 fund. Mere telling or reading or picture study cannot 
 impart the vividness, the details, or the interest that 
 come from seeing things for one's self, and of being a 
 participant at times in the processes which bring about 
 results. Vividness, participation and interest are in- 
 valuable aids in making impressions so deep that they 
 are long retained. 
 
 The relation of the object lesson to the inductive 
 lesson 
 
 Since the objects studied must be related to knowl- 
 edge already possessed in order to be understood, and 
 since the ideas gained are derived from the analytic 
 study of the material itself, the object lesson involves 
 the first two steps of the inductive lesson, the steps 
 of preparation and presentation. Frequently the 
 knowledge gained from the study of concrete material 
 and processes is used as a basis for comparison, gener- 
 alization, and application, and in that case all of the 
 formal steps are employed. Many times a single form 
 as a stream, a mountain, a plant, or an animal is 
 studied thoroughly, and is then made to serve as a type 
 for similar objects, thus furnishing a core for later com- 
 parisons and generalizations. The teacher may never 
 attempt to base a general conclusion upon the object 
 studied, but, through the natural tendency to reason 
 from the concrete to the abstract, the pupils in the 
 course of time may of themselves use the results of the 
 object lessons to derive classifications, explanations, or 
 laws.
 
 72 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 The need of the step of preparation in the object lesson 
 
 Much of the so-called nature study in our schools 
 serves as a sad warning as to how object lessons should 
 not be conducted. With no preliminaries whatsoever, 
 the pupils are expected to be interested in the object 
 presented and to see just what they ought to see. With 
 no ideas in mind to serve as a means of explaining the 
 new facts, and with no live motive for observation, 
 they either give a list of the anatomical parts, or recite 
 in perfunctory fashion from a cut-and-dried outline. 
 Why should there be an object lesson unless the thing 
 to be observed has value either in the purpose it serves 
 directly, or in its relation to other objects or processes? 
 Granted that the lesson is to be conducted for the 
 purpose of mastering some value, there must, then, be 
 preparation of some kind to arouse the motive, or feel- 
 ing of need, that will be satisfied through the lesson. A 
 lesson on the canary will not consist of the statement 
 that the bird has feathers, bill, and feet, but will be 
 conducted, possibly, to find out why people keep cana- 
 ries as pets, and how these birds should be cared for. 
 
 Not only must the motive be aroused in the minds of 
 the pupils; the related ideas which form the basis for 
 the understanding of the new knowledge which is to be 
 gained must be recalled, as explained in the chapter on 
 the inductive lesson. If two classes of levers have been 
 studied and a third one is to be presented, the relevant 
 facts about the first two classes should be called up and 
 made ready to serve as the means of explaining the
 
 STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 73 
 
 new form. Frequently, the development of an aim or 
 purpose is sufficient to bring to mind the related ideas 
 which are needed. 
 
 The teaching of the new lesson 
 
 a. The presence of a motive serves to guide and to 
 limit the observations and the activities in the step of 
 presentation. An object lesson in geography without a 
 clear aim is a desultory proceeding, and frequently 
 results in much disorder and little knowledge. The 
 aims in any one lesson should be few and distinct, and 
 the attention of the class should be held closely to 
 observing the facts which relate to them. Other ques- 
 tions may come up, but they should be reserved for 
 other lessons or else deferred until the particular aims 
 of the lesson in hand have been covered. 
 
 It will help pupils to keep to the point it they write 
 in their notebooks the questions or topics they are to 
 consider, and then, as important parts are brought out 
 in the lesson, they should write these hi order under the 
 proper question or topic. Sometimes, when attention 
 lags or wanders, the teacher needs to call it back by 
 asking, "What are we trying to find out just now?" 
 or some similar question. The pupils will learn pres- 
 ently to criticize those who stray from the subject at 
 hand. 
 
 6. Too much study of detail defeats the purpose of 
 the lesson. Excessive study, even of the concrete, in 
 one class period results in hazy and confused impres-
 
 74 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 sions. The observations should be limited to compara- 
 tively few facts and these should be well mastered. 
 
 c. Some pupils who are less shy than others fre- 
 quently monopolize much of the time given to an object 
 lesson, while the timid ones hesitate to ask questions 
 which they would like to have answered, or to place 
 themselves in a position where they can see well the 
 facts to be observed. Unless the teacher takes cogni- 
 zance of this condition, part of the class will fail to reap 
 much benefit from the lesson. The opportunities for 
 observation and questioning should be distributed for 
 the benefit of the entire class. 
 
 d. Excursions and other similar lessons often afford 
 occasions for study by the class and for individual 
 study as well. Certain phases of the lesson are ob- 
 served by all pupils, while individuals or groups have 
 special assignments to work up and report upon. In an 
 excursion, this necessitates calling the class together 
 from time to time for the study of some points, and 
 then permitting the pupils to work on their individual 
 problems. It requires the determination beforehand of 
 meeting-places, and of signals to call the class together. 
 It means, also, that the pupils must understand clearly 
 that the excursion is not a mere pleasure outing, but 
 that it is a lesson which requires obedience, careful 
 work, and responsibility for results. 
 
 e. When the observations have been made, the pu- 
 pils should be held accountable for the lesson. The 
 question or questions with which the lesson started
 
 STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 7& 
 
 should be answered. Individual and class study 
 should be recited upon in the following lesson period. 
 A satisfactory account of what has been seen or done 
 should be given either in oral or written form, and the 
 main points should be made prominent. 
 
 Planning the object lesson 
 
 The object lesson requires careful planning on the 
 part of the teacher. If a geography class is to have an 
 outdoor lesson, the teacher should inspect the place 
 beforehand, decide upon the points to be studied, the 
 best places for observation, the route to be traversed, 
 and similar details. If it is an experimental lesson in 
 physics or chemistry, materials and apparatus should 
 be prepared, and the experiment should be rehearsed 
 by the teacher to be sure that everything is in working 
 order. Many a lesson has been interrupted at a critical 
 point because the instructor forgot some piece of appa- 
 ratus, or failed to find out beforehand that the appara- 
 tus or materials were not in working order. If the 
 lesson is the usual exercise in the classroom, the teacher 
 should be foresighted and prepare for it so that when 
 the day arrives for the lesson the materials may be at 
 hand and ready for use. 
 
 Providing illustrative material 
 
 The matter of providing illustrative material for 
 nature lessons has not impressed some teachers seri- 
 ously. Some time ago the writer saw a teacher try-
 
 76 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 ing to give a lesson on clams with only a part of a 
 clam shell to illustrate the work. This was in a neigh- 
 borhood where clams may be obtained readily. An- 
 other was teaching about snails with no objects present 
 at all, despite the facts that only a few blocks away 
 there was a pond where plenty of snails could be found, 
 and that the pupils would have been very glad to col- 
 lect some for the lesson. A lesson on the canary bird 
 consisted in a desultory talk about the bird, which 
 arrived nowhere in particular. No bird was in evi- 
 dence, although a question revealed the fact that in 
 several of the homes represented canaries were kept as 
 pets, and that the pupils could and would bring the 
 birds to school if they were wanted. Such lessons as 
 these just cited are not really nature lessons. To fulfill 
 their purpose, there should be enough material at hand 
 for every pupil to see the facts. In many cases this will 
 mean a specimen for every member of the class. 
 Sometimes it will mean but one object for the entire 
 class. To study the fly, spider, or mosquito with only 
 one specimen for a class of fifty pupils does not meet 
 the purpose. On the other hand, one bird, one gold- 
 fish, or one stalk of corn might suffice for a class. 
 
 In some cases the pupils should provide the material 
 for study, and this for several reasons. It encourages 
 the collecting instinct, and it connects the school activ- 
 ities with the outside world. Furthermore, in obtaining 
 the material the pupils frequently learn much about 
 the specimens which they would have missed other-
 
 STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 77 
 
 wise. The children who look for mosquito larvae dis- 
 cover some facts which are well worth knowing; and 
 the boy who secures a full-grown dandelion plant with 
 its entire root finds at least one good reason why the 
 plant is so hard to exterminate. 
 
 A word of caution, however, is necessary in regard to 
 encouraging pupils to obtain materials for school pur- 
 poses. Fine shade trees, the wild birds and flowers, and 
 private property should all be respected. Pupils must 
 be taught to bear this fact in mind. If wild flowers are 
 gathered, the roots should be spared for future flower- 
 ing. Sentiment and good sense can be brought to bear 
 in regard to what to select and how to treat it. 
 
 Another suggestion about nature study is that the 
 course of study should be so arranged that the objects 
 may be studied in their most favorable season. This 
 ought to be self-evident but experience shows that it is 
 pot so. The mosquito in January and seed-dispersal 
 in February are typical of assignments of topics which 
 teachers have been known to prepare. If pets are to be 
 brought to school, they should be studied when the 
 weather is not so cold as to make their visit to the 
 classroom dangerous. Spring flowers should be as- 
 signed to the months when they bloom, and insect life 
 should be observed when the weather makes it possible 
 to obtain specimens. Material obtainable at any sea- 
 son may well be given in those months during which 
 excursions are impossible, and plant and animal life 
 are difficult to observe.
 
 78 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Summary. (1) The object lesson consists of the study of 
 material, activities, or conditions at first hand. (2) It may 
 form a part of the inductive lesson, and in any case requires 
 motivation and the use of an apperceiving basis. (3) The 
 observation should be closely limited to the facts which bear 
 upon the problem and all pupils should observe these facts. 
 Some pupils may have special tasks assigned to them. (4) 
 The class should be held responsible for the results of the 
 lesson. (5) The object lesson requires careful preparation on 
 the part of the teacher. (6) There should be enough illus- 
 trative material for all pupils to observe the facts to be 
 taught. (7) This material may be collected by teacher or 
 class according to circumstances. (8) Plant and animal 
 forms and other natural phenomena should be studied in 
 their most favorable season. 
 
 REFERENCES: W. W. Bagley, The Educative Process, chap, xvi; 
 G. D. Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, chap. v. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Show how the study of the apple blossom may form a part of an 
 inductive lesson. Of a deductive lesson. 
 
 2. Make a list of ten objects or processes which may be studied 
 through object lessons. After each one write the motive which 
 you might arouse in the minds of your class for its study. 
 
 8. In any object lesson, what facts would you omit? 
 
 4. What objection is there to permitting a very bright pupil to do 
 most of the reciting in this type of lesson? 
 
 5. In the study of interesting material, pupils tend to wander far 
 from the aim. Suggest ways of preventing wandering without 
 dampening enthusiasm. 
 
 6. Which would you consider the better object lesson, one in 
 which fifty details had been observed or one in which ten had 
 been considered? Upon what do you base your judgment? 
 
 7. Suggest ways of obtaining enough material for the object lesson 
 on the spider. 
 
 8. Can the study of the picture of a spider be classed as an object 
 lesson! Why, or why not? 
 
 0. Should pictures be used when objects can be obtained?
 
 STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 79 
 
 10. Pupils in a certain city were directed to bring specimens of tree 
 branches and leaves to class. They spoiled all the young trees 
 in the neighborhood of the school in obeying the order. How 
 may such damage be avoided and material still be obtained? 
 
 11. What advantage has the study of objects and processes directly 
 over learning about them in any other way? 
 
 12. Select some manufacturing plant or other place of industry in 
 your neighborhood, tell what you would expect the entire class 
 to observe during a visit, and designate what you would assign 
 to individual pupils for study. 
 
 13. What geographical facts may be gained by observation in your 
 community? 
 
 14. What historical features may be thus studied? 
 
 15. What civic activities may be observed? 
 
 16. Prepare a list of the industries of your community. Which of 
 these might be studied by direct observation? 
 
 17. What art collections, collections of historical objects, or collec- 
 tions of natural objects does your community possess? To what 
 extent can the schools make use of them? 
 
 18. What cautions should a teacher observe in the use of the object 
 lesson?
 
 vm 
 
 THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 
 
 The purpose of the assignment 
 
 THE lesson assignment is that form of teaching 
 which prepares pupils for work outside of the class 
 period, or when lessons must be prepared without the 
 teacher's direct assistance. It may be that the lessons 
 are to be studied at school, or worked up at home or in 
 the library, or somewhere else outside of the classroom. 
 Wherever they are prepared, the pupils are supposed to 
 be following directions imparted to them in some as- 
 signment exercise. This assignment must indicate the 
 work to be done, and frequently, one might say, usu- 
 ally, should take account of the special difficulties to 
 be met and the best means of studying the particular 
 lesson assigned. 
 
 Kinds of lessons which may involve assignment 
 
 The assignment is sometimes treated in lectures and 
 textbooks as if it prepared for textbook study only. 
 This is too narrow a view to take of the exercise. It 
 prepares for any work to be done by the pupils inde- 
 pendently; that is, without the teacher at hand to sup- 
 ervise and direct every step taken. The task assigned 
 may be the acquiring of knowledge from some source,
 
 THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 81 
 
 whether from books, people, observation, or reflection. 
 It may be the collection of materials for an object les- 
 son. It may be the application of principles, as in ge- 
 ometry, arithmetic, or grammar. It may be a private 
 drill exercise in spelling, multiplication tables, penman- 
 ship, oral reading, music, or sewing, or some other sub- 
 ject which requires practice to insure skill. It may be 
 the performing of certain exercises to correct physical 
 defects or to assist physical development, as bending, 
 stretching, and drawing deep breaths. Any teaching 
 which involves work outside of the class period must 
 evidently require an assignment; hence to limit the 
 discussion to textbook lessons is to treat the subject 
 too narrowly. The assignment may be a part of an 
 inductive or deductive exercise, an object lesson, a 
 drill lesson, a review lesson, or any form of class exer- 
 cise which conforms to the conditions above stated. 
 
 When the assignment should be made 
 
 If the work to be prepared by the class grows out of, 
 and depends upon, the preceding class exercise or les- 
 son, then the assignment may properly and profitably 
 be made at the close of that lesson. If, however, the 
 work is not dependent upon that lesson, the assign- 
 ment may be made either at the beginning or at the 
 end. The new exercise in literature may not depend 
 upon the one which immediately precedes it; conse- 
 quently, the teacher may choose whether to assign 
 the following lesson before the recitation on the one
 
 82 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 at hand, or to complete the latter and then devote the 
 necessary time to assigning the new exercise. The dan- 
 ger of delay is that the time often passes more rapidly 
 than the teacher is aware, and the assignment is there- 
 fore too meager and indefinite for the good of the class. 
 
 It frequently happens that the questions which con- 
 stitute the problems to be solved in the new lesson are 
 raised during the course of some lesson a day or more 
 in advance of the period when the subject is to be dis- 
 cussed in class. When not too remote from the day of 
 recitation, it is worth while to make the assignment 
 when the questions are raised, even if it interrupt the 
 lesson for a few minutes. The motive is in the proper 
 setting then, and the new lesson will be all the better 
 prepared on that account. If the assignment keeps thus 
 cropping out during the course of an exercise or several 
 exercises, there should be a definite restatement of it as 
 a whole before the study period, so that all pupils may 
 know just what they are to do and how they are to do it. 
 
 One cannot make a hard-and-fast rule about the 
 time of the assignment, since it depends upon condi- 
 tions which vary. However, the teacher should choose 
 the tune thoughtfully and not leave it to the mercy of 
 chance or habit. 
 
 What the assignment should do specifically for the 
 class in regard to subject-matter 
 
 As the assignment may be involved in any form of 
 teaching exercises which require independent efforts to
 
 THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 83 
 
 extend knowledge, such as the inductive lesson, and 
 the deductive lesson, it partakes of their technique. 
 Certain features of these types of teaching are feat- 
 ures, also, of the assignment. It must bring to con- 
 sciousness the problems to be solved, and the condi- 
 tions to be met in the period of independent work. If 
 it should fail to do so, the preparation by the pupil will 
 consist probably of memorizing the text or of indefinite 
 work in other directions. Undirected effort is random 
 effort, and without an aim or motive such effort is the 
 only kind the pupil is likely to expend. It may be that 
 the assignment involves observation, experimentation, 
 reading, talking with others, or reflecting upon a situ- 
 ation and working out a chain of reasoning, either in- 
 ductively or deductively. It may involve the steps of 
 comparison and generalization, or it may demand the 
 application of rules and principles. Whatever the 
 effort involved may be, the motive which is to call it 
 forth must be made clear in the assignment. The as- 
 signment may thus at times coincide with the step of 
 preparation, since it includes the raising of a ques- 
 tion or problem, and when necessary the recall of 
 the ideas upon which the understanding of the knowl- 
 edge to be gained by the pupils must rest. Thus, 
 in assigning an advance lesson in geometry, the 
 teacher not only leads the class to see clearly what 
 is to be done, but helps the students to see what part 
 of their previous knowledge bears upon the solu- 
 tion. Seeing the question plainly and knowing where
 
 84 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 help lies, the pupils are prepared for independent 
 work. 
 
 A teacher of mathematics in one of our best-known 
 normal schools taught geometry for many years with 
 marked success without using a textbook in class. 
 Textbooks were absolutely forbidden, as were the note- 
 books of previous classes and all other helps. The 
 assignments were models of definiteness. The problems 
 were stated so that no one could fail to know what he 
 was to do. Then the axioms and previous demonstra- 
 tions which seemed to bear upon the new problem were 
 recalled and scanned with critical mind to see if they 
 offered the necessary basis. When the class was on the 
 right track, the assignment ended. 
 
 Many pupils fail in preparation largely because these 
 two features of the assignment are not observed fully; 
 namely, defining clearly the thing to be done, and re- 
 calling the old ideas which explain the new. 
 
 It sometimes is the case that the subject-matter 
 assigned for study from books contains technical diffi- 
 culties in the form of new words used in an unusual 
 way or of difficult grammatical constructions; or the 
 difficulty may lie in the obscurity of the author's 
 meaning. A young pupil who, in preparing a reading 
 lesson, must struggle with the pronunciation and 
 meaning of a number of words is greatly handicapped. 
 These difficulties should be anticipated in the assign- 
 ment and the path made clear. Even older pupils who 
 are reading such classics as Merchant of Venice or Lady
 
 THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 85 
 
 of the Lake will need the same kind of assistance. Those 
 who have tried to teach literature, mathematics, or 
 grammar to pupils in the higher grades of the elemen- 
 tary schools, or in the high schools, are well aware thai 
 even a little variation from the sentence constructions 
 to which pupils are accustomed is sufficient to keep 
 them from getting the meaning. Only recently a young 
 girl read the line, "The muster place be Lanrick Mead," 
 as "The mustard place be, Lanrick, Mead." A new 
 word and a slight variation in form were too much for 
 her to comprehend. Those who teach foreign languages 
 find it particularly necessary, in the assignment of a 
 new lesson, to call attention to the new or rare forms 
 of words or sentences so that there may be understand- 
 ing without the expenditure of too much time. The 
 pupils are to do a certain amount of work within cer- 
 tain time limits. They need enough assistance in the 
 assignment to enable them to meet these conditions 
 with good, faithful effort on their part. 
 
 How the assignment should help with methods of 
 study 
 
 In their efforts to keep their pupils from simply mem- 
 orizing a textbook lesson, teachers sometimes tell them 
 to prepare to give the thought in their own words. 
 Sometimes they go a step farther and give a list of 
 questions the answers to which the pupils are to find 
 during their study period. A still more advanced stage 
 of procedure is the preparation of a topical outline by
 
 86 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 the teacher upon which the pupils are to recite after 
 they have studied the lesson. When the pupils have 
 had practice in independent work, the assignment 
 may include directions for them to prepare a list of 
 questions covered by the lesson they are to study, said 
 questions to be brought to class to be answered by 
 classmates; or, they may be required to prepare their 
 own topical outline according to which they will 
 make their recitation. Such assignments prevent or 
 break up the habit of memorizing the text and compel 
 the selection and arrangement of the most important 
 points studied. 
 
 Need of indicating sources of data in the assignment 
 
 In some study periods, the pupils must find data 
 from other sources than the textbook. A lesson as- 
 signed to a primary class in New York City involved 
 finding out where the parks of that city are and what 
 these parks offer that is instructive and entertaining. 
 "Where will you go to find out?" asked the teacher. 
 After thinking about the question, the children con- 
 cluded they could find out from the wall map where 
 the parks are, and could ask at home about the answer 
 to the other question. Similarly, in an eighth grade, the 
 pupils who were going to make an independent study 
 of the continent of Africa reflected about sources for 
 a time and decided upon certain atlases, textbooks, 
 books of travel, and other sources. The teacher then 
 added to the list of references. The result of such pro-
 
 THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 87 
 
 cedure is that the pupils can go to work at once with- 
 out losing time in deciding about sources, and that 
 they will be likely to use the best sources, since they 
 help one another by their suggestions during the as- 
 signment, and the teacher has an opportunity to cor- 
 rect and supplement their list. 
 
 Class and individual assignments 
 
 The two assignments just cited contained another 
 feature which it is often advisable to employ. There 
 were too many parks for all to study, so different parks 
 were assigned to individual pupils for investigation. 
 A similar arrangement was made in the assignment of 
 work about Africa. Certain reference books and cer- 
 tain topics were assigned to groups of pupils who were 
 to make their topical outlines and report. Such assign- 
 ments give worth and interest to the work of individual 
 pupils or groups and usually result in greater effort, 
 since the class is to learn some definite fact or facts 
 through the reports made. Furthermore, hi this way, 
 more ground can be covered than when every pupil is 
 required to study every fact for himself. We live in an 
 age of investigation and of committees, and we may 
 well utilize the plan in school, profit by it in our work, 
 and give the pupils training in its employment. Of 
 course, there will usually be some parts of the lesson 
 which must be studied by all pupils in the class, and at 
 times all pupils must study the entire assignment.
 
 88 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Page assignments 
 
 It need hardly be said that such assignments as 
 have been here discussed are very different from the 
 assignment of a certain number of pages with no 
 accompanying suggestions. When a page assignment, 
 or the designation of a certain amount of ground in a 
 book to be prepared, means nothing more than memor- 
 izing, or trying to say the lesson in one's own words, it 
 is inadequate. When pupils know how to study as they 
 should independently, then it is not out of place to 
 make such assignments. Students then know what to 
 do with them and should be required to make the right 
 kind of preparation. 
 
 The assignment book and clear assignments 
 
 It is the frequent experience of principals of schools 
 that parents complain of the indefinite assignments of 
 home work or the lack of any assignment. Children say 
 they have nothing to do, or else that they did not un- 
 derstand what was to be done. It is doubtless true that 
 these statements are sometimes mere fabrications; on 
 the other hand, they are frequently justified. Some- 
 times the assignment lacks clearness or is made so 
 hastily that the pupils fail to grasp it. Then, too, 
 pupils forget by the time the study period arrives what 
 is to be done, and also the details of their task. To 
 avoid all these conditions, assignment books are advis- 
 able. In these may be written the ground to be cov- 
 ered, the suggestions as to method, and the other
 
 THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 89 
 
 facts necessary to the successful preparation of the 
 lesson. 
 
 These books should be written up at the time of the 
 assignment, and two or three pupils should be asked to 
 read what they have written. This will insure definite- 
 ness, and it leaves no excuse for the pupil who is in- 
 clined to shirk by pleading ignorance of what is to be 
 done. The use of such a book reflects itself in the 
 teacher's method of giving out lessons. She must take 
 time for a full assignment, arrange it carefully, and 
 word it clearly. This is good both for teacher and class. 
 
 Effect of proper assignment upon interest and effort of 
 pupils 
 
 A great advantage of the assignment which sends the 
 pupils to their study with a motive or problem is that 
 it affects the attitude of the class toward the lesson. 
 There is an opportunity to arouse interest in the sub- 
 ject and a genuine desire to perform the work for the 
 sake of the results it will bring, not hi percentages 
 and class standing, but in knowledge and skill. The 
 pupils who begin the study of Japan with the idea of 
 finding out how it was able to defeat a great nation like 
 Russia; or who attempt to discover why a handful of 
 English along the Atlantic coast of North America 
 were able to wrest supremacy in the continent from a 
 great military power like France; or who go to their 
 work with the questions, What need does the State 
 have of money? and, How does it provide its funds?
 
 90 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 are much more likely to be interested and to expend 
 sffort than if no such motives for work are brought 
 before them. If these questions are asked by pupils, 
 which is quite possible, they must of necessity grow 
 out of some class discussion or the consideration of 
 some facts which have aroused curiosity, a prolific 
 source of problems and a guaranty of interest. With 
 the question raised, there is the possibility of having 
 suggestions as to causes. These suggestions, or hy- 
 potheses, constitute part of the assignment, as they 
 must be investigated to see whether they are true and 
 whether they solve the problem. 
 
 The effect of studying because of motive and interest 
 has been expressed by the eighth-grade boy, whose 
 teacher conducted her school on this plan, who said, "I 
 never worked so hard before in my lif e, and I never had 
 so good a time as this year " ; and by a teacher who said 
 "This plan of having the pupils study for a purpose 
 takes the grouch out of school work." If a teacher will 
 try, even though clumsily, to raise questions or to 
 bring up a situation which causes the pupils to ask 
 questions, he will be surprised at the immediate effect 
 upon the class. Interest and activity are at once appar- 
 ent and are manifested by the entire class, almost 
 without exception. This has been demonstrated so 
 often, even in classes conducted by inexperienced 
 teachers, that it seems inexcusable to neglect so ready 
 a means of securing a favorable attitude toward school 
 work.
 
 THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 91 
 
 Summary. (1) The purpose of the lesson assignment is to 
 prepare pupils fcr the independent study of a lesson. (2) 
 The assignment may occur in connection with any lesson 
 which requires such study. (3) It may be made during any 
 part of a class period, being determined at times by its rela- 
 tion to the preceding recitations. (4) It should develop or 
 bring to mind the end to be accomplished, whether increase 
 of knowledge, skill, or physical well-being ; and should prepare 
 for the obstacles to be met. (5) It should, when necessary, 
 bring to mind the method of working, and determine sources 
 of material. (6) It may consist of class or individual assign- 
 ments, or both. (7) The assignment of a lesson in the mere 
 form of amount to be done, should not be employed until 
 pupils have learned to study as they should without further 
 direction. (8) The use of an assignment book is helpful for 
 immature pupils. (9) The interest of pupils, the right emo- 
 tional attitude toward the lesson to be studied should be 
 aroused. 
 
 REFERENCES: T. H. Briggs and L. D. Coffman, Reading in 
 Public Schools, chap, xxv; W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, 
 chap, xxi ; L. B. Earhart, Teaching Children to Study, chap. vin. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. A teacher once assigned this lesson to a fifth-grade class in geog- 
 raphy. "For to-morrow, find out at home all about the exports 
 and imports of the United States." Criticize the assignment. 
 
 2. In your own experience as a pupil, did the lesson assignments 
 err on the side of doing too much for pupils or of not doing 
 enough to enable them to prepare the new lesson as they 
 should? 
 
 3. When does an assignment do too much? 
 
 4. When does it not do enough? 
 
 5. Plan an assignment for a drill lesson in spelling. 
 
 6. Indicate an assignment in connection with a deductive lesson in 
 interest, that is, a lesson in which the rules are already known. 
 
 7. When may an assignment be made at the beginning of a lesson 
 period? When must it be made at the close of a period? Give an 
 instance of its occurence during a lesson.
 
 98 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 8. Criticize such an assignment as, "Take the next four para- 
 graphs." Is such an assignment ever justified. Explain. 
 
 9. Explain what you think a good assignment should include. 
 
 10. How much should a teacher consider in the assignment of a new 
 lesson the attitude of the class toward the lesson? What relation 
 is there between attitude and lesson preparation? 
 
 11. What would you expect pupils to do ultimately in the way of 
 planning their own lesson assignments. 
 
 12. What advantages are there in assigning special work to certain 
 individuals which they will later report upon to the class? 
 Should such assignments be made to the very bright or the very 
 slow pupils? Justify your answer. 
 
 13. How may maximum and minimum assignments be employed ; o 
 as to meet the individual differences in a class? 
 
 14. How would it affect the work in arithmetic to have the pupils 
 estimate approximately what the answers are before beginning 
 the solution of problems? 
 
 15. What would be the effect upon time, energy and results if the 
 teacher during the assignment were to explain the form of study 
 to be employed and were to give the pupils some preliminary 
 practice in the use of a new method? 
 
 16. Suppose a teacher repeatedly makes assignments which are 
 never called for in class. How will this fact affect the prepara- 
 tion of lessons? * 
 
 17. If a teacher, regardless of the kind of assignments made, always 
 calls for a verbatim recitation of _the text, how will the pupils pre- 
 pare their lessons?
 
 IX 
 
 THE RECITATION EXERCISE 
 
 What the recitation is 
 
 THAT type of teaching exercise in which the pupils 
 report the results of their study and investigations is 
 called the recitation. The subject-matter thus given 
 may receive further treatment during the class exer- 
 cise, but the basic feature of the lesson period is the ren- 
 dering of prepared work in some form by the pupils. 
 
 What material may constitute its subject-matter 
 
 As the subject-matter which is assigned to pupils 
 and studied by them for the purpose of increasing 
 knowledge covers a wide range of material, we may 
 expect the recitation to cover an equally wide range. 
 The pupils may report upon as many kinds of material 
 as can be assigned or studied in order to discover facts 
 about them. Tasks assigned for the sake of increasing 
 skill or forming habits would not form the basis of a 
 recitation lesson, since they have not for their aim the 
 learning of new facts. They are drill exercises. Thus, 
 pupils may recite upon a lesson from a textbook or ref- 
 erence book of some kind. This is a very common class 
 exercise. They may give the results of observations or 
 experiments which have been made in the study period.
 
 94 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Such recitations should frequently accompany the 
 work in science, in geography, and hi nature study, 
 and should also be a part of the art study which sets 
 pupils to looking for the artistic features in their sur- 
 roundings. The information gained by inquiries made 
 among people outside of school is a contribution to the 
 recitation lesson. The children of immigrants, who 
 question at home about living conditions in the coun- 
 tries from which their parents came, often have valu- 
 able material to bring to class; as have also the pupils 
 who inquire about the nature of business transactions. 
 From many sources, whether people, books, papers, 
 periodicals, or the pupils' own experiences and obser- 
 vations, information may be obtained which bears 
 upon the problem raised in the assignment, and which 
 may be brought to class for use there. 
 
 Forms of the recitation lesson 
 
 a. Verbatim reproduction of matter read. Pupils 
 who lack training in the better forms of recitation work 
 usually try to give the results of the study of a lesson 
 from a book in verbatim forms. They know no other 
 way. It has been the writer's frequent experience with 
 classes of adults, that many teachers who have taught 
 for several years are lacking practice and skill in any 
 other form of recitation than giving the book word for 
 word, and are helpless and distrustful of their own 
 ability when urged to try a different method. They 
 will admit that a reproduction of words in a sequence
 
 THE RECITATION EXERCISE 95 
 
 does not guarantee understanding, but understanding 
 may not have been required when they learned the 
 habit of verbatim reproduction. They in their turn are 
 not making sure that their pupils have gained in 
 thought when they permit or require them to reciU 
 the text in this way and let the lesson end with it. II 
 books contained all that the pupil should learn of a 
 subject, if they were correct in statement beyond all 
 doubt, and if the act of memorizing were at the same 
 time the process of understanding, then rote recita- 
 tions might be accepted as satisfying the needs of a 
 given situation. But since these conditions do not 
 exist, then some other form of reporting work should 
 be adopted. 
 
 6. Unorganized account of reading, observation, ex- 
 periment, or other investigation. It is an improvement 
 upon the type of recitation just discussed to have the 
 pupils give the thought in their own words, but if 
 nothing further be done in the period devoted to 
 the exercise, but little of value has resulted to the 
 pupils. 
 
 When facts gained from some other source than 
 books or periodicals are reported in class, there is often 
 a lack of coherence and clearness in the pupils' efforts, 
 and to the extent that this is true the reports lack 
 value. There is little or no arrangement of items in 
 orderly sequence, and the ideas in regard to one topic 
 are not grouped together. Pupils rush into their re- 
 ports at almost any point and give facts in an indis-
 
 96 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 criminate order. Evidently the most helpful recitation 
 should be different from this type. 
 
 c. Topical recitation. A good recitation should show 
 some degree of mastery of the material gained, what- 
 ever its source. There should be evidence of control of 
 the subject studied. There must, then, be an order in 
 the presentation of results by the pupils to the class. 
 This order is secured by the arrangement of the facts 
 in the form of an outline or synopsis. If a class in 
 history has studied Burgoyne's invasion, the pupils 
 should recite according to an outline of topics which 
 they have prepared during their study. If their prob- 
 lem was to find " How an attempt was made to defeat 
 the colonies by separating them and what came of the 
 attempt," they might take that as their heading and 
 arrange the following list of topics: 
 
 1. The threefold plan to defeat the colonies, 
 a. The movement up the Hudson. 
 
 6. The movement down the valley of the Mohawk. 
 c. The movement down the Hudson. 
 
 2. The fate of the Mohawk valley expedition. 
 
 3. Why the British in New York failed in their plan. 
 
 4. The difficulties encountered by Burgoyne. 
 
 5. The outcome of the plan to conquer the colonies by sep- 
 arating them. 
 
 With such an outline in hand, a pupil should be able 
 to stand before the class and give a coherent account 
 of the lesson studied. Thus two good ends are ac- 
 complished by the topical recitation; first, pupils learn 
 to sift out the essential facts in a lesson and arrange
 
 THE RECITATION EXERCISE 97 
 
 them in a good order for presentation; and, second, 
 they learn to recite independently, clearly, and force- 
 fully. They learn to hold points in mind and to follow 
 them. This is not an ideal too difficult for elementary- 
 school pupils to accomplish, as has been demonstrated 
 by numerous classes of children from the third and 
 fourth grades up. Eighth-grade pupils can prepare 
 outlines and give recitations upon them which are far 
 in advance of what adult classes frequently render. 
 They only require to be given some training in pre- 
 paring outlines and in making full and clear recitations 
 according to them, and then to be held to this form of 
 work consistently. They will prepare for what they 
 know the teacher will require in class. 
 
 d. Question-and-answer recitation. Classes of ques- 
 tions. Teachers frequently resort to questioning in 
 order to bring out in class the results of the pupils' 
 study. Sometimes the whole recitation period consists 
 of a rapid fire of questions of narrow scope, and of 
 answers which are equally limited. "What is the capi- 
 tal of Minnesota?" "In what part of the State is it 
 located?" "On what river is it situated?" "When was 
 itfounded?" "Bywhom?" "What are its industries?" 
 "What is its latitude?" This list of questions is typi- 
 cal of many recitation exercises. Such procedure is 
 time-consuming, fails to bring the subject-matter be- 
 fore the class in connected units, and neglects abso- 
 lutely the training of pupils in habits of systematic 
 study and recitation. Probably few recitation periods
 
 98 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 will pass without some questions being asked, but 
 these should be radically different from the examples 
 just given. 
 
 In preparing for a recitation exercise a teacher needs 
 not only to decide about the subject-matter to be cov- 
 ered, but he needs to plan for the main questions to be 
 asked in case the recitation is to be conducted on the 
 question-and-answer plan. He should determine what 
 are the principal divisions of the subject, and what the 
 corresponding questions are which will require the 
 pupils in answering to cover these sections, a section 
 to a question if possible. Practice in writing out a list 
 of main questions will usually increase skill quickly. 
 
 In addition to making the questions cover large 
 rather than minute units of work, the teacher should 
 strive to avoid so wording them that a plain clue to the 
 answer is given; that is, the question should not reveal 
 the answer. The answer is indicated sometimes 
 through being included in the question; as, "It was 
 very wrong of Benedict Arnold to attempt to betray 
 his country, was it not?" It is sometimes indicated 
 by framing the question practically in the words of the 
 book, so that the pupils have a direct clue if they have 
 good verbal memories and can recall what the rest of 
 the sentence in the textbook was. If the answer can 
 be called for in such a way as to require the changing 
 of the book form, a surer mastery results. If the 
 teacher asks, "What are some of the difficulties in 
 obtaining the world's supply of gold?" or "Why is St.
 
 THE RECITATION EXERCISE 99 
 
 Paul, Minnesota, an important city?" or "Would 
 St. Paul be a good city to go to for the purpose of en- 
 gaging in business?" rote answers become impossi- 
 ble and the thoughtful selection of facts in their proper 
 relation becomes necessary. Usually, it is better not 
 to give a choice of answers through the question, as 
 such questions limit the thought. To ask, "How did 
 the delay in capturing Philadelphia affect the British 
 plans for the campaign of 1777?" requires better 
 effort than to ask, "After the capture of Philadelphia, 
 did the British commander remain there or did he go 
 back to New York?" 
 
 Pupils sometimes experience difficulty in answering 
 because they do not understand the question. It is 
 a difficult matter to prepare a list of questions for a 
 class so that all pupils will interpret them as the 
 teacher intends. There is need of inspection to see that 
 they are simple and clear, that they are easy enough 
 for the pupils to understand, and that they lead to 
 the answer the teacher has in mind. 
 
 We have been told by some writers that the direct 
 question, the question which can be answered by yes 
 or no, is to be avoided. As a rule it is not the best type 
 of question, since it often does the work for the class 
 and simply requires a nod or a shake of the head in an- 
 swer. There are times, however, when a direct question 
 is provocative of good effort. "Is it a good plan for a 
 new administration to make a clean sweep of the office- 
 holders in the civil service?" is a question which may
 
 100 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 result in most fruitful activity on the part of the class. 
 At times a pupil who is attempting to avoid an issue 
 without revealing his ignorance needs to face squarely 
 the question, "Is this thing true or not?" Such a 
 question is one which will arise during the recita- 
 tion period and does not involve preparation by the 
 
 teacher. 
 
 t 
 
 There are other charactersitics of good questions 
 which are worth striving for. Some of these are as fol- 
 lows: (1) Questions should call up associated facts. 
 (2) They should not be ends in themselves, but should 
 carry the thought forward. (3) They should not be so 
 indefinite as to permit of guesswork. (4) They should 
 be interrogative in form, not declarative in all but the 
 final word. (5) They should bring out the subject- 
 matter in the order of dependence, or logical relation- 
 ship, if such exists. 
 
 The questions should as a rule arouse activity in all 
 the class; hence they should be directed to the entire 
 class rather than to an individual in the class. This 
 plan precludes naming beforehand the pupil who is 
 to answer the question; also asking questions in turn, 
 so that pupils not near to the center of activity can 
 become inattentive. 
 
 Two cautions which many teachers need are, first 
 not to repeat a question unless it is quite certain that 
 the class does not understand it; and, second, not to 
 repeat the answer of the pupil. The first may be un- 
 necessary and leads to inattention. The second leads
 
 THE RECITATION EXERCISE 101 
 
 to slovenly work on the part of the pupils. Both cause 
 a loss of time. 
 
 The amplification and correction of data collected 
 by the pupils. New questions raised. Value of 
 books determined 
 
 If the recitation exercise consists solely in giving a 
 topical recitation of the facts gleaned from a common 
 source by all of the class, whether the topics be given 
 by the teacher or prepared by the pupils, or if nothing 
 more is done than to have the pupils state these facts 
 in answer to the teacher's questions, only part of the 
 value of the period is realized. An author's presenta- 
 tion of a subject is often incomplete, and may be, at 
 times, misleading. It may also be inaccurate. One of 
 the most valuable features of the recitation should be 
 the discussion of the reports made by the pupils in 
 order to add to the statements of the text, to correct 
 misconceptions, and to follow out trains of thought 
 suggested. In addition to the topical outlines which 
 they bring to class, pupils should bring lists of ques- 
 tions suggested by the presentation in the book but 
 left unanswered. Excellent work of this kind was done 
 for the writer by a fourth grade in a series of reading 
 experiments conducted in the Speyer School. Higher 
 grades should do even better work along this line. 
 Pupils who have access to other sources than the text- 
 book can add much to the recitation by bringing hi 
 reports of what they found there which bears upon the 
 
 SANTA BARBARA STATE POT T 
 
 r mi> *
 
 102 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 lesson. These reports, it scarcely need be said, should 
 be presented in as good form as the textbook lesson, 
 and may be kept in the class notebooks in which the 
 pupils keep the outlines prepared for class, their lists 
 of questions, the names of references, and other help- 
 ful items. The teacher, too, should frequently have 
 supplementary material to offer in the form of books, 
 magazines, clippings, and the like. He may tell it, 
 read it, or have some member of the class read it. He 
 may also have questions to ask which bring forth fruit- 
 ful discussion by members of the class. The lessons 
 are made rich in content and interest by these means, 
 and lose their perfunctory character. There is actual 
 remaking of experience in such exercises. Ideas are 
 increased in number and broadened in meaning. Pu- 
 pils are more interested because they are dealing with 
 problems and because they are bringing individual 
 work to the class in addition to that which all have 
 prepared. Such a recitation is a clearing house of ideas. 
 Pupils bring their own contributions and receive from 
 others. 
 
 In addition to supplementing the text, the reci- 
 tation period should clear up errors. The child who 
 read that "The Pilgrims sought an asylum in Hol- 
 land" and recited, "The Pilgrims went to an asylum 
 in Holland," needed to have his idea investigated 
 and, as it turned out, corrected as well. This instance 
 represents a class of errors due to the authors' way 
 of expressing their thoughts. The words are not al-
 
 THE RECITATION EXERCISE 103 
 
 ways understood, nor are the sentences clear, hence 
 even experienced readers sometimes differ in their in- 
 terpretations of an author's meaning. Pupils with less 
 experience are frequently puzzled and misled. The 
 author who writes for fifth-grade pupils that "The 
 Norwegians are famous for their tenacity of will," 
 writes over the heads of his readers. Even so simple a 
 statement as the one that "The mountains of Japan 
 are too near the coast to admit of long rivers " causes 
 misunderstanding, since with school children admit 
 means to allow to enter. If pupils are encouraged to 
 report their difficulties in class, they will bring up such 
 passages as have puzzled them and which they must 
 have explained in order to understand some point that 
 is valuable. Other members of the class, or, as a last 
 resort, the teacher, may be able to give the help needed. 
 If the error is revealed through the recitation, assist- 
 ance can be given through these same channels. 
 
 In gleaning material from many sources, pupils may 
 find statements which are absolutely false or of very 
 dubious character. 
 
 Reading must be carefully done, observations must be 
 exactly taken, and things heard must be sifted before reports 
 are made. Gradually, as more responsibility is put upon 
 pupils for the selection of the sources of data, the children 
 ought to become capable of discriminating in their judg- 
 ment of these sources. They should consider why one news- 
 paper should be consulted rather than another; why one 
 historian or geographer should be preferred to others; and 
 why certain people's reports are more to be relied upon
 
 104 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 than others. . . . Criticism of sources will of ten come natu- 
 rally, as for example, the criticism of newspapers and period- 
 icals of the sensational type; of writers whose statements 
 are founded on slight evidences and permeated by an un- 
 friendly spirit. 
 
 Through partisan spirit, through conscious intent 
 to deceive, or through lack of reliable data, historians 
 may write statements which should properly be ques- 
 tioned. Because of the frequent changes in boundaries 
 and forms of government, geographies quickly become 
 inaccurate. These are but typical cases which show 
 the need of keeping a questioning attitude toward an 
 author's statements. The recitation period offers one 
 opportunity for this careful scanning of facts. It should 
 encourage the comparison of statements drawn from 
 different sources to see whether they agree, and to deter- 
 mine why one statement or account should be accepted 
 rather than another. The results, both in knowledge 
 and in the habit of mind formed, thoroughly justify 
 such procedure. 
 
 How the notebooks may be made helpful 
 
 The subject of notebooks has already been referred 
 to. If the pupils made no other use of them than to 
 write a list of paragraph headings or a topical outline 
 from the matter found in the class textbook, it would 
 be worth while to employ them. Add to this the synop- 
 sis of material found in other places, the questions 
 which come up during the study of the lesson, the
 
 THE RECITATION EXERCISE 105 
 
 difficulties encountered, the names of helpful refer- 
 ences, the reports of experiments or observations or 
 investigations, and the like, and the notebook becomes 
 invaluable. It is very different from the book in which 
 the pupil writes only that which the teacher dictates, 
 or writes on the blackboard for him to copy. It is the 
 fruit of his own effort. It contains his contributions to 
 the classwork. It helps him keep track of his difficul- 
 ties as well as of important data and sources of data. 
 One need only compare the preparation of such a book 
 with the lesson preparation which consisted in learning 
 the text verbatim. The one is mechanical; the other 
 means mastery of thought. We have not yet fully 
 realized how helpful an aid the notebook can be, nor 
 have we utilized it as we should. 
 
 Learning to follow the recitation in class 
 
 When the recitation period is devoted to the mere 
 reproduction of a selection from a book which all have 
 read, the attention of the pupils is difficult to hold. It 
 is a psychological fact that attention soon wearies with 
 monotony and must have interest or variation of some 
 sort to hold it. If the recitation period is devoted to 
 learning something new about the lesson, if the pupils' 
 individual work is a contribution, if they are learning 
 from the teacher or from the reports brought in by 
 their mates, there will be little difficulty in holding 
 attention. The members of the class will attend in 
 order to learn what the others have to say, in order to
 
 106 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 correct errors, and in order to add their quota to the 
 classwork. If nothing new is said, if the teacher cor- 
 rects all errors, and if pupils have no opportunity to 
 supplement each other or the text, why should pupils 
 attend or try to follow the recitation? They will follow 
 if their interest is aroused and if they are made active 
 participants in the exercise. There will, of course, be 
 shirks, and these will have to be held closely respons- 
 ible for results at times in order to keep them at work. 
 Usually, the matter of securing attention takes care 
 of itself when the recitation is live and worth while. 
 
 Summary. (1) The recitation is the class exercise in 
 which the pupils report the results of their study. It deals 
 with subject-matter rather than drill exercises. (2) The ma- 
 terial studied may be obtained from books, periodicals, or 
 newspapers. It may be something observed or experimented 
 with. It may be information gained through inquiries made 
 in one's social group. It may be the results of one's own men- 
 tal processes. (3) The forms recitation may take are the ver- 
 batim report, a paraphrase of the text, the topical exercise, 
 and the question-and-answer form. (4) In the recitation, 
 the subject-matter presented should be amplified and cor- 
 rected. Pupils should learn to weigh the value of statements 
 and sources. (5) In connection with the recitation, the pu- 
 pils should be required to keep notebooks in which to enter 
 their outlines and summaries, questions to be discussed in 
 class, sources of data, and the like. (6) Pupils should learn 
 to follow the recitation in order to learn, to correct, and to 
 supplement. 
 
 REFERENCES: G. H. Belts, The Recitation; J. A. H. Keith, 
 Elementary Education, chaps, vm and ix; W. C. Bagley, The Edu- 
 cative Process, chap, xxi; C. L. Robbins, The Socialized Recitation; 
 Teachers College Record, Sept., 1910; M. E. Branom, The Project 
 Method; W. P. Whitney, The Socialized Recitation.
 
 THE RECITATION EXERCISE 107 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Which do you consider more valuable in results to a class, a 
 recitation lesson in which the pupils recite memorized subject- 
 matter with little or no prompting, or a lesson in which the 
 teacher asks many questions the answers to which are taken 
 bodily from the textbook? 
 
 2. Suggest a better form of recitation than either of those de- 
 scribed in the preceding exercise. 
 
 8. " Indeed, Washington had already shown his patriotism in many 
 acts of statesmanship. There had been a time, just at the close 
 of the war, when the officers of his army, disgusted with the 
 government, suggested that Washington be made King. Had 
 he accepted this suggestion it is very likely that our country 
 would have been doomed to a military government. But the 
 noble character of Washington resented the idea and he con- 
 vinced his officers that they were wrong. And now once more 
 he was to lead his countrymen in the paths of peace. When the 
 convention came together Washington was promptly chosen its 
 chairman." 
 (a) Write a list of questions covering the material in the above 
 
 paragraph which can be answered from the text. 
 (6) Suggest the best possible treatment for this paragraph in 
 
 a recitation lesson, 
 (c) In what respects do you consider (b) better than (a) ? 
 
 4. Suppose the following paragraph had been assigned to a class 
 for study. What are some of the questions the pupils should 
 bring to the recitation lesson for answer? 
 
 "Under the new Constitution certain officers were to be 
 elected. Able men were chosen as members of Congress. For 
 President there could be but one choice. All looked to Washing- 
 ton to guide the new nation, and he was elected without any 
 opposition whatever. For Vice-President, John Adams, of 
 Massachusetts, was chosen." 
 
 6. How many of the questions prepared in the preceding exercise 
 might the pupils answer for themselves so that they could pro- 
 sent both questions and answers during the recitation period? 
 
 6. What value is there in having pupils present the results of their 
 study according to an orderly plan? 
 
 7. In the recitation period what responsibilities should be borne by 
 the class? What by the teacher? Is this the usual way of divid- 
 ing them?
 
 108 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 8. In order that a recitation may be as profitable as possible, what 
 preparation should a teacher make for it? 
 
 9. Teachers are frequently judged by the way they conduct a 
 single recitation. What in a recitation would justify you in con- 
 cluding that a teacher possesses good professional ability? That 
 the teacher is doing poor work? 
 
 10. Why are recitations sometimes dull and uninteresting? How can 
 the situation be changed? 
 
 11. If the members of a class should be trained to insist upon all 
 recitations being clear, relevant to the topic or question, and full 
 enough to cover the point, what would be the effect both upon 
 lesson preparation and upon the recitations made in class? 
 
 12. Recall your own experience as a pupil; also bring to mind ob- 
 servations of teaching procedure made by you. How much op- 
 portunity was given to pupils to do any of the things named in 
 11, above? 
 
 IS. Would it be good training for the future, as well as for the pres- 
 ent, for pupils to learn to present subjects clearly, fully, and ac- 
 curately, and to stick to the point?
 
 X 
 
 THE AROUSAL AND GUIDANCE OF APPRECIATION 
 
 The reason for this type of lesson 
 
 EDUCATION deals with more than the gaining of 
 ideas through the various senses, and with more than 
 logical thinking. It is not limited to the formation of 
 habits or to the establishment of physical health. In 
 the general scheme to produce results through educa- 
 tion, we must take all of these aims into considera- 
 tion, and must include in addition the pleasures, ap- 
 provals, disapprovals, appreciations of beauty, fitness, 
 and harmony, and the moral and social sentiments of 
 our pupils. If we wish the rising generation to care 
 for good music, pictures, and literature; to be taste- 
 ful in personal, household, and municipal decoration; 
 to dislike the ugly, the untidy, the unclean, and the 
 unfitting; and to rise to high standards of living, both 
 private and civic, we must definitely include train- 
 ing for these ends hi our school plans and procedure. 
 
 It may be urged that all these ends are accomplished 
 by the lessons which impart information in regard to 
 these various lines of knowledge and endeavor: but 
 knowledge does not always include the feeling of ap- 
 preciation which affects ideals. There is a value in facts 
 over and above their intellectual value as facts. There
 
 110 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 is the appeal to Interest, to emotion, to a sense of ap- 
 preciation of deeper or finer significances than appear 
 at first sight. The lesson or part of a lesson which is 
 devoted to influencing such interest or appreciation 
 may be called an exercise in appreciation. 
 
 The kinds of appreciation to be considered 
 
 a. Social. One important type of appreciation is 
 that which has for its basis the values and needs of 
 human beings whether regarded as individuals or as 
 a society. A visitor to a foreign country who remains 
 but a short time is likely to see only the superficial 
 side of life, and because customs differ from those pre- 
 vailing hi his own land, he is inclined to be critical. 
 A longer stay, a more intimate acquaintance gives 
 deeper insight, and a resulting appreciation of ideals 
 and customs which quite alters the first feeling of dis- 
 approval. We have here an instance of social appre- 
 ciation. 
 
 In those subjects of the curriculum which deal with 
 human life, this social appreciation may be exercised. 
 In geography, history, and literature we ought not 
 to fail to cultivate it on the basis of lofty motives, 
 persistent effort, hardships overcome, and suffering 
 nobly borne. The newspapers of the day are full of 
 accounts of men and women, yes, and children, 
 who hi some way are serving their fellowmen, often 
 at the cost of much inconvenience or suffering to them- 
 selves. The splendid results are worthy of admiration,
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 111 
 
 but it is a valuable part of education to arouse the ap- 
 preciation for that which made the results possiblef 
 namely, the spirit and the labor of human beings. 
 
 6. ^Esthetic. In addition to the appreciations anc 
 interests which are based upon human conduct and 
 relations, there is the whole field of pleasures and rec- 
 reations in which standards need cultivation. The 
 appreciations involved in lessons dealing with these 
 phases of experience are known as the aesthetic appre- 
 ciations. We need such appreciation in dealing with 
 music, art, literature, or other material in which good 
 taste, beauty, lofty conception, and the like are in- 
 volved. Since good taste, beauty, and other aesthetic 
 elements are found in many forms, appreciation has 
 many objects upon which it may be exercised. It does 
 not require something difficult, expensive, or far away. 
 It may be aroused in any environment, and by the 
 work of either man or nature. Our greatest need is to 
 learn to open our eyes and see the possibilities of 
 aesthetic appreciation all about us. 
 
 In what worth may consist 
 
 Few of us have had much training in appreciation in 
 any line in which it is possible ; hence we are timid about 
 undertaking to train our pupils. The very word (Esthe- 
 tic is foreign to our tongues, and we feel that the things 
 for which it stands are beyond our endeavor, to say 
 nothing of the limited understanding of our pupils. 
 Every teacher who attempts to influence the finer feel-
 
 112 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 ings of his pupils should ask the question, "In what 
 does the worth which is to be appreciated consist?'* 
 Professor Charters's * definition of subject-matter may 
 serve to throw light on this point: 
 
 Subject-matter as a way of acting may thus be analyzed 
 so as to be called a way of thinking, of feeling, and of acting 
 with the body. And this helps to make the idea clearer be- 
 cause it is easy to see that geography is a way of thinking 
 about the earth's surface. "Crossing the Bar" is a way of 
 feeling and thinking about death. The Ten Commandments 
 are ways of governing our moral actions. Social customs are 
 methods of acting toward other people, of feeling toward 
 them or of thinking about them. 
 
 If in literature or art or whatever we are teaching, we 
 try to find out how the author or artist thinks about 
 his subject, and then consider the way in which he has 
 expressed his thought, the worth, or sometimes the 
 lack of worth, appears. Thus worth may lie in the 
 thought, or in the form of expression. 
 
 In such a book as Silas Marner we follow the author's 
 thought from step to step of the story to see how she 
 develops the various characters, and to see what value 
 she places upon such influences as religion, adversity, 
 love of gold, and the unfeigned love of a little child 
 in moulding human life. We discover, also, that the 
 author planned the story with such skill that events 
 seem to occur in a natural manner, and nothing takes 
 place for which we have not been prepared. In the case 
 of the man who was drowned, the situation was so 
 1 W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, ed. of 1912, p. 34.
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 113 
 
 presented that it seemed almost inevitable that he 
 should meet such a fate. The author did not have 
 to stop at a critical moment in the story to explain 
 that there was a body of water hi a certain locality 
 and that the man was dissipated hi his habits. The 
 narrative is so skillfully developed that we accept the 
 outcome without great surprise because it seems so 
 natural. It is clear that in such a piece of literature we 
 may appreciate both the story and the way in which 
 it is told. We may do the same hi music; that is, we 
 may make either the author's sentiment or the tones 
 through which the sentiment reaches us the object of 
 approval or disapproval. 
 
 Material sometimes has aesthetic value merely be- 
 cause it is pleasing and not because it bodies forth 
 some lofty conception; for example, the well-known 
 picture of the boy blowing bubbles. Much of the read- 
 ing matter placed before pupils is of this nature. Some- 
 times the worth to be valued is something ludicrous 
 or humorous. Such worth is found in Alice in Wonder- 
 land, Midsummer Night's Dream, and other master- 
 pieces. Some of our music is of this nature. Apprecia- 
 tion of humor is not to be despised, and if one reflects 
 upon the kinds of humor which many people enjoy, 
 minstrel-show humor, musical-comedy humor, mov- 
 ing-picture-show humor, practical-joke humor, and 
 newspaper-picture humor, he will admit that there 
 is need of elevating the standard. 
 
 To sum up briefly the forms of worth which it is
 
 114 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 possible to bring before the attention of pupils under 
 ordinary conditions, it may be said that in literature, 
 music, or art, the value may lie in the thought or feel- 
 ing of the author, composer, or artist, in the form in 
 which he has expressed it, or in both. The ideas may 
 be noble, simply pleasing, or humorous, or may pos- 
 sess some other worthy quality. The skill in expres- 
 sion may lie in either the boldness or delicacy of style; 
 in grandeur or in simplicity; in subtleness or in direct- 
 ness; or it may take some other form. 
 
 In nature, we admire form, as in clouds, leaves, 
 crystals; colors, as in sunsets and autumn landscapes; 
 massiveness, ruggedness, strength, as in mountains, 
 rocks, and trees. Sometimes placidity appeals, as in 
 landscapes and still waters. Again, it is variety which 
 appeals, and sameness which bores. 
 
 In regard to people, we may learn to value the qual- 
 ity of their motives and ideas, or the quality of their 
 acts; and as we appreciate, we approve or disapprove; 
 sympathize with, or condemn; or are stirred by some 
 other feeling. 
 
 A complete presentation of the subject here dis- 
 cussed in fragmentary form is out of the question. If 
 a teacher will study the material he must present, and 
 also that which he may present, he will find much that 
 is worthy of consideration from the point of view of the 
 effect it may produce upon the feelings and interests, 
 the estimate of worth, the appreciation of the pupils. 
 If he does not himself see these possibilities, he is not
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 115 
 
 likely to produce much emotional effect upon his 
 pupils because so much of their approval hinges upon 
 that felt by the teacher. 
 
 Some suggestions as to how appreciation may be 
 aroused or influenced 
 
 To show what pupils may be led to see and appre- 
 ciate in a masterpiece, extracts from a lesson given in 
 a grammar grade are hereby presented. The pupils 
 had sent a letter to an art dealer, ordering some pic- 
 tures for class study. These had just arrived when the 
 class was visited, and among them were several copies 
 of "The Gleaners," by Millet. 
 
 Each pupil was provided with a picture and after 
 quiet examination of it, the class study began. 
 
 "What kind of people did Millet enjoy?" "What class did 
 he picture?" Ans. "Peasants." "Why?" First pupil: "He 
 was never among the better class." Second pupil: "It was 
 hard for him to paint other pictures." These statements were 
 challenged by others, and the statement was finally accepted 
 that the artist was more interested in these people than in 
 others and that he painted them for that reason. 
 
 "The world has said that this artist's pictures are among 
 the greatest painted. Why should we study them?" Ans. 
 "To find out why they are so great." 
 
 The teacher then gave the title, "The Gleaners," and ex- 
 plained the old Biblical law and custom. Several pupils 
 remembered that Ruth gleaned the fields. 
 
 "Is there anything to indicate the time of day?" Ans. 
 "The sun." "The short shadows." "It must be near noon- 
 time."
 
 116 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 "How much of the field do you see?" The idea was 
 brought out that broad views such as the one portrayed in 
 this picture are often seen in Normandy, and that the artist 
 could probably see just such a scene as this from his window. 
 
 "What is the most prominent feature of the picture?" 
 Ans. "Three women." 
 
 " Are all of the same age?" Ana. "No." 
 
 "What makes you think they are not?" First pupil : "The 
 one to the left is youngest. Her back is straightest and she is 
 the most graceful." 
 
 " Note the dress of these women." Pupils stated that they 
 are dressed alike; that the clothes are very plain; that ker- 
 chiefs are worn; also peasant shoes and Normandy aprons. 
 
 "Which one is without an apron? " Ans. "The one on the 
 left." 
 
 "The one on the left has a flap over her neck. Why?" 
 Ans. "Perhaps she is protecting herself from the sun." 
 
 "Which one is the youngest?" Ans. "The one on the 
 left." 
 
 "What makes you think so?" Pupils summed up all the 
 reasons already given. 
 
 "Why are wooden shoes good for the purpose?" Ans. 
 "They protect the feet against the stubble, and they do not 
 wear out." 
 
 "Are the women dressed appropriately for their work?" 
 Ans. "Yes. They are dressed plainly and they wear aprons." 
 
 " Do the women seem to belong in the field? " Ans. " Yes. 
 It seems as if they came every day." 
 
 "Millet said, 'The fitting is the beautiful.' What is there 
 beautiful in this picture?" Ans. "He has the right women 
 in the right field." 
 
 "Does any one reach to the horizon? " Ans. " One does." 
 
 "If all three did, what difference would it make?" Ans. 
 "It would spoil the view. It would shut it out." 
 
 The foreground, middle ground, and background were ex-
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 117 
 
 amined to see what the artist had placed in each. The chil- 
 dren saw that the women are represented as just ready to 
 move forward, and decided which one will be the first to step 
 ahead. They tried to imagine themselves in the field and 
 they named the sounds they would hear, as rolling wheels, 
 the sound of voices, men's voices, because the women are 
 too busy to talk, the orders of the overseer, the sound of 
 rustling grain, and the song of birds. 
 
 " Why has the world decided this is a great picture? " Ana. 
 "One can imagine one's self there." "There is so much mo- 
 tion in it." "The hands of the women are so natural." "It 
 is so lifelike because it looks as peasants feel." "Not many 
 painted peasants." "Millet painted with meaning." 
 
 Throughout this lesson the pupils were entering 
 into the artist's thought and his method of conveying 
 it, and they were also forming a basis for future judg- 
 ments. The message was worth while, and the artist 
 had expressed it with skill. This the children came to 
 see and to appreciate to some extent. As is frequently 
 the case, they noted some ideas of little value and over- 
 looked some of much greater worth. Further work in 
 the study of masterpieces should exercise a decided 
 influence upon their understanding of art and upon 
 their attitude toward it. 
 
 In literature, we frequently limit our efforts to 
 following the thread of the thought, to getting the 
 pronunciation and meanings of words, and to training 
 in oral rendition. Much of the author's skill will re- 
 main undiscovered and consequently unappreciated 
 if nothing more than this be done, and much of the 
 power of the pupils to appreciate will remain dormant.
 
 118 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Consider, for example, a few lines from Bryant's poem, 
 "The New and the Old": 
 
 "New are the leaves on the oaken spray. 
 New the blades of the silky grass. 
 Flowers, that were buds but yesterday, 
 Peep from the ground where'er I pass. 
 
 "These gay idlers, the butterflies, 
 Broke, to-day, from their silken shroud, 
 These light airs that winnow the skies, 
 Blow, just born, from a soft, white cloud." 
 
 If these stanzas be presented without the title, the 
 following thoughts might be brought out: 
 
 "What would be a good title for this poem?" (Pupils 
 usually say, "Spring," or name some month, as "April," 
 "May," or "June.") The month may be determined by ref- 
 erence to the new oak leaves. It is sometimes necessary to 
 bring out the facts that the author of the poem, William 
 Cullen Bryant, lived in New England, and that the oak 
 leaves in that part of the world burst forth in May, so that if 
 the name of a month is to be chosen as a title, it must be 
 "May." "What is there in the poem to suggest the title 
 chosen?" (The idea that everything is new will finally be 
 given.) "How many things are new?" " How has the poet 
 expressed the newness of the butterflies?" "Of the winds? " 
 "In expressing newness to how many senses has he ap- 
 pealed?" "What senses are omitted?" (Sound will be men- 
 tioned.) " What sounds might be included ? " "Try to add a 
 stanza that will include spring sounds." "Why call the but- 
 terflies idlers? " "Where did they come from?" "How does 
 the poet tell us where they come from?" "Where does he 
 say the winds come from?" "Isheright?" "Note the use of 
 winnow." "We use it to mean separating wheat from chaff, 
 the good from the worthless. Could this be what the author 
 meant?" "Consult dictionary for use of word and see if any 
 new significance is added."
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 119 
 
 " Follow the objects in the order that the poet saw them. 
 Is the order a good one, i.e., would one see the objects in this 
 sequence?" (Memorize poem if desired.) 
 
 "The idea of spring or of newness was the author's theme 
 for these stanzas. What might be written as a contrast?" 
 ("The Old," or "Autumn," will probably be suggested.) "If 
 you were to write the contrasting part, what would you in- 
 clude?" "Bryant wrote some stanzas to show a contrast 
 with these. Would you like to know what he wrote?" The 
 lesson may end here with the class looking forward to the 
 rest of the poem which may be read later, or the pupils may 
 try to write the rest of the poem themselves. 
 
 It is more than likely that the pupils will ask some 
 of the questions indicated in the treatment of this 
 poem. If the teacher starts the pupils to looking, they 
 will be quite sure to make discoveries for themselves, 
 to find places which need explanation, and to request 
 that explanations be given. 
 
 The pupils might also contrast the author's selec- 
 tion of words and his poetic form of expression with 
 the words and the arrangement they would ordinarily 
 use to express the same thought. "How does the au- 
 thor's way differ from yours? " " Do you like his way? " 
 "Which lines do you like best?" This study of form 
 should follow the study of the thought, but should pre- 
 cede memorizing, as it prepares the way for it. 
 
 In taking up the study of "Lines to a Waterfowl " 
 with a class of eighth-grade pupils, the teacher told the 
 pupils that this poem is considered one of the greatest 
 poems on nature ever written. The class at once turned
 
 120 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 to it to discover why it is a great poem. They saw that 
 it is a fine description of a solitary bird flying through 
 the trackless air, and that the thought which comes 
 into the author's mind of the divine power which will 
 protect and guide him through life is noble and beauti- 
 ful. These two points give the poem value. With some 
 help the pupils discovered that, in addition to what 
 the poet has expressed directly, he has told a number 
 of things by implication. They found out what time 
 of day it was when the bird was seen; what season of 
 the year it was; in what part of the sk., the bird was 
 seen; the direction of its flight; and whether Bryant 
 was an old man or a young man when he wrote the 
 poem. His skill in thus imparting facts by implying 
 them and weaving them into the main thought was 
 weighed as an element of worth in the poem. 
 
 "Thoughts that are noble and beautiful should be 
 expressed in fitting language. Has the writer of this 
 poem added to its worth by the way he has expressed 
 his ideas?" This question was asked and led to study 
 of the technical aspects. The selection and arrange- 
 ment of words, phrases, or lines which appealed espe- 
 cially to members of the class received attention in this 
 part of the lesson, and the class passed judgment upon 
 the language, selecting passages they liked best. 
 
 In such lessons as the one just described, the appeal 
 to the ear should not be neglected. Mind and eye have 
 been busy with the poem, but it should not be left un- 
 til it has been read aloud so that its oral beauty may
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 121 
 
 be appreciated, because this is one of its greatest 
 charms. Much of the reading material used in the 
 schools has nothing to commend it to the ear. It is 
 supplied either for the purpose of giving young pupils 
 practice in recognizing words, or for the sake of the 
 thought it conveys. Fortunately there is also a store 
 of reading matter that makes its appeal to the sense of 
 hearing and gives pleasure to the listener. The trouble 
 is that some teachers do not discriminate, and try to 
 have their pupils read aloud every word of every selec- 
 tion presented, instead of skipping judiciously the 
 parts ill-adapted to such a purpose. 
 
 It is unnecessary to make suggestions for all subjects 
 in the curriculum, but one more lesson will be quoted 
 to show the possibilities of arousing appreciation of 
 historical situations. 
 
 A class that was studying the Civil War demanded 
 rather indignantly to know why the people of Great 
 Britain endeavored to break the blockade of the South- 
 ern ports in order to send in supplies. Why should they 
 aid the South? Some study led them to see that it was 
 because British manufacturers wanted cotton. The 
 teacher placed this table on the blackboard. 
 
 COTTON IMPORTS INTO ENGLAND 
 
 Year 
 
 From D. S. A. 
 (pounds) 
 
 From other countries 
 (pounds) 
 
 Price per Ib. 
 
 1861 
 1862 
 1863 
 
 1,290,000,000 
 920,000,000 
 36,000,000 
 
 392,000,000 
 597,000,000 
 722,000,000 
 
 14(4 
 28tf 
 M
 
 122 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Teacher. "With these figures in mind, let us take a walk 
 in Manchester in 1861." The ideas were suggested that mills 
 were running, many people were working, and were making a 
 good living. The teacher gave the information that about 
 one fourth of a million workers were employed in the cotton 
 mills. 
 
 Teacher. "Would the quarter of a million workers be the 
 only ones employed?" Ana. "No; there must have been 
 shippers, merchants, shopkeepers, sailors, railroad men, 
 truckmen, dressmakers, and others." 
 
 Teacher. "With the mills in operation, what would be the 
 condition of business?" Ans. "Business would be prosper- 
 ous and everybody would have employment." 
 
 The teacher suggested a walk in Manchester in 1862, and 
 the class compared conditions with those of 1861. 
 
 Teacher. "Come to 1863, and note conditions." Pupils. 
 " Conditions are much worse. People are out of work." 
 " Goods are expensive." " There is no money to buy clothes." 
 "Business is dull in many lines." "Bills are unpaid because 
 people have no way of earning money." 
 
 A glimpse into these conditions answered the ques- 
 tion for the pupils as to why people in Great Britain 
 should seek to aid the South during the war, and it 
 mollified their attitude when they learned that it was 
 not merely a case of meddlesome interference. 
 
 A person's ideas of taste and of worth are based 
 upon his knowledge to a great extent. The preceding 
 illustrations show this to be true. They are also influ- 
 enced greatly by his attempts to do the thing himself; 
 hence the suggestion that pupils try to write stanzas 
 to complete the poem, "The Old and the New." In 
 some of the class lessons, the pupils through their own
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 123 
 
 activity may grow in the sense of beauty and fitness. 
 Exercises in color combinations for house furnishing, 
 house decorating, for dressmaking, or for applied de- 
 sign may be given by means of paints, crayons, colored 
 papers, dress materials, ribbons, samples of upholster- 
 ing fabrics, or wall-paper samples. Sometimes good 
 prints can be obtained which show the interior of fa- 
 mous houses. These afford an opportunity to study 
 colors, designs, and arrangement of decorations and 
 furniture. Pupils can then with their own materials 
 arrange and mount what they consider good combina- 
 tions of color, and can profitably study and criticize 
 the efforts of their fellow pupils. In connection with 
 these lessons, they should observe and criticize the 
 decorations of their homes and of the neighborhood. 
 Possibly a generation thus trained would abolish much 
 of the ugliness which now offends the public eye, and 
 would substitute a more beautiful environment for it. 
 In music it is possible to train pupils to feel that a 
 certain quality of voice is the best one to express a 
 given sentiment, while another sentiment demands 
 quite a different quality. The tone and rhythm re- 
 quired for a bright spring song can be contrasted 
 with those suited to a song that is stately or solemn. 
 Attention can be called to the variation in quality 
 of voice and rate of movement in the different parts 
 of the same song, according to the sentiment ex- 
 pressed. The attempt to compose music suited to the 
 words helps the growth of appreciation in music, just
 
 124 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 as the attempt to write leads to better appreciation in 
 literature. 
 
 The estimate of worth, the feeling of value is greatly 
 affected by the material with which it is fed, so to 
 speak. If we hear colloquial English, we usually speak 
 it. If we hear poor music, that is the kind we sing or 
 play. In order to produce fine musical appreciation 
 we should provide good music as abundantly as pos- 
 sible, good lullabies, spring songs, harvest hymns, 
 winter songs, folk songs, national hymns from different 
 countries; these are quite accessible and are well worth 
 hearing and singing. Fortunately much good music 
 is not too difficult for school children to learn, so that 
 it is quite possible to put before them for mastery se- 
 lections which minister to fine pleasure. 
 
 Mechanical devices for reproducing music are in 
 general use and are constantly being improved. They 
 should be utilized to acquaint young people with the 
 compositions of the best musical artists and with the 
 world's best singers and players. If a school cannot 
 buy these instruments, it can often rent or borrow 
 them. People of musical ability are often willing to 
 place their services at the disposal of a school on some 
 special occasion. In this way fine voices and the vari- 
 ous kinds of instruments can be heard. Church choirs 
 can be induced to render the p.nthems of a composer in 
 whom pupils are interested. In large cities where per- 
 manent musical organizations exist, special rates for 
 concerts can usually be obtained for school children.
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 125 
 
 These are a few suggestions as to what can be done 
 to further musical knowledge and taste. The main 
 thing is to arouse school authorities and school teachers 
 to earnest thought about their importance and their 
 possibilities, and they will find ways for their attain- 
 ment. 
 
 General suggestions for the teacher 
 
 Several suggestions for the teacher are in place be- 
 fore leaving the discussion of the lesson which seeks to 
 arouse appreciation. One is that knowledge must form 
 its basis. A poem is not merely beautiful, a picture 
 pretty, or an action noble or base. They are these be- 
 cause of certain qualities in them. Appreciation must 
 rest upon knowing these qualities or facts. Without 
 understanding, we may have no sentiment, we may 
 have the wrong sentiment, or we may be led into un- 
 wise action. 
 
 Another suggestion is that over-analysis is fatal to 
 emotional enjoyment. There was a time when stu- 
 dents analyzed every sentence of Paradise Lost as far 
 as they went in the time allotted to that poem. Few 
 will claim that this process influenced the literary ap- 
 preciation of the students. It was more likely to en- 
 gender a lasting dislike in the minds of the victims. 
 It is not necessary to know how to pronounce every 
 word and to be able to define it, in order to get the 
 spirit of a good story or poem. There is danger of 
 being too microscopic, of giving too much time and
 
 12 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 effort to details. It is better to determine what the 
 essential things are and let the rest pass with little 
 notice. One must seek the proper mean between 
 no knowledge and knowledge in such detail that it 
 smothers or prevents emotion. 
 
 Still another suggestion is that since emotional 
 states are communicable and are frequently aroused 
 in pupils through their imitation of the teacher, the 
 teacher should keep his own emotional states alive. 
 His enjoyment of music, art, literature, architecture, 
 his attitude toward historical situations, present-day 
 questions, vocations, amusements, civic duties, his 
 approval of moral qualities, his contempt for the base, 
 the cowardly, the unworthy, are quite likely to be re- 
 flected in his classes. If his pupils admire him, they 
 tend to follow his interests, and it behooves him to 
 have worthy interests, to keep them active, and to 
 make them manifest. 
 
 A very important fact to remember is that the aes- 
 thetic sense is sometimes slow in developing and that 
 it is not equally distributed. Some people have more 
 than others, and some are more appreciative in cer- 
 tain directions than in others. In some of its aspects, 
 taste may grow rapidly; in others, it progresses slowly. 
 It may require a long time to elevate the taste of some 
 people from " musical noise " to good music, from chro- 
 mos to masterpieces, and from literary trash to literary 
 classics, but the task is not hopeless. We may never 
 succeed in reaching our ideal, but by perseverance and
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 127 
 
 intelligent effort, the teacher will undoubtedly elevate 
 the nature of the appreciations experienced by his pu- 
 pils. One needs to be cautious about undertaking too 
 much at once, and about expecting fully developed 
 taste in young or undeveloped pupils. 
 
 The final suggestion is that often the emotional state 
 aroused should be directed into some channel of activ- 
 ity. Self-government leagues, the Boy Scout move- 
 ment, social service clubs, nature study clubs, art 
 leagues, musical clubs, and the many similar organi- 
 zations represent the crystallization of sentiment into 
 organized activity. They are suggestive of what may 
 be done with groups of pupils. The forms of activity 
 for individuals are numberless. The main thing is to 
 turn fine sentiment into fine action and not let it go to 
 waste. 
 
 Summary. (1) The lesson which has for its aim the 
 arousal and guidance of appreciation is necessary because it 
 is the purpose of education to elevate and train taste and 
 feeling as well as to impart knowledge and increase skill. (2) 
 The kinds of appreciation considered here are (a) social, 
 which deals with human life and interests, and (6) aesthetic, 
 which considers the field of recreations and pleasures in 
 music, art, literature, and the like. (8) The worth to be ap- 
 preciated may consist in the thought considered, in the form 
 in which the thought is conveyed, in human motive or action, 
 or in natural form, color, grandeur, or other element. (4) It 
 is suggested to the teacher that appreciation to be intelligent 
 must be based upon knowledge; also, that over-analysis of 
 aesthetic elements sometimes begets disgust rather than 
 appreciation. Since imitation influences appreciation, it is
 
 128 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 advisable for teachers to learn to enjoy and approve of what 
 they desire their pupils to appreciate. The aesthetic sense 
 sometimes develops slowly and is not evenly distributed, and 
 the teacher must therefore be patient and discriminating in 
 his treatment of individuals. Emotive states are intended 
 to furnish the basis for activity. The appreciations and fine 
 sentiments of pupils, once roused, should function in some 
 appropriate way either through individual or group activity. 
 
 REFERENCES: T. H. Briggs and L. D. Coffman, Reading in the 
 Public Schools, chaps, xvin and xrx; G. D. Strayer, A Brief Course 
 in the Teaching Process, chap. vn. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. From the school textbooks in literature or reading, prepare a list 
 of five things which should be used to arouse feelings of apprecia- 
 tion. 
 
 2. Prepare a similar list in history. 
 
 8. Choose another subject in which you are particularly interested 
 and select from it several incidents or situations which may be 
 made the basis of appreciative feeling. 
 
 4. We sometimes permit unsightly things to continue because we 
 have never realized that they are unsightly or that they might 
 be done away with. Suggest ways of making a community aware 
 of ugly features within its bounds and of the means of improv- 
 ing them. 
 
 5. What might possibly be done through school children to improve 
 the appearance of the neighborhood? 
 
 6. Do you think schools would be justified in spending less time in 
 teaching pupils to read music and more time in making them 
 acquainted with musical masterpieces? 
 
 7. What worth do you find for appreciation in Evangeline, Hia- 
 watha, The Children's Hour, The Cotter's Saturday Night, Snow- 
 Bound, The Lady of the Lake, Merchant of Venice, and Julius 
 Ccesar ? What in Tennyson's Ulysses and Sir Galahad f What 
 in Wordsworth's Daffodils ? 
 
 8. What is there worthy of appreciation in Michael Angelo's statue 
 of David, or of Moses, or in his painting of "The Last Judg- 
 ment"? 
 
 0. Name some pictures you would select for class study for pupils
 
 THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 129 
 
 and some you would not select. Give the reasons for acceptance 
 or rejection. 
 
 10. Have you ever done anything to influence the kind of jokes 
 enjoyed by pupils? How could the correcting of jokes for a class 
 joke book be made to help the taste of the class? 
 
 11. Cite two or three instances of pupils finding pleasure in an 
 author's language. What was it that gave the pleasure? Suggest 
 some means of extending pleasure in language. 
 
 12. Why do pupils like Treasure Island, Old Ironsides, Barbara 
 Frietchie, Sheridan's Ride, The Jungle Book, Black Beauty, Beau- 
 tiful Joe, and Pinocchio f 
 
 IS. How about allowing pupils to select, or at least to help select, 
 the pictures to be bought for the school? 
 
 14. How could dressing dolls or preparing designs to be used for 
 decorative purposes be made a means of influencing taste? 
 
 15. How could a local dealer in furniture help you teach not only 
 what is artistic in furniture, pictures, and draperies, but also 
 what constitutes good combinations and arrangement? 
 
 16. In what ways could the schools, newspapers, and clubs of a com- 
 munity cooperate to make it more beautiful? 
 
 17. A large city recently conducted a competitive musical contest, 
 the object being to familiarize all pupils with a hundred vocal 
 and a hundred instrumental selections. What could your com- 
 munity do in this direction?
 
 XI 
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 
 
 What the socializing exercises are intended to accom- 
 plish 
 
 POSSIBLY no recent movement connected with the 
 schools has been more marked than the tendency of the 
 last decade to bring them into more intimate contact 
 with the activities and problems of the social life of 
 to-day. This movement has been influential in two 
 directions. The experimental psychologists have 
 raised the question of the validity of the doctrine of 
 formal discipline. This doubt has caused us to ques- 
 tion the advisability of conducting the schools solely 
 for the sake of achieving mental discipline and culti- 
 vating power to be used some time in the future. This 
 changed view has in turn resulted in an inspection of 
 the course of study to discover just what parts are 
 being taught for the purpose of bringing about dis- 
 cipline and power. 
 
 From another viewpoint the leaders in education 
 have maintained that the school should represent life 
 itself and should not be regarded merely as a prepara- 
 tion for life. They have urged the removal of the bar- 
 riers between school and society and have insisted that 
 education should be a socializing process. From their
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 131 
 
 Bide they have subjected the course of study, the teach- 
 ing process, and the general activities of the school to 
 a searching examination to discover how they may be 
 brought into harmony with these social purposes. The 
 expressions, "Socializing the curriculum," "Socializing 
 the school procedure," are current to-day. The pupils 
 are not merely to have the mental processes, such as 
 reasoning, memory, and attention, trained, but are 
 to live as members of a society, and are, in learning, 
 to socialize the subject-matter; that is, to give it a 
 social content, to see how man has affected it, how it 
 affects man, and to learn the social purposes it serves. 
 This changed view of the school is far-reaching in its 
 effects. Few school activities or subjects are free from 
 its influence. Any exercisewhich tends to further social 
 activity or social outlook, which gives insight into 
 social conditions and usages, or which influences the 
 attitude toward society, may be regarded as a socializ- 
 ing exercise. 
 
 It is at once apparent that a socializing exercise may 
 be a part of any one of a number of school activities. 
 It is also evident that it may at times be incidental to 
 them, or that it may be their main purpose. 
 
 Forms these exercises may take 
 
 a. Acquisition of knowledge of social conditions, needs, 
 and activities. To be intelligent in its efforts, social 
 activity must be based upon a knowledge of the con- 
 ditions in which it is to operate. But being social does
 
 132 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 not always involve actual physical activity. It may, 
 and often does, mean putting forth effort to help others 
 but it may mean possessing an interest in people, being 
 sympathetic, cherishing an attitude of helpfulness. 
 When opportunity arises these social feelings tend to 
 reveal themselves in action. 
 
 But interests and attitudes are based upon knowl- 
 edge of some kind, and the increasing of knowledge is 
 one of the functions of the school. Any school exer- 
 cise is a socializing exercise, hi which the subject-mat- 
 ter is made to yield its content in such a way as to 
 throw light on the lives of people, their occupations, 
 their joys and sorrows, their achievements, their so- 
 cial institutions, the conditions under which they live, 
 whether geographical, political, or economic, and the 
 like. Much of the teaching from day to day may thus 
 be socializing either directly or incidentally. This is 
 especially true in the elementary schools where the 
 purely scientific aspect of the various subjects is not 
 the main purpose of teaching. Experience is to be re- 
 made in the direction of more socialized content. It 
 would be scientifically correct to give the exact and the 
 relative location of Russia, to describe its surface and 
 its climate, to state its form of government, and to 
 name the present ruler, but such an exercise would be 
 negative in its influence upon the social interests and 
 attitude of the pupils because of its lack of social con- 
 tent. The needs of the people socially, industrially, 
 and politically as revealed by the recent emergence
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 133 
 
 from serfdom, by the educational situation, by the 
 lack of general religious freedom, by the struggles to- 
 ward political independence, by the backward stage 
 of development of agriculture and manufacturing, and 
 by other facts which may readily be obtained, these 
 introduced into a lesson result in social insight and 
 social interest, and transform a lesson of mere fact into 
 a socializing exercise. 
 
 The possibilities of presenting subject-matter in 
 such a manner as to increase social knowledge and to 
 influence the feelings of pupils have not been fully 1 
 grasped. Possibly some teachers will admit that in 
 geography, history, and literature these ends may be 
 reached to some extent, but they can see no social bear- 
 ing in art, music, arithmetic, and the other subjects of 
 the curriculum. It is possible that the social bearing is 
 there and that the teachers have not seen it because 
 they have not looked for it. Some suggestions in re- 
 gard to content of this nature will be presented later 
 in this chapter. 
 
 In addition to the social possibilities of the content 
 of the subject-matter employed, there are opportuni- 
 ties of making class exercises social through the use 
 made of the subject-matter and through the means em- 
 ployed to prepare and present lessons. When foreign 
 languages are taught by the conversational method, 
 instead of through the grammar; when letters are 
 written and sent to real people; when pupils tell time 
 so as to keep track of their lessons or to know when to
 
 184 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 go home; when they add or count so as to distribute 
 supplies or keep score in a game; when they measure 
 materials and compute cost in sewing, manual train- 
 ing, or cooking, social values and usages appear 
 which justify us in considering such exercises as social- 
 izing. Intrinsic functions are employed, and these, 
 by definition, are social. A thoughtful principal in one 
 of the schools of New York City undertook to teach 
 the pupils who had just come from continental Eu- 
 rope to give the correct sounds of th, ch, and wh by 
 having them make the sounds over and over again. 
 They learned to give the sounds correctly, but did not 
 use them in speaking. She then gave lists of words 
 containing the sounds. These lists were mastered, and 
 still the speech did not show the effect of the exercise. 
 It was only after drill on ordinary sentences in which 
 these sounds occurred that correct usage was finally 
 secured. This principal's experience is suggestive of 
 much that may be done to socialize subject-matter by 
 placing it in its proper setting, and making it serve its 
 intrinsic function. Its value is enhanced in the minds 
 of the pupils, and mastery of usage as well as knowledge 
 of the service it renders is furthered. 
 
 b. School activities involving cooperation or considera- 
 tion of the welfare of others. Suggestions as to socialized 
 work on the part of the pupils are given in the chapters 
 on the assignment and the recitation. When the same 
 assignment is given to all pupils, when the recitation 
 consists in saying to the teacher what has been read
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 135 
 
 in books or what the teacher told the class in lecture 
 form, when helping others is frowned upon, then it is 
 a case of each pupil for himself, of the survival of 
 the fittest, the fittest being those who can attend regu- 
 larly and memorize readily. When, on the contrary, 
 individual members of the class undertake to prepare 
 a certain part of the lesson to report to their class- 
 mates, then efforts assume a social value, since they 
 are working not only for themselves but for others. 
 The pupil who ascertains for the class how much coal 
 costs per ton, or what brass is, or to whom violations 
 of the fire ordinances should be reported, or renders 
 any service for his fellows, is performing a socializing 
 exercise. He may make a piece of apparatus, invent 
 a game, find material of some kind, or search out knowl- 
 edge ; so long as it is done for the class and not for his 
 selfish gratification, it must be classed as social. 
 
 Another exercise of this nature is the group work in 
 school. An assignment is made to a group of pupils, 
 or the group volunteers to accomplish a piece of work. 
 Group work means the selection of a leader, loyalty 
 to the leader, the division of labor, and the faithful 
 performance of the work assumed ; in short, it means 
 cooperation. It includes not only working with others, 
 but also, when occasion demands, working for others. 
 The group may not only prepare work upon which it 
 reports to the class, but within the group, service is 
 frequently rendered by one member to another by 
 sharing materials, or by helping with outlines, charts,
 
 136 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 or other work. It is a distinctly social situation and 
 as such has value aside from the knowledge gained 
 through it. 
 
 These group assignments are helpful in connection 
 with geography in studying such subjects as polar 
 explorations, the industries of a given city or country, 
 the digging of the Panama Canal, the means employed 
 to offset the lack of rainfall in the Western States, and 
 many other topics. 
 
 In history, where there is so much ground to be 
 covered, there is ample opportunity to employ group 
 work as a means of saving time. Such topics as the 
 following are merely suggestive: (1) The relative merits 
 of the claims of the French and English to the Ohio 
 Valley; (2) the treatment of the Indians by the vari- 
 ous nations which explored America; (3) the territory 
 explored or claimed by European nations in North 
 America; (4) the forms of government in the colonies 
 before 1776; (5) the Revolutionary War from the 
 standpoint of America and Great Britain; (6) the 
 story of slavery in this country; (7) the political par- 
 ties which have existed in the United States. 
 
 In civics, the subject of street cleaning makes an 
 excellent group assignment. Individuals in the group 
 can organize and assign the subject under such sub- 
 heads as snow removal, garbage removal and disposal, 
 the work of the sweepers, the mechanical devices em- 
 ployed in street cleaning, and how the public can aid 
 in the effort to keep a city clean. The individuals can
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 137 
 
 prepare their parts, and the subject then can be pre- 
 sented as a whole before the class with profit to all 
 concerned. 
 
 In cooking, sewing, and manual training it is not at 
 all uncommon to find several pupils working on one 
 project, whether it be baking a cake, making a dress, 
 or constructing some article of furniture. 
 
 In dramatization, the group may either present a 
 story which has already been put into dramatic form, 
 or the members may write the play and then give it 
 before an audience. 
 
 A committee on music selects and gives a musical 
 program, arranges to have others give it, or composes 
 a class song, or other exercise. Here again is group 
 work, cooperative effort put forth for the class or 
 school. 
 
 The subjects cited are by no means all that afford 
 opportunity for group activity. In literature, in art, 
 in science, as well as in other subjects of the elementary 
 and high-school curricula, many topics and situations 
 can be handled to advantage in this manner. Debat- 
 ing necessitates it; other exercises afford occasions for 
 its employment. 
 
 In addition to the school exercises which have for 
 their object the gaining of knowledge and the influ- 
 encing of social outlook, there are many school activi- 
 ties which are socializing in their influence. One of these 
 exercises is the school housekeeping which is done by 
 members of the class and which includes the care of
 
 138 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 cupboards, blackboards, window sills, plants, birds, 
 fish, school supplies and apparatus. Many teachers 
 never think of delegating this work to others; conse- 
 quently they tire themselves out in performing it and 
 deprive the pupils of the opportunity of being helpful. 
 The plays and games and athletic sports of a school 
 are essentially social in nature. A pupil must be a 
 good fellow, he must play the game, doing his part and 
 being either a good winner or a good loser. If the leader 
 sends him to a subordinate position, he must learn to 
 take his place and do his best there. Team work is the 
 great factor in many of the school sports, and conse- 
 quently a player must expend effort not merely for his 
 own sake, but for the sake of his team and his school. 
 The school in which the pupils are as "dumb, driven 
 cattle," doing what they are told, as they are told, 
 when they are told, and the school in which the pupils 
 do what they please, as they please, when they please, 
 represent the extremes of tyranny and license, and in 
 neither type is there adequate opportunity for the 
 development of the social virtues. Through the or- 
 ganization and discipline of a school much can be 
 done to afford practice in effective social work without 
 having scholarship at a low ebb, or responsibility and 
 obedience lost sight of. The election of class officers 
 to report absences and tardiness, to take charge of 
 the classes when the teachers are summoned from 
 the room, to conduct the classes through the corridors, 
 and at dismissal to marshal the lines out of the build-
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 139 
 
 ing; and the use of monitors to take charge of yards 
 and corridors, to look after the condition of the build- 
 ing, and to care for the pupils' wraps and hats, are two 
 suggestions as to what can be done in this direction. 
 If these school and class officers be elected by the pu- 
 pils, the effect upon both the school and the officers 
 thus chosen is often better than when some one in 
 authority appoints the pupils to perform these func- 
 tions. The ideas of choosing those whom they know 
 to be most worthy and most capable, and then of ren- 
 dering prompt obedience to the officers of their own 
 choosing, can be instilled through conferences with 
 the pupils or in talks by teacher or principal when 
 proper occasion offers. 
 
 The extent to which pupils may participate in school 
 government with benefit to themselves and to the 
 school, will vary with the nature of the school and, it 
 may also be said, with the nature of the principal. 
 Some principals, in order to conduct a school on such 
 a plan, would have to be made over because of their 
 predisposition to exercise control, or because of the 
 habit of absolute rule formed by years of experience. 
 Wisdom, patience, tact, all are necessary in undertak- 
 ing and carrying out the plan of giving the pupils a 
 share in the school discipline and management. On 
 the other hand, some bodies of pupils are better pre- 
 pared to assume such participation than others and 
 can safely take a larger responsibility. They have more 
 background in the way of knowledge and attitude. But
 
 140 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 as both of these are the result of education, whether 
 in school or out, it is possible that those less well 
 fitted at first for such duties may be prepared by de- 
 grees to assume more responsibility. The George Jun- 
 ior Republic represents the fullest embodiment of the 
 plan of self-government, but it is not a school, and its 
 economic and social necessities cannot be fully repro- 
 duced in any ordinary school. Its plan of operation, 
 however, suggests much that is valuable to those who 
 are in charge of schools. 
 
 The school organizations controlled entirely or in 
 part by pupils are recognized more and more to have 
 a decided value because of the social training and dis- 
 cipline they afford. Some of these are the sewing club, 
 cooking club, nature study club, walking club, school 
 garden association, literary society, glee club, school 
 orchestra, and the debating society. Probably no 
 school will have all of these clubs in operation, but it 
 would be the exceptional school which could not most 
 helpfully have some of them. 
 
 c. Organization of activities which function in the 
 school neighborhood or community. In addition to the 
 clubs and societies which work for themselves and the 
 school, there are several which the school can set in 
 operation which reach over into the homes and the 
 neighborhood in their operations. One of these is the 
 Social Service League, the members of which pledge 
 themselves to strive for cleanliness and fresh air, to 
 abstain from throwing rubbish into the streets, to
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 141 
 
 keep from destroying or marring property, and to in- 
 fluence others to follow the same aims. Others are 
 the Little Mothers' Clubs, the Parents' Associations, 
 and similar societies. In these clubs, home, school, 
 and neighborhood are brought into very close contact 
 and made mutually helpful. 
 
 Helps which the teacher may employ in developing 
 social insight, attitudes, and habits 
 
 a. Social instincts of pupils. The fundamental help, 
 without which no efforts to socialize can succeed, lies 
 in the instincts possessed by the pupils to be trained. 
 Several of these instincts furnish a direct basis for the 
 training proposed and should be called into play or 
 given the opportunity to develop naturally instead 
 of being repressed. Among these native tendencies are 
 the instinct to imitate, to do as others do; the gregari- 
 ous instinct, or the instinct to seek the society of one's 
 kind; the instinct to emulate, and the instinct to out- 
 do others, both of which can be turned to social use; 
 the dramatic instinct; the instinct of leadership; 
 and the instinct to be kindly, sympathetic, helpful. 
 This most helpful inheritance ought to be utilized 
 much more fully than it ever has been and made to 
 function freely. All too frequently we neglect it for 
 the sake of imparting a body of facts or for a dubious 
 amount of mental training. Knowledge should be im- 
 parted and minds should be trained, but this othe^ 
 large field should not be left uncultivated.
 
 142 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 6. Subject-matter. A second help which the teacher 
 may call to service is the subject-matter. Some of the 
 possibilities have already been suggested in this chap- 
 ter. The trouble is that the social possibilities are only 
 infrequently suggested by the books and the teacher 
 must seek them himself. A few lines of effort are here- 
 with suggested. 
 
 The teacher who caused her class to see that the peo- 
 ple of Great Britain who attempted to run the block- 
 ade of the seaports in the Southern States during the 
 Civil War, did so because of economic conditions among 
 the manufacturing classes, socialized the lesson. A 
 lesson in manual training, such as weaving, which leads 
 to the study of that industry, of how people have devel- 
 oped the process, of the great mills devoted to it, of the 
 number of workers, their wages, their housing, the labor 
 of women and children, the attempts to protect the lives 
 and interests of these people, of efforts toward social 
 improvement, and the like, is a socializing lesson. 
 
 Civics, a subject which deals exclusively with social 
 activity, has great possibilities in the way of increasing 
 social insight, interest, and activity. Frequently it 
 deals only with the form of government, the election 
 and duties of public officers, and similar material. Dr. 
 Thomas J. Jones, of the United States Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, makes these suggestions in regard to it: 
 
 Good citizenship should be the direct aim of the high- 
 school courses in social science and history. Good citizenship 
 is the test that must be applied to every topic in these courses.
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 143 
 
 Facts, conditions, theories, activities, which do not contribute 
 directly to the appreciation of methods of human better- 
 ment, have no claim on the time of the high-school pupil. . . . 
 Every pupil should know, of course, how the President of the 
 United States is elected; but he should also understand the 
 duties of the health officer in his community. It is the things 
 near at hand and socially fundamental which should be 
 taught first of all. Comparatively few persons have any need 
 of knowledge of congressional procedure, but every citizen 
 should know what are the chances of employment for the 
 average man. 
 
 Some of the topics suggested by Dr. Jones are com- 
 munity health, housing and homes, pure food, public 
 recreation, good roads, parcel post and postal savings, 
 community education, poverty and the care of the 
 poor, crime and reform, family income, savings banks 
 and life insurance, human and material resources of 
 the community, human rights versus property rights, 
 impulsive action of mobs, and the selfish conservatism 
 of tradition, public utilities, like street-car lines, tele- 
 phones, and light and water plants. "The purpose 
 is not to give the pupil an exhaustive knowledge of 
 any of these subjects, but to give him a clue to the sig- 
 nificance of these things to himself and to the com- 
 munity, and to make him want to know more about the 
 conditions under which he lives. It is to help him 
 think civically, and, if possible, to live civically." 
 
 Arithmetic, which has to do with computations, 
 yields much in the way of socializing content when it 
 is pressed into service to throw light on amounts and
 
 144 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 values as they affect social life. A third grade in the 
 Speyer School of Teachers College found out from the 
 firemen across the street how much oats and hay were 
 fed to the horses daily and how much they cost. Then 
 they set themselves a number of problems, such as 
 finding how much it cost to feed one horse per day, 
 how much it cost to feed all the horses in that engine 
 house per day, how much for a week and for a month. 
 Then they found out how many pieces of hose there 
 were in the engine house, the length of a section and 
 the cost per foot, and computed the entire cost. This 
 exercise soon began to arouse their wonder over the 
 amount it must cost the city to keep up its many en- 
 gine houses, because, they reasoned, there were en- 
 gines, hose carts, hook-and-ladder wagons, and horses 
 to be bought, and the men had to be paid for their serv- 
 ices. Through a messenger to the fire chief, they 
 found the average number of fire calls per day and the 
 estimated cost of each call. Their computations simply 
 gave them a glimpse into great numbers, as they could 
 not grasp their full significance, but they gained an 
 appreciation of the extent and cost of the department 
 which they did not have at the beginning, and even 
 discussed gravely how very bad it was to send in false 
 alarms just for fun, since it cost the city so much 
 money. 
 
 Another class in a third grade investigated the re- 
 moval of snow from the block in which the school was 
 located. The pamphlet containing the city require-
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 145 
 
 ments in regard to removals was obtained from the 
 street commissioner. The removal was paid for by the 
 cubic yard. The size of a cubic yard was determined by 
 using the yardstick and by placing pupils at the corners 
 of the yard-square space laid off on the floor. The 
 yardstick itself gave the height when held with one end 
 resting on the floor by one of the boys who marked the 
 corners. The carts and wagons removing snow were 
 plainly marked so as to show capacity in cubic yards. 
 The numbers of several were taken and an average 
 capacity estimated. The price per cubic yard being 
 given in the pamphlet, the cost of a load was reckoned. 
 Through inquiry the pupils learned how many trips a 
 cart could make to the dumping place in a day. Then 
 they computed the earning of one cart for a day, and 
 the earnings of the total number of carts working hi 
 the block. 
 
 The pupils in Connersville, Indiana, who undertook 
 to decide whether it would be better to go to Oregon 
 or to Georgia to engage in fruit-growing, had to social- 
 ize the exercise of letter-writing and the subjects of 
 geography and arithmetic in order to communicate 
 with railroad companies, and agents of land companies; 
 to determine conditions of soil and climate, also trans- 
 portation facilities; and to compute cost of transpor- 
 tation, cost of land, cost of cultivation, of yield per 
 acre, of probable profit/and the like. And the group 
 of pupils in the same city who undertook to select a 
 lot and plan a house, the cost of which was to be
 
 146 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 kept within a stipulated amount, had a most socializ- 
 ing experience. The prices of real estate in their own 
 city, the desirability of locations, the way excavations 
 are computed, how masonry is laid and what it costs, 
 making contracts, the purchase and cost of materials, 
 even to the electric wiring, were all a part of their edu- 
 cation in connection with this series of problems. 
 
 The study of foreign languages, whether ancient or 
 modern, contains possibilities of contributing to social 
 insight and interest if it be so considered that, instead 
 of being a mere exercise in translation, composition, 
 analysis, and parsing, it is made to throw light upon 
 the life and customs of the peoples among whom these 
 languages are or were the mother tongue. 
 
 c. Organization of school. Community help. A third 
 help lies hi the form of organization and the helpful 
 participation of pupils hi the discipline and other ac- 
 tivities of the school. A fourth possible source of help 
 lies in the cooperation of parents and officials. In some 
 communities school credit is given for practice at home 
 of cooking, sewing, gardening, and manual training. 
 With help from parents, such an arrangement unites 
 home and school closely. If representatives from the 
 various municipal organizations can be secured to talk 
 to the pupils about fire prevention, use and care of 
 parks, how pupils can help the department of street 
 cleaning, and upon similar topics, interest, and con- 
 duct governed by interest, are quite sure to result. 
 
 d. The teacher's own spirit and attitude. One of the
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 147 
 
 greatest helps is the teacher's own attitude toward, 
 and his enthusiasm in, this cause. A tyrannical, carp- 
 ing, critical teacher or principal renders social efforts 
 useless. He is out of sympathy with them and acts as 
 a damper to all enthusiasm and interest. But with 
 interest and enthusiasm present, the teacher must 
 employ common sense, and keep the pupils within the 
 bounds of what they can accomplish. Too rapid ex- 
 pansion usually brings failure and disgust. "Slow and 
 steady" is better than allowing enthusiasm to run 
 away with even a good cause. 
 
 e. Miscellaneous helps. There are several miscella- 
 neous aids which should not be overlooked. The news- 
 papers and periodicals present much valuable material 
 to add to social knowledge and interest and should be 
 used for that purpose. A good, up-to-date bulletin 
 board is very helpful. Pictures are often very revealing 
 in their presentation of people and conditions, whether 
 prepared by the artist or obtained by means of a cam- 
 era. The stereopticon and the moving pictures are be- 
 coming more and more educational in their use. The 
 stereoscope, usually of easier access, is also an excel- 
 lent aid in imparting knowledge and arousing interest. 
 Doubtless the teacher will be able to suggest a number 
 of other means of furthering these purposes. 
 
 A caution is possibly in order in closing this chapter. 
 We need to tram pupils to lead, to cooperate, to serve 
 school, home, and community, to lend a hand when it 
 is needed. But we must not lose sight of the fact that
 
 148 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 there are frequent occasions when every member of a 
 class must be held individually responsible for the 
 learning of certain lessons and the performance of cer- 
 tain exercises. These cannot be delegated to some 
 kind-hearted friend. They must be done by each for 
 himself. This is imperative, and we must not overlook 
 it, otherwise there is disintegration and confusion, as 
 some have discovered at a heavy cost. Good sense is 
 just as necessary here as in most places, and must be 
 exercised for the sake of the class and the school. Each 
 teacher should follow some lines of socializing work 
 with his class, but he should remember that the pupils 
 are in school because they are immature and need help. 
 They must be kept within certain limitations both as 
 to amount and methods of undertaking, and the teacher 
 must be a partner ever to be reckoned upon, though 
 he may at times be a silent one. 
 
 Summary . (l) The socializing exercises are intended to 
 give insight into social needs, conditions, and customs; to 
 arouse interest, and affect the attitude of the pupils toward 
 society; and to give practice in social service. (2) These 
 exercises may take the form of classwork and study; of 
 school activities involving cooperation or the consideration 
 of others; of organizations and activities which function out- 
 side of the school. (3) In accomplishing the desired results 
 the teacher may employ the instincts of the pupils, the sub- 
 ject matter and supplementary material, the school organi- 
 zation, the cooperation of parents and of public officers, and 
 his own interest and enthusiasm. He should resort to the use 
 of newspapers, periodicals, pictures, the stereopticon, stereo- 
 scope, moving pictures, talks from officials, and other means
 
 SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 149 
 
 of gaining social knowledge or arousing interest and shaping 
 opinion. (4) The necessity of work from the class as a whole 
 and of individual responsibility should not be overlooked. 
 
 REFERENCES: Teachers College Record, vol. rv, no. 2; vol. xm, 
 no. 5; G. H. Belts, Social Principles of Education; Colin Scott, 
 Social Education; Briggs and Coffman, Reading in the Public 
 Schools, chap, xxvi; John Dewey, School and Society; W. C. Bagley, 
 Educational Values, chaps, ix-xv; John Dewey, Schools of Tomor- 
 row; Teachers College Record, Sept., 1918, pp. 319-35; Teachers 
 College Record, March, 1920; W. C. Whitney, The Socialized Reci- 
 tation; M. E. Branom, The Project Method in Education. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. If schools are to be regarded as a part of society and not a prepa- 
 ration for life in society, what changes must be made in them to 
 meet the situation? 
 
 2. Illustrate the socializing of arithmetic through its subject- 
 matter. Through the method of teaching it. 
 
 3. In a similar way, illustrate the socializing of composition. 
 
 4. Show how, through resort to group work, much more subject- 
 matter can be studied in geography than would otherwise be 
 possible. What effect will such work be likely to have upon the 
 interest of the class? 
 
 5. Plan three entirely different assembly exercises which are to be 
 prepared through appeal to the social interests of pupils. 
 
 6. What value is there in school housekeeping by pupils, aside from 
 the fact that the room is kept in order? 
 
 7. If you have ever observed self-government in operation in a 
 school, tell of its most serious faults and its greatest virtues as 
 you saw them. 
 
 8. Is it wise to give pupils no responsibility in school discipline? 
 Is it wise to give them all of the responsibility? 
 
 9. Some pupils have a capacity for leadership, for managing people. 
 They sometimes employ this capacity in harmful ways. Is the 
 capacity one which should be suppressed or one which should be 
 utilized in helpful ways? Is it always easy to utilize it? 
 
 10. How much social development is a teacher likely to accomplish 
 in his class who himself is not interested in social conditions and 
 who regards his teaching merely as a means of earning a salary? 
 
 11. How can the subject-matter relating to Argentina be socialized? 
 Illustrate. 
 
 12. What possible social content is there to the subject of decimals?
 
 xn 
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS AND THE INCREASE 
 OF SKILL 
 
 Reason for such exercises 
 
 IN addition to the various types of teaching which 
 aim to increase knowledge and to arouse aesthetic and 
 social appreciation, there are school exercises which 
 have as their main purpose the increase of skill and 
 the rendering of certain processes automatic or habi- 
 tual. In regard to skill, Thorndike l says : 
 
 No one would assert that skill is the total aim, and no one 
 would deny that it is a fraction of the aim, of education. The 
 chief facts about it which are likely to pass unnoticed are, its 
 appropriateness where the effort to give knowledge is rela- 
 tively wasteful, and its service as an impersonal pleasure. 
 Skill, as in the trades or household arts, can be got, even in 
 high degree, by boys and girls who, by lack of capacity or 
 interest, or both, can get little knowledge of general princi- 
 ples. So, in proportion as schools are attended by a wider 
 and wider selection and retain the unscholarly types till six- 
 teen or eighteen instead of till twelve or fourteen, skill be- 
 comes properly a larger and larger factor in their proximate 
 aims. Skill may also be, for almost all individuals to some 
 extent, a source of impersonal pleasure. The taste for work- 
 manship the impulse to do the job as it should be done, 
 making a first-rate product by fit means is one of the most 
 easily developed, but also one of the best, virtues. It is com- 
 
 1 E. L. Thorndike, Education, chap. in.
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 151 
 
 monly more truly cultural or refining than an interest in cor- 
 rect manners, speech, or opinions about the fine arts, because 
 it is commonly more sincere and less tainted with ostentation. 
 
 Whether we become hewers of wood and drawers of 
 water, whether we become artists, or whatever our 
 walk in life, our hope of getting along at all lies in learn- 
 ing to respond in definite ways to the situations which 
 daily and hourly confront us. Fortunately for us, 
 nature has so constituted us that we tend to repeat 
 associations once formed, to act as we have acted be- 
 fore; so that our responses, our thoughts, our actions 
 tend to become habitual. We form the habit of asso- 
 ciating ideas with things in the outside world, as when 
 we hear a series of sounds and think "Star Spangled 
 Banner"; we associate ideas with other ideas, as when 
 we think "Star Spangled Banner, battleship in the 
 harbor, lowering the flag, sunset"; and we associate 
 ideas with actions, as when the thought of sunset leads 
 us to turn our faces to look at the sky. Once having 
 associated certain objects, ideas, and actions, we tend 
 to put them together in the same way again, as shown 
 by the illustrations given. 
 
 The object of this tendency to make associations 
 habitual is to enable us to master our surroundings, to 
 think, to communicate with others, to preserve exis- 
 tence, to make progress. Since the school is vitally 
 interested in all of these purposes, it ought to further 
 the operations of this very important native tendency 
 and to employ it whenever any phase of school activity
 
 152 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 possesses elements which should be made automatic. 
 Automatism means the saving of time, the freeing of 
 consciousness for other tasks, and may be made to 
 mean a high degree of efficiency. The school exercises 
 which have for their object the rendering of certain 
 associations and acts automatic are called drill lessons. 
 
 The field included in habit-forming exercises 
 
 Dr. Rowe, 1 who has treated exhaustively the sub- 
 ject of habit-formation, says: 
 
 Of the subjects taught in the elementary schools, reading, 
 writing, arithmetic, composition, spelling, singing, drawing, 
 and other forms of manual work have habit-forming rather 
 than information as their direct aim. Nature study, geogra- 
 phy, history, and civics deal rather with the acquiring of 
 information, the organizations of facts. Some of these organ- 
 izations need to become automatic, in order that rapid use 
 may be made of them in relating new material, and others 
 may contribute important aid in the formation of disciplin- 
 ary or moral habits. History, especially, without furnishing 
 much material for direct habit-formation, indirectly contri- 
 butes abundantly to morality and the habits implied in char- 
 acter by making concrete the ideas underlying such habits, 
 by furnishing initiative through suggested motives, by mak- 
 ing a basis for practicing habits of approval or disapproval, 
 or by showing the painful, serious, and unfortunate results of 
 lapses. 
 
 In the high school, language subjects, mathematics, and 
 the arts are largely habit-forming, while science, history, 
 literature, and the like are informational, with occasional 
 organizations to be made automatic. 
 
 1 S. H. Rowe, Habit-Formation and the Science of Teaching, 
 chap. xui.
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 153 
 
 Any subject which contains elements, whether ideas 
 or acts, which may be used as responses to certain 
 situations without one's stopping to think about the 
 matter, possesses to that extent the possibility of hab- 
 it-formation and of drill to secure the habit. In learn- 
 ing to spell, we form the habit of using letters in a 
 certain order. In learning to read, we associate certain 
 sounds with certain letters or groups of letters, and 
 associate meaning with written or printed words and 
 sentences. In writing, we reduce certain movements 
 to the stage of habit. In counting and in the multipli- 
 cation table, we learn numbers in definite order and 
 also in combinations. We form the habit of thinking 
 and saying 42 when we see 6 X 7. In music we form 
 the habits of reading the signature, of reading notes 
 on the staff, of singing as notes indicate, of making 
 tones of certain quality, and the like. In composition 
 we acquire habits of punctuation, of indenting, of us- 
 ing capital letters, of writing paragraphs, of forming 
 correct sentences, of choosing words with care, and 
 other habits peculiar to the subject. Committing to 
 memory is simply another phase of habit-forming, 
 since we associate words in an order which we there- 
 after follow. We make this order a habit. In draw- 
 ing, the holding of pencil or brush, the stroke, the 
 manner of shading, the way of mixing colors, and 
 other details are all possible habits. In geography, 
 the interpretation of globes, maps, and charts is 
 a matter of habit, as is also the learning by heart
 
 154 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 of capitals, rivers, and the factors which influence 
 climate. 
 
 In manual training, the use of the plane reduces to 
 the automatic, as does the use of thimble and needle 
 in sewing, and the beating of batter and the whipping 
 of eggs in cooking. There is so much of education 
 which consists in reducing actions or associations of 
 ideas to the automatic state, and the process of habit- 
 forming is so important and so definitely known, that 
 every teacher should inspect the material and processes 
 he is to give his class in order to discover what part 
 should be made a mental or physical habit, that is, 
 made a matter of mental or physical memory. 
 
 It will not do to say, "It is enough if the pupils once 
 understand. They will remember if they understand." 
 The trouble with this theory is that it usually fails to 
 work. Nor will it suffice to leave the amount and kind 
 of drill to the judgment of the pupils. This procedure, 
 also, is a failure when viewed hi the light of conse- 
 quences. There must be drill, and the drill must be 
 intelligently conducted if certain facts are to be learned 
 as permanent possessions and if certain acts are to be 
 performed automatically. 
 
 Procedure in habit-formation 
 
 In lessons to form habits, as in other exercises, it is 
 essential that the pupils feel some reason for the work, 
 are aware of a motive, in order that they may bring 
 intelligence, interest, and energy to bear upon it. If
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 155 
 
 they make y's poorly or slowly, it is not difficult to 
 make them realize the fact and to want to do better. 
 They know if they spell poorly, if they write numbers 
 slowly, if certain combinations of letters are always 
 difficult to sound; or they can easily be made to realize 
 it. A little boy in a first grade left the reading-line, 
 went to the blackboard, and, placing an accusing fin- 
 ger on a combination of letters hi a word, said, "That 
 always sticks me." He knew his difficulty and the 
 drill he promptly received was shared energetically 
 by him. A third-grade class, at the close of an exer- 
 cise, in which the cost of a meal for a needy family had 
 been computed, was asked what they had found out. 
 One of the replies was that they needed drill on the 
 multiplication table of 6's. Here, again, was conscious- 
 ness of a definite lack or need. Making pupils con- 
 scious of the purpose or motive of the drill exercise is 
 the first step to be taken. 
 
 The sources of motive are varied. As indicated in 
 the preceding paragraph, one source is the realization 
 of a definite practical need. Children are aware of the 
 need of accuracy and rapidity in number combinations 
 in order to distribute supplies; to make plans for gar- 
 den plots; to measure materials for manual work and 
 compute its cost; to solve such problems as those in- 
 volved in dealing Vith snow removal and the fire de- 
 partment as discussed in another chapter. They wish 
 to write well enough to be able to write notes to their 
 parents; hence the necessity of drill to bring this about.
 
 156 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 They must read well to make out the interesting sto- 
 ries or to be permitted to visit another class and read 
 a story to it; therefore they must practice. The class 
 in geography may need a drill lesson because of inabil- 
 ity to read maps readily, to interpret isothermal lines, 
 or to apply the factors influencing climate. They can 
 be made aware of this need and usually know their 
 weakness quite as well as the teacher. They know, 
 too, that they cannot write numbers accurately and 
 that many errors are due to that fact; that they cannot 
 read music rapidly and that accidentals in music are a 
 calamity. If asked, "What is the trouble?" they are 
 usually ready, like the small boy with his hard word, 
 to point out definitely the thing they need. Sometimes 
 this need is practical, as hi the instances cited; some- 
 times it is aesthetic . The thing done does not come 
 up to the ideal, as hi the quality of lines, the applying 
 of colors, the composition of pictures, the formation 
 of good paragraphs, the writing of a good introduction. 
 One may work accurately and rapidly and still fail of 
 aesthetic quality in the product. Here again is a mo- 
 tive in realizing the discrepancy between what one has 
 done and what one ought or would like to do. 
 
 Children will expend great amounts of interest, 
 energy, and time in drilling on material that is to be 
 used in some land of competitive exercise such as a 
 spelling-match. They will drill on lists of countries 
 and capitals, on events and dates in history, and on 
 any material which can be employed so as to pit one
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 
 
 157 
 
 group of pupils against another. Pupils have been 
 known to practice vigorously so that they might lower 
 the time in which their row in school could spell a hun- 
 dred words and so beat all the other rows. This class 
 was fairly accurate, but was very slow in oral spelling. 
 This exercise cured the defect. Competition of group 
 against group is a very effective motive for drill. 
 
 A pupil will often work to improve his own record, 
 thus competing with himself through practice. The ac- 
 companying device is effec- 
 tive with some children: 
 
 A pupil who needs drill 
 in spelling is given a card 
 with a diagram similar to 
 the figure drawn on it so 
 that he can indicate his own 
 standing every day for a 
 week. On the diagram here 
 given it is supposed that 
 the pupil's standing on 
 
 Mon rno, wed. 'lour, ra. 
 
 Monday was 60 per cent. 
 
 A cross is placed on the vertical line for Monday beside 
 the number 60. On Tuesday, the standing is 80. The 
 pupil places a cross on the vertical line for Tuesday 
 opposite the 80 and draws the line from the Monday's 
 record to the Tuesday's record to show the direction 
 he has traveled. On Wednesday his grade is 90. Again 
 he places the cross and draws the line, which still as- 
 cends. On Thursday, for some reason, his standing is
 
 158 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 80, and he must draw his line down instead of up. The 
 chances are that the line next day will again ascend, 
 as people would usually rather record a good standing 
 for themselves than a poor one and will in consequence 
 work to make this possible. Self -competition is, there- 
 fore, a motive not to be overlooked in the effort to 
 secure drill from young people. The teachers in a cer- 
 tain city keep the Ayers' scale in penmanship posted 
 in their rooms, and the pupils take their own work up 
 to the scale as it hangs on the wall, and, by compari- 
 son, decide where they belong. They do this, at times, 
 without direction from the teacher, thus showing their 
 interest in their own degree of skill. 
 
 Approval of the teacher or parents, or others whose 
 opinion is esteemed, is a motive with many pupils for 
 drill in order to become more accurate or more rapid 
 in execution, or to produce a more beautiful result. 
 We all like approval in some form, and children are 
 very susceptible to its influence. A word, a look, the 
 posting of a good piece of work for classmates to see 
 it, relieving from further practice in the exercise mas- 
 tered, granting some special duty or activity as a mark 
 of approval of effort and accomplishment, these are 
 some of the ways in which recognition may be shown 
 when a pupil has produced an excellent piece of work 
 or has improved upon one that was unsatisfactory. 
 The same form of approval will probably not appeal 
 equally to all pupils, and consequently the teacher will 
 find it wise to note the forms which make the strongest
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 159 
 
 appeal to the pupils who especially need to put forth 
 effort in the form of drill. 
 
 Making a good record, either because of pride in the 
 record or for the sake of advancement, is a motive 
 commonly urged as a motive for practice. Pupils are 
 pushed through drill exercises in order that they may 
 be prepared for promotion. They cannot "pass " unless 
 they achieve a certain degree of excellence, and this they 
 must gain through practice. This is by no means the best 
 motive to employ, but it sometimes rouses the neces- 
 sary energy and effort when other appeals have failed. 
 
 There are still other possibilities in the way of moti- 
 vating drill exercises. The sources given do not ex- 
 haust the list. A final source, possibly the teacher's 
 last resort, is stern necessity. When some pupils re- 
 main untouched by the motive which stirs all ether 
 members of the class, then these must put forth effort 
 at improvement just because they must. A certain 
 degree of achievement should be attained by all normal 
 pupils, and a miniature Achilles cannot be permitted 
 to sulk idly in his tent simply because he does not care 
 whether he can read, write, spell, work arithmetic 
 examples, or perform other labors which society through 
 its schools sets for him to do. 
 
 The second step in drill is making clear what is to 
 be done. If pupils write figures slowly, they should 
 know that a specific drill exercise is intended to in- 
 crease their rapidity. If they have difficulty in carry- 
 ing in addition, the process should be made clear in
 
 160 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 some way before the drill exercise for facility begins. 
 If pupils read in jerky fashion, the desired mode of 
 reading should be presented so that the children may 
 know how they are to read in the practice exercise. 
 If letters are poorly formed or joined, the exact diffi- 
 culty must be made clear and correct forms shown, so 
 that pupils may practice intelligently. Whatever the 
 form of the drill exercise, the pupils should know what 
 they are to do. It is not always sufficient for them to see 
 what is wrong: they must see, also, what the correct 
 form or idea is. They must know the more excellent 
 way. It sometimes does more harm than good to show 
 the incorrect form and to warn against its use. It is 
 more helpful to show the correct usage and to say, 
 "Do this." Teachers often say to a pupil, "You did 
 not read that well. Read it again"; and the pupil has 
 no guide as to how he should improve. Writing in- 
 correctly spelled words or ungrammatical expressions 
 on the blackboard as forms to be avoided is still a 
 common procedure. Faulty illustrations should be 
 replaced or at least supplemented by examples of cor- 
 rect procedure, in order that the pupils may apply 
 energy at the right place. 
 
 The time required to bring to mind a feeling of need 
 or of purpose in a drill exercise and of making the 
 pupils aware of what is to be done does not usually 
 occupy much time. A few minutes frequently suffice 
 for the preparatory work, and then the class is ready 
 for the drill itself, the habit-forming process.
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 161 
 
 The laws of habit-formation 
 
 Professor James l gives the first law of habit-for- 
 mation thus: "We must take care to launch ourselves 
 with as strong and decided an initiative as possible" 
 This strong initiative is provided for in the prepara- 
 tory work, in which the purpose is seen, the idea of 
 what is to be done is clarified, and interest and energy 
 are appealed to. 
 
 The second rule given by Professor James is, "Never 
 suffer an exception to occur till the new habit is securely 
 rooted in your life." In other words, keep living up con- 
 sistently to the thing which is to be made automatic. 
 It is the frequent fate of New Year's resolutions to fall 
 by the way in a short time because the people who 
 make them presently begin to make exceptions and 
 soon find themselves back in the old habit. The reason 
 why some men who smoke have to swear off so often 
 is that they make exceptions to the habit of refraining 
 from tobacco before the habit of self-denial is firmly 
 enough fixed to make exceptions safe. If one is seek- 
 ing to fix the habit of working neatly, accurately, and 
 promptly, if he is striving for correct posture, or is 
 endeavoring to substitute good habits of speech for 
 poor ones, one cannot safely indulge in the old habits 
 part of the time. The new forms must be employed 
 consistently. Physiologically the breaking-off of an old 
 habit and the forming of a new one mean the discon- 
 tinuance of one line of connections through the nerve 
 1 William James, Talks to Teachers, chap. VIH.
 
 162 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 fibers and the formation of another. Relapses from 
 the new line of connections mean that the old one is 
 again followed and is strengthened by renewed use. 
 To yield to an old habit, to say, "I'll do it just this 
 once," is often to break down with one act the barrier 
 of resistance which has been painfully reared against 
 undesirable modes of thought and action. Then the old 
 sweep in upon us like a flood resuming its former chan- 
 nel. The indulgence is always recorded in the nervous 
 system, whether conscience is willing to forgive or not. 
 Then, too, there is the frequent consequence of becom- 
 ing discouraged, after several lapses, and saying, "It 
 is of no use to try again." The safer plan by far is to 
 suffer no exceptions. 
 
 The third law is, "Seize the very first possible oppor- 
 tunity to act on every resolution you make, and on every 
 emotional prompting you may experience in the direc- 
 tion of ilie habits you aspire to gain." This law is known 
 as the law of repetition. Its purpose is to give control 
 over the new form of activity and so fix it in the nerves 
 and muscles of the body that it will presently operate 
 of itself without the direction of consciousness. 
 
 If the use of a tool is to be learned, a correct pro- 
 nunciation acquired, a good posture made habitual, or 
 the habit fixed of thinking letters, words, or figures in 
 definite combinations as in spelling, memorizing poetry, 
 or thinking of ten when seven and three are added, the 
 ideas or acts or whatever is to be thus fixed in mind, 
 nerves, and muscles must be repeated in correct order
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 163 
 
 and must be repeated often enough to make it a part 
 of one's life. In addition to suffering no exceptions 
 when the opportunity offers for using the new mode of 
 acting and thinking, this mode must be made auto- 
 matic by drill devoted to that purpose. 
 
 One cannot say just how much drill there should be, 
 since the amount is determined by several factors. If 
 the effort at mastering a new habit, at increasing skill, 
 results in pleasure to the individual who is working, 
 the amount of drill necessary to master is diminished. 
 If a boy knew that he could go fishing or swimming 
 or to the moving-picture show as soon as he had learned 
 to recite the multiplication table of 9's or to spell a 
 list of fifty words correctly, the time devoted to drill 
 would probably not need to be very long. Then, too, 
 the amount of energy and enthusiasm expended in 
 forming the new habit influences the amount of time 
 necessary to complete the process. One may dislike 
 memorizing, but may go at the task with such vim 
 that it is soon accomplished and the number of repe- 
 titions necessary greatly diminished. In learning to 
 spell the word separate with a instead of e in the sec- 
 ond syllable, the learning may be hastened by making 
 the a emphatic either by saying it with more force than 
 the other letters, by writing it more heavily, by under- 
 scoring it, or by some other means expending unusual 
 effort on it. 
 
 One of the most costly and least effective modes of 
 learning is repetition which lacks special motive and
 
 164 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 interest, and which is performed with little outlay of 
 attention or energy. What is made into habit or com- 
 mitted to memory in this way is acquired through 
 many repetitions. The process is time-consuming; it 
 lacks intelligence; and we cannot be sure that the re- 
 sults will be used as they should when occasions de- 
 mand them. Much of this kind of memorizing per- 
 sists in the schools. Spelling, writing, arithmetical 
 combinations, as the multiplication tables, conjuga- 
 tions, declensions, rules, definitions, gymnastics, and 
 other lessons demanding drill are frequently conducted 
 as exercises in repetition without definite purpose on 
 the pupils' part, without much interest or attention, 
 and without calling forth the energy which would cut 
 the process short and fix the results more certainly. 
 
 The necessity of attention 
 
 Probably most of us used copy books in our early 
 school days. We wrote the first two or three lines on 
 each page fairly well, and then the work began to 
 deteriorate until the last line was the worst one on the 
 page. If repetition alone were an effective agent in 
 increasing skill, the last line would have been the best 
 in every instance. Another element must be added to 
 it to insure gain, and that is attention. One must at- 
 tend to what he is doing; he must compare each effort 
 with the model, or with his own previous efforts to see 
 what gains are yet to be made and by what means they 
 can be accomplished. Attention to the motions in-
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 165 
 
 volved in so simple a matter as handling bricks brought 
 a saving of effort and an economy of time that years 
 of mere repetition never evolved. Repetition, at best, 
 fixes a certain mode of doing, and may just as easily 
 fix a poor one as a good one. Attention to the process 
 of learning shortens the time of making acts automa- 
 tic; and it is absolutely necessary to bring about im- 
 provement in ways of doing things to increase skill. 
 Practice alone does not make perfect, but practice 
 with attention will advance the learner toward that end 
 because it keeps him conscious of what he yet has to 
 accomplish and makes him alert as to possibilities of 
 improvement in his methods of working. The pupil 
 who copies figures by looking at one, writing it on his 
 paper, looking at the next, writing that one on his 
 paper, and so on, can, by attending to what he is doing, 
 learn to see several figures with one glance and remem- 
 ber them long enough to write them; and the pupil 
 who devotes attention to his writing exercise can more 
 quickly eliminate his errors and increase the control 
 of his movements. 
 
 Attention to an object or process cannot be long 
 sustained at a high tension. Experiments have shown 
 that it fluctuates even when the people under obser- 
 vation were striving to keep it constant. The sugges- 
 tion here for the teacher is that he must not expect 
 close attention to one form of drill to be maintained 
 for a long period. Several short periods of sharp, vigor- 
 ous drill, with interest and hearty effort, produce
 
 166 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 better results than one long unbroken period, and 
 there is not so much fatigue. 
 
 When a class is seemingly wearied and listless, a 
 change in the method of conducting a drill exercise 
 arouses fresh interest, taps a new store of energy, and 
 brings back the wandering attention. The forehanded 
 teacher will have various devices prepared for such les- 
 sons and will employ them judiciously. Written drill 
 may give way to an oral one; board drill to seat work; 
 individual drill to a class drill; and drill on facts or 
 processes taken by themselves to facts or processes 
 employed in a game or other setting. If the attention 
 and interest can be held by one kind of exercise until 
 the object of the drill is accomplished, of course it is 
 not necessary to vary procedure. Pupils sometimes 
 greatly prefer one form of drill to others, and in case 
 this preferred form is effective, it may as well be con- 
 tinued. It is useless to vary just for the sake of change. 
 The point to be kept in view is efficient drill, and when 
 change will further this end, its introduction is justi- 
 fied. 
 
 The necessity of accuracy 
 
 When incorrect associations are made or wrong 
 habits of acting are formed, the labor of learning the 
 correct ones later involves the extra difficulty of un- 
 learning the faulty or undesirable habits, and of break- 
 ing up the associations in the nervous system which are 
 the basis of these automatic acts. For some reason,
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 167 
 
 undesirable habits seem easy to acquire and hard to 
 get rid of. It is, therefore, most desirable that teachers 
 who consciously train pupils in habit-formation should 
 take pains to see that the first associations are correct, 
 and that the first acts are those which are to be fixed 
 by drill. The position for writing, the manner of hold- 
 ing the pen, the forms of letters, the forms of figures, 
 the order of letters in words, the utterance of sounds 
 in phonic drill, the tones used in singing and reading, 
 reading connectedly instead of in a choppy, word-at-a- 
 time fashion, the pronunciation of new words, the num- 
 ber combinations, and the many other details which 
 should become automatic, are all matters which should 
 be started in the right way. To say, "Never mind for 
 the present. That matter will take care of itself by and 
 by"; or, "When the pupils are old enough to know 
 better, they will do differently," is to disregard the 
 force of habits when once they are formed, and the 
 probability of their continuing as they are begun. 
 It is safer far to begin with the correct habit and thus 
 make sure of it. 
 
 Sometimes accuracy is hindered by undertaking to 
 cover too much ground hi one drill exercise. The man 
 who said the best way to catch a flock of geese was to 
 chase down and catch one goose at a time, disregarding 
 the rest, gave good advice. Too many details at once 
 distract attention, dissipate energy, and defeat the 
 very purpose of special drill. This suggestion applies 
 both to presenting new matter for the habit-forming
 
 168 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 exercise, such as giving new words to be pronounced 
 or spelled, and to the eliminating of errors or associa- 
 tions already formed, as in correcting compositions. 
 It is better to overcome one or two at a time than to 
 try to include all hi one exercise. 
 
 Necessity of increasing facility and rapidity 
 
 When the correct habits have once been started, it 
 is often necessary to consider how they may be made 
 to operate quickly. It is not enough to add correctly 
 in everyday life: one must be able to add quickly as 
 well. A woman who wrote a Spencerian hand almost 
 perfectly was so slow about it that she was able to 
 write comparatively little. Other people, whose writ- 
 ing was not so elegant but who wrote more rapidlv 
 and easily, were much more helpful than she. Much 
 time is wasted because we do not drill for rapidity 
 as we might in the various lines of automatic respon- 
 ses. Pupils rise slowly; pass materials slowly; spell, 
 write, and work arithmetic slowly. They spend far 
 more time studying than they should. They ought to 
 be made conscious of the value of the time element 
 and made to shorten the time as much as they can and 
 still keep the product up to a high standard. It ought 
 to be a matter of pride to spend a short time over a 
 lesson, providing the lesson is well prepared. Compe- 
 tition with one's own record or with other pupils should 
 be encouraged. The time record should be kept for 
 the class or for individuals until the habit of prompt
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 169 
 
 action is assured. If the teacher watches the various 
 school exercises, he will discover the places where 
 there is a leakage of time and can then stop the waste 
 by special exercises. It is worth while for the sake of 
 the school work and for the sake of the effect upon 
 the pupils' way of working. 
 
 Discontinuing drill 
 
 There will come a time when drill may be discontin- 
 ued, but experience shows that it should be diminished 
 by degrees and not stop suddenly. A matter is not 
 fixed once for all, as we know to our sorrow. Drills on 
 the same matter must be given from time to time with 
 intervals of increasing length between the exercises. 
 Professor Thorndike l says: 
 
 For any one habit in any one person there is some one best 
 distribution of time over the series. For one habit or set of 
 habits it may be best to give ten drills of twenty minutes for 
 the first week, ten drills of ten minutes the second week, ten 
 drills of five minutes the third week, five drills of eight 
 minutes the fourth week, and one drill of ten minutes each 
 week for three weeks, and then one drill of ten minutes a 
 month for four months. Or it may be best to distribute the 
 460 minutes in a very different way. 
 
 The drill should be continued, from time to time, 
 until the desired association or habit is fixed. To stop 
 short of that point is practically to lose the time and 
 effort expended up to the point of discontinuance. 
 
 1 E. L. Thorndike, Education, chap. ix.
 
 170 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Memorizing a habit-forming exercise 
 
 Reference has already been made in this chapter to 
 memorizing as a form of habit-making. It consists in 
 learning things in the order in which they are meant 
 to recur always thereafter. In much of the committing 
 to memory, the elements are joined in an arbitrary 
 manner, as, for example, the letters in a word, the let- 
 ters in the alphabet, or the numbers in counting. They 
 simply have to be memorized as they are through any 
 of the means at the teacher's command to make the 
 process short and sure. 
 
 Memorizing poetry, rules, or other matter possessing 
 content, is quite a different matter. Here the symbols 
 to be learned in a definite order represent connected 
 thought. Committing to memory such material should 
 follow the understanding of the thought, though this 
 order of procedure is often neglected. There are two 
 reasons why thought should be studied. In the first 
 place, the poem or other selection to be memorized 
 is chosen because of the value of its meaning. In the 
 second place, when the meaning is clear, the process of 
 memorizing is hastened. 
 
 Nearly two hundred teachers were asked recently 
 to tell in writing how they would memorize a chapter 
 in the Bible or a poem. In describing the process of 
 memorizing the poem, a large number said they would 
 learn the first line, then the second, then the first and 
 second, then the third, then the first, second, and third, 
 and so on. This mode of teaching. poems to children
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 171 
 
 can be seen almost daily in some of our schools. The 
 meaning of the whole, the natural stopping-places, 
 such as the ends of thoughts, or thought-units, are 
 quite disregarded. If teachers will go through the 
 poem as a whole with their pupils, talking it over, get- 
 ting its meaning, enjoying it, and will then take the 
 lines that express a whole thought as a unit to be 
 learned, instead of one line, they will secure better re- 
 sults. Thus the poem, "Daisies," so often taught to 
 children, offers a stopping-place at the end of every 
 two lines, as can be seen by inspection. It is often 
 taught one line at a time: 
 
 DAISIES 1 
 
 At evening when I go to bed, 
 I see the stars shine overhead; 
 They are the little daisies white 
 That dot the meadow of the night. 
 
 And often while I 'm dreaming so, 
 Across the sky the moon will go; 
 It is a lady, sweet and fair. 
 Who comes to gather daisies there. 
 
 For when at morning I arise, 
 
 There's not a star left in the skies; 
 
 She 's picked them all and dropped them down 
 
 Into the meadows of the town. 
 
 FRANK DEMPSTER SHERMAN. 
 
 In this poem each pair of lines answers a question, 
 so regular is the arrangement. In the drill exercise 
 if the teacher asks the question when the pupil recit- 
 
 1 From Little-Folk Lyrics, published by Houghton Mifflin Com* 
 pany.
 
 172 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 ing hesitates, the lines which answer will usually come 
 to mind. Some of these questions are: What does the 
 child see when he goes to bed? What does he think 
 they are? What happens while he is dreaming? What 
 does he say the moon is? What makes him think so? 
 In other selections the length of the thought-units 
 that is, the parts which are complete in themselves or 
 so nearly so that they afford convenient breaks in 
 memorizing may vary. The procedure should be: 
 first, to study the whole; second, to memorize by 
 thought-units; third, to repeat the poem or selection 
 until it is thoroughly committed, making the thought 
 a basis for the associations as far as possible. 
 
 Learning facts which belong in a series 
 
 Many of the facts to be memorized are arranged 
 in series, and others can be so arranged in order to 
 facilitate memorizing. The alphabet, the multiplica- 
 tion tables, conjugations, declensions, lists of prefixes 
 and suffixes, such rules as the one in Latin for the verb 
 compounds which govern the dative case, all offer a 
 definite arrangement to be learned. In memorizing, 
 all the numbers of the series should be learned, and 
 hi the order in which they regularly occur. This does 
 not mean that a pupil will memorize the alphabet when 
 he first enters school. When the time comes that re- 
 quires its mastery, it should then be learned from a to 
 z in order. The same holds true of the multiplication 
 tables. Eventually the facts of the various tables
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 173 
 
 should be learned in order, though the table of 10's 
 may be memorized before the table of 7's. The teacher 
 should be sure that all the members of the series are 
 included, and that they are memorized in the correct 
 order. 
 
 The step of application as habit-formation 
 
 The last of the five formal steps is the step of appli- 
 cation. Its purpose is to make the learner proficient in 
 the use of the new knowledge he has acquired through 
 the preceding steps. If he has just learned what a 
 noun is, he is to identify nouns in this last step until 
 he knows them with a minimum of thought. If he has 
 learned how a fraction is divided by an integer, he is 
 to work problems involving this process until he has 
 mastered it, and the work almost performs itself. He 
 either acquires proficiency hi some process, or skill in 
 the application of some principle or other form of gen- 
 eral knowledge. In either case, drill exercises are neces- 
 sary to insure mastery. The suggestions given as to 
 amount and variety of drill in other connections apply 
 to drill in the step of application. It is because this fac- 
 tor in fixing knowledge and processes and in increasing 
 skill has been neglected that so many pupils develop 
 presently into a state of intellectual muddle, and in- 
 efficiency. Facts and processes, not being fixed, fade 
 out or become confused, until after a time, the pupils 
 possess what some one has aptly described as "mere 
 tails and fins " of knowledge.
 
 174 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 Teaching pupils to direct the formation of their own 
 habits 
 
 The formation of habits in young pupils should be 
 directed closely in all its steps by the teacher; but 
 finally the responsibility can be shifted by degrees to 
 the shoulders of the pupils themselves, and they can 
 be made aware of the steps which should be followed. 
 At first the teacher brings the motive to consciousness, 
 makes clear the facts or processes to be learned, and 
 then supervises or directs the practice by the pupils. 
 When the pupils are far enough advanced, part of the 
 drill may be turned over to them to perform as a task 
 outside of the class period, the teacher inspecting re- 
 sults from time to time. The time should come when 
 the pupils, once seeing what is to be done, can take 
 charge of all the drill necessary to perfect themselves. 
 When they know how to use the dictionary, the teacher 
 need no longer give the correct form when a word is 
 misspelled, but can direct attention to it. The pupil 
 must then find the correct form for himself and per- 
 form the practice required to fix the proper spelling. 
 This applies to the use of case forms of personal pro- 
 nouns, the agreement of verbs with their subjects, and 
 other facts which the children have it within their 
 power to discover. When they are able to find these 
 things for themselves, the responsibility for discovering 
 the correct form should be put upon them. 
 
 Can pupils ever learn to doubt their own habits or 
 usages? If this is possible, then the whole process of
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 175 
 
 drill can be turned over to them. Do children ever 
 question the spelling of a word they have written, the 
 process they have employed in solving a problem, the 
 grammatical accuracy of their own speech? Do they 
 ever question their own ways of working and wonder if 
 there are other and better ways? To some extent they 
 do, and possibly they can be trained to do so to a 
 greater degree. They can then be made conscious of 
 the entire habit-forming process and can be both en- 
 couraged and required to employ it. They should 
 understand that they must see clearly what is to be 
 done; that they must give themselves practice in the 
 operation, putting energy into the process and watch- 
 ing their own work to keep out error and to bring in- 
 crease of proficiency; and that they must from time 
 to time repeat the drill to insure the retention of the 
 newly acquired knowledge or skill. Probably few 
 teachers have ever attempted this advanced training, 
 but that does not necessarily prove that it is either 
 undesirable or impossible. 
 
 Summary. (1) Since many processes and much of the 
 knowledge learned must be reduced to the form of habit, and 
 since the acquisition of skill is necessary, drill exercises with 
 these ends in view are indispensable. The drill is essentially 
 a habit-forming exercise. (2) Any subject which requires the 
 learning of facts in definite form, the mastery of processes, 
 or the acquisition of skill, involves drill. (3) (a) Motivation 
 is necessary in drill not only to direct effort but to secure 
 interest and attention. There are many sources of motives 
 or reasons, (b) Definite understanding of what is to be done
 
 176 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 is the second step, (c) The third one is repetition with atten- 
 tion. No exceptions should be permitted until the new habit 
 is established. (4) Attention is necessary in drill to avoid 
 error, to shorten the time, and to increase skill. As attention 
 weakens, it may be renewed by varying the exercise. The 
 period should not be prolonged to the point of over fatigue. 
 (5) Accuracy hi the beginning of a habit is essential as first 
 impressions and associations are apt to be lasting. (6) When 
 accuracy is established, facility and rapidity should be 
 sought. (7) Drill should be discontinued gradually and 
 should not be dropped finally until proficiency has been 
 attained. (8) Memorizing is fundamentally the formation of 
 habit. It should be based upon understanding of the thought 
 when possible. (9) In learning facts in a series, the series 
 should be complete and the exact order should be followed. 
 (10) The step of application involves drill to fix knowledge 
 and increase skill in processes learned in the other formal 
 steps. (11) Pupils, as they develop in intelligence and abil- 
 ity, should be trained in the process of drill until they can 
 assume much of the responsibility for it. 
 
 REFERENCES: E. L. Thorndike, Education, chap, m, also chaps. 
 VI and ix ; W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, ed. of 1912, chap. 
 xxiu; W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, chap, xxn; S. H. Rowe, 
 Habit-Formation and the Science of Teaching, chap, xiu; Strayer and 
 Norsworthy, How to Teach, chap. nr. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. In a certain arithmetic, arranged on the so-called spiral plan, 
 the same type of problem occurs on every tenth page, so that, in 
 order to work ten examples in finding interest, the pupils must 
 work through a hundred pages of the textbook. From the point 
 of view of habit-formation, what serious defect exists in such a 
 book? 
 
 2. Why should useful processes be made automatic? 
 
 3. Advance at least two arguments for the increase of skill on the 
 part of a workman or artist. 
 
 4. Think over the way you work when you settle yourself to study
 
 THE FORMATION OF HABITS 177 
 
 a lesson. Could any of your studying habits be improved? Sug- 
 gest how the old habits can be broken up and the better ones 
 formed. 
 
 5. Sometimes the multiplication tables are mastered by sheer 
 weight of repetition. Show how the instinct of play can be called 
 upon so as to shorten the process? 
 
 6. Show how the spirit of competition may be used to bring about 
 the formation of certain desirable habits. 
 
 7. We are told that we should examine subject-matter to discover 
 the serial order of the facts which are to be memorized. Name 
 such a series of facts from each of three subjects. 
 
 8. What habits must be formed in penmanship? In geography? 
 In silent reading? In oral composition? In algebra? In physics? 
 
 9. The satisfaction which results from having performed a certain 
 process correctly diminishes the number of repetitions necessary 
 to make the process a habit. How can a teacher cause his pupils 
 to experience satisfaction and so save time and energy in habit- 
 formation? 
 
 10. What is the probable basis for the complaint made by teachers 
 each autumn that their pupils must have been poorly taught 
 because they do not know anything? 
 
 11. Pupils know that they must learn the multiplication tables, that 
 they must learn to write and to spell. Why employ any other 
 motive than this in making these processes mechanical? 
 
 12. How much drill should one employ in fixing a habit? 
 
 13. Young teachers sometimes continue drill until a process is per- 
 fect at the time. In a few weeks they are amazed to discover 
 that the pupils have forgotten or have lost skill. What is the 
 cause of such a condition? 
 
 14. Write a list of helpful suggestions for memorizing The Children'* 
 Hour. 
 
 15. Suggest two or three habits pupils should be taught to employ in 
 connection with the meaning or spelling of unfamiliar words. 
 
 16. Give examples from experience or observation to show that 
 repetition without attention did not increase skill or form the 
 desired habit. 
 
 17. Interest, repetition, and resulting satisfaction are all aids in 
 fixing associations and in forming habits. Which of them tend 
 most to enlist the activity of the learner? Which of them are 
 more economical of the time required for drill? 
 
 18. How are the rapidity and thoroughness of habit-formation 
 affected by the learner's determination that he will form a spe- 
 cified habit?
 
 XIII 
 
 SCHOOL EXERCISES WHICH INVOLVE REVIEW 
 
 What is meant by review 
 
 THE review exercise is assuming new meaning and 
 importance in the school procedure of the present day. 
 It is not many years since a review lesson was an exer- 
 cise in which pupils passed a second time over subject- 
 matter previously studied. Sometimes they re-read 
 it; sometimes they answered questions at the end of 
 the chapter, the answers being taken bodily from the 
 text. The purpose of such exercises was to fix facts 
 so firmly in mind that they would be remembered by 
 the learner. We have come to regard these lessons as 
 drills, since their function is to make certain associa- 
 tions habitual. The conception of the nature of a re- 
 view lesson differs widely from this view once preva- 
 lent. 
 
 When ideas or ways of acting are recalled to the mind 
 for the purpose of establishing new meanings, new re- 
 lationships, or new ways of acting, we may be said to 
 be reviewing our ideas or our modes of activity. Where- 
 as in drill we seek to make automatic the connections 
 already established between ideas, and the forms of 
 conduct and ways of doing things which are already 
 started, in review, we are looking toward the estab-
 
 SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 179 
 
 lishment of new relations, the influencing of old activ- 
 ities or the beginning of new ones. 
 
 We establish new relations when we gather a mass 
 of ideas about a subject into different groups, basing 
 our grouping upon the meaning of the ideas or the use 
 they serve. Thus we may review all the facts gained 
 about New York City by seeking to form a classifi- 
 cation, and may place in one group all ideas relating 
 to occupations of the people; and into another group, 
 all ideas relating to parks and museums; and so on 
 until we have completed the classification. We also 
 establish new relations when we gain new knowledge 
 by means of knowledge already possessed. For ex- 
 ample, upon the basis of our knowledge about angles, 
 we build a store of ideas about triangles when we study 
 geometry. To solve a given problem about triangles, 
 we must review our knowledge of angles and select 
 the relevant facts which apply to our particular prob- 
 lem. 
 
 People frequently employ a poor way of doing 
 things because they have not made a connection be- 
 tween the form of activity in question and the knowl- 
 edge they possess which might help them. In domestic 
 science, pupils are sometimes taught how to wash 
 dishes in a better way by reviewing the knowledge 
 which gives the clue to the proper procedure. " What 
 effect does heat have upon the yolk of eggs? " " Should 
 one, then, use very hot water when washing dishes 
 which have yolk of egg on them? " "What effect does
 
 180 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 cold water have upon grease?" "How about using 
 ;old or tepid water to get rid of grease?" "How hot 
 should the water be when greasy dishes are washed?" 
 In such lessons, established habits are altered through 
 the review and application of previous knowledge. 
 We sometimes insure the formation of right habits by 
 getting the appropriate knowledge into mind in time 
 to influence the first performance of the act which is 
 to be fixed, as when, hi physical training, the ideas in 
 regard to the performing of certain movements are re- 
 called and used as the basis for the development of 
 new exercises. 
 
 When reviews are helpful and necessary 
 
 There is a fundamental activity of the mind in- 
 volved in all review which we need to examine in order 
 to determine when reviews are necessary. This is the 
 process of apperception, the process of giving meaning 
 to ideas through relating them to other ideas which 
 have more or less meaning established. Thus some- 
 thing growing in a field is recognized as wheat because 
 it is related to an established idea. Curiously enough, 
 the "set" of the mind influences the associations made 
 among ideas. A certain sound may be interpreted 
 by one person as the unloading of coal, while another 
 may interpret it as the grinding of stone for paving. 
 The same sound may be given these two meanings by 
 the same person at different times. On a winter morn- 
 ing he might think "unloading coal." If the street
 
 SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 181 
 
 were being repaired, he might think "stone-crusher 
 at work." 
 
 The point in what has been said is that we always 
 make progress, gain meanings, and enrich experience 
 upon the basis of the experience already possessed 
 There is very little time in our waking hours when we 
 are not attaching meaning to ideas, hence apperception 
 is a pretty constant process. Since education is a con- 
 scious attempt to reorganize experience, to build up 
 knowledge, to influence intelligent activities and 
 modes of looking at things, there must be conscious 
 recourse to this process of apperception. That is, there 
 must be effort directed towards influencing the asso- 
 ciations made among ideas, so that knowledge may 
 result and so that activities based upon knowledge 
 may be assured. 
 
 In answer to the question, " When are reviews help- 
 ful and necessary?" the statement must be that re- 
 views are necessary and helpful when the ideas which 
 are to be the basis for understanding would not of 
 themselves come into the minds of the pupils, or when 
 these ideas might not come in such form as to make 
 understanding ready and complete. Ideas might be 
 recalled in part only, or they might present themselves 
 in such disorganized array that they need to be put 
 in order and freed from error. Review is necessary 
 to insure the presence of the correct basis for the proc- 
 ess of apperception. In any form of school exercise 
 which involves interpretation of ideas, whether it be a
 
 182 - TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 process of thinking out the answer to a problem, or the 
 application of ideas to some form of activity, review 
 may be required. If we examine these exercises, some 
 of the most striking occasions for the use of review will 
 appear. 
 
 Suggestions for conducting review exercises 
 
 a. Review of old knowledge to form basis for solution 
 of new problem. Instead of a review taking place at 
 the end of a lesson exclusively, as is sometimes the 
 practice, a lesson should frequently begin with a re- 
 view. In the step of preparation, and often in the les- 
 son assignment, the ideas related to the new thought 
 to be gained and necessary to its understanding should 
 be reviewed. 
 
 It has long been the practice of those who follow 
 the Herbartian pedagogy to begin a teaching exercise 
 by stating the aim of the lesson to the pupils. With 
 this aim as a clue, the previous knowledge related to 
 it is recalled, and, if need be, made clear, and organ- 
 ized. 1 The necessity of having an aim is freely ad- 
 mitted, as is also the need of reviewing relevant ex- 
 perience; but the idea of having the teacher state the 
 aim is not now generally accepted. The pupils can 
 be made to feel a need for more knowledge or for a 
 new form of skill by being made conscious of a lack 
 in then- own previous experience, and this shortage 
 
 1 C. A. and F. M. McMurry, The Method of the Recitation, chaps. 
 
 VI. XI.
 
 SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 183 
 
 can be made apparent through a review. A feeling of 
 need can be aroused for something which the review 
 shows to be lacking. In a geography lesson recently 
 witnessed, the pupils in summing up into organized 
 form what they had learned in a previous lesson in 
 answer to the question, "Why is San Francisco so 
 important a city?" found that they knew that com- 
 merce is one element of importance, also that they 
 knew many ports from which ships bring cargoes to 
 San Francisco. They did not know, however, very 
 fully or very accurately the nature of the cargoes. 
 This deficiency of knowledge betrayed by the review, 
 furnished the motive for a succeeding study period, 
 namely, " What do the ships from Hawaii, the Philip- 
 pines, and other countries, bring to San Francisco?" 
 
 With this aim established as a motive for a lesson, 
 review might continue in order to bring to mind what 
 the pupils know about the lands which trade with 
 San Francisco that would enable them to work out 
 at least part of the answer. Another review would 
 also be valuable to call to mind the sources from which 
 information bearing on the question could be ol> 
 tained; also, the way to obtain the facts quickly from 
 the sources named, that is, how to find quickly the 
 chapter or map needed in the books named. 
 
 b. Review to discover whether all of the material con- 
 cerned with a problem has been included and mastered. 
 It has been shown that reviews are helpful in develop- 
 ing the aim of a lesson, in preparing the minds of the
 
 184 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 pupils for the solution, and in making prompt, accur- 
 ate, and independent work possible. Reviews cannot 
 be excluded from that part of the lesson in which 
 knowledge is extended or new activities are learned; 
 that is, from the presentation. One might liken the 
 mind to a shuttle, weaving back and forth among ideas 
 and making a fabric of them. To be thus related, it 
 is necessary again and again to call up desired ideas. 
 Experience is being reorganized and the parts to be 
 affected must be brought to the mind's focus hi order 
 that they may themselves be altered, or that they 
 may give meaning to other parts of experience. Re- 
 view cannot be limited to the preparation or assign- 
 ment. It is not accomplished once for all or in its 
 entirety there. It often does not include all that is 
 needed, and frequently it must be repeated during the 
 course of the advance lesson. 
 
 A class began to work upon the problem, "Would 
 the people of Old England who settled in New Eng- 
 land feel at home in New England?" In preparation 
 for the new lesson, various phases of New England 
 were considered as that part of the subject had been 
 studied. Little was known about England, but what 
 was known was recalled and grouped under topics. 
 In the advance lesson, information about England was 
 sought for and as facts were gained they were grouped 
 under appropriate headings. Point by point Old Eng- 
 land was compared with New England to discover 
 whether there were similarities which would make the
 
 SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 185 
 
 settlers feel at home. Review in such an exercise meets 
 one at every turn. "Certain conditions of soil and 
 climate are found in England. What industries may 
 one expect as the result of these conditions?" As sim- 
 ple and frequent a question as this cannot be answered 
 without a backward mental look to find the foundation 
 experience upon which to base the answer. We must, 
 then, employ review frequently and wisely to insure 
 a thorough presentation and understanding of the 
 new lesson. 
 
 c. Review in application and drill. The old proverb, 
 "Practice makes perfect," has of late years given way 
 to the psychological maxim, "Repetition with atten- 
 tion makes perfect." Repetition corresponds very 
 well with practice, but to what shall one be attentive? 
 To a model or ideal of some kind and also to the 
 work being done. We are dealing here with the founda- 
 tion of habits or the increase of skill. The first step 
 in such exercises is a clear idea of the thing to be done. 
 This may be secured through presentation or through 
 the recall of previous ideas. As the practice is to be 
 accompanied by attention, by frequent comparison 
 of the thing as it is with the model to be equaled, there 
 is again a constant review of the model or ideal. This 
 review not only influences skill, but it serves to fix the 
 ideas recalled and related very firmly in mind. This 
 statement would hold true of the ideas reviewed in 
 any step of a lesson. The part of a lesson in which 
 associations among ideas are made automatic, and
 
 186 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 in which activities are reduced to the stage of habit, 
 is known as the application. Through it we seek con- 
 trol of associations and activities. As has been shown, 
 it must be based upon the right idea and must fre- 
 quently refer to this idea if results are to be satisfac- 
 tory. Thus the child who tries to master long division 
 must review again and again what he is to do as he 
 works from one example to another. The student in 
 manual training who is working from a drawing must 
 at times refresh his idea of what is to be done by re- 
 viewing his plan. The art student or music student 
 reviews constantly the instructions of the master 
 when working for skill. 
 
 Training pupils into right ideas and conscious 
 method of review 
 
 Review must be accepted, not only as an important, 
 but also as an indispensable element in the various 
 stages of teaching and of study as here set forth. It 
 is essential hi order that the student may organize his 
 subject, and get a clear view of it hi its proper order. 
 In studying a book, it is often advisable to read a chap- 
 ter through without stopping, in order to get the gen- 
 eral line of thought. More detailed study may follow 
 in order to discover the mam points and the author's 
 arguments for these points. As a test for himself, the 
 student may lay the book aside, write the proper head- 
 ing, and then outline the subject for himself, basing his 
 organization upon his own view of the subject. This
 
 SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 187 
 
 independent work is often a most valuable review of 
 the author's work because it involves both agreement 
 and difference, and that usually means a good under- 
 standing of the text. Material presented through a 
 series of lessons in class should be similarly reviewed 
 and organized to secure intelligent comprehension, and 
 also to aid retention in the mind. 
 
 Pupils in the grammar grades, or high schools, as 
 well as students in higher institutions, should, in 
 order to get a thorough grasp of a given subject, bring 
 it up to date, so to speak, by stating from time to time 
 the main topics or subjects which have been covered 
 in textbook study or class work. The whole plan of 
 the work becomes clear, the relation of part to part 
 is seen, relative values are established, and lines of 
 independent thought and investigation suggest them- 
 selves. Such work throughout a term is much more 
 valuable than a season of cramming at the end. It 
 results not only in knowledge, but also in power to 
 work independently and effectively. 
 
 General suggestions 
 
 a. The teacher's preparation for a review exercise. 
 The teacher's preparation for a review exercise should 
 be as carefully made as the preparation for any other 
 exercise. The preparation itself must be a review on 
 the teacher's part in order to determine what experi- 
 ence the pupils have had that will be helpful in the 
 approaching lesson. The point of contact between the
 
 188 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 old and the new must be determined; and, since corre- 
 lation depends partly upon the set or state of mind at 
 the time the ideas to be considered enter consciousness, 
 the proper background should be included in the 
 teacher's planning. The success of any review exer- 
 cise which is an important part of a lesson or series of 
 lessons will depend largely upon the thoughtful prep- 
 aration of the teacher and upon her foresight in creat- 
 ing the right attitude and spirit for it. It will be 
 affected, too, by the spirit which the teacher brings 
 to meet the class. With a teacher so steeped in for- 
 mality as to belong to the type described by Carlyle 
 as "dry-as-dust," a review is quite sure to be a per- 
 functory affair. Under the direction of a teacher who 
 sees in it a means of mastery, of organization, and of 
 furnishing the starting-point for new investigation, 
 and who realizes the value of interest, a review may 
 be a very profitable exercise, which, while it may be 
 difficult, may at the same time seem worth the effort 
 to those who engage in it. 
 
 b. The time given to review. Attention is called to the 
 fact that reviews are often a part of other exercises, 
 but that they sometimes form separate lessons. They 
 may require only a few minutes of time, or they may 
 occupy one or more recitation periods, the latter 
 only in the case of older students who need to review 
 in order to organize their facts in regard to a large 
 section of subject-matter. The time spent will depend 
 upon the nearness of the material to consciousness,
 
 SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 189 
 
 upon the amount of it, and also upon the amount and 
 kind of organization which already exists. The mate- 
 rial needed for a new lesson may have been so recently 
 in mind and may be so interesting that a single sen- 
 tence of suggestion may bring it to consciousness. The 
 exact time needed cannot be definitely stated. 
 
 c. Profiting from reviews as tests. In the attempt to 
 discover how effective the teaching has been, teachers 
 and supervisors sometimes give tests or examinations 
 to classes which compel the application of knowledge 
 gamed or habits formed. These tests thus constitute 
 a sort of review. Frequently the percentages obtained 
 by the pupils are averaged and a class standing is an- 
 nounced. If the average is seventy per cent, or above, 
 the teacher is satisfied. Upon the class standing, what- 
 ever it may be, the supervisor rates the teacher's abil- 
 ity to instruct her class. Meanwhile, what about the 
 gaps in knowledge revealed by the test? Suppose the 
 class has been working with United States money, 
 using the four fundamental operations. A test made 
 up of four examples, one for each fundamental opera- 
 tion may be given. After the papers are corrected, 
 whether the class average be discovered or not, a 
 teacher should look over the papers to see how many 
 and which pupils failed in the example in addition, 
 how many in subtraction, and so on. In case the fail- 
 ure is due to some difficulty peculiar to reckoning with 
 United States money, it should be discovered. The 
 teacher will then know what no class standing can pos
 
 190 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 sibly tell. He knows which pupils need aid, and also 
 what aid they need. This knowledge justifies the test, 
 and from it both teacher and class should profit in the 
 teaching which follows. Similar reviews conducted 
 in other subjects serve to improve the teaching be- 
 cause they reveal where expected results have not 
 materialized, and where, in consequence, effort must 
 be directed. 
 
 Summary. (1) The purpose of reviews is to establish new 
 relationships among ideas by means of a basis in knowledge 
 already possessed. Drill differs from review in that it seeks 
 to fix relations already established. (2) Reviews are helpful 
 in order to provide the proper mental attitude for apperceiv- 
 ing new ideas, in order to influence the association of ideas, 
 and to determine activities based upon ideas. They are 
 necessary when the ideas might not come into consciousness 
 of themselves when needed, or when they lack organization 
 and vividness. (3) They may form an element in any part of 
 a lesson from preparation to application. They cannot be 
 limited to any one part of a lesson, and are not completed 
 once for all. They must be given as needed, whether to 
 provide the problem or to organize the data bearing upon 
 the problem. (4) Pupils should be trained to use reviews as 
 helps in mastering subject-matter. To test mastery, they 
 should reorganize material from a new viewpoint. To keep 
 track of a series of lessons, or of the material given in one 
 lesson, they should review the points from time to time and 
 establish relationships. (5) The teacher should exercise 
 foresight in regard to reviews, so as to create the right 
 attitude for the lessons based upon them, and to insure 
 their employment. They may otherwise be overlooked. 
 Reviews may form a separate lesson, or may be a part of 
 another exercise. They form excellent proofs of the kind of
 
 SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 191 
 
 teaching which has been done. They often reveal the weak, 
 nesses and the ignorance which the teacher must overcome 
 in later teaching. 
 
 REFERENCES: W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, chap. xxn. 
 G. D. Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, chap. ix. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give two illustrations to show the difference between drill and 
 review. 
 
 2. Explain how a review exercise may be a valuable examination 
 lesson. 
 
 8. Show how in the history of the Civil War the organization of the 
 subject-matter necessitates review. 
 
 4. In a geography exercise show how an aim or motive for a new 
 lesson may be developed through a review of known material. 
 
 5. What, if any, review is necessary in answering the question. 
 "Why does the United States not grant self-government to the 
 people of the Philippine Islands?" 
 
 6. What facts about the northern part of South America should be 
 reviewed as a preparation for, or in connection with, the study 
 of the equatorial part of Africa? 
 
 7. What connection exists between the process of apperception and 
 review? 
 
 8. State all the reasons you can think of for reviews. Did you do 
 any mental reviewing in finding these reasons? 
 
 9. When should reviews take place? 
 
 10. Is motivation necessary in reviews? Why, or why not? 
 
 11. How can pupils be trained to conduct their own reviews? 
 
 12. What effect would you expect frequent reviews to have upon the 
 amount of drill necessary to fix facts in memory? 
 
 13. Which do you consider the better educated person, the one 
 who has memorized many isolated facts, or the one who has 
 formed many connections among facts? Which of these results 
 is furthered by the use of reviews?
 
 XIV 
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 
 
 The nature of study 
 
 FOB many years, a common complaint urged by 
 teachers was that their pupils did not study as they 
 should. An investigation of the teachers' ideas as to 
 how pupils should study revealed so much ignorance 
 and difference of opinion on then* part in regard to 
 this very important matter that the criticism came to 
 include teachers as well as pupils. Teachers in college 
 classes must themselves be taught to study in some 
 other way than memorizing more or less thoroughly 
 the contents of a textbook and reciting them in answer 
 to the questions asked by the instructor. In opening 
 the discussion of the study lesson, it will be well, there- 
 fore, to review the steps which observation and reflec- 
 tion show to be necessary hi study. 
 
 In a lesson in which habits are to be formed and 
 associations so fixed as to function automatically, the 
 steps necessary, as explained in the chapter on habit- 
 formation, are: (1) a feeling of need which can be satis- 
 fied only by learning the habit in view; (2) a clear 
 idea on the part of the learner of what is to be done; 
 (3) practice. If in dividing by a decimal, pupils are 
 to multiply both dividend and divisor by ten, one
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 193 
 
 hundred, or some other number obtained by using 
 tens as factors, in order to eliminate the decimal in 
 the divisor, the idea of the process must be made clear 
 to them; there must be attentive repetition of the 
 process to insure mastery of the idea and to start the 
 process correctly; the process must be employed until 
 facility is assured. 
 
 In much studying, however, the work to be done is 
 of a very different nature. In the various forms of 
 teaching exercises described in this book, we have 
 found the starting-point to be the realization of some 
 need to be satisfied, some problem to be solved. This 
 consciousness of an end to be reached is the starting- 
 point of purposive, or logical, thinking. Since study 
 in its higher form involves thinking, its beginning, 
 also, must lie hi the feeling of need, in seeing that some 
 end not now present must be reached. In other words, 
 study originates in the consciousness of a motive and 
 this we call the first step in the process. In a city where 
 the milk supply is found to be unsatisfactory, a dis- 
 cussion of that fact with its results might lead to the 
 question, "What measures can be taken to insure san- 
 itary milk?" Here is a problem as definite as finding 
 the area of a triangle of given base and altitude, or 
 reckoning the interest on ten thousand dollars for four 
 years at five and one hah* per cent, or finding why the 
 days and nights are so long in the polar regions. 
 
 With the mind directed thus definitely toward an 
 end, other steps in the process of studying follow quite
 
 194 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 naturally. One begins to guess or theorize as to what 
 the explanation may be. In other words, he makes an 
 hypothesis. He collects information bearing on hL 
 problem. He may draw from his own experience, he 
 may think out the answer, he may consult other peo- 
 ple, he may read books, he may observe, or he may ex- 
 periment. In the problems suggested in the last para- 
 graph he may employ all of these sources in collecting 
 the data needed to arrive at a satisfactory result. 
 Many times, the thought material collected must be 
 grouped into classes in order to bring out its full sig- 
 nificance and to enable the learner to master his work 
 in orderly fashion. Under the topic of sanitary milk 
 supply there would be several large headings with 
 various subheadings; e.g., milk-production, transpor- 
 tation of milk, distribution of milk, care of milk in the 
 home, etc. 
 
 Frequently, too, in study it is necessary to examine 
 data, whether in the form of book material or oral 
 statements, with great care to see whether they are 
 accurate and whether one may safely accept them. A 
 certain well-known writer on physiology and hygiene 
 purposely makes startling statements contrary to fact 
 with the express idea of rousing people to thoughtful 
 antagonism. Unless we are accustomed to exercising 
 careful scrutiny of the facts bearing on our aim, we are 
 likely to believe much that is, to say the least, mis- 
 leading. 
 
 Another element in the right kind of study is the
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 195 
 
 practice of not stating a final conclusion when the 
 facts do not warrant one. Our best scientists frankly 
 say, in regard to many of the problems with which 
 they are struggling, "We do not as yet possess enough 
 knowledge to enable us to state a positive conclusion"; 
 or, "As far as we have been able to discover, the indi- 
 cations are that so and so is the case, but no one 
 knows definitely." They are studying scientifically 
 and they refuse to commit themselves to final conclu- 
 sions until the evidence is beyond all question. This 
 deferring of judgment is indispensable in accurate 
 study. 
 
 But unverified and unapplied theories and solu- 
 tions to problems are not final. They must be put to 
 the test of use in either real or imagined situations to 
 determine their adequacy to meet the difficulty or the 
 need which started the studying process. At times, 
 the experience of others in whom we have confidence 
 is sought to learn whether their conclusions corrobor- 
 ate our own. For example, the student who has 
 worked out an independent solution of a problem in 
 higher mathematics consults the answer in the book, 
 or else his instructor, to learn if he is right; or, having 
 fixed upon a value for z, he tests it by substituting it 
 to see if it satisfies the equation. 
 
 Frequently the results of study must be kept hi 
 permanent form, and the student is obliged to memo- 
 rize what he has learned. This kind of memorizing 
 differs from the type employed in learning to count, to
 
 196 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 say the letters of the alphabet, or to spell, in that it is 
 based upon thought and is not mere mechanical 
 association. 
 
 These factors of study realizing a problem, for- 
 mulating an hypothesis, collecting and organizing 
 data, exercising doubt or maintaining independence in 
 opinion, deferring conclusion, verifying and applying 
 conclusions, and memorizing may all be present in 
 the attempt to meet some of the situations which de- 
 mand study; at other times, such elements as the exer- 
 cise of doubt, the deferring of judgment, and memori- 
 zing may not be necessary. Sometimes the whole 
 process may require only a few minutes; in other prob- 
 lems, the studying may extend over a long period 
 because the collecting of data may require prolonged 
 inquiry, reading, observation, or experimentation. 
 This, then, is the nature of study. The questions re- 
 main, What shall be done during a study lesson? and 
 How may students be trained for independent study? 
 
 What may be done during a study period 
 
 During a study period a student may be occupied 
 with one or more steps of the study process. He may 
 enter upon the period with a clearly developed aim, or 
 it may be a part of his work to discover the problem 
 involved in the subject, whether it be found in a book 
 or outside of a book. In a book lesson, he may be re- 
 quired to find the author's problems or to discover 
 supplementary problems of his own. In some subject
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 197 
 
 in manual arts or domestic science, the student may 
 prepare a list of the questions involved. Furthermore, 
 the study period may include any or all of the other 
 processes, whether collecting and organizing data, 
 verifying and applying conclusions, or memorizing. 
 At some time or other, all of these processes will be 
 employed as needs require. 
 
 A problem solved by a pupil is not always a problem 
 in condition to be presented to the class. A puptt 
 must, then, at times prepare the results of his labors so 
 as to give them to his classmates and his teacher. He 
 must have his material in order, his proofs ready, must 
 think what he is going to say, and what illustrations he 
 will use. He may even need to rehearse his lesson so as 
 to present it well. 
 
 In his study a student may use books or other 
 sources in his search for data. He may observe the 
 phenomena about him; he may spend his time in 
 thinking; he may be obliged to experiment; or he may 
 need to consult other people. His procedure will vary 
 with the requirements of his problem. 
 
 The nature of the problem may necessitate study 
 outside of school hours, since some of the data must be 
 studied elsewhere than in school. Some lessons must 
 be prepared in school, since the books to be used are 
 found there and not elsewhere, or because the work 
 must be done with the teacher. 
 
 Some people in these days are raising a protest 
 against home study. If study is a process of solving
 
 198 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 problems, and if the schools select the problems which 
 are a part of the lives of the students, then home study 
 is inevitable since home and community furnish both 
 problems and the data necessary for their solution. 
 Schools should be in very close touch with community 
 life. The right kind of study will further this relation- 
 ship since it brings students into interested, intelligent, 
 and cooperative contact with home and neighborhood. 
 
 The study devoted to the solution of problems may 
 be either solitary or group activity. In experimental 
 work, in the preparation of a debate, or in other phases 
 of activity, several students may combine their efforts. 
 A number of students may be given the use of a sepa- 
 rate room, or even a corner of the classroom, where 
 they may compare notes, divide the work to be done, 
 organize results, and do whatever else is necessary in 
 order to bring before the class the material for which 
 they are responsible. Other study may be performed 
 by individuals. It may, at times, be necessary to for- 
 bid consultation in order to insure proper study by all 
 members of a class. In general our own experience as 
 teachers should be suggestive to us. At times, we need 
 solitude for reflection; again, we need to consult freely 
 with others to learn what they know, to exchange 
 views, to argue, to stand by our own ideas with proofs, 
 to amend them when the evidence compels alteration, 
 and to get the benefit that can be obtained only by 
 bringing mind in contact with mind. 
 
 There will be many occasions when teacher and
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 199 
 
 students will study together instead of having individ- 
 ual or group work. It will not be a crime, then, to look 
 into the book. On such occasions books will be opened 
 and all will work with them freely, because they are 
 satisfying felt needs instead of reciting words mem- 
 orized more or less thoroughly. 
 
 Training pupils for independent study 
 
 It is necessary to teach children to study properly in 
 order that the fabric of knowledge may be influenced, 
 that experience may be reorganized along right lines, 
 and that their efforts may not result in mastery of 
 words rather than ideas. We also need to train them in 
 right habits of study in order that they may learn to 
 work independently and scientifically in what they 
 have to do. They need such habits in school, and they 
 need them both as children and adults in the life out- 
 side of school. The teacher has no more important or 
 worthy task than this one of training pupils to study 
 well. How can he practice them in the various steps 
 of study? This question would require a book for full 
 answering, but some suggestions will be of assistance. 
 
 a. Training to find the aim or problem. Nowhere 
 more than in the matter of training students to find 
 aims or ends to which they should direct their efforts 
 is the relation of good teaching to proper study appar- 
 ent. Those taught will imitate the teacher's method 
 of working, and they will prepare for the kind of reci- 
 tation exercise which a teacher is known to conduct.
 
 *00 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 If the teacher, when working with his class, habitually 
 seeks aims, and sees the problems which swarm up 
 in connection with every subject, the pupils will tend 
 to follow his example. If, furthermore, when a recita- 
 tion exercise is under way, the pupils are held to the 
 presentation and discussion of important aims, pupils 
 will study so as to meet this requirement. In these 
 ways, then, by example and by requirement, as well as 
 by teaching, pupils can be trained in good habits of 
 individual study. 
 
 In taking up a new section of work in literature, 
 geography, or history, pupils should be given training 
 in class where the teacher can help in asking the 
 questions which they think should be treated of in the 
 new section. They should be given practice in turning 
 to the textbook and finding one after another the ques- 
 tions which the author must have had in mind and 
 which he has answered in the text. For example, the 
 pupils may turn to the story of "The Fall of Troy." 
 They may need help to find such questions as these: 
 "How long did the war last?" "In what manner did 
 the Greeks and Trojans fight?" "What plan was 
 made by the Greeks to capture the city?" With the 
 list thus started, the pupils may be required to find 
 during their study period the rest of the questions 
 answered. 
 
 In arithmetic problems, much difficulty arises be- 
 cause pupils do not clearly determine what they are 
 required to do. They need to be held to definite word-
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 201 
 
 ing of the thing required, first in class with the teacher, 
 and later in the study period with other examples. 
 
 In nature study and constructive work, there should 
 be reflection upon the problems possible. In a class 
 which was to study about fish, the teacher suggested 
 that inasmuch as people often keep goldfish, it might 
 be well to study about them, and asked the pupils what 
 they would need to think about if they had goldfish 
 for pets. There was a goldfish in the room, and the 
 pupils had been watching it for some days. There was 
 no lack of questioning on their part as to kind and size 
 of aquarium, what to put into the aquarium, the 
 amount of water needed, how often to change it, the 
 amount and kind of food, the diseases to be expected, 
 how to overcome them, and so on until the list was 
 long. In later lessons about animals, the pupils, after a 
 lesson or two like this one, should prepare their own 
 lists independently and bring them to class. 
 
 Since school life and community and world life be- 
 long together, pupils should be required to seek for 
 aims in their reading and experience outside of school. 
 '* Why should a country concern itself over the rebel- 
 lions which occur in some of the countries of Central 
 and South America?" "Why are certain European 
 countries at war? " " What is the Interstate Commerce 
 Commission and what are its duties?" "What is the 
 cause of a certain recent flood?" etc. The newspapers 
 and the subjects of conversation hi the homes should 
 send pupils to school full of questions. But, strangely 
 
 SANTA BARBARA STATE COLLEGE Lffifc
 
 S02 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 enough, the children in our schools must frequently be 
 given practice in looking and listening to discover that 
 here are things well worth their consideration. 
 
 Very often pupils are helped to find aims by suggest- 
 ing to them some social service. "How can you help 
 absent pupils make up the work they have missed?" 
 *' We are to give the assembly program. What shall we 
 do to entertain our schoolmates? " A party is to be 
 given by a class and the teacher asks, " What are the 
 things we must think about and plan for in giving this 
 party?" 
 
 If a teacher is never able to lead her pupils to sug- 
 gest specific reasons for their composition work or their 
 arithmetic, for history, geography, manual training, 
 and for the other subjects, he either lacks insight him- 
 self into the nature and possibilities of his materials, or 
 he is exceedingly clumsy in his teaching, because pupils 
 often need no more than an opportunity to ask the 
 questions which they are usually compelled to conceal 
 in their own minds. They are unskilled because un- 
 practiced. Both they and the teacher will grow in 
 ability if the work be undertaken together. What is 
 made clear in class in this direction should be required 
 in individual study and should appear in the recitation 
 lesson later. These aims can be stated and compared, 
 the more important and more inclusive can be ac- 
 cepted, and the wording can be corrected as needed. 
 
 6. Training to judge of hypotheses. It is quite natura\ 
 for people, when they find themselves in a difficulty of
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 90S 
 
 some kind, to cast about in their minds for a way out. 
 This is what takes place when we are confronted with a 
 situation which requires thought. We make up a 
 working theory or hypothesis and then we try to use 
 this theory in the solution of the difficulty. We can 
 save trouble for ourselves by first considering whether 
 our theory or hypothesis has any bearing at all upon 
 our difficulty and whether it really offers a possible 
 solution. 
 
 In the training of students in their use of hypotheses, 
 it is not necessary to spend so much time and effort in 
 trying to have them suggest theories as it is in having 
 them examine their theories to see how relevant and 
 adequate they are. Pupils are usually very willing to 
 "guess" the solution, or cause, or effect, or way of 
 working, or whatever is required; but the trouble is 
 that the guesses are frequently wide of the mark. It 
 does not mend matters much to dismiss these guesses 
 as ridiculous and wild. Students must learn to see for 
 themselves that they are so, and must reject or alter 
 them. They must learn to criticize their own ideas 
 and discover whether they give any promise of help. 
 
 The only way for pupils to learn this very necessary 
 lesson is to be held to the criticism of their theories as 
 they offer them to discover whether they bear on the 
 problem at hand at all, and, in case they are relevant, 
 to see whether they tend in the right direction. The 
 pupil, who in answer to the question, "Why do oranges 
 grow in Florida and not in New Jersey?" replied*
 
 201 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 "There are many alligators in Florida," could discover 
 for himself that his answer had nothing whatever to do 
 with the question and he should have been compelled 
 to do so. Had he suggested difference of climate or 
 soil, then he ought to have stopped to think whether 
 those factors could possibly affect the situation. In 
 case he decided in the affirmative, he would have been 
 ready to proceed with his investigation to see if he was 
 correct hi his theory. 
 
 Professor Thorndike * gives the very helpful illus- 
 tration of the boy trying to find his way to a certain 
 house. At every cross or branch road, he must stop 
 and think whether the path leads him to his destina- 
 tion. This is what children and adults must do when 
 in study they are pushing forward to an aim. They 
 must examine the paths to see if they lead to the de- 
 sired goal. The teacher must by practice show stu- 
 dents how to do this, and must both encourage and 
 require them to practice the close scrutiny of their 
 hypotheses whenever they use them. 
 
 c. Collecting and valuing data. In the chapters on 
 "The Assignment of Lessons" and "The Recitation 
 Exercise," suggestions are given for helping pupils to 
 know the sources from which data bearing on the aim 
 are to be found. In the early stages of teaching pupils 
 to study, these sources will have to be brought to 
 mind very clearly before individual search begins. 
 Later, as pupils grow more skillful in handling books, 
 1 E. L. Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, p. 150.
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 05 
 
 and know better where to turn for materials, it may 
 not be necessary to say so much about sources. The 
 Tupils in the higher grades of the elementary schools 
 and students in high schools should know how to find 
 what is in their textbooks, and also what the school 
 library contains which is helpful in working up a given 
 subject. They should also know how to use the public 
 library quickly and advantageously. 
 
 In order to use books of reference profitably, pupils 
 must learn to cull what they need at the time and dis- 
 regard the rest of the material. They need not read 
 the entire book, nor even an entire chapter. They 
 must be held to seeing quickly, as they scan a page, 
 what gives promise of help, and then to a closer scru- 
 tiny to determine the relevancy and value of the part 
 that attracts attention. What is found may be rele- 
 vant but not valuable. It may be valuable in some 
 other connection but not relevant to the problem at 
 hand. Through class practice, insight and skill in this 
 quick search for, and evaluation of, material can be 
 increased. Practice in individual study must follow 
 to secure the best results. 
 
 The same standards must be applied to data gained 
 from other sources than books. "Do they relate to the 
 problem?" and "Will they aid hi finding the answer?" 
 are the tests for pupils to apply. Material which can- 
 not stand these tests must be rejected, however val- 
 uable it might be in other connections. 
 
 d. Teaching to organize material. The place to begin
 
 206 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 training pupils to organize is in the primary grades 
 where stories are told, games are played, and various 
 activities are planned. When a story is told by pupils 
 or teachers, the pupils should occasionally be asked to 
 suggest a title. They can be aided to exercise critical 
 judgment in regard to the titles suggested so as to 
 choose one that is interesting, not too long, and that 
 takes in the whole story instead of one incident. They 
 can decide in telling a story what they will tell first, 
 next, and so on, forming in this way, a crude topical 
 outline which should grow in excellence from grade to 
 grade. In plays and games, they can prepare a similar 
 outline of the parts of their activity. In making some 
 object, they can plan the various stages of their work, 
 or, in reviewing it, can tell what they have done, step 
 by step. 
 
 In the reading-lessons, in geography, history, civics, 
 literature, and other similar subjects in which a 
 thought is carried along through several paragraphs 
 or chapters, the pupils, even in the third or fourth 
 grade, can select the important topics dealt with in 
 subject-matter suited to their development. By work- 
 ing with the teacher, they learn to word these topics 
 smoothly, to make them interesting and suggestive of 
 the thought, and to observe other standards which 
 they help to establish through their own criticism. 
 
 This test is suggested for a teacher of a grade not 
 lower than the fourth. Select some short interesting 
 article from the newspaper, read it to the class, and
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 207 
 
 ask the pupils to write a good newspaper heading for 
 it. After three minutes, collect the written papers, 
 which should include name and date, and file them 
 During the following week, talk with the pupils about 
 good headings, and have them try to write some. At 
 the close of the week, give a test similar to the first 
 one, and note the improvement. It will be found that 
 the pupils have set up standards of excellence in even 
 so short a time. 
 
 It does not require many exercises with the class to 
 train pupils to write paragraph headings and to find 
 the leading points under their general subject. The 
 results presented by various pupils will show differ- 
 ences, but that is not a fault. 
 
 This organization should be required in all subjects 
 where material offers opportunity for thought mastery. 
 It may require slow progress for a time, but it makes 
 rapid work possible after a few weeks of practice. If 
 the teachers in the primary grades will introduce it and 
 follow it up, and if the teachers of higher grades will 
 keep building upon the foundation thus laid, our 
 school work will be revolutionized in the amount and 
 quality of the results achieved. 
 
 e. Deferring conclusions and forming independent 
 judgments. Recently a young woman student assured 
 the writer that she positively knew that a certain plan 
 of work suggested by another member of the class 
 would not work. When asked for proof, she was 
 obliged to acknowledge that she did not really know,
 
 208 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 but that it was her opinion that the proposed plan was 
 not feasible. It was suggested that the way to find out 
 was to try the plan with children and note results. 
 This student was independent in her views, which was 
 commendable; but she permitted opinion to take the 
 place of evidence, which was not so praiseworthy. In 
 this instance she should have deferred her conclusion 
 until evidence enough had been obtained. 
 
 The case just cited is typical of many class situa- 
 tions. Students need to be held to the question, "Do 
 we know enough about the matter before us to answer 
 our question definitely?" They should be encouraged 
 to take this attitude in class discussions and in their 
 individual work. The questions of public interest 
 discussed in the periodicals of the day afford almost 
 constant occasion for suspense of judgment either be- 
 cause the information given is incomplete or is of 
 doubtful authenticity. It would help pupils if they 
 were to consider in class some of the news items from 
 the papers and to discuss their probable value. The 
 source must be considered; also the character of the 
 paper from which the items are taken. In some mat- 
 ters, the proof must be weighed. Often the scientific 
 accuracy of the authors consulted must constitute a 
 factor in dealing with evidence. In reading historical 
 novels or historical plays, one needs to keep these facts 
 in mind. The author was not working for a scientific 
 presentation but rather for a literary effect. His 
 authority as an historian cannot pass unchallenged.
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 209 
 
 Pupils sometimes have to be almost compelled to 
 take note of the inaccuracies in the recitations of their 
 classmates. They should frequently question state- 
 ments made, should differ radically, and should see 
 that conclusions are not justified because of lack of 
 evidence. In these situations, the teacher so frequently 
 does all the work that pupils learn to be passive. If 
 permitted and aided, they will soon learn to watch the 
 work of their classmates, to argue, and to maintain 
 that conclusions are either incorrect or are based upon 
 insufficient evidence. 
 
 In a class recently observed, a pupil stated that the 
 rainfall of Germany is less than that of Great Britain, 
 and that this fact gives Germany the advantage in the 
 manufacture of cotton. Another member of the class 
 at once opposed this conclusion with the argument that 
 the greater amount of moisture is favorable to cotton 
 manufacture, and that, therefore, Great Britain has 
 the advantage over Germany. Here is a simple case of 
 independent thinking and one that points the way 
 along which pupils may be taught to work. They 
 must watch the evidence and see if they agree with 
 conclusions derived from it. They must examine con- 
 clusions and see if the evidence warrants them. They 
 can do this in very simple matters, or, in advanced 
 classes, they can consider situations which are com- 
 plicated and obscure. 
 
 /. Testing conclusions. When a problem in algebra 
 is solved, the student does not stop until he has sub-
 
 810 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 stituted the value of x to see if it satisfies the equa- 
 tion. If it does, he is content; if it does not, he must 
 examine his procedure to determine his error. The 
 test of his result is found in its application. So the 
 pupils must do with their reasoned-out theories in 
 other directions. They must apply them to real or im- 
 aginary situations to see whether they will meet the dif- 
 ficulty. Pupils who arrive at the conclusion that winds 
 blowing from the ocean are rain-bearing winds, while 
 winds blowing from the land toward the ocean are dry 
 winds, should not let the theory pass without finding 
 out in some way if it is correct. They may do this by 
 referring to conditions in regions with which they are 
 familiar. They may also do it by referring to the maps 
 in their geographies which show winds and rainfall. 
 Theories unverified, untested, are of little more value 
 than opinions. 
 
 As has just been suggested, verification may be ob- 
 tained by comparing one's results with the textbook. 
 The answer in arithmetic is usually verified in this 
 way. Causes and effects in geography, history, and 
 science may also be verified by reference to the text. 
 Sometimes verification comes through comparison of 
 one's conclusions with those obtained by others, or by 
 reference to the experience of others. The teacher 
 may often stamp conclusions as right or wrong by 
 pointing out the situations to which they will or will 
 not apply, or by showing the strength or weakness of 
 the tram of thought which led up to them.
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 211 
 
 The pupil can be helped to become independent in 
 this process of verifying and applying his results by 
 being shown how to do it and then being obliged to use 
 the step. How can you find out if your answer is cor- 
 rect? Where will you look for verification? What 
 people can tell you whether you are right or wrong? 
 What experiment will prove your answer? If your 
 theory is correct, what facts will it explain? These are 
 some of the questions which will help pupils in the 
 testing of results. They ought, after some training, to 
 ask the question best suited to their own particular 
 problem and then work along the line of the answer. 
 
 g. Thoughtful memorizing. Memorizing that is 
 based upon the thought content of subject-matter 
 rather than upon the order of words is called thought- 
 ful memorizing. An exact order of words may be 
 learned, as in poetry, definitions, and rules; or the 
 questions studied, the main points made hi the an- 
 swers, the order of the steps in a chain of reasoning, or 
 the nature of the verification may be learned so as to 
 be remembered, even though the wording may not be 
 fixed. Both kinds of thoughtful memorizing are neces- 
 sary at times in order to preserve the results of study 
 for later profit or pleasure. 
 
 In either case, the place to begin is with the consid- 
 eration of the ideas presented. In the course of class 
 study or individual work, through processes already 
 described, the thought is gained, the author's ques- 
 tions and his answers to his questions are sifted out of
 
 212 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 the text, the steps in a process of reasoning are worked 
 out, topical outlines are prepared, and other kinds of 
 work are done as the material demands. In the study 
 of art and literature, points of excellence, of strength, 
 of delicacy, and the like are brought out and enjoyed. 
 There is thoughtful work, enjoyment, appreciation 
 throughout. Then, in order to keep what should be 
 retained, a definite effort must be made to memorize. 
 The greater the interest and the understanding con- 
 nected with the preceding study, the less the amount 
 of drill required. 
 
 Since memorizing is one kind of habit-formation, the 
 steps which belong to the latter process apply to it as 
 well. There must, first of all, be the clear idea of the 
 thing to be memorized, and there must then be enough 
 attentive repetition to fix it. Attention not only in- 
 sures accuracy, but it greatly shortens the amount of 
 time necessary to memorize. Thoughtful study of the 
 facts to be remembered should provide the clear idea. 
 Thoughtful repetition must follow, and must continue 
 at intervals until the end is accomplished. After study- 
 ing a section of subject-matter, the pupils should be 
 shown how to recall the questions they have found and 
 the way in which they were answered. Verbatim repro- 
 ductions are not necessary, since the thoughts in this 
 case are more important than words, and exact word- 
 ing is not essential. They should also be given prac- 
 tice in class in recalling the points made in handling 
 the subject and in stating the results. With the model
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 1S 
 
 given them, they should be required in recitation peri- 
 ods to present results which have been prepared in this 
 way. This will necessitate the proper use of the mem- 
 orizing process in their individual study. If the teacher 
 persists in calling for important ideas contained in the 
 lesson studied, and for parts which are considered 
 especially valuable, with the reasons for the choice, 
 the students will feel the spur of necessity in preparing 
 for such recitation periods and mere rote learning will 
 be broken up. Another consideration is that they will 
 enjoy such preparation more. 
 
 When lessons or parts of lessons are to be learned 
 exactly as they stand, there should again be the idea 
 of meaning preceding the learning, and the selection 
 should be memorized by thought units instead of by 
 lines, verses, or stanzas. The repetition should follow 
 with close attention and with the effort to cut the 
 process of memorizing short. If need be, there should 
 be a time competition in order to hasten the process. 
 The teacher must gradually accustom the pupils to 
 taking care, of this process for themselves. In inter- 
 mediate grades the pupils ought to know the steps hi 
 the memorizing process, and they ought to be exercised 
 in their use with the idea of making them proficient. 
 It must be remembered, however, that it is necessary 
 to recall from time to time what has been learned, the 
 intervals between the drill periods becoming gradually 
 longer. A thing once learned does not always stick in 
 the mind. It requires several renewals to insure per*
 
 214 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 manency. One of the most serious defects in inexperi- 
 enced teachers is their failure to recognize this fact. 
 They prepare and conduct a fine development lesson, 
 and because of lack of later attention, the results are 
 lost to a very large extent. People must frequently 
 remember ideas and they often need exact verbal 
 forms. We should therefore train our pupils to retain 
 what is worth while in their school studies and train 
 them also in sane and economical ways of committing 
 these valuable parts to memory. 
 
 Suggestions to the teacher 
 
 In order that pupils may know how to employ the 
 various aspects of thoughtful study when they work 
 alone, it will be found advisable for the teacher to 
 work with them in class, going through the actual 
 processes, using textbooks, reference books, and what- 
 ever else may be necessary. When the model has been 
 given and the students have the right idea, then as- 
 signments should be made which will involve the use 
 of the processes thus illustrated. 
 
 One attempt to employ the right method of working 
 should not end the matter. Thoughtful study is con- 
 stantly necessary; therefore there must be persistent 
 and repeated effort along this line. Pupils should re- 
 port not only upon the results of their study, but also 
 upon their ways of working so that wasteful and inac- 
 curate methods may be eliminated and better ones 
 substituted. The pupil who has succeeded should tell
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 21fl 
 
 how he worked for his material. His success should 
 encourage others. Those who have done poorly need 
 investigation so that the cause of their failure may be 
 found and eliminated. The work cannot be done in a 
 week or a term, though the faithful teacher will accom- 
 plish enough in a few weeks to reward her endeavors. 
 The training of pupils should begin with simple 
 material and with easy requirements, both as to 
 kind and amount of work. If the problem is to be 
 found in the text, a selection should be chosen for 
 beginners in which the problem is easily discovered. 
 If there is to be organization, the amount of materials 
 should be limited at first, and the main points should 
 not be too obscure. The teacher will find it necessary 
 to choose from textbooks and reference books the 
 most suitable material. In stories of inventions and 
 discoveries, in accounts of famous men, in historical 
 narratives some excellent selections can be secured 
 for the purpose of training in study. As pupils grow 
 more mature, or as they grow more skilled in their 
 ability to study, they can work with much more diffi- 
 cult material, because they grow more competent to 
 find the salient points and to disregard the unimport- 
 ant. They grow in ability to cover ground and conse- 
 quently can take longer lessons. The teacher is cau- 
 tioned not to push the work too fast at first. If he tries 
 to introduce this work in every lesson every day, he 
 will cause some pedagogical fatalities, and may end 
 with abandoning the whole plan as a failure.
 
 216 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 In the recitation period, the pupils must be held to 
 the method of procedure put before them in the assign- 
 ment, because pupils will prepare the kind of lessons 
 that they know will be called for. Unless the teacher 
 is consistent in following up the assignment, pupils will 
 prepare their work in the same thoughtless, unproduc- 
 tive way to which they have grown accustomed. 
 
 As a matter of economy of time and efficiency in 
 their work, pupils must be taught how to use book 
 helps, such as tables of contents, indexes, the diction- 
 ary, the card catalogue, the literary index, and the 
 encyclopaedia. The use of part of these helps can be 
 learned through explanations and drills in class. For 
 library helps, classes can frequently be taken to a 
 neighboring library, where either the librarian or an 
 assistant can show the children where the various 
 helps are located and how they should be used. 
 
 Testing classes and teachers 
 
 Supervisors will find it rather an easy matter to test 
 the advancement of pupils and the quality of the 
 teacher's instruction in the matter of study. A few 
 tests are suggested herewith. 
 
 An example in arithmetic can be written on the 
 board or slips containing the example can be given to 
 the members of the class. At a signal the class begins 
 to work according to the directions on the slip which 
 call for these facts: (a) What is required? (6) What is 
 given? (c) How should the example be worked? W r hen
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 217 
 
 all have finished who can do what is asked, the papers 
 can be collected and quickly sorted into groups accord- 
 ing to grade, e.g., A, B, C, or D, and the number 
 of pupils belonging to each grade noted. The paper 
 should be left with the teacher as a basis for specis- 
 work with those pupils who need it. Later tests of 
 the same nature will show whether the teacher is mak- 
 ing progress with her class. 
 
 A short story may be read, and the pupils asked to 
 write a title. The papers can be collected, sorted, and 
 rated as above. 
 
 A selection from some text can be read and the 
 pupils required (a) to write the author's question, and 
 (6) to write the answer. These papers can be col- 
 lected and rated. 
 
 Typewritten or printed slips containing suitable sub- 
 ject-matter can be given the pupils who are then 
 directed to write the heading and the main topics. 
 These papers, as in the case of the others, can be 
 collected, sorted and rated. 
 
 If the supervisor or examiner desires, a time limit 
 may be set to these tests. When the time has expired, 
 the pencils should be laid down at once and the papers 
 collected. If the pupils have, in advance, written the 
 date and their names, the papers can be used to refer 
 to later to note progress or to show the teacher which 
 pupils need help. 
 
 Other tests may be devised to test progress in the 
 use of other steps in study as well as in knowledge of
 
 218 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 subject-matter. Those suggested above have been 
 tried and found practicable. Pupils in the fourth 
 grade and in all higher classes should, after a few 
 weeks of training, be able to read silently a selection of 
 several pages of material adapted to their develop- 
 ment and interests, write the subject, the main topics 
 covered, the questions which they would like to have 
 answered about matters suggested by the text, and 
 also a list of words the meanings of which they need to 
 know to understand the thought of the selection. They 
 should do this in a period of not longer than twenty or 
 twenty-five minutes. Fourth grade pupils have gone 
 through such tests with success, thus demonstrating 
 the ability of pupils to work independently, thought- 
 fully, and quickly. 
 
 REFERENCES: F. M. McMurry, How to Study and Teaching How 
 to Study; L. B. Earhart, Teaching Children to Study; H. B. and G. M. 
 Wilson, Motivation of School Work; Hall-Quest, Supervised Study; 
 G. M. Whipple, How to Study Effectively; Thirteenth Yearbook of the 
 National Society for the Study of Education, Part i; Twentieth Year- 
 book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part n; John 
 Dewey, How we Think; Teachers College Record, Sept., 1913, "The 
 Project Method." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. What would be the value of giving a class in arithmetic such 
 exercises as the following and requiring them to make the prob- 
 lem? A man received an income of $2000, and paid $300 for 
 rent, $25 for taxes, and $50 for life-insurance. 
 
 A boy brought a quart of milk for ten cents and gave the store- 
 keeper twenty-five cents. 
 
 2. What would be the gain to a class of occasionally reading the 
 arithmetic examples one by one, stating what is given, what is to 
 be found, and the correct way of working, without stopping the 
 class exercise to perform the actual operations?
 
 TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY *19 
 
 3. Since minds work according to natural laws, why train pupils 
 to study? 
 
 4. Is telling or showing the better way to make clear to pupils 
 the way to study? What suggestion to the teacher is involved 
 in your answer? 
 
 5. Is it always necessary for the teacher to help the pupils become 
 conscious of the aim for which they should work? How else can 
 they get their aims than by the teacher's aid? 
 
 6. What aims can little children have in their first reading lessons? 
 
 7. What aims are possible for oral and written composition? 
 
 8. If a fifth grade class is to use reference books, what preliminary 
 help should it have? How much help should an eighth grade 
 have that has been trained throughout its school course in habits 
 of independent study? 
 
 9. Under what circumstances would you accept a clumsily-worded 
 aim or topical outline from a class in preference to furnishing a 
 perfect one of your own composition? How can pupils be helped 
 to improve in this respect? 
 
 10. When pupils recited lessons from memory, the use of the text- 
 book in class was forbidden. Show how using the book in class is 
 an aid, possibly a necessity, in thoughtful study. 
 
 11. What can be done about the application of principles which 
 pupils work out in their study of morals? What difficulties are 
 in the way? 
 
 12. What is the effect upon the work of pupils when they know that 
 not only the teacher but their classmates as well will call them to 
 account for inaccurate or obscure statements? 
 
 IS. What effect does it have upon a class to throw upon it the respon- 
 sibility for asking questions and for checking mistaken answers? 
 
 14. Suggest how home-environment can be utilized in connection 
 with some of the factors of study such as motivation, collecting 
 data, and application. 
 
 15. Prepare an examination in arithmetic and one in history which 
 will test the ability of the pupils to do thoughtful work. 
 
 16. Should supervision of study follow or precede the instruction of 
 students in proper methods of study? 
 
 17. Should the supervisor of study keep order, or do the work for 
 students, or see that the students use the factors of proper 
 study? 
 
 18. How may the teacher in charge of the study period help the 
 pupils to fix the habits of proper study which have already been 
 started?
 
 XV 
 
 MAKING LESSON FLANS 
 
 Why a lesson plan is necessary 
 
 A LESSON plan is the preparation made by a fore- 
 sighted teacher to be used as a guide in teaching. It is 
 as necessary for the teacher to make this preparation 
 as it is for a general to plan his campaign, for the engi- 
 neer to plan his bridge, or for the merchant to plan 
 for the trade of the coming season. The plan directs 
 effort so that desired results are sure to follow, and to 
 follow with economy of time and effort. It makes it 
 more likely that the teacher will include all that should 
 be taught in connection with a given topic; also, that 
 procedure will follow the lines that it should and will 
 not wander far afield. It is one of the marks of distinc- 
 tion between people in the state of savagery and people 
 who are civilized that the latter exercise foresight and 
 plan for the future to a much greater extent than the 
 former. This procedure enables them to achieve re- 
 sults at which people less thoughtful can only marvel. 
 
 A teacher's task is highly complicated. In the first 
 place, a prescribed course of study for his grade must 
 be completed within a term. In the second place, 
 there is a group of pupils of a certain stage of develop- 
 ment, and possessing varying amounts of experience
 
 MAKING LESSON PLANS 221 
 
 who must be brought into contact with this course of 
 study in such a way as to master its values. If the 
 teacher does no more than see that the subject-matter 
 is memorized, or told in the pupils' language, a certain 
 crude planning must occur to make sure that the speci- 
 fied course is completed within the given time. If, 
 however, the course of study is to be used as a means 
 of influencing the experience of the learners, is to result 
 in knowledge, attitude, conduct, or skill, there must be 
 planning which considers much more than the subject- 
 matter prescribed by the school authorities. There must 
 be definite recognition of those who are to be taught. 
 
 What a plan should include 
 
 It is likely to be a teacher's first thought that a 
 plan should indicate the subject-matter to be pre- 
 sented to a class. It should show this, but it should 
 show other matters as well. Following is a list of the 
 things which a complete plan should contain: 
 
 a. Subject-matter. 
 
 (1) The specific purposes to be accomplished through th 
 subject-matter included in the plan. 
 
 (2) The subject-matter as a whole or in outline perspec- 
 tive. 
 
 6. Class procedure. 
 
 (1) The development of the pupil's aim. 
 
 (2) The method of treating the subject-matter. 
 
 (3) The provision for reviews, summaries, drills, and 
 assignments. 
 
 (4) References and illustrative material to be employed. 
 
 (5) The verification and application.
 
 222 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 This outline of a plan may appear formidable at 
 first, but a careful examination will show that it 
 requires only that which a teacher must think about if 
 the work is to be done thoughtfully; also, that after the 
 learner has grown accustomed to this careful prepara- 
 tion, there will be very little that must be written in 
 the preparation of a plan. Let us take up the items 
 one by one and see what they require. 
 
 The specific purposes to be accomplished through the 
 subject-matter included in the plan. The specific pur- 
 poses are often called the teacher's aims. They indi- 
 cate that in planning any lesson, the teacher has aims 
 in view which the subject-matter of the plan alone can 
 accomplish. Thus, hi teaching about "The Gleaners," 
 the specific purposes might be to lead the class to see 
 Normandy peasants harvesting as Millet saw them, 
 to share his feeling about them. In teaching "Lines to 
 a Waterfowl," the purposes might be to see how and 
 what Bryant was led to think of his own life hi relation 
 to Divine Power; also, to enjoy the beauty of both 
 thought and language in this masterpiece. In a gram- 
 mar lesson, the purpose of the subject-matter em- 
 ployed may be to show that a verb must agree with its 
 subject in person and number; in geography, to ex- 
 plain why the corn belt is located where it is; in arith- 
 metic, to show that the number of decimal places in 
 the product equals the number of decimal places in the 
 multiplier plus the number of decimal places in the 
 multiplicand.
 
 MAKING LESSON PLANS 223 
 
 The purposes to be worked for are along the lines of 
 the aims of education in general. That is, the purpose 
 may be to increase knowledge. Most of the aims sug- 
 gested in the preceding paragraph have this function. 
 Another purpose is the influencing of feeling, the arou- 
 sal of appreciation. This is one of the aims stated for 
 teaching "Lines to a Waterfowl," namely, to enjoy 
 the beauty of both thought and language in this mas- 
 terpiece. Still another general purpose is to increase 
 skill or to form habits. In a lesson plan, such a purpose 
 is made specific by stating just what is to be done in 
 a given lesson. Thus, in a penmanship lesson, the 
 purpose of the teacher may be to improve the forma- 
 tion of the capital letter A; or, in an art lesson, to 
 show how trees look against the sky in winter, or how 
 the use of a darker shade on a lighter one makes 
 work more effective. 
 
 It is a common lack in teachers that they do not 
 determine in advance of their recitations just what is 
 the specific function of the subject-matter to be em- 
 ployed. They accept a course of study, or a specified 
 textbook, and work through from start to finish with- 
 out seeing just what each section of material can be 
 made to render in the way of service. They will teach 
 lesson after lesson "to increase the appreciation of 
 literature," but unless they find just what is to be 
 appreciated in each selection studied, they are quite 
 sure to fail in the general purpose. It ought not to be 
 possible to use the same statement of purpose for
 
 224 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 many lessons. Each one has or should have some- 
 thing which is peculiar to itself and which cannot be 
 transferred. This the teacher should discover and 
 utilize. 
 
 The subject-matter as a whole or in outline perspective. 
 In some lessons, especially in primary grades, only one 
 fact is taught, as when we teach that 3 + 4=7. Again, 
 the material possesses no logical sequence which one 
 needs to put in outline form; for example, the reading 
 lessons in primary grades. In plans dealing with such 
 subject-matter, no outline showing the structure of 
 the material is necessary. In most plans, however, 
 several phases of subject-matter must be indicated, 
 that is, there must be an outline showing its organiza- 
 tion. Even the simple poems of childhood have clearly 
 marked steps which should be noted. Just as pupils 
 need to organize their data so as to master it and to 
 make a good report to the class, so the teacher needs 
 to organize his subject-matter so as to master it and to 
 prepare to teach it properly. In order to present the 
 subject of what a lesson plan should contain, the 
 author has organized the subject under the general 
 heads (a) Subject-matter, and (6) Class procedure, each 
 of these topics having several subheads. This arrange- 
 ment shows the structure of the material and makes 
 possible a complete and orderly discussion. 
 
 An outline should follow the logical order of the 
 subject-matter, that is, the order of dependence or 
 natural sequence. If one were to teach the manufac-
 
 MAKING LESSON PLANS 225 
 
 turing industries of England, he would, according to 
 the order of dependence, arrange his topics as: (1) 
 Natural features which make manufacturing possible. 
 (2) What the manufactures of England are. (3) 
 Where these industries are located; and so on. In his- 
 tory, the chronological order may be followed, when 
 there is no logical relationship. Whatever the order, 
 the arrangement of the topics should give a perspec- 
 tive of the ground to be covered. Furthermore, the 
 teacher will find it helpful to include no more ground 
 in one plan than can be covered by a brief outline, 
 because this outline should be kept clearly in mind 
 during the teaching process for which it forms the 
 basis. It is to be the teacher's guide and therefore 
 ought to be present constantly. A few large points 
 can be held firmly when many small ones would defeat 
 the very purpose of the separation of the material into 
 parts, that is, mastery. 
 
 The development of the pupils' aim. When the 
 teacher has decided upon the specific purposes to be 
 accomplished through the subject-matter, and has 
 analyzed the latter into large units so as to obtain a 
 good perspective of the whole, as well as a convenient 
 working basis, the actual class procedure must be defi- 
 nitely provided for. The point of departure here is the 
 point where the subject-matter closely touches the 
 interests or need of the pupils, that is, what some one 
 has called the "point of contact." The place where 
 need or interest focuses may not coincide with the first
 
 226 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 topic in the teacher's logical or chronological analysis, 
 but it is not necessary or obligatory that it should. 
 The teacher's outline of the Revolutionary War might 
 begin with "Causes," while the interest of the pupils 
 might center upon some of the activities or conse- 
 quences of that war. The teacher's outline of Cali- 
 fornia might have "Location" for the first topic; the 
 point of contact for the pupils might be the fact that 
 some of their friends spend the winters there, or the 
 fact that much of our fruit comes from that State. 
 Where interest centers, or where a need can be brought 
 to the focus in such a way that pupils can be made con- 
 scious of it, there the pupils' aim must be located. The 
 plan should show briefly what this point in the subject- 
 matter is and how the teacher intends to make the 
 pupils conscious of the end for which they are to work. 
 Many lessons begin without any consciousness on 
 the part of the pupils of any aim whatsoever. Some- 
 times the teacher sets up an aim for the class. As has 
 been shown in the preceding chapters, as well as in 
 recent books on teaching pupils to study, it is possible 
 and advisable to get pupils to state their own aims, or 
 for the teacher to relate his statement of aim so closely 
 to the knowledge and interests of pupils that thr 
 latter can instantly adopt the teacher's aim as their 
 own. This does not mean that the teacher is habitually 
 to establish aims for pupils. Such procedure marks 
 the unskillful teacher. Reflection upon what pupils 
 know and are interested in will reveal a basis closely
 
 MAKING LESSON PLANS 227 
 
 enough related to the subject-matter to be taught to 
 furnish the starting-point for its treatment. The plan 
 should show how the teacher intends to utilize this old 
 knowledge or the interests of the class so as to lead the 
 pupils either to state the aim themselves or to accept 
 the teacher's statement of it. In the illustrative plans 
 shown later, this procedure will be made clear. 
 
 The method of treating the subject-matter. It has 
 fallen to the lot of the writer to examine many hun- 
 dreds of lesson plans prepared by students and teach- 
 ers. A very common fault in these plans was the inclu- 
 sion of every item of subject-matter instead of a mere 
 synopsis or outline, and, on the method side, the writ- 
 ing of scores of questions to cover every item of the 
 subject-matter. Such plan-making is burdensome and 
 useless. Probably no teacher is ever able to follow 
 such a plan in practice because pupils do not answer in 
 the ways expected when such plans are prepared. The 
 teacher is soon thrown off the track and the teaching 
 procedure limps along to a sorry conclusion. It would 
 be better far to prepare an outline or synopsis of the 
 material to be taught, starting from the pupils' aim, 
 and arranging the items in the order hi which the 
 pupils are likely to come to them from that starting- 
 point. This gives the so-called psychological arrange- 
 ment of subject-matter. It may not follow the order of 
 topics in the teacher's preliminary survey but it will 
 cover all the ground of the latter. It will probably be 
 much fuller than the teacher's outline, though the
 
 228 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 teacher is cautioned not to make it a miniature text- 
 book. 
 
 While the plan, on the subject-matter side, should 
 give the material in condensed form, it should, on the 
 procedure side, indicate how the pupils are to be 
 brought in contact with the material indicated. As 
 has been suggested, detailed questions are a waste oi 
 labor. If questions are to be asked, only those should 
 be given which from time to time direct the thought 
 forward. These questions will correspond to the main 
 topics of the outline of the subject-matter and may be 
 placed beside them on the page, each question being 
 opposite the topic which it introduces. If pupils are to 
 recite on prepared topics, or read assigned references, 
 the plan should show these facts. If they are to consult 
 textbooks, or if they are to reason from one conclusion 
 to another, the plan should make provision for such 
 procedure. In short, the teacher should make clear 
 how he expects the pupils to get into their minds the 
 matter which he plans to give them. If it be by devel- 
 oping questions, by observation, by experimentation, 
 by reading, by telling, or by some other method, the 
 plan should show that the teacher has anticipated his 
 procedure and has made arrangements for it. A 
 teacher is sometimes confused if the supervisor says, 
 "Your subject-matter is well outlined and your ques- 
 tions are good; but how do you expect your pupils to 
 gain the answers to your questions? " This important 
 detail should not be overlooked.
 
 229 
 
 The provision for reviews, summaries, drills, and 
 assignments. Frequently during the teaching of the 
 lesson or series of lessons needed to cover the subject- 
 matter of a single plan, it is necessary to introduce 
 reviews and drill exercises for the purposes which these 
 alone can serve. Also, during the progress of teaching, 
 questions may be expected to arise which will form the 
 basis for later recitations and which should be defi- 
 nitely assigned for study. The plan should make pro- 
 vision for the necessary reviews, summaries, and drills, 
 and for the assignments which grow out of the lesson. 
 
 References and illustrative material to be employed. 
 The tendency to refer to other books than the pupils' 
 textbooks and to employ illustrative material freely 
 is growing rapidly in these days of libraries and muse- 
 ums and of appreciation of a community's resources. 
 When a plan is to include references, the title of the 
 book or magazine, the volume, and the page should 
 be indicated. While a plan will probably never be 
 used a second time just as it was the first time, the 
 references which the teacher has employed may well 
 be used again, and should therefore be preserved in a 
 way that saves searching for them in a library the next 
 time they are needed. Then, too, it is often necessary 
 to give the references to the pupils for their use, and it 
 is well to have them in such form that they can be 
 given promptly and fully. For similar reasons, it is 
 advisable to include mention of illustrative materials 
 such as maps, charts, drawings, models, pictures, and
 
 830 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 the like, from which pupils are to learn any of the facts 
 of the lesson. The instructor is well fortified for his 
 work who definitely plans for these aids to his teaching. 
 
 Verification and application. No lesson which has 
 for its purpose the solution of a problem, the mastery 
 of a process, the elimination of a difficulty, or the sat- 
 isfying of some conscious need, should be concluded 
 without definitely referring to this motive, problem, or 
 need to see how it has been satisfied through the lesson 
 just given. "What did we start out to do?" "How 
 have we done it?" "Does this meet the difficulty?" 
 These are some suggested tests to be applied to the 
 results of the work provided for in the plans. If the 
 aim of the pupils was to learn how to copy numbers 
 rapidly, they should at the end of the drill exercise 
 recall this aim and state the means they have employed 
 to accomplish it. If the aim was to find why General 
 Burgoyne failed to complete his part of the British 
 plan to gain possession of the Hudson River, the 
 question and the answer should be put together at 
 the close of the lesson or series of lessons in which the 
 answer was found. 
 
 Rules and definitions should be tested by employing 
 them in the original situation from which the aim was 
 derived. They should also be verified by reference to 
 books or other sources. Processes can be similarly 
 checked to see if they are accurate. 
 
 It frequently is the case that results obtained in les- 
 sons are to be made automatic. Rules must be applied
 
 MAKING LESSON PLANS 231 
 
 and processes repeated until they become habitual, 
 until mastery is assured. Results must, at times, be 
 memorized. Plans are not completed until definite 
 provision has been made for testing, verifying, and 
 applying results, or for memorizing that which is to 
 be retained in definite form. This provision need not 
 occupy much space in the plan, but the fact that it is 
 there, even in brief form, means that the teacher has 
 not overlooked this very important part of his teach- 
 ing. The step of application, the last of the five formal 
 steps, has its place in this part of the lesson plan. 
 
 Teaching from the plan 
 
 A lesson plan may be a help or a hindrance to a 
 teacher, according to the way it is used. If the teacher, 
 with plan-book before his eyes, follows it closely, 
 disregarding the state of mind of his class, the ques- 
 tions asked, the unexpected knowledge or ignorance 
 revealed, his plan has been an obstacle to good, live 
 teaching. If, on the contrary, the teacher fixes in his 
 mind the ends he desires to reach, the place where the 
 class is to begin, the large points of his outline, and the 
 few questions which are to direct thought, he can, to 
 a great extent, disregard the plan book and work face 
 to face with the class, following the bendings of the 
 pupils' thinking, and recognizing the value of the con- 
 tributions made. He knows where he intends to go 
 and the general direction in which he must travel. 
 These basal ideas will keep him from going far astray,
 
 32 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 and they leave him free to make the lesson live and 
 interesting instead of dry and formal. He will need to 
 consult his plan in order to give references and assign- 
 ments exactly. He may need to consult it sometimes 
 to see if he is overlooking some part which he intends 
 to teach, but he should not follow it slavishly because 
 that is deadening and never leads to independence and 
 power. 
 
 Some considerations in plan-making 
 
 a. Impossibility of complete plans in all subjects. 
 Such complete plans as have been described in this 
 chapter cannot be prepared in all subjects for every 
 day. No teacher has the time and strength to do that 
 amount of work. Pupils in training in normal schools 
 will need to spend a great deal of time in plan-making 
 because that is an important part of the process 
 through which they become skilled teachers. As mas- 
 tery is gained in handling subject-matter and pupils, 
 the amount of planning can be decreased. The teacher 
 in charge of a class, and responsible for it, should first 
 examine the course of study with care to see what 
 ground is to be covered in a term. The work to be done 
 should be broken up into units and an estimate made 
 of the time to be given to each. Plans more or less 
 complete can then be prepared for each unit. From 
 day to day sections of these unit plans will be em- 
 ployed in teaching the class. This way of dealing with 
 the term's work enables the teacher to keep his bear-
 
 MAKING LESSON PLANS 233 
 
 ings, to see the place of each unit in the whole body of 
 subject-matter; and it also secures a better distribu- 
 tion of time than is likely to result if there is no pre- 
 liminary division of time. 
 
 6. Learning to shorten the process of plan-making. 
 Since good teaching demands planning, and since it is 
 out of the question for any teacher to make detailed 
 plans every day, the question arises, How can the 
 process of plan-making be shortened to working pro- 
 portions and still result in efficient work? A teacher 
 should school himself to master his material as a pub- 
 lic speaker does his. It is a common experience for 
 a lecturer or speaker to write out every word of his 
 address when he first begins such work. He covers the 
 ground with care, but loses something of personal 
 touch with his audience. With effort he trains himself 
 to speak from a mere outline of topics which he keeps 
 before him. With further training and growing confi- 
 dence, he finally masters the outline, and without 
 notes faces his audience and delivers his message. The 
 teacher should work for similar power in his own par- 
 ticular field. Complete plans are necessary until tech- 
 nique improves to the extent which renders detail un- 
 necessary. The plan should presently simmer down to 
 the statement of the teacher's aim or aims, the pupils' 
 aim, the few large topics of the subject-matter, and the 
 questions which introduce them. The references will 
 also be needed. In the end, even this amount of writ- 
 ing may not be necessary. The writer has seen splen-
 
 SS4 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 didly planned lessons given when the only writing in 
 evidence was the list of references on a small card. 
 When plans are required by a supervisor or principal, 
 a little writing will suffice to show the teacher's aim, 
 the pupils' aim, the main divisions of the subject- 
 matter, the few large questions, and the references. In 
 the case of a strong teacher no more is necessary. 
 
 c. Complete plans necessary at times. When a teach- 
 er's work shows that his preparation is incomplete, a 
 supervisor is justified hi requiring fuller evidence of 
 preparation than that just recommended for able 
 teachers. Furthermore, even a successful teacher will 
 find it necessary to fall back upon detailed planning 
 when new material is undertaken in the usual grade, 
 or when a higher class is to be taught. There are new 
 elements introduced here which necessitate more fore- 
 thought and more writing of plans. Then, too, even in 
 the accustomed grade and with familiar material, the 
 teacher will find himself kept in good pedagogical form 
 if he now and then writes a complete plan. Such effort 
 not only prevents backsliding, but makes for progress 
 in efficiency of teaching. 
 
 d. Making plans cannot safely be discontinued. 
 Planning can never safely be discontinued. It has been 
 one of the drawbacks of education that so many 
 teachers have faced their pupils day after day with no 
 preparation and no definite idea of what they intended 
 to do. They went to school in the morning and things 
 simply happened in succession. Progress was largely
 
 MAKING LESSON PLANS 285 
 
 accidental. To remedy such conditions, plan-making 
 is necessary. On the other hand, a teacher who has so 
 thoroughly mastered the work of a given grade that he 
 can see nothing new in it which requires fresh effort on 
 his part should ask to be transferred to another grade. 
 He has become stale in the place where he is and his 
 class is sure to suffer. 
 
 Summary. (1) A lesson plan is necessary in order that the 
 desired results may be accomplished surely and econorai- 
 ically. (2) A plan should show the specific purposes, the 
 subject-matter in large perspective, and the proposed 
 method of bringing the pupils in touch with the subject- 
 matter. It should indicate the references and illustrations 
 to be employed ; also, the provision for verification and appli- 
 cation. (3) Under specific purposes should be indicated what 
 is to be accomplished through the subject-matter of this 
 particular plan. (4) Through the outline from the teacher's 
 point of view should be shown in a few inclusive headings 
 the subject-matter in the order of dependence, or in the 
 chronological order. (5) Under class procedure should be 
 shown how the teacher expects to bring the pupils' aim to 
 the consciousness of the pupils; also, the statement of that 
 aim. Following this should appear the arrangement of the 
 subject-matter as the pupils are to approach it, together 
 with the questions which will introduce the main points and 
 direct the thought forward. In this part of the plan should 
 appear the provision for reviews, summaries, drills, and as- 
 signments, the references and illustrative material; also, 
 the provision for verification, application, and memorizing. 
 (6) In teaching from a plan, a teacher should use it as a 
 guide and not be a slave to it. He should have the main 
 points in mind, and should refer to the plan as little as pos- 
 sible. (7) Under general considerations, it is suggested that
 
 236 TYPES OF TEACHING 
 
 the making of full plans is part of the process of making 
 teachers; that teachers in charge of classes should divide the 
 term's work into large units, and deal with these units in their 
 plans; that they should gradually learn to condense plans; 
 and that they should finally learn to carry the plans in mem- 
 ory excepting the few details which need to be used for refer- 
 ence. It is suggested that plan-making can never be safely 
 discontinued, and that even strong teachers are benefitted 
 by preparing complete, detailed plans occasionally. Teach* 
 ers who are shirking should be required to do so. 
 
 REFERENCES: C. A. and F. M. McMurry, The Method of the Reci- 
 tation, chap, xiv; W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, chap, xxv; 
 S. C. Parker. Methods of Teaching in High Schools, chap. xxi.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSON PLANS 
 
 I. The topic. 
 
 II. The teacher's aim. (A specific statement of the responses of 
 knowledge, attitude, feeling, action, conduct, or skill which the 
 teacher intends to secure.) 
 
 III. Brief analysis of the topic, showing the principal things which 
 must be known or done in order that the teacher's aims may be 
 accomplished. Only the most important points should be 
 given, and these should be arranged in logical order when such 
 an order exists. 
 
 IV. Procedure, and the psychological arrangement of the subject- 
 matter to be taught. 
 
 Subject-Matter 
 
 1 
 
 Former ideas and activities 
 which serve as an introduction 
 to the new topic. 
 
 2 
 
 Organisation of the knowl- 
 edge or experiences which con- 
 stitute the subject-matter of the 
 new topic. The material should 
 be arranged in detail in topical 
 form, and in the order in which 
 it will probably be taken up ; i.e., 
 in psychological order rather 
 than in logical order. The books 
 
 Procedure 
 
 Questions, conversation, or 
 review of former activities to 
 help the pupils recall or reor- 
 ganize previous ideas or experi- 
 ences which are necessary as a 
 basis for the new knowledge and 
 which pave the way for its intro- 
 duction. This preliminary exer- 
 cise should lead the class to de- 
 sire the new work and to appre- 
 ciate its value, and out of it 
 should come the aim as stated by 
 the pupils. 
 
 The teacher's procedure in 
 causing the class to gain or or- 
 ganize the new knowledge or 
 experience the new activity. It 
 should include the pivotal ques- 
 tions which introduce the main 
 topics as indicated under Sub- 
 ject-Matter 2. It should show 
 what illustrations, illustrative
 
 238 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 to be used should be named and 
 the pages given. 
 
 materials, and motor activities 
 the teacher will employ. It. 
 should indicate, also, the place 
 and nature of the summaries, 
 reviews, drills, and assignments 
 which occur during the devel- 
 opment of the topic. 
 
 3 
 
 Means by which the teacher 
 proposes to test the accomplish- 
 ment of the aim. Questions 
 may be asked or topics assigned 
 which involve the use of the new 
 knowledge in some other relation 
 than the one employed in class. 
 The use of the ideas may be 
 shown in the execution of some 
 constructive work or in. some 
 social activity. 
 
 REFERENCES: McMurry, The Method of the Recitation, chaps, 
 vi-ix and xiv. Bagley, The Educative Process, chaps, xix-xxn. 
 Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, chaps, i and x. Strayer, Syllabus 
 of a Course on the Theory and Practice of Teaching in the Elementary 
 Schools. Teachers College Record, January, 1903, p. 60. McMurry, 
 How to Study and Teaching How to Study. Earhart, Teaching Chil- 
 dren to Study. 
 
 Statement of the results which 
 the teacher expects in the class 
 as a consequence of the treat- 
 ment of the new topic. (See 
 under "The teacher's aim," 
 above.)
 
 LESSON PLAN IN READING FOR THE FIRST 
 GRADE 1 
 
 I. Topic: This little pig went to market. 
 II. Teacher's aims. 
 
 (1) To have pupils read from blackboard, chart, and book, 
 the Mother Goose rhyme, "This little pig went to market,*' 
 which they already know by sound. 
 
 (2) To have them learn to recognize at sight the words and 
 phrases listed below under 2 C. 
 
 III. Procedure and subject-matter. 
 
 Svbject-Matter 
 
 1 
 
 A. This pig went to market; 
 This pig stayed at home; 
 This pig had a bit of meat; 
 This pig had none; 
 This pig said, "Wee, wee, 
 
 wee, 
 I can't find my way home." 
 
 Procedure 
 1 
 
 A. What Mother Goose rhyme 
 did we read in the last lesson? 
 
 Which one did Althea's 
 mother tell her? (Althea re- 
 cites "This pig," etc.) 
 
 See if I put it on the board 
 as Althea said it. 
 
 B. (Pupils' aim.) 
 
 To see if the rhyme on the 
 board is like Althea's rhyme. 
 
 A. See A under 1 above. 
 
 B. See A under 1 above. 
 
 2 
 
 A. Write first line in script. 
 Have it read by pupil. 
 
 Treat other lines similarly* 
 Finally have entire rhyme 
 
 read by individuals and by 
 
 class as a whole. 
 
 B. Present printed chart show- 
 ing same rhyme. 
 
 Pupils read rhyme from 
 
 chart. 
 
 > Baaed upon a lesson given by Miaa Clara Jamea, formerly of the Speyet 
 School, Teachers College, Columbia University.
 
 240 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 C. went, home, pig, market, 
 find, meat, a bit, to market, 
 at home, stayed, of meat, 
 This pig, I can't, my. 
 
 D. Rhyme in book. 
 
 C. Teacher to show cards each 
 containing a word or phrase. 
 
 Pupils to find the same 
 word on blackboard and 
 chart. 
 
 D. Pupils read rhyme in book. 
 
 3 
 
 E. What did Althea's mother 
 teach her? Is it like the 
 rhyme in our book? Is it 
 like the rhyme on the black- 
 board?
 
 LESSON PLAN IN COMPOSITION FOR THE 
 SECOND GRADE 1 
 
 I. Topic: A recipe for lemonade. 
 II. Teacher's aim: To have pupils prepare and copy a recipe for 
 
 making lemonade. 
 III. Subject-matter and procedure. 
 
 Subject-Matter 
 
 I 
 A. Use of a recipe. 
 
 Procedure 
 
 1 
 
 A. Mr. W.'s class tried to make 
 lemonade, but did not like it. 
 They like our kind better. 
 How can we let them know 
 how we made ours? 
 (Pupils' aim.) 
 To write a recipe for Mr. 
 W.'s class, telling how to 
 make good lemonade. 
 
 A. To make lemonade for 18 
 people. 
 
 Juice of 6 lemons. 
 
 18 teaspoons of sugar. 
 
 18 cups of water. 
 
 Stir juice and sugar well, 
 then add the water. 
 
 A. How many pupils in our 
 class? We shall write the 
 recipe for lemonade for 18 
 people. 
 
 How many lemons used? 
 
 How much sugar? 
 
 And last of all? 
 
 Mr. W.'s lemonade was 
 not good because he did not 
 stir it well. What shall we 
 write to help him? Then 
 what? (Explain add if 
 necessary.) 
 
 Each pupil to copy recipe 
 for Mr. W.'s class. 
 
 1 Baaed upon a lesson given by Miss Mott of the Ethical Culture School, 
 New York City.
 
 LESSON PLAN IN COMPOSITION FOR THE 
 THIRD GRADE 1 
 
 I. Topic: The School Assembly. 
 II. Teacher's aim: To train the pupils in preparing an outline for a 
 
 written composition on the school assembly. 
 III. Procedure, and arrangement of subject-matter. 
 
 Subject-Matter 
 
 1 
 
 A. The assembly. 
 Hymn. 
 Plays. 
 Indian letter, etc. 
 
 Procedure 
 
 1 
 
 A. How many were absent from 
 assembly, last Friday? Who 
 were present? Did you enjoy 
 it? What parts did you en- 
 joy? How can you share 
 your pleasure with those of 
 the class who were not there? 
 
 (Pupils' aim.) 
 
 To write an account of the 
 last assembly for those mem- 
 bers of the class who were 
 absent. 
 
 What shall we need to 
 think about in writing this 
 account? 
 
 (Pupils' second aim.) 
 
 To determine the title and 
 the topics for the composi- 
 tion. 
 
 A. Possible suggestions: 
 
 The third assembly. 
 Our third assembly. 
 Second and fourth grade. 
 Assembly. 
 
 B. (A possible outline. The 
 pupils may vary from this. 
 Their order will be accepted 
 
 A. Suggest a good title. 
 (Pupils and teacher inspect 
 titles and select the best 
 offered, with reasons for se- 
 lection.) 
 
 B. What are the things we shall 
 want to write about in our 
 stories? 
 
 > Baaed upon a lesson conducted in the Demonstration School of the Co* 
 himbia University Summer Session by Miaa Roxaaa Steele.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 243 
 
 as given if it is good. If it ia 
 faulty, they will be helped to 
 correct it.) 
 
 (1) Opening exercises. 
 
 (2) Announcements. 
 
 By Ruth Helter. 
 By three fifth-grade 
 boys. 
 
 (3) Program. 
 
 Play by the second 
 grade The Pot of Gold. 
 Play by the fourth grade 
 Peace Pipe, from Hia- 
 watha. 
 
 A real Indian letter. 
 
 C. The composition. 
 
 C. Pupils write their accounts. 
 Teacher to give individual or 
 class help as needed. 
 
 D. The compositions will oc- 
 cupy more than one lesson 
 period. When completed, 
 they are to be read aloud to 
 
 class.
 
 LESSON PLAN IN NATURE STUDY FOR THE 
 THIRD GRADE 1 
 
 I. Topic: The fish. 
 II. The teacher's aims. 
 
 (1) To prepare children for a trip to the aquarium. 
 
 (2) To present the principle of adaptation to environment sa 
 illustrated in the case of the fish. 
 
 III. Subject-matter and procedure. 
 
 Subject-Matter 
 
 Procedure 
 
 A. Goldfish in aquarium in the 
 classroom. 
 
 B. (1) Scales. 
 
 Overlap and form cov- 
 ering. 
 
 Protect from the water 
 and from objects in 
 water, etc. 
 
 (2) Shape of fish. 
 
 Like wedge or boat. 
 ~ * Cuts through water. 
 
 (3) Tail. 
 
 Narrow where it joins 
 body. Acts as a rudder. 
 Helps in swimming. 
 
 (4) Fins. 
 
 Used for balance and 
 swimming. 
 
 A. I have noticed how much 
 you enjoy the goldfish which 
 Miss W. has sent to visit us. 
 Did you ever stop to think 
 how it is that fish can live in 
 water? Let us find as many 
 answers as we can to the 
 question. 
 
 (Pupils' aim.) 
 How is it possible for fish 
 to live in water? 
 
 B. Choose some part of the fish 
 and tell how it helps the fish 
 to live in the water. 
 
 (If children are slow in 
 answering, name the parts 
 first and record answers on 
 the blackboard. Use black- 
 board drawings freely. Mo- 
 tions of the hand help to 
 make clear the ideas of 
 wedge-shaped, rudder, etc.) 
 
 1 Adapted from a lesson plan prepared by Miss Roxana Steele. of the 
 Mann School, Teachers College, Columbia. University. 
 
 Horace
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 245 
 
 Those at top and bot- 
 tom serve as center- 
 board; those at sides, as 
 oars. 
 
 (5) Eyes. 
 
 No eyelids. 
 
 Horny covering for 
 protection. 
 
 Eyes project. Can see 
 in all directions. 
 
 (6) Gills. 
 
 Used to feed and 
 breathe. 
 
 Water goes in mouth 
 and out gills. 
 
 (7) Air bladder. 
 
 Used to raise and 
 lower fish in the water. 
 
 C. Do you suppose there are 
 still more answers that we 
 have not thought of? 
 
 Where can we find the 
 answers? 
 
 We are going to visit the 
 aquarium where you will pro- 
 bably find many other an- 
 swers. Then we shall have 
 another lesson to hear what 
 yeu have discovered.
 
 LESSON PLAN IN LANGUAGE FOR THE 
 FOURTH GRADE 1 
 
 I. Topic: Three Golden Apples; Hercules and Atlas. 
 II. The teacher's aims. 
 
 (1) A knowledge of the portion of the story in which Herculea 
 meets Atlas. 
 
 (2) Through acquaintance with this story, to further the appre- 
 ciation of good literature. 
 
 (3) The development of a simple outline of the story. 
 
 (4) Oral reproduction of the story for clear, definite statements 
 and adequate expression of feeling. 
 
 III. Procedure, and psychological arrangement of the subject- 
 matter. 
 
 Subject-Matter 
 
 1 
 
 The journey in the golden 
 bowl. (Review.) 
 
 Procedure 
 1 
 
 Where did Hercules go after 
 leaving Africa? How did he 
 make this journey? What shall 
 we find out next? 
 
 (Pupils' aim.) 
 
 What happened to Hercules 
 after his journey in the golden 
 bowl? 
 
 Hercules and Atlas. (The teacher tells the story, 
 
 A. Meeting the giant. observing order of points, and 
 
 (1) His appearance. by tone and manner making the 
 
 (2) The storm. story dramatic, bringing out 
 
 B. Hercules' errand. dialogue clearly.) 
 
 (1) The giant's offer. 
 
 (2) Hercules takes the bur- 
 den. 
 
 C. Atlas' journey. 
 
 (1) Securing the apples. 
 
 (2) His return. 
 
 D. The giant's second offer. 
 (1) Hercules' relief. 
 
 > Prepared in the Practice School of the Rhode Island State Normal 
 School.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 247 
 
 3 
 
 I. The need of an outline as 
 shown by tendency to lose 
 the place. 
 
 II. The outline as prepared by 
 the pupils. 
 
 REFERENCES: Bulfinch, The 
 Age of Fable. Gayley, Classic 
 Myths. Hawthorne, The Won- 
 der-Book. 
 
 3 
 
 What difficulty have we found 
 in the story-telling? 
 
 What can we do that will help 
 us? 
 
 (Conversation with the chil- 
 dren to develop a plan for or- 
 derly arrangement of the new 
 material. Children begin telling 
 the story in sections.)
 
 SHORT LESSON PLAN IN GEOGRAPHY FOR 
 THE FOURTH GRADE 1 
 
 I. Teacher's aim: To teach names of continents and oceans. 
 
 II. Pupils' aim : To be able to tell from the map of the world how 
 people from the different continents will reach the World's Fair 
 in San Francisco in 1015. 
 
 III. Subject-matter and procedure. 
 
 Subjeci-Matter 
 
 A. Stockholm, Atlantic Ocean; 
 Panama Canal, Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 B. (New situation involving 
 teaching of directions on 
 map.) 
 
 Procedure 
 
 A. Tell how a little Swedish girl 
 can reach San Francisco. 
 
 B. How can a little boy from 
 China come? 
 
 (Lesson to continue on this 
 plan. May cover five or six 
 periods.) 
 
 1 Prepared by Mrs. M. A. Oliver in the Demonstration School of Teachers 
 College, Columbia University.
 
 AN INDUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT LESSON IN 
 ARITHMETIC 1 
 
 I. Topic: The multiplication of a decimal by a decimal. 
 II. Teacher's aim: To lead children to the generalization that the 
 number of decimal places in the product equals the sum of 
 those in the multiplicand and multiplier. 
 Subject-matter and procedure. 
 
 III. 
 
 Subject-Matter 
 
 1 
 
 A. Data based on Mass. Com- 
 missiou'sCost of Living, 1910. 
 Breadstuff s cost 8.9;% of 
 total amount (9 % used); 
 sugar, 5| % ; eggs, 3.7 % 
 (4 % used); potatoes, 3 %. 
 
 Procedure 
 
 1 
 
 A. What percent of the total 
 amount spent for food is 
 spent for breadstuffs? For 
 sugar? Eggs? Potatoes? 
 
 B. Show how we found the 
 amount spent for breadstuff 3 
 when the total amount for 
 the month is $36. 
 
 C. How shall we find the daily 
 amount based on a daily ex- 
 penditure of $1.20? 
 
 (Children try with the ex- 
 pected result that they will 
 see the need for some guide.) 
 
 (Pupils' aim.) 
 To learn how to multiply 
 one decimal by another. 
 
 A. (1) .4 X .2 may 
 
 written A x 
 
 also be A. (1) Teacher places on board 
 r - .4 X .2 -? 
 
 Pupils read it. 
 Write as fractions. 
 ( ^ x A -). What is 
 the result of the multi- 
 plication? (ifa) 
 
 Write the answer in 
 decimal form. (.08) 
 
 i Adapted from a plan prepared by Miss Blanche E. Campbell, of the 
 Speyer School, Teachers College.
 
 250 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 (2) .4 X .2 - .08 
 
 (3) .4 
 .2 
 
 .08 
 
 (4) .3 X.12 
 .04 X .11 
 .5 X .125 
 .11 X.123 
 
 3 
 
 A. (1) Rule for pointing off in 
 multiplication of deci- 
 mals. (See Teacher's 
 aim.) 
 
 (2) Verification. 
 
 (See Thorndike'a Princi- 
 ples of Teaching, p. 159. 
 Smith's Grammar School 
 Arithmetic, p. 107.) 
 
 (2) Complete the statement 
 .4 X .2 = 
 
 (3) Write it in the usual font 
 of multiplying. 
 
 (4) Treat each one of these 
 expressions as you did 
 .4 X .2 and write the 
 answers. 
 
 3 
 
 A. (1) What relation do you see 
 between the number of 
 places in the product and 
 those in the numbers 
 which we multiplied to- 
 , gether? 
 
 (It may be necessary to 
 break this up into smaller 
 questions.) 
 
 (2) a. By appeal to facts. 
 b. By appeal to author- 
 ity. 
 
 A* (1) The amount spent for 
 breadstuff s is 9% of en- 
 tire expenditure for food. 
 Find the cost of bread- 
 stuffs for one day when 
 SI .20 is spent for food. 
 
 (2) Same for butter, 9 %. 
 
 (3) Same for milk, 8 %. 
 
 (4) Same for sugar, 5J %. 
 
 (5) Same for potatoes, 3 %. 
 
 (6) Same for eggs, 4 %. 
 
 (7) Same for meats, 48 %. 
 
 (8) How much of the $1.20 
 is left for all other items 
 of food? 
 
 0. Restatement of rule for de- 
 termining the number of dec- 
 imal places in the product. 
 
 A. Home work. 
 
 B. How will you know how 
 many decimal places to point 
 off in the various products?
 
 LESSON PLAN IN GEOGRAPHY FOR THE 
 SIXTH GRADE 1 
 
 I. Topic: Climate of the Western States. 
 II. Teacher's aims. 
 
 (1) To teach the facts about the variations of climate in the 
 Western States. 
 
 (2) To trace the causes of these climatic conditions. 
 
 (3) To lead pupils to a keener appreciation of the close ties 
 binding widely separated sections of the country. 
 
 III. Topical outline. 
 
 Climate of the Western States. 
 
 A. Climatic conditions in West as inferred from 
 
 (1) Animal and vegetable products. 
 
 (2) Fame of many health resorts. 
 
 B. Range of temperature in West 
 
 (1) According to districts. 
 
 (2) According to seasons. 
 
 C. Distribution of rainfall 
 
 (1) According to districts. 
 
 (2) According to seasons. 
 
 D. Causes of these conditions 
 
 (1) Latitude. 
 
 (2) Elevation. 
 
 (3) Winda. 
 
 (4) Ocean currents. 
 
 E. Effects upon products and people. 
 
 IV. Procedure, and psychological arrangement of subject-matter. 
 
 Subject-Matter Procedure 
 
 1 1 
 
 A. (1) New England's depend- A. a. In yesterday's lesson, 
 
 ence upon West for what materials did we find 
 
 a. Raw materials for that New England ob- 
 
 manufacturing. tains from the West for 
 
 Metals gold, sil- use in manufacturing? 
 
 ver, copper, mercury, 
 etc. 
 
 Animal products 
 wool, hides. 
 
 1 Adapted from a lesson plan prepared in the Practice School of the Rhode 
 Island State Normal School.
 
 25Z 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 6. Food products 
 
 Fruits, fresh 
 oranges, lemons, figs, 
 apricots, peaches, cher- 
 ries, plums, apples. 
 
 Fruits, dried 
 prunes, raisins, evap- 
 orated peaches, apri- 
 cots, etc. 
 
 Olives, olive oil, 
 wine. 
 
 Grain wheat, corn, 
 oats, barley, alfalfa. 
 
 Meat beef, pork, 
 mutton. 
 
 c. Other products 
 ostriches, cacti. 
 
 d. Varying degrees of 
 fertility, heat, light, 
 and moisture needed. 
 
 Corn, more heat 
 than wheat. 
 
 Sheep, less mois- 
 ture than cattle, etc. 
 
 Subtropical and 
 temperate. 
 
 b. What other products of 
 the West are used by ua 
 here in New England? 
 
 (Make list on board aa 
 illustrated, teacher sup- 
 plementing, if necessary.) 
 
 e. (Same as b above. Show 
 
 cactus, if possible.) 
 d. Why do we not raise these 
 products for ourselves? 
 
 (Consider individual 
 cases.) 
 
 What conditions are 
 necessary for their pro- 
 duction? Are these condi- 
 tions equally necessary 
 for all products? Illus- 
 trate. 
 
 Classify products to 
 ones. We know that all 
 these various products are 
 grown in the West, al- 
 though many of them can- 
 not be raised in New Eng- 
 land. To understand how 
 this can be so, what must 
 we learn about the West- 
 ern States? 
 
 (Pupils' aim.) 
 
 Since these products 
 are all found in the West 
 and the requisites for 
 growth are so different, 
 what must be true of the 
 climate in that section? 
 
 A. (1) Discovery of gold. 
 
 A. (1) What first caused migra- 
 tion from the East to the 
 Far West?
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 253 
 
 (2) Search for health. 
 
 a. Resorts visited. 
 
 Colorado, New 
 Mexico, Arizona, and 
 Southern California 
 have many ; e.g., Colo- 
 rado Springs, Las Ve- 
 gas, Hot Springs, Los 
 Angeles, Pasadena, 
 etc. 
 
 b. Climate favorable. 
 
 Dry, pure air, sun- 
 light, equable temper- 
 ature. 
 
 REFERENCES: (Pamphlets is- 
 sued by railroads, Arizona 
 Health Resorts, California, 
 Colorado Outings, etc.) 
 
 B. Winter Summer 
 
 Rocky Mts. 20-30 60-70 
 Plateau 30-40" 70-80 
 
 N.W Coast 40-50 60-70 
 S.W. Coast Over 50 60 
 Montana 0-10 60-70 
 
 Range between seasons 
 in Montana 60 
 in S.W. Coast 10 
 in N.W. Coast 20 
 
 (2) For what reasons have 
 people more recently left 
 the East to live in the 
 West? 
 
 Name some of the 
 most famous health re- 
 sorts of the West. 
 
 From what disease are 
 most of the health- 
 seekers sufferers? 
 
 What climatic condi- 
 tions are needed by con- 
 sumptives? 
 
 What may we assume 
 as to the existence of 
 these conditions in the 
 West? 
 
 Give information as to 
 climatic conditions in 
 Southwest to supplement 
 inferences. 
 
 (Summarize informa- 
 tion about climate gained 
 from consideration of 
 products and health 
 resorts.) 
 
 B. What is the average winter 
 temperature of the Rocky 
 Mountain system? Of pla- 
 teau region? Of northwest 
 coast? Where coldest in 
 winter? Warmest? (Other 
 similar questions. Same pro- 
 cedure with summer tem- 
 perature.) 
 
 (Refer to isothermal 
 charts, Tarr and McMurry, 
 part in, pp. 72, 73: Frye, p. 
 75. Give pupils practice in 
 reading charts.) 
 
 What is the difference be- 
 tween the summer and win- 
 ter temperatures on coast, 
 plateaus, mountains? Where 
 is the climate most equable? 
 Most extreme? 
 
 (Summarize knowledge 
 gained from charts.)
 
 254 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 C. (Refer to pupils' aims.) 
 
 D. (Pupils should ask questions 
 about amount of rainfall, 
 causes of varying conditions 
 found, and the effects of the 
 various kinds of climate upon 
 productions, occupations, 
 etc.) 
 
 REFERENCES: Carpenter's 
 North America. Tarr and Mc- 
 Murry's North America. Frye's 
 Grammar School Geography. 
 Railroad pamphlets. 
 
 Ci What question are we trying 
 to answer? What have w 
 learned about it thus far? 
 
 D. What other questions about 
 the climate of the Western 
 States should we answer? 
 
 E. Individual assignments of 
 topics to various pupils.
 
 LESSON PLAN IN GEOGRAPHY FOR THE 
 SIXTH GRADE 1 
 
 I. Topic: Irrigation in the Western States. 
 II. Teacher's aims. 
 
 (1) To teach the facts about irrigation in the West. 
 
 (2) To arouse or increase the interest of the class in the devel- 
 opment of the West and in its possibilities. 
 
 (3) To further an appreciation of the difficulties with which the 
 people in the rainless areas must contend. 
 
 III. Analysis of topic. Pupils must know: 
 
 (1) Main factors necessary to plant growth. 
 
 (2) Effect of lack of sufficient moisture upon vegetation and 
 indirectly upon density of population in the region affected. 
 
 (3) That there are large areas of unproductive land in the 
 United States, which if they could be made productive 
 would meet the demand for farm lands and would con- 
 tribute to the support of the increasing population of the 
 United States, as well as of other parts of the world. 
 
 (4) The location and extent of the unproductive regions, the 
 reasons for their unproductiveness, and the possible sources 
 of water supply. 
 
 (5) The processes of irrigation; the reclamation service; results 
 of irrigation upon crops and upon density of population in 
 the regions where the process has been introduced. 
 
 IV. Procedure, and arrangement of subject-matter to be taught. 
 
 Suhject-Matter Procedure 
 
 I 1 
 
 A. Increased cost of fruit and A. How many of you know how 
 vegetables in summer and the prices of fruits and vege- 
 
 f all of dry season. Cause tables during the summer 
 
 email crops due to drought. and fall of this year compare 
 
 with preceding year's prices? 
 (Conversation with those 
 who know so as to bring out 
 the greatly increased prices 
 in some years.) What causes 
 the high prices usually? 
 
 1 Prepared by the author for the Syllabus of a Course on the Theory aruf 
 Practice of Teaching in Elementary Schools, published by Teachers College, 
 Columbia University .j
 
 256 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 B. Fertile soil, heat, light, and 
 moisture necessary to plant 
 growth. 
 
 C. Lack of moisture causes par- 
 tial or total failure of crops. 
 In dry regions there is little 
 vegetation and consequently 
 but few people live in such 
 places. 
 
 D. Almost continuous drought 
 with consequent dearth of 
 vegetation and scanty popu- 
 lation the condition in a large 
 part of the Western States 
 (the Plateau States and the 
 Pacific States). One fifth of 
 total area of United States is 
 arid. (For tables showing 
 population, see Tarr and Mc- 
 Murry, Geography, Second 
 Book, pp. 424-30, or Dodge, 
 Adv. Geog., p. 7 of Appendix.) 
 
 E. The arid region is very large. 
 (Maps, and tables of areas.) 
 The population of the United 
 States is increasing. There is 
 a demand for farm lands. 
 There is a great demand from 
 foreign countries for food- 
 stuffs. 
 
 B. In order that plants in the 
 garden or crops in the fields 
 may grow well, what condi- 
 tions are necessary? 
 
 C. In this region, which of these 
 factors is sometimes lacking? 
 Refer to drought of summer 
 of 1907. What is the effect 
 upon vegetation when but 
 little rain falls during the 
 entire summer? When year 
 after year there is little or no 
 rainfall? How about the den- 
 sity of population in such a 
 country even when tempera- 
 ture and soil are favorable to 
 plant growth? 
 
 D. In previous lessons we have 
 learned that there are exten- 
 sive arid regions in our own 
 country. In what part of the 
 country are they located? 
 Name the States included. 
 Compare the population of 
 the Plateau States with that 
 of any other equal number of 
 States or with that of each of 
 the three largest cities in the 
 United States. 
 
 E. Is it of significance to the 
 country as a whole that these 
 regions remain unproductive? 
 
 F. What problems grow out of 
 the situation ? 
 
 (Pupils' aims.) 
 
 a. Can these arid regions be 
 made productive? If so, 
 how? 
 1. What will be the effects
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 257 
 
 produced in case these 
 large tracts of land can be 
 brought under cultivation? 
 
 A. Means for overcoming effects 
 of drought. 
 
 a. In limited areas sprink- 
 ling, watering by hand. 
 
 6. In extensive areas irri- 
 gation. 
 
 (Tarr and McMurry,(?eo0. f 
 Second Book, p. 286. 
 Dodge, Adv. Geog., p. 166. 
 King, Adv. Geog., pp. 141- 
 46.) 
 
 6. Sources of water supply. 
 o. Rivers. 
 
 b. Mountain streams fed by 
 rain, snow, or glaciers. 
 
 c. Artesian wells. 
 
 d. Lakes. 
 
 (T. and M. Geog., See. 
 Book, p. 297. Dodge's 
 Adv. Geog., p. 172. King's 
 Adv. Geog., p. 142. Review 
 of Reviews, xxxi, 701-04.) 
 
 C. The process of irrigation. 
 
 a. Water storage, reservoirs, 
 dams. 
 
 b. Ditches or canals. 
 
 c. Surface irrigation. 
 
 d. Sub-irrigation. 
 
 (See geographies quoted 
 under B above.) Pop. Sci. 
 Mo., LXVII, 684, 686. 
 
 A. When the lawns or gardens 
 in our part of the country 
 grow too dry, how are they 
 kept growing? What means 
 must be employed to provide 
 water in very large areas? 
 Are these means used in the 
 Plateau and Pacific States? 
 
 (Class consult the refer- 
 ences named.) 
 
 B. Where can the water be ob- 
 tained for irrigating purposes 
 in these dry areas? 
 
 (Conversation. Assign- 
 ment to books in use by all 
 of the class. Assign article in 
 Review of Reviews, xxxi, 
 701-04, to a pupil as a 
 special topic.) 
 
 C. How can the supply of water 
 which falls during the rainy 
 season be kept for use during 
 the dry season? 
 
 (Assignment of special 
 topics relating to particular 
 subjects.) 
 
 How is the water in the reser- 
 voirs of rivers distributed to 
 the fields when it is needed? 
 
 (Illustrate by an outdoor 
 lesson; or if the nature of the 
 country is not suited to illus- 
 trate the process, use the 
 sand table and construct a 
 system of irrigation showing 
 reservoir, main canals, and 
 the distributing ditches. As- 
 sign sub-irrigation as a 
 special topic.)
 
 258 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 D. The reclamation service, 
 a. The nature of its work. 
 6. The territory affected. 
 
 (See The World's Work, 
 December, 1907.) 
 
 E. How the Government gets 
 . its money back. 
 
 a. Sale of land in tracts not 
 exceeding 160 acres to an 
 individual. 
 
 6. Payment in ten equal 
 annual installments. 
 ( The Cosmopolitan, xxxvn, 
 715-22. The World's Work, 
 December, 1907.) 
 
 F. The effects of irrigation. 
 a. Upon agriculture. 
 
 (See geographies quoted 
 above; also The Cosmopoli- 
 tan, xxxvii, 718-22. The 
 World's Work, December, 
 1907.) 
 
 , 6. Upon secondary indus- 
 tries. 
 
 c. Upon population in the 
 areas irrigated. 
 (King's Adv. Geog., pp. 
 162-54; also other geogra- 
 phies quoted above. The 
 World's Work, December, 
 1907.) 
 
 3 
 
 (See II above.) 
 
 D. How does the United States 
 Government aid in reclaim- 
 ing the waste lands of the 
 West? 
 
 E. What disposition does the 
 Government make of the 
 reclaimed lands? 
 
 F. Would it pay a man to buy 
 a forty-acre tract in the irri- 
 gated region? What crops 
 could he produce? Value of 
 crops? (Estimated.) Where 
 there are prosperous farming 
 communities, what other in- 
 dustries are possible? Are 
 they found in the irrigated 
 districts? With agriculture, 
 fruit growing, and other in- 
 dustries made possible and 
 profitable, what effect is pro- 
 duced upon immigration to 
 the Western States? 
 
 What problems did we set 
 out to solve in these lessons 
 on irrigation? What is the 
 answer to each? 
 
 3 
 
 A. Topic for class as a whole. 
 
 a. Value of forests to sys- 
 tems of irrigation. 
 
 b. Our relations to the irri- 
 gated regions. 
 
 e. Advisability of introduc- 
 ing irrigation in the East- 
 ern States. 
 
 A. Irrigation in Egypt. 
 
 e. Irrigation in India.
 
 APPENDIX 259 
 
 B. Individual assignments. 
 
 a. Economy of water in 
 irrigating. 
 
 6. Fruit growing on irrigated 
 land. 
 
 e. Advantages and disad- 
 vantages of farming in the 
 East and in the West. 
 
 d. Relative value to a State 
 of gold mining and farm- 
 ing. 
 
 e. Relation of irrigation in 
 the West to the people of 
 Europe. 
 
 /. To the people in the 
 Eastern States.
 
 FIRST LESSON OF A SERIES IN ORAL 
 READING 
 
 I. Teacher's aims. 
 
 (1) To set up a real reason in the child's mind for reading aloud. 
 
 (2) To evolve in simple terms the standards of good reading so 
 that the child may have definite ends to attain in his 
 studying. 
 
 II. Pupils' aim: 
 
 To evolve a method of choosing the four best readers in the class. 
 III. Situation : 
 
 The teacher has been reading a number of stories to the children 
 in which the interest has been entirely in the story. Any in* 
 Btruction in reading, as such, has been taken in unconsciously 
 by the child. 
 IV. Subject-matter and procedure. 
 
 Subject-Matter 
 Introduction. 
 
 The need for bases of choice. 
 
 Procedure . 
 
 "I have been reading to you 
 for quite a long time. It is not 
 fair for me to do all the reading, 
 for every one of you will at some 
 time or other have to read aloud 
 to some one else, so I am going 
 to ask you to read our next story 
 Dickens's The Cricket on the 
 Hearth. Inasmuch as we have 
 but five copies available, it will 
 be necessary to choose five pu- 
 pils each day who will be respon- 
 sible for reading the next day. 
 
 "While you are reading I 
 want to carry on an experiment. 
 I am going to try to determine 
 who are the four best readers in 
 the class. I want you to do the 
 same, and when we have finished 
 we '11 compare and see how nearly 
 we agree." 
 
 "Grace, how will you make 
 your choice?" 
 
 "Charles, would you follow 
 the same method?" 
 
 1 Prepared and taught by Edwin A. Lee of the Speyer School.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 261 
 
 Standards of Reading. 
 
 1. Ability to express thought 
 author intended. 
 
 2. Enunciation. 
 
 3. Inflection and expression. 
 
 4. Quality of voice. 
 6. Poise. 
 
 Name of marker. 
 
 (From the answers gained 
 from these and other children it 
 is possible that the next step 
 will follow logically.) 
 
 "It really resolves itself into 
 this question, does n't it, What 
 are the marks of a good reader? 
 
 "If we can arrive at a set of 
 standards of good reading, we 
 shall have a real basis for 
 choosing." 
 
 " Harry, what is one mark of a 
 good reader? " 
 
 From this point the lesson 
 depends on what one gets from 
 the children. They will, without 
 doubt, give numbers one and 
 two. Number three can be gained 
 by reading to them in a mon- 
 otone, and asking them why 
 they dislike it. Number four 
 they will give if the teacher reads 
 in an unpleasant tone. 
 
 Poise is probably the most 
 difficult mark to get because 
 that phase has not been brought 
 to their conscious attention. 
 Each child will, however, have 
 an appreciation of its import- 
 ance once he understands its 
 meaning. 
 
 Here again the procedure 
 depends on the children. The 
 thing is not to get definite marks 
 but the desire to mark. Therefore 
 the marking may be on a basis of 
 12-3 -45, or A B C 
 D E.or Excellent Good Fair 
 Unsatisfactory Poor. If the 
 child knows that his comrades are 
 going to mark him Excellent or 
 Poor on each of the five stand- 
 ards, the chances are that he will 
 strive to make the mark high. 
 
 Natt: The lesson following might very well be one on how to study the 
 reading lesson in the light of the standards set up. 
 
 How to use these standards.
 
 PLANS FOR LESSON ASSIGNMENTS 1 
 
 I. Subject: Washington's Administration. 
 
 II. Topics to be studied : Methods of raising money to carry on the 
 new government; how they worked; how they were received by 
 the people; the Whiskey Rebellion. 
 
 III. Preparation: What decision had Congress reached aa to 
 whether all the debts should be paid or not? Did the Govern- 
 ment have any money then? What does it need money for? 
 How does it raise money to-day? Do you suppose Congress 
 tried any of these ways in 1789? To-morrow we shall find out 
 
 (1) What the tariff is. 
 
 (2) What an excise tax is. 
 
 (3) To what extent these means of raising money were em- 
 ployed. 
 
 (4) How the people liked these plans. 
 
 (5) Whether any serious difficulty was met in enforcing them. 
 
 I. Subject: Washington's Administration. 
 II. Topics to be studied : The National Bank; the mint; the system 
 
 of coinage. 
 
 III. Preparation: How do you suppose Congress was to collect the 
 revenue? What kind of money did the people have at that 
 time? What were the difficulties with such a system? Do you 
 know how they were overcome? 
 
 For to-morrow, then, look up the answers to these questions 
 or think them out for yourselves: 
 
 (1) What did Hamilton propose as a means to collect the 
 revenue? 
 
 (2) What were the arguments for and against his plan? 
 Which side would you take? 
 
 (3) What plan was finally adopted? 
 
 (4) How did we come to have our present system of money? 
 
 I. Subject: The War of 1812. 
 
 II. Purpose : A summing up of the lessons on the War of 1812, with 
 especial emphasis on its justifiableness as considered from ita 
 treaty results. 
 
 III. Preparation: When did the Hartford Convention meet? How 
 were the difficulties arising from it stopped? Do you know 
 
 1 These assignment plans belong to a series prepared by Miss Lila E. Ben- 
 ton, of the State Normal School, Greeley, Colorado. A few modifications have 
 been made because they have been taken from their setting and presented 
 separately.
 
 APPENDIX 263 
 
 what we gained by this treaty of peace? What did we want to 
 gain? What ought we to find out about this treaty? 
 Questions for study: 
 
 (1) What were the provisions of the treaty? 
 
 (2) What did we gain by the War of 1812? 
 
 (3) From the results, do you think the war was justifiable? 
 Think out as many arguments for each side aa you can.
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 I. SUBJECT-MATTER: ITS NATURE, 
 DEVELOPMENT, AND PURPOSES 
 
 1. Need of understanding what subject-matter ia . . . 1 
 
 2. Where subject-matter first exists 1 
 
 3. Many forms of thought and action 3 
 
 4. Need of transmitting modes of activity 3 
 
 6. What subject-matter was originally 4 
 
 6. The integral nature of subject-matter 5 
 
 7. Effect of books upon subject-matter 6 
 
 8. Subject-matter modifiable 5 
 
 9. The development of new subject-matter 7 
 
 10. The subject-matter of the schools and changing social 
 conditions 8 
 
 11. Why the intrinsic function of subject-matter is not more 
 prominent in the schools 10 
 
 12. The pleasure element in subject-matter 13 
 
 Summary 14 
 
 Exercises 14 
 
 II. WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 
 
 1. Ideas more or less complete and more or less organized . .16 
 
 2. Attitudes and feelings 17 
 
 3. Native endowment of instincts and capacities ... 18 
 
 4. Acquired modes of acting; habits fixed or in the process of 
 
 formation 20 
 
 Summary 21 
 
 Exercises 21 
 
 m. WHAT SCHOOL EDUCATION SHOULD 
 ACCOMPLISH 
 
 1. Education should remake and extend experience ... 22 
 
 2. Education should aim toward social content or value of 
 experience 24 
 
 3. Education should increase the control of the learner over 
 
 the values which make up experience 25 
 
 Summary 26 
 
 Exercises 27
 
 266 OUTLINE 
 
 IV. MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 
 
 1. Types of class procedure 28 
 
 a. The telling exercise or the lecture method .... 28 
 
 b. The object lesson 29 
 
 c. The study of ideas in relation: inductive and deductive 
 lessons 29 
 
 d. The exercise to arouse appreciation 30 
 
 c. The formation of habits and the increase of skill . . 31 
 
 /. Training pupils to study 31 
 
 g. The assignment lesson 32 
 
 h. The recitation lesson 32 
 
 t. The review lesson 33 
 
 j. The socializing phases of school work 34 
 
 2. These exercises not mutally exclusive 34 
 
 3. Types of teaching not to be regarded as special methods . 34 
 
 Summary 36 
 
 Exercises .... 36 
 
 V. EXERCISES WHICH AIM AT THE DISCOVERY 
 OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. THE INDUCTIVE 
 
 LESSON 
 
 1. The purpose of the inductive lesson 38 
 
 2. The formal steps involved in inductive teaching ... 41 
 a. The preparation 42 
 
 (1) Bringing the problem or motive to consciousness . 42 
 
 (2) Reproducing or recalling ideas needed for the under- 
 standing of the new lesson 43 
 
 6. The presentation 44 
 
 (1) Forms of presentation 44 
 
 (2) Necessity of abundant material 45 
 
 (3) Necessity of variety 45 
 
 (4) Necessity of making essential features prominent . 46 
 
 c. The comparison 47 
 
 (1) Purpose of this step 47 
 
 (2) Aids to comparison 48 
 
 (3) The comparison to be made by the class ... 48 
 
 d. The generalization 49 
 
 (1) Forms of generalized knowledge 49 
 
 (2) The framing of the generalization 50 
 
 (3) Verification 50 
 
 3. Advantages of this type of lesson 51 
 
 4. Limitations of the method 52 
 
 Summary 53 
 
 Exercises 54
 
 OUTLINE 267 
 
 VI. LESSONS IN WHICH GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 
 IS EMPLOYED. THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 
 
 1. What is meant by deduction 55 
 
 2. Deduction in its relation to the inductive process . . 56 
 
 3. Steps or stages in a deductive exercise 58 
 
 a. The problem 58 
 
 b. The study of details and principles 58 
 
 c. The hypothesis or inference 69 
 
 d. Verification of hypothesis finally selected .... 61 
 
 4. Use of textbooks in deductions 64 
 
 5. Suggestions in regard to the use of the deductive process . 65 
 
 Summary 67 
 
 Exercises 69 
 
 VII. THE STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 
 
 1. The nature of the object lesson 70 
 
 2. The relation of the object lesson to the inductive lesson . 71 
 
 3. The need of the step of preparation in the object lesson . 72 
 
 4. The teaching of the new lesson 73 
 
 o. Observation to be limited to facts bearing on the aim . 73 
 b. Trying to cover too many details in one lesson to be 
 
 avoided 73 
 
 e. All pupils to come in contact with the new facta ... 74 
 
 d. Central or important facts which all should learn. Indi- 
 vidual assignments 74 
 
 e. Class to be held responsible for results .... 74 
 
 6. Planning the object lesson 75 
 
 6. Providing illustrative material 75 
 
 Summary 78 
 
 Exercises 78 
 
 Vin. THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 
 
 1. The purpose of the assignment 80 
 
 2. Kinds of lessons which may involve an assignment . . 80 
 
 3. When the assignment should be made 81 
 
 4. What it should do specifically for the class in regard to 
 subject-matter 82 
 
 6. How the assignment should help with methods of study . 85 
 
 6. Need of indicating sources of data in the assignment . . 86 
 
 7. Class and individual assignments 87 
 
 8. Page assignments 88 
 
 9. The assignment book and clear assignments .... 88 
 10. Effect of proper assignment upon the interest and effort of 
 
 pupils 89 
 
 Summary 91 
 
 Exercises ..91
 
 268 OUTLINE 
 
 IX. THE RECITATION EXERCISE 
 
 1. What the recitation is 93 
 
 2. What material may constitute its subject-matter . . 93 
 
 3. Forms of the recitation lesson 94 
 
 a. Verbatim reproduction of matter read .... 94 
 6. Unorganized account of reading, observation, experi- 
 ments or other investigation 95 
 
 c. Topical recitation 96 
 
 d. Question-and-answer recitation. Classes of Questions . 97 
 
 4. The amplification and correction of data collected by the 
 pupils. New questions raised. Value of books determined 101 
 
 5. How the notebooks may be made helpful .... 104 
 
 6. Learning to follow the recitations in class .... 105 
 
 Summary 106 
 
 Exercises 107 
 
 X. THE AROUSAL AND GUIDANCE OF 
 APPRECIATION 
 
 1. The reason for this type of lesson 109 
 
 2. The kinds of appreciation to be considered . . . .110 
 
 a. Social 110 
 
 6. .(Esthetic Ill 
 
 3. In what worth may consist Ill 
 
 4. Some suggestions as to how appreciation may be aroused or 
 influenced 115 
 
 6. General suggestions for the teacher 125 
 
 Summary 127 
 
 Exercises . 128 
 
 XI. SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 
 
 1. What the socializing exercises are intended to accomplish . 130 
 
 2. Forms these exercises may take 131 
 
 a. Acquisition of knowledge of social conditions, needs, 
 
 and activities 131 
 
 6. School activities involving cooperation or consideration 
 
 of the welfare of others 134 
 
 e. Organization of activities which function in the school 
 
 neighborhood or community 140 
 
 3. Helps which the teacher may employ in developing social 
 
 insight, attitudes and habits 141 
 
 a. Social instincts of pupils . ' 141 
 
 6. Subject-matter 142 
 
 e. Organization of school. Community help .... 146 
 
 d. Teacher's own spirit and attitude 146
 
 OUTLINE 269 
 
 e. Miscellaneous helps 147 
 
 Summary 148 
 
 Exercises 149 
 
 XII. THE FORMATION OF HABITS AND THE 
 INCREASE OF SKILL 
 
 1. Reason for such exercises 150 
 
 2. The field included in habit-forming exercises . . . 152 
 
 3. Procedure in habit-formation 154 
 
 4. The laws of habit-formation 161 
 
 5. The necessity of attention 164 
 
 6. The necessity of accuracy 166 
 
 7. The necessity of increasing facility and rapidity . . . 168 
 
 8. Discontinuing drill 169 
 
 9. Memorizing a habit-forming exercise 170 
 
 10. Learning facts which belong in a series 172 
 
 11. The step of application as habit-formation .... 173 
 
 12. Teaching pupils to direct the formation of their own habits . 174 
 
 Summary 175 
 
 Exercises 176 
 
 XIII. SCHOOL EXERCISES WHICH INVOLVE 
 REVIEW 
 
 1. What is meant by review 178 
 
 2. When reviews are helpful or necessary 180 
 
 3. Suggestions for conducting review exercises .... 182 
 a. Review of old knowledge to form basis for solution of 
 
 new problem 182 
 
 6. Review to discover whether all of the material concerned 
 
 with a problem has been included and mastered . . 183 
 
 c. Review in application and drill 185 
 
 4. Training pupils into right ideas and conscious method of 
 review 186 
 
 5. General suggestions 187 
 
 a. The teacher's preparation for a review exercise . . . 187 
 
 b. The time given to review 188 
 
 c. Profiting from reviews as tests 189 
 
 Summary 190 
 
 Exercises 191 
 
 XIV. TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 
 
 1. The nature of study 192 
 
 2. What may be done during a study period .... 196 
 
 3. Training pupils for independent study 199 
 
 a. Training to find the aim or problem 199 
 
 b. Training to judge of hypotheses 202
 
 270 OUTLINE ' 
 
 e. Collecting and valuing data 204 
 
 d. Teaching to organize material 205 
 
 e. Deferring conclusions and forming independent judg- 
 ments 207 
 
 /. Testing conclusions 209 
 
 g. Thoughtful memorizing 211 
 
 4. Suggestions to the teacher 214 
 
 5. Testing classes and teachers 216 
 
 Exercises 218 
 
 XV. MAKING LESSON PLANS 
 
 1. Why a lesson plan is necessary 220 
 
 2. What a plan should include 221 
 
 a. Subject-matter 221 
 
 (1) The specific purposes to be accomplished through 
 the subject-matter included in the plan . . . 222 
 
 (2) The subject-matter as a whole or in outline perspec- 
 tive 224 
 
 6. Class procedure 224 
 
 (1) The development of the pupils' aim .... 225 
 
 (2) The method of treating the subject-matter . . 227 
 
 (3) The provision for reviews, summaries, drills, and 
 assignments 229 
 
 (4) References and illustrative material to be em- 
 ployed 229 
 
 (5) The verification and application 230 
 
 3. Teaching from the plan 231 
 
 4. Some considerations in plan-making 232 
 
 a. Impossibility of complete plans in all subjects . . 232 
 
 6. Learning to shorten the process of plan-making . . 233 
 
 e. Complete plans necessary at times 234 
 
 d. Making plans cannot safely be discontinued . . . 234 
 
 Summary 235 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Suggestions for lesson plans 237 
 
 Lesson plan in reading for the first grade . . . 239 
 
 Lesson plan in composition for the second grade . 
 Lesson plan in composition for the third grade 
 Lesson plan in nature study for the third grade . 
 Lesson plan in language for the fourth grade 
 Short lesson plan in geography for the fourth grade 
 An inductive development lesson in arithmetic 
 Lesson plan in geography for the sixth grade 
 Lesson plan in geography for the sixth grade 
 
 241 
 242 
 244 
 246 
 248 
 249 
 251 
 255 
 
 First lesson of a series in oral reading 260 
 
 Plans for lesson assignments 262
 
 INDEX 
 
 Accomplishments, 13. 
 
 Accuracy, necessity of, in forma- 
 tion of habit, 166-68. 
 
 Acquired modes of acting, 20. 
 
 Action, many forms of, 3; needs 
 of transmitting modes of, 3, 4; 
 forms of, change, 7, 8; acquired 
 modes of, 20; study of, 29, 70- 
 78. 
 
 Activity. See Action. 
 
 /Esthetic appreciation, 111. 
 
 Agriculture, schools of, 10. 
 
 Aim, need of a, 182, 193; training 
 to find, 199-202; the teacher's, 
 222-24; development of the 
 pupil's, 221, 225-27. 
 
 Amplification and correction of 
 data collected by pupils, 101- 
 04. 
 
 Application, the, step in inductive 
 process, 42, 56-58, 71; as habit- 
 formation, 173; review in, 185, 
 186; in lesson plans, 221, 230, 
 231. 
 
 Appreciation, exercise in, a type 
 of lesson, 30, 31 ; the reason for 
 this type, 109, 110; social, 110, 
 111; aesthetic, 111; in what 
 worth as object of, may con- 
 sist, 111-15; suggestions as to 
 how it may be aroused or 
 influenced, 115-25; basis of, 
 founded on knowledge, 125; 
 over-analysis fatal to, 125, 126; 
 teacher must have, 126; 
 sometimes slow in developing 
 and not equally distributed, 
 126, 127; should be turned into 
 action, 127; summary of dis- 
 cussion of, 127, 128. 
 
 Approval, forms of, of teacher or 
 parent, 158. 
 
 Arithmetic, methods and sub- 
 jects of, 8, 9, 11; inductive 
 method possible in teaching 
 of, 40;exampleofteachingpro- 
 cess in, 61 ; socializing content 
 of, 143-46 ; definiteness of thing 
 required needed in, 200, 201. 
 
 Art, group work in, 137. 
 
 Assignment lesson, the, 32. 
 
 Assignment of lessons, the pur- 
 pose of, 80; kinds of lessons 
 which may involve, 80, 81 ; 
 when it should be made, 81, 82; 
 what it should do specifically 
 for the class in regard to sub- 
 ject-matter, 82-85; how it 
 should help with methods of 
 study, 85, 86; need of indicating 
 sources of data in, 86, 87; class 
 and individual, 87; page, 88; 
 clear, 88, 89; books for, 88, 89; 
 effect of proper, upon interest 
 and effort of pupils, 89, 90; 
 summary of discussion of, 91; 
 provision for, in lesson plans, 
 221, 229. 
 
 Athletic sports, 138. 
 
 Attention, necessity of, in forma- 
 tion of habit, 164-66. 
 
 Attitudes and feelings, 17, 18. 
 
 Automatism, 152. 
 
 Books, subject-matter frequently 
 associated with contents of, 1 ; 
 subject-matter first exists out- 
 side of, 1; on primitive life, 2; 
 effect of, upon subject-matter, 
 5; some material in, not fitted 
 to social conditions, 8-10; use 
 of, in education, 28, 29; use 
 of, in deduction, 64; teaching 
 geometry without, 84; assign-
 
 272 
 
 INDEX 
 
 ment, 83, 89; value of, deter- 
 mined, 101-04. 
 
 Bryant, W. C., "The New and 
 the Old," study of, 118, 119; 
 "Lines to a Waterfowl," 119, 
 120. 
 
 Bulletin boards, a help in social- 
 izing school work, 147. 
 
 Business, forms and methods 
 used by, 8, 9. 
 
 Calculation, methods of, 9. 
 
 Capacities and instincts, 18, 19. 
 
 Charters, Professor, his defini- 
 tion of subject-matter, 112. 
 
 Civics, group work in, 136, 142, 
 143. 
 
 Civil War, study in, 121, 122. 
 
 Class and individual assignments, 
 87. 
 
 Class officers, 138. 
 
 Class procedure, types of, 28-37; 
 in lesson plans, 221, 224-31. 
 
 Classes, testing, 216-18. 
 
 Classical languages, the, 11, 12, 
 146. 
 
 Clubs, school, 140, 141. 
 
 Community help, 134-41, 146. 
 
 Comparison, the, step in induc- 
 tive process, 42, 47-49, 71. 
 
 Competition, 156-58, 168. 
 
 Conclusions, deferring of, 194, 
 195, 207-09; verifying and ap- 
 plying, 195-97; testing, 209- 
 II. 
 
 Cooking, group work in, 137; 
 credit given for home work in, 
 146. 
 
 Cooperation in school work, 184- 
 40. 
 
 Correlation of ideas, 180, 181, 
 188. 
 
 "Daisies," the memorizing of, 
 171. 
 
 Data, sources of, need of indi- 
 cating, in the assignment, 86, 
 87; amplification and correc- 
 tion of, 101-04; collecting, 194. 
 
 196, 197, 204, 205; valuing. 
 204, 205. 
 
 Debating, group work in, 137. 
 
 Deduction, its meaning, 55, 56; 
 as related to induction, 56-58; 
 steps or stages in, 58-63; use 
 of textbooks in, 64; Professor 
 Dewey quoted on use of, 66, 
 67; suggestions in regard to 
 use of, 65-67; summary of dis- 
 cussion of, 67, 68. 
 
 Deductive lesson, type of class 
 procedure, 29, 30. 
 
 Details, study of, in deductive 
 exercise, 58, 59 ; too much study 
 of, 73. 
 
 Dewey, Professor, quoted on use 
 of deduction, 66, 67. 
 
 Discipline, doctrine of, 11; valid- 
 ity of doctrine of, 130. 
 
 Discussion of pupils' reports, 101. 
 
 Dramatization, group work in, 
 137. 
 
 Drill, 31, 152-30, 163-69, 178; 
 discontinuing, 169, 171-75; 
 review in, 185, 186; provision 
 for, in lesson plans, 221, 229. 
 
 Education, where it must begin 
 and equipment on which it 
 must build, 16-21; the remak- 
 ing of experience the aim of, 
 22, 23; should aim toward social 
 content or value of experience, 
 24, 25; should increase control 
 over values, 25, 26; types of 
 class procedure in, 28-37; deals 
 with more than gaining of 
 ideas and logical thinking, 109. 
 
 Effort, effect of proper assign- 
 ment upon, 89, 90. 
 
 Emotional states, are communi- 
 cable, 126; should be directed 
 to some activity, 1 27. 
 
 End. See Aim. 
 
 English. See Language, Litera- 
 ture, Grammar. 
 
 Errors, sources of, 102-04. 
 
 Excursions, 74.
 
 INDEX 
 
 273 
 
 Exercise, the telling, 28, 29; in- 
 ductive, 29, 30, 38, 54; deduc- 
 tive, 29, 30, 55-69; object, 29, 
 70-79; to arouse appreciation, 
 80, 81, 109-29; study, 31, 32; 
 for formation of habits and 
 increase of skill, 31, 150-77; 
 drill, 31, 152-60, 163-75; as- 
 signment, 82, 80-92; recita- 
 tion, 32, 83, 93-108; review, 
 83, 178-91; socializing, 34t, 
 130-49. 
 
 Experience, what it is, 16-20, 22; 
 education a remaking and ex- 
 tending of, 22, 23; to be remade 
 in the direction of more so- 
 cialized content, 24, 25; to be 
 remade through increased in- 
 dividual control over values, 
 25,26. 
 
 Feelings and attitudes, 17, 18. 
 Five Formal Steps, the, 52. 
 Foreign languages, teaching of, 
 
 85; socializing of, 146. 
 Formal steps of instruction, 42- 
 
 51. 
 Functions of subject-matter, 10- 
 
 14. 
 
 Games, 138. 
 
 Gardening, credit given for home 
 work in, 146. 
 
 General knowledge, exercises 
 which aim at the discovery of, 
 88-54; lessons in which it is 
 employed, 55-69. 
 
 Generalization, the, step in in- 
 ductive process, 42, 4951, 71 . 
 
 Geography, sometimes taught 
 as form of discipline, 11; the 
 teaching of, built on experi- 
 ence, 23; inductive method pos- 
 sible in teaching of, 41; use of 
 object lesson in teaching of, 
 70, 73; planning in object of, 
 75; socialized, 132, 183; group 
 work in, 186; training for 
 study in, 200. 
 
 Geometry, taught without text- 
 books, 84. 
 
 George Junior Republic, 140. 
 
 Grammar, sometimes taught as 
 form of discipline, 11; induc- 
 tive method possible in teach- 
 ing of, 40; use of deduction in 
 teaching of, 65. 
 
 Group work, 135-87. 
 
 Gymnasia, 12. 
 
 Habits, acquired modes of be- 
 havior, 20; fixed or in the proc- 
 ess of formation, 20; exercise 
 for formation of, a type of 
 teaching, 81; reason for exer- 
 cise for formation of, 150-52; 
 the field included in exercises 
 for formation of, 152-5-1; pro- 
 cedure in formation of, 154-60; 
 laws of formation of, 161-64; 
 necessity of attention in forma- 
 tion of, 164-66; necessity of ac- 
 curacy in formation of, 166-68; 
 necessity of increasing facility 
 and rapidity in, 168, 169; 
 memorizing an exercise for 
 formation of, 170-73; the step 
 of application in formation of, 
 173; teaching pupils to direct 
 the formation of their own, 174, 
 175; summary of discussion of, 
 175, 176. 
 
 History, sometimes taught as 
 form of discipline, 11; induc- 
 tive method possible in teach- 
 ing of, 41: sample of study in, 
 121, 122; group work in, 186: 
 training for study in, 200. 
 
 Home work, 146, 197, 198. 
 
 Hypotheses, verification of, 61- 
 63, 209-11; formulating, 194, 
 196; training to judge of, 202- 
 04. 
 
 Hypothesis, the, in deductive ex- 
 ercise, 59-61; verification of, 
 61-63. 
 
 Ideas, constantly change, 7, 8;
 
 274 
 
 INDEX 
 
 more or less complete and 
 more or less organized, 16, 17; 
 
 states of feeling associated with, 
 17, 18; the study of, in rela- 
 tion, 29, 30; correlation of, 180, 
 181, 188. 
 
 Illustrative material, for nature 
 study, 75-77; to be employed 
 in lesson plans, 221, 229. 
 
 Independence of judgment, 207- 
 09,211. 
 
 Individual and class assignments, 
 87. 
 
 Individual work necessary for 
 pupil, 148. 
 
 Induction, as related to deduc- 
 tion, 56-58. 
 
 Inductive lesson, one type of class 
 procedure, 29, 30; the purpose 
 of, 38-41; formal steps in- 
 volved in, 41-51; advantages 
 of, 51, 52; limitations of, 52, 
 53; summary of discussion of, 
 53; relation of object lesson to, 
 71. 
 
 Inductive-deductive lesson, 56. 
 
 Inference, the, in deductive exer- 
 cise, 59-61. 
 
 Instincts, what is meant by, 18; 
 classification of, 19; not all 
 present at birth, 19; educa- 
 tion must build on, 19; a part 
 of experience, 22; of pupils, 
 social, 141. 
 
 Instruction, subject-matter of. 
 See Subject-matter. 
 
 Interest, effect of proper assign- 
 ment upon, 89, 90. 
 
 Inventions, 2, 3. 
 
 James, William, his laws of habit- 
 formation, 161, 162. 
 
 Jones, Dr. Thomas J., quoted on 
 study of civics in the schools, 
 142, 143. 
 
 Knowledge, socialized and un- 
 socialized, 24, 25; general, exer- 
 cises which aim at the discov- 
 
 ery of, 88-54; general, lessons 
 in which it is employed, 55-69. 
 
 Language, inductive method pos- 
 sible in teaching of, 40, 41. 
 
 Latin, 12. See Classical languages. 
 
 Lecture method, the, 28, 29. 
 
 Lesson, the assignment of, 80-92. 
 See Exercise. 
 
 Lesson plans, making, 220-36; 
 why necessary, 220, 221; what 
 they should include, 221-31; 
 teaching from, 231, 232; can- 
 not be complete in all subjects, 
 232; learning to shorten the 
 process of making, 233, 234; 
 complete, necessary at times, 
 234; not safe to discontinue 
 process of making, 234, 235; 
 summary of discussion of, 235. 
 236. 
 
 Literature, study of samples of, 
 118-21; group work in, 137; 
 training for study in, 200. 
 
 Little Mothers' Clubs, 141. 
 
 Manual training, group work in, 
 137; credit given for home work 
 in, 146. 
 
 Material, illustrative, for nature 
 study, 75-77; of recitation, 93, 
 94; collecting and valuing, 204, 
 205; teaching to organize, 205- 
 07; illustrative, to be employed 
 in lesson plans, 221, 229. See 
 Data. 
 
 Mathematics, forms and meth- 
 ods of, 8, 9, 11; the teaching 
 of, built on experience, 23; use 
 of induction in teaching of, 40; 
 use of deduction in teaching 
 of, 65. See Arithmetic, Geome- 
 try. 
 
 Memorizing, 94, 95, 150, 170-73, 
 195, 197, 231; thoughtful, 211- 
 14. 
 
 Mental training, 11, 12. 
 
 Millet, "The Gleaners," study 
 of, 115-17.
 
 INDEX 
 
 275 
 
 Monitors, 139. 
 
 Motives to drill, need of, 154; 
 sources of, 155-59. 
 
 Moving pictures, a help in so- 
 cializing school work, 147. 
 
 Music, as taught in schools, 9; 
 education in appreciation of, 
 123-25; group work in, 137. 
 
 Nature study, inductive method 
 possible in, 40, 72; illustrative 
 material to be provided for, 
 75-77; to be arranged with re- 
 ference to favorable seasons, 
 77; reflection necessary in 
 problems of, 201. 
 
 Necessity, a motive to drill, 159. 
 
 Need, feeling of, necessary, ]82, 
 183, 192, 193. 
 
 Newspapers, a help in socializing 
 school work, 147. 
 
 Notebooks, 88, 89, 104, 105. 
 
 Object lesson, one type of class 
 procedure, 29; nature of, 70, 
 71; relation of, to the inductive 
 lesson, 71; need of the step of 
 preparation in, 72, 73; the 
 teaching of, 73-75; the plan- 
 ning of, 75; the providing of 
 illustrative material for, 75-77; 
 summary of discussion of, 78. 
 
 Organization, of schoplandschool- 
 neighborhood activities, 134- 
 41, 146; of material, teaching 
 for, 205;-07. 
 
 Organizations, school, 140, 141. 
 
 Outlines, topical, 85, 86, 96, 97, 
 206, 212; in lesson plans, 221, 
 224, 225. 
 
 Over-analysis fatal to apprecia- 
 tion, 125, 126. 
 
 Page assignments, 88. 
 Parents' associations, 141. 
 Periodicals, a help in socializing 
 
 school work, 147. 
 Perspective, outlines for, 221, 
 
 224,225. 
 
 Picture, study of a, 1 15-17. 
 
 Pictures, a help in socializing 
 school work, 147. 
 
 Plans, lesson. See Lesson plans. 
 
 Plays, 138. 
 
 Pleasure, element of, in subject- 
 matter, 13, 14. 
 
 Poem, study of a, 118, 119. 
 
 Poetry, memorizing, 170-72. 
 
 "Point of contact," 225. 
 
 Power, cultivation of, 130. 
 
 Prejudices, 18, 22. 
 
 Preparation, the, step of induc- 
 tive process, 42-44, 71-73. 
 
 Preparatory value of studies, 12, 
 IS. 
 
 Presentation, the, step of induc- 
 tive process, 42, 44-47, 71, 73- 
 75. 
 
 Principles, study of, in deductive 
 exercise, 58, 59. 
 
 Problem, the, in deduction, 58; 
 realizing a, 192, 193, 196, 197; 
 training to find, 199-202. 
 
 Punctuation, marks of, as taught 
 in schools and as used by busi- 
 ness people, 8. 
 
 Question-and-answer recitation, 
 
 97-101. 
 Questions, classes of, 97-101; to 
 
 be brought by pupils, 101; 
 
 new, raised in class, 101-04; 
 
 place of, in lesson plans, 227, 
 
 228. 
 
 Recitation, what it is, 93; what 
 material may constitute its 
 subject-matter, 93, 94; rote, 
 94, 95; topical, 96, 97; ques- 
 tion-and-answer, 97-1 01 ; learn- 
 ing to follow, in class, 105, 106; 
 summary of discussion of, 
 106. 
 
 Recitation lesson, a type of class 
 procedure, 32, 33; discussion 
 of, 93-106; forms of, 94^101. 
 
 Record, pride in, a motive to 
 drill, 159.
 
 276 
 
 INDEX 
 
 References, to be employed in 
 lesson plans, 221, 229. 
 
 Relation, the study of ideas in, 
 29, 30. See Deduction, Induc- 
 tion. 
 
 Repetition, law of, 162-64; value 
 of, 185; iu memorizing, 212, 
 213. 
 
 Reports of pupils, discussion of, 
 101. 
 
 Review, what is meant by, 178- 
 80; when helpful and necessary, 
 180-82; suggestions for con- 
 ducting, 182-86; of old knowl- 
 edge to form basis for solution 
 of new problem, 182, 183; to 
 discover whether all of the ma- 
 terial concerned with a prob- 
 lem has been included and 
 mastered, 183-85; in applica- 
 tion and drill, 185, 186; training 
 into conscious method of, 186, 
 187; the teacher's preparation 
 for, 187, 188; the time given 
 to, 188, 189; profiting from, 
 as test, 189, 190; summary of 
 discussion of, 190, 191; pro- 
 vision for, in lesson plans, 22] , 
 229. 
 
 Review lesson, 33, 178-91. 
 
 Rote recitations, 94, 95, 213. 
 
 Rowe, Dr. S. H., on habit, 20, 
 152. 
 
 School, organization of, 134-41, 
 146. 
 
 School housekeeping, 137, 138. 
 
 School organizations, 140, 141. 
 
 Schools, subject-matter of the, 
 and changing social conditions, 
 8-10; technical, 10; of agricul- 
 ture, 10; why intrinsic func- 
 tion of subject-matter is not 
 made more prominent in, 10- 
 13; isolation of, 10. 
 
 Science, group work in, 137. 
 
 Self-competition, 157, 158, 168. 
 
 Series, learning facts in a, 172, 
 173. 
 
 Sewing, group work in, 137; 
 credit given for home work in, 
 146. 
 
 "Silas Marner," study of, 112, 
 113. 
 
 Skill, exercise for the increase of, 
 a type of teaching, 31; reason 
 for exercise for increase of, 150- 
 52; Thorndike quoted on, 150, 
 151; necessity of attention in 
 increase of, 164-66; necessity 
 of accuracy in increase of, 166" 
 68; necessity of increasing 
 facility and rapidity in, 168, 
 169. See Habits. 
 
 Social appreciation, 110, 111. 
 
 Social conditions, subject-mat- 
 ter of the schools and, 8-10. 
 
 Social instincts of pupils, 141. 
 
 Social Service League, 140. 
 
 Socialized knowledge, 24, 25, 34, 
 13(^34, 142-46. 
 
 Socializing lesson, type of class 
 procedure, 34; what it at- 
 tempts to accomplish, 130, 131; 
 forms of, 13] -41; helps for 
 teacher in conducting, 141- 
 48; summary of discussion of, 
 148, 149. 
 
 Socializing phases of school work, 
 34, 130. See Socializing lesson. 
 
 Societies, school, 140, 141. 
 
 Sources of data, need of indicat- 
 ing, in the assignment, 86, 87; 
 errors of pupils due to, 101- 
 04; use of, 204, 205. 
 
 Spelling, inductive method pos- 
 sible in teaching of, 40; drill 
 needful for, 156-58. 
 
 Stereopticon, a help in socializing 
 school work, 147. 
 
 Stereoscope, a help in socializing 
 school work, 147. 
 
 Study, the training in methods 
 of, 31, 32; how the assignment 
 should help with methods of, 
 85, 86; home, 146, 197, 198; 
 training pupils to, 192-219; the 
 nature of. 192-96; what may
 
 INDEX 
 
 27? 
 
 be done during period of, 196- 
 09; training pupils for inde- 
 pendent, 199-214; summary 
 of discussion of, 218, 219. 
 
 Subject-matter, need of under- 
 standing what it is, 1; where 
 it first exists, 1-3; what it was 
 originally, 4; the integral na- 
 ture of, 5; effect of books upon, 
 5; is modifiable, 5-7; the devel- 
 opment of new, 7, 8; of the 
 schools, and changing social 
 conditions, 8-10; why intrinsic 
 function of, is not made more 
 prominent in schools, 10-13; 
 functions of, 10-14; as means 
 of mental training, 11; as pre- 
 paratory in function, 12; the 
 pleasure element in, 13, 14; 
 summary of discussion of, 14; 
 what the assignment should do 
 specifically for the class in re- 
 gard to, 82-85; of recitation, 
 material which may constitute, 
 93, 94; Prof. Charters's defini- 
 tion of, 112; socializing of, 131- 
 84, 142-46; included in the les- 
 son plan, purposes to be accom- 
 plished through, 221-24; as a 
 whole or in outline perspec- 
 tive, 221, 224, 225; method of 
 treating the, 221, 227, 228. 
 
 Summaries, use of, 221, 229. 
 
 Synopses, 96. 
 
 Teacher, spirit and attitude of, 
 146, 147; preparation of, for 
 review exercise, 187, 188; test- 
 ing, 216-18; his task highly 
 
 complicated, 220; need of his 
 making lesson plans, 220. 221; 
 his aims, 222-24. 
 
 Team work, 138. 
 
 Technical schools, 10. 
 
 Telling exercise, the, 28, 29. 
 
 Testing conclusions, 209-11. 
 
 Tests, profiting from reviews as, 
 189, 190; of classes and teachers, 
 216-18. 
 
 Textbooks, use of, in deduction, 
 64; studying geometry with- 
 out, 84. 
 
 Theories. See Hypotheses. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L., quoted on 
 skill, 150, 151; on distribution 
 of drills, 169; on training to 
 judge of hypotheses, 204. 
 
 Thought, many forms of, 3; need 
 of transmitting products of, 3, 
 4; forms of, change, 7, 8. 
 
 Thoughtful memorizing, 211- 
 14. 
 
 Topical outlines, 85, 86, 206, 212, 
 221, 224, 225. 
 
 Topical recitation, 96, 97. 
 
 Training, into right ideas and 
 conscious method of review, 
 ' 186, 187; to study, 192-219. 
 
 Types of class procedure, 28-37. 
 
 Unorganized account of reading, 
 95. 
 
 Verbatim reproduction of mat' 
 ter read, 94, 95. 
 
 Words, pupils' difficulties with, 
 84, 85, 102, 103.
 
 1025 
 
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